The Architecture of Schools in the Arctic from 1950 to 2007 1
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ANALYSIS | ANALYSE BUILT TO EDUCATE: The Architecture of Schools in the Arctic from 1950 to 2007 1 MARIE-JOSÉE THERRIEN teaches at the Ontario > MARIE-JOSÉE THERRIEN College of Art and Design (OCAD University), Toronto. She specializes in twentieth-century Canadian architecture. Interested in building typology, she has published on embassies and shopping malls. In 2014, in collaboration with he Inuit activist and Nobel Prize France Vanlaethem, she edited La sauvegarde de Tnominee Sheila Watt-Cloutier men- l’architecture moderne (Presses de l’Université du tioned in her memoirs that the newly built school she had to attend at the Québec). age of six, in 1959, “was bigger than most buildings in town.”2 The town was New Fort Chimo, then a “tiny commun- ity” in Northern Quebec, now renamed Kuujjuaq and the administrative centre of the territory of Nunavik. Watt-Coutier’s account documents the rapid transforma- tion of the Canadian Arctic (fig. 1) dur- ing the period covered in this article, a time in which schools were built, rebuilt, and expanded to answer the growing demographic needs of the region. The story of these schools is also that of the development of a modern Arctic, where in one generation “ancient traditions gave way to southern habits.”3 Built to educate, their design informs us about the intentions of the various stakeholders involved in their establishment, but also about their users, who lived “both in the ice age and the space age.”4 The built environment of the Arctic is a subject that has barely been examined by architecture historians. Although the Arctic in general has received more published attention in recent years, the building types of the Far North remain, to quote Harold Kalman’s 1994 survey, “relatively understudied.”5 Moreover, this small body of scholarly literature (a shortage that may be due in part to the vast distances one needs to cover to actually see the buildings) fails to adequately represent the architectural diversity of the Arctic, which has under- gone steady development since the Cold War. The irreversible process of FIG. 1. MAP INUIT REGIONS, STATISTICS CANADA, 2007. | [HTTP://WWW.STATCAN.GC.CA/PUB/89-634-X/2008004/FIGURE/6500054-ENG.HTM] JSSAC | JSÉAC 40 > No 2 > 2015 > 25-42 25 MARIE-JOSÉE THERRIEN > ANALYSIS | ANALYSE sedentarization, with its negative and constitute a body of examples whose positive consequences, has brought with programming and construction (under it a proliferation of building types that extreme physical conditions) reflect both have materialized the evolving inten- the educational trends and the socio- tions of the various government agen- political and environmental changes that cies operating in the region, from the have marked the decades since the 1950s. assimilationist policies of the early post- This paper intends to show how schools war years to more recent approaches that in the region, evolving from models para- aim to promote and integrate traditional chuted into the High North by Ottawa to knowledge. Among these building types, more recent projects developed through schools have held a privileged position in ever-greater collaboration with the com- the architectural landscape of towns and munities, have become better learning settlements in the High North.6 environments for students, teachers, and Elders who are their primary users. To situ- In this paper, I consider school architec- ate this transition, I begin with a brief sur- FIG. 2. SIR ALEXANDER MACKENZIE SCHOOL, INUVIK, BY ture in the Northwest Territories (NWT) vey of the postwar architectural landscape RULE, WYNN AND RULE; AND RENSAA AND MINSOS, 1959 (DEMOLISHED). | LIBRARY AND ARCHIVES CANADA, NFB FONDS, E011093208, and Nunavut through a selection of ele- of the Arctic and trends in school design. MIKAN 4676551.JPG]. mentary and secondary schools planned A summary of the federal education by the federal, territorial, and Nunavut policy in Northern communities follows, World War, with the intensification of the governments. The selected schools illus- accompanied by a comparative analysis of Cold War, that the federal government trate watershed moments in the history two schools built under the supervision began to modernize and militarize this of education in the High North between of the federal departments of Northern vast area. Perceived as a strategic zone, 1950 and the early twenty-first century, Affairs and Natural Resources (NANR) and the Arctic became a test bench for the across a geographic area extending from Public Works. I then consider two schools deployment of new defence technolo- Inuvik to Iqaluit. The first part of this designed under the NWT Department of gies and the building of modernist urban period overlaps with the last decades Public Works, and conclude with a school models. The intense militarization of the of operation of the residential schools, planned after the creation of Nunavut. As High Arctic began with the construction which were officially abolished in the with the federal schools, I examine chan- of the Distant Early Warning (DEW) Line, 1990s. Although not directly covered ges in the education policy, which were the Canadian segment of which spanned here, the residential school system forms influenced by the various movements for the distance between Inuvik, a newly a backdrop to the developments in school self-determination in northern native com- established town, and Frobisher Bay (now design that are the subject of this paper.7 munities, and the impact of these changes Iqaluit), a small hamlet that was consider- on school design.8 ably transformed by the construction of A consideration of the spatial program- an American air force base in the 1940s ming of schools in the Inuit territories The Canadian Arctic was long ignored and by federal interventions from the calls for the simultaneous analysis of by the federal government. The Royal 1950s on. This modernization and mil- three fields: education, architecture, and Canadian Mounted Police (RCMP), itarization of the Northwest Territories environment. The education policy in the Canada’s national police force, main- introduced a first wave of urbanization North has been subject to continuous tained only a few scattered posts in to the Arctic. renewal, influenced by shifts in broader the region, housed in semi-permanent pedagogical and societal concerns. The structures.9 It was thus mostly the reli- In the decades following the war, edu- area’s architecture and environment, gious orders—Anglican, Protestant, and cation reforms (which had already meanwhile, have evolved in response to Roman Catholic—and the Hudson’s Bay been percolating between the world developments in construction methods, Company that ventured to establish a wars) resulted in significant changes architectural forms, technology, and the field presence in this “hostile” region, the to school design, with modernist archi- climate. Imposed by the government as former to convert local populations, and tects proposing innovations that remain successors to the residential schools, the the latter to engage in the profitable fur in use today.10 Functionalism provided Arctic’s non-denominational day schools trade. It was not until after the Second the spatial flexibility that the postwar 26 JSSAC | JSÉAC 40 > No 2 > 2015 MARIE-JOSÉE THERRIEN > ANALYSIS | ANALYSE FIG. 5. AERIAL VIEW OF INUVIK, 1961. | RAY WHITE [HTTP://JPROC. CA/RRP/INUVIK_INUVIK1961_B.JPG]. FIG. 3. INUVIK’S SETTLEMENT PATTERNS. | REDRAWN BY FARISH AND LACKENBAUER, « HIGH MODERNISM IN THE ARCTIC: PLANNING FROBISHER BAY AND INUVIK », OP. CIT., P. 538. THE ORIGNAL DRAWING, BY A.M. ERVIN, WAS PUBLISHED IN “CONFLICTING STYLES OF LIFE IN A NORTHERN CANADIAN TOWN,” ARCTIC, VOL. 22, NO. 2, 1969, P. 95. FIG. 6. GYMNASIUM, SIR ALEXANDER MACKENZIE SCHOOL, INUVIK, 1959. | LIBRARY AND ARCHIVES CANADA, PA-129269, MIKAN 3381502. FIG. 4. SIR ALEXANDER MACKENZIE SCHOOL, GROUND FLOOR PLAN. | REDRAWN BY MAIESHA MAE FROM AN ORIGINAL SKETCH FOUND IN FIG. 7. CHILDREN SITTING ON THE FLOOR, SIR ALEXANDER LIBRARY AND ARCHIVES CANADA, RG85 1296, 311/125-B PT.3. MACKENZIE SCHOOL, 1959. | LIBRARY AND ARCHIVES CANADA, PA 111777, MIKAN 3318474. curriculum required, while the combina- the federal government established its expenditure, and at worst a threat to tion of technological advances and a pro- program of Aboriginal education in the Inuit self-sufficiency.”12 The government industrial modernist ideology allowed North. saw no reason to establish education architects to erect educational buildings programs geared to helping Native com- rapidly and cost-efficiently. The new Prior to the 1950s, the few representa- munities adapt to the changes affecting one- and two-storey structures gener- tives of the Canadian government to be their way of life; their schooling was seen ally had angular forms, with clean lines, even remotely involved with the popula- as a “means to help Inuit become more a flat roof, and an asymmetrical plan. In tions of the Arctic saw Inuit as “destined efficient fur traders.”13 This double dis- the Canadian Arctic, the impact of post- to remain collectively insulated from the cursive framework of saving money and war education reforms on school design modern world.”11 State-organized school- protecting the Inuit gave way, in the late was felt as early as the mid-1950s, when ing was considered at best an unnecessary 1940s, to a new discourse of facilitating JSSAC | JSÉAC 40 > No 2 > 2015 27 MARIE-JOSÉE THERRIEN > ANALYSIS | ANALYSE FIG. 9. NAKASUK ELEMENTARY SCHOOL, ARTIST SKETCH, 1973, PAPINEAU, GÉRIN-LAJOIE, LEBLANC, EDWARDS. | ARCHIVES CANADIAN CENTRE OF ARCHITECTURE, FONDS GÉRIN-LAJOIE LEBLANC. FIG. 8. CHILDREN AT THEIR DESKS, SIR JOSEPH BERNIER FEDERAL DAY SCHOOL, CHESTERFIELD INLET, 1958. | LIBRARY AND ARCHIVES CANADA, EOO4923401, MIKAN 4099002. Inuit modernization. Rather than “keep- endeavour, which was based on a secular- ing the native native,”14 state-organized ization of the curricula, proved difficult to schools were to prepare students for implement, as the leading church organ- the changes that would inevitably result izations were reluctant to give up their from the introduction of a Euro-Canadian educational prerogatives.