Developing Southern Libraries to Influence the Life of the African-American User: an Exploratory, Archival Analysis Aisha Montae Johnson

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2015 Developing Southern Libraries to Influence the Life of the African-American User: An Exploratory, Archival Analysis Aisha Montae Johnson

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COLLEGE OF COMMUNICATION AND INFORMATION

DEVELOPING SOUTHERN LIBRARIES TO INFLUENCE THE LIFE OF THE

AFRICAN-AMERICAN USER: AN EXPLORATORY, ARCHIVAL ANALYSIS

AISHA MONTAE JOHNSON

A Dissertation submitted to the School of Information in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy

Degree Awarded: Spring Semester, 2015

Aisha M. Johnson defended this dissertation on April 3, 2015.

The members of the supervisory committee were:

Paul Marty

Professor Directing Dissertation

Suzanne Sinke

University Representative

Kathy Burnett

Committee Member

Gary Burnett

Committee Member

The Graduate School has verified and approved the above-named committee members, and certifies that the dissertation has been approved in accordance with university requirements.

“It is time for parents to teach young people early on that in diversity there is beauty and there is strength.”

― Maya Angelou

I dedicate this work to my parents, Gloria Johnson and Herbert Johnson, who recognized my premature obsession with literature, encouraged me, and invested in my education. Thank you for teaching me to put God first and trust my journey. Thank you for listening to every detail of my long stories, answering every question, purchasing every book, and building confidence in all my pursuits. Your acts of love I will forever hold within my heart.

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

My most sincere gratitude to:

Committee Chair, Dr. Paul Marty, who made this process as smooth as possible and often minimized my anxieties. You assured me that the feelings I encountered were normal, and I was on the right path. I appreciate your support.

The Doctoral Committee, Drs. Paul Marty, Gary Burnett, Kathy Burnett, and Suzanne Sinke, who each made thought-provoking contributions. The consistent support and recommendations will never go without recognition. A team makes all the difference when a difficult task needs to be conquered. I am happy each of you obliged my request to be a member of this team.

Dr. Wayne Wiegand for inspiring me to elevate my passion for diversity studies to something that would be impactful. You taught me not simply to state facts, but to tell a story that forces my audience to impose deeper thoughts. Now, I write with my heart and soul. Thank you for being the initial confirmation that I could and would complete this task.

The faculty and staff at the College of Communication and Information, School of Information who have helped mold and perfect my academic curiosity. A special thank you to Dr. Christie Koontz who recruited me as a master’s student with the belief I would make significant contributions to the LIS field. I am elated that I followed both her feelings and mine.

The faculty and staff of the John Hope and Aurelia E. Franklin Library at Fisk University for the constant support, knowing the importance of my research, and allowing me to access the archival collections without yield. I have nothing but genuine gratitude.

To Beta Phi Mu and Dr. Eugene Garfield for the Doctoral Dissertation Fellowship and for supporting my research with the belief in the importance of a different perspective on libraries. I am grateful for your generosity, which enabled me to move forward with my research.

The Sol and Beverly Hirsch Scholarship Endowment for supporting archival research and focusing on Judaica studies. The Julius Rosenwald Fund Library Program is an unsung and largely unknown story. With your support, I am able to further share this important narrative and research.

My fiancé, family, and friends who have heard me rave about all things libraries, archives, and the importance of preserving history. Your open ears and smiles for my own enthusiasm never went unnoticed. I will always appreciate the abundance of emotional support.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

List of Tables ...... vi List of Figures ...... vii Abstract ...... viii

CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION ...... 1 CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW ...... 8 CHAPTER THREE: METHODOLOGY ...... 36 CHAPTER FOUR: RESEARCH FINDINGS ...... 57 CHAPTER FIVE: DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION ...... 88 APPENDICES ...... 102 A. TOTAL EXPENDITURES OF THE JULIUS ROSENWALD FUND...... 102 B. SPECIAL COLLECTIONS AND ARCHIVES ACCESS FORMS ...... 103 C. EXPENDITURES OF THE JULIUS ROSENWALD FUND LIBRARY PROGRAM ...... 106 D. FISK UNIVERSITY ARCHIVES PERMISSION TO PUBLISH ...... 107 REFERENCES ...... 108 BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH ...... 113

LIST OF TABLES

Table 3.1: Participants of the Julius Rosenwald Fund Library Program County Demonstration..43 Table 3.2: Data Review Schedule ...... 50 Table 3.3: Preset Categories for Julius Rosenwald Fund Library Program, 1927-1947 ...... 52 Table 4.1: College Library Development Funded by the Library Program, 1929-1934 ...... 67 Table 4.2: Participants of the Julius Rosenwald Fund Library Program County Demonstration..72

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 3.1: Graphic Depiction of Case Study Research Design ...... 36

Figure 4.1: Roland B. Hayes Branch of Chattanooga Public Library in Hamilton County, TN...... 74 Figure 4.2: Public Library Book Wagon in Greenville, SC ...... 80

Figure 5.1: Graphic depiction of study’s importance ...... 91

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ABSTRACT

Library history provides a biographical account of libraries, which includes information concerning the establishment, benefactors, significant collections, services rendered, outstanding achievements, and other points of interest. However, records of library service to African

Americans in the South prior to 1900 are rare or non-existent. Not until the early 20th century did the Julius Rosenwald Fund Library Program begin to offer library service to the black and white residents in the rural South. Through the analysis of archival documents, this dissertation explores the impact of the library program on Southern libraries and the role of the library in the life of the African-American user. In its attempt to educate the reader about the early African-

American struggle for library access, this study highlights the lack of emphasis on library history research in the field of Library and Information Science (LIS) and its risk of losing a valuable sub-discipline. In addition, the field potentially forfeits invaluable insight and understanding of library service to African Americans in the 20th century. This could jeopardize future planning for adequate service to underrepresented populations. Using archival analysis, the study utilizes preset categories to investigate library practices of Rosenwald-funded libraries with anticipation for unanticipated concepts to emerge. This exploratory, archival analysis unveils the variety of approaches and practices the Julius Rosenwald Fund Library Program incorporated to improve library service not only to African-Americans users, but to the entire American South.

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CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

Problem Statement

A deficiency is present in the study of library history, particularly pertaining to African

Americans in the early 20th century. Initially, African Americans were not allowed to utilize public libraries unless they were returning or retrieving library materials for a white person

(typically an employer). This was a national reality that was more obvious in Southern states due to the Jim Crow practices, which racially segregated all spheres of life in the South. Nationally,

African Americans endured a long struggle for library access, a struggle acutely experienced in libraries in the South. With the assistance of the community, charitable organizations, and philanthropists, blacks were able to grow as a community and develop a unique culture.

Subsequently, the Library and Information Science (LIS) profession followed suit with improvements in library services, collection development, and research. Understanding the difficulty in establishing and cultivating Southern libraries, collections, and users is essential to gaining insight from an unveiled perspective; doing so helps both the current and future state of public libraries. Library historians, including Battles, Gleason, Tucker, and Wiegand, have investigated in various aspects the historical role of libraries in the life of minority users. One cannot discount these great contributions to LIS research. In fact, these studies make it apparent the field has insufficiently investigated the historical role of the library in the life of the African-

American user as well as inquiries concerning philanthropic efforts that contributed to the development of Southern libraries and their ability to challenge the bold era of segregation.

Significance of Problem

Historical studies concerning library development with discussions on access and collections are an undeniable need. In recent years, the LIS profession has performed more research on process and structure than it has on library history, thus increasing the eagerness to implement new technology. The lack of emphasis on library history research has become the catalyst for the losses of a valuable sub-discipline and the valuable insight that would greatly assist in the planning of the library’s future. In addition, the deficiency of historical studies providing deeper analysis has resulted in a field with tunnel vision and blind spots. Three vital blind spots restrict the profession and its researchers. In order to acknowledge the need to study library history effectively, the LIS field must first recognize the hindering blind spots. The first is the lack of analysis discussing the impact of library services and collections on the user, primarily due to a focus on technology and retrieval systems. Second, the LIS field must investigate the role of the library in the life of the user, with emphasis placed on minority users.

Last, the field has to acknowledge matters of tiered power and knowledge affecting race, class, age, and gender. Unfortunately, the three blind spots are not commonly acknowledged in researcher studies (Wiegand, 1999).

When adequately studied, library history reveals inequities in quality and quantity of services for minority users. Understanding the impact of library practices and services (including collection development) on this user group is important. It is also critical for libraries that financially benefited from various library improvement projects yet lack a comprehensive history detailing the role and impact of funding on the users. The pathway to acquiring this understanding is conducting and producing effective research that focuses on the role of the library in the life of the user. When the profession emphasizes the production for historical

2 research studies, useful questions will surface. This is an opportunity for LIS researchers to inquire about the tradition of library practice, the variety of services provided, or the lack thereof.

Otherwise, one overlooks the most important component of the library, the users.

Purpose Statement

This study serves multiple purposes. The initial purpose is the emphasis on the importance of historical research in the LIS field concerning library users and practices. A body of research in the field that examines the “user in his complex information environment, explicit development of our theoretical concepts of information use, incorporation of the findings from a variety of related disciplines, and use of sophisticated and sensitive methodologies for the interpretation of data” is called for (Zweizig, 1976, p. 55). When this research is encouraged, produced, and made to flourishes, the LIS field will make significant progress towards understanding the underserved library user. This study aims to fulfill its purpose by presenting the history and impact of the little-known Julius Rosenwald Fund Library Program.

An abundance of scholarship discussing the Julius Rosenwald Fund exists, specifically in regards to the School-Building Program. The Fund provided financial support the department of education for a multitude of states helping to establish more than 5,000 rural schools in 15

Southern states. Though these efforts aimed to improve the education and other opportunities of

African Americans in the segregated South, the schools were recognized to be incomplete and insufficient because of inadequate libraries. Unearthing the library program is important because it was created to supply reading materials and financial support to rural schools, black colleges, and normal schools as well as community libraries. Possibly due to the lack of research and publication, little is known about the Julius Rosenwald Fund Library Program. Thus, this study has purpose in granting deserved notability to the library program. It will also demonstrate how influential narratives become lost when the focus or emphasis within an academic field shifts. 3

Research Question

The gap in the study of library history and the need to share the impact of the Julius

Rosenwald Fund Library Program in the lives of African Americans will drive the research. This historical study will also investigate the influence of the program on other libraries, charitable and educational agencies, and philanthropists.

Research Question: How did the Julius Rosenwald Fund Library Program influence

library practices at Rosenwald-funded libraries and other southern libraries?

Answering this research question will help fill the gap in scholarship as it relates to the library history of African Americans, philanthropic library programs, and Southern library history in the

20th century. The answer to this question will be achieved using qualitative research methods, including data collection and archival analysis. The researcher’s intent will be to locate the necessary archival documents in collections documenting the activity of the Fund and significant officials. The findings concerning the library practices will be organized using preset categories and acknowledge concepts that may emerge. The findings will be presented with a discussion focused on the library in the life of the user concept and the Julius Rosenwald Fund Library

Program.

Overview of Methodology

Historical research involves discovering, using, and connecting information revealed by primary and secondary sources. Such research attempts to locate the pertinent information from primary and secondary resources. This process is used as a means to communicate an understanding of past events. In this process, researchers employ scientific knowledge, experiences, and personal intuition to formulate research questions (Elena, Katifori, Vassilakis,

Lepouras, & Halatsis, 2010). This dissertation uses qualitative research methodology to

4 investigate the historical role of the library in the life of the user. Qualitative methods rely on documentation written, spoken, or observed without numerical interpretation. It often involves

"exploratory research questions, inductive reasoning, an orientation to social context, and the meaning attached by participants to events and to their lives" (Schutt, 2006, p. 17).

More specifically, this study utilizes archival research, which involves data collection and an in-depth analysis of documents preserving the history and activities of the Julius Rosenwald

Fund. Two archival collections held at the John Hope and Aurelia E. Franklin Library, Special

Collections, at Fisk University in Nashville, Tennessee, were chosen for this research: the Julius

Rosenwald Fund Archives and the S. L. (Samuel Leonard) Smith Collection. The latter collection was chosen because the provenance of the collection was based on the Julius

Rosenwald Fund. After a review of each finding aid (inventory list), the researcher found the collections would benefit the research in offering primary sources of information on the activities of the Julius Rosenwald Fund Library Program. In addition, Samuel Leonard Smith, former

Director of the Southern office of the Julius Rosenwald Fund, which was located in Nashville,

Tennessee, was a key figure during the conception of the library program. The program had the purpose of promoting literacy among African Americans and properly training students in the teacher colleges.

The study employs archival analysis to determine relevancy in documents concerning the

Fund’s library program including correspondence, reports, applications, manuscripts, and more.

A thorough analysis strengthens the findings, and provides a more comprehensive understanding concerning the role of the library in the life of the African-American user of the 20th century.

The researcher will discuss both, preset concepts and those that emerge as analysis progresses, as it relates to the library in the life of the user.

Importance of Study

In the information age where technology has overshadowed library history research, this study makes evident the need for the increased production of historical research in the LIS field.

The historical research involved in this dissertation builds on existing literature, contributes new findings and insights, and exposes implications for additional research that would benefit user services. By focusing on the Julius Rosenwald Fund Library Program, the study reveals a monumental program that has yet to have a comprehensive history published. The study explores a historic organization that made significant contributions towards the development of Southern libraries. Little is known about the program, the nearly 10,000 libraries it established, or its impact on its multitude of users. The study uses archival analysis, which presents the potential for further insight on the library program’s impact on other charitable and educational agencies, and philanthropists. The study is important as it presents new knowledge and fills a gap in scholarship concerning Southern library history of African Americans, library practices in the

20th century, and philanthropic involvement in library development.

The importance of the study also lives in its ability to unveil a program that may greatly assist in the planning of services to minority user groups. Answering the research question about library practices implemented at facilities funded by the Julius Rosenwald Fund Library Program will assist the field in understanding the role of the library in the life of the user, specifically the

African-American user in the 20th century. Thus, the study contributes to the larger, yet stalled discussion initiated by Zweizig and reignited by Wiegand concerning the role of the library in the life of the user. The study will highlight this role and provide a greater understanding of the contributions philanthropists made to Southern libraries and users.

Chapter Summary

This chapter further explained the deficiency in the study of library history. The production of more research studies focusing on the historical role of the library in the life of the user is crucial to the LIS field. During the information age, more emphasis is placed on the present day process rather than historical studies, causing many scholars in the field to overlook the most important aspect of the library, the users. The purpose of the study is to emphasize the importance of historical research in the LIS field concerning library users and practices. The purpose will be actualized by exploring the Julius Rosenwald Fund Library Program, practices implemented at funded libraries, and the program’s impact on the development of Southern libraries. The study will also fill a gap in scholarship concerning the role of the library in increasing literacy and educational opportunities for African Americans.

The answers to these questions will be achieved using data collection and archival analysis of two archival collections held at the John Hope and Aurelia E. Franklin Library at Fisk

University. The research will utilize preset categories for organization. The researcher recognizes the fact that archival documents have the potential to reveal more information than anticipated, thus the investigator will remain open minded so new concepts may emerge. The findings will be analyzed using both sets of concepts. The study will present the results of the exploratory, archival analysis, which has the potential to influence other LIS researchers to conduct historical studies focused on the library in the life of the user. This chapter made it evident the study will assist in diminishing the field’s blind spots and tunnel vision.

CHAPTER TWO

LITERATURE REVIEW

Introduction: Library History Research

Library history provides a biographical narrative concerning a geographical region, library type, or a single library system. This account often includes information on the establishment of the library, special benefactors, significant collections, services rendered, outstanding achievements, and other points of interest for the investigator. Southern states arguably possess the richest library history due to the region’s delayed development accompanied by historical racism. Such actions also hindered the progression of African-

American institutions. Libraries were one of the many institutions used to oppress black culture continuously. Yet library history as it relates to African Americans in the South has been understudied. Other forms of LIS research are more dedicated to identifying laws of human conduct (information behavior) and analyzing information retrieval systems. Due to the lack of library history research studies, a gap in LIS scholarship remains. This emptiness is clear evidence of the need for more historical research in the field.

Historical research examines past events or a combination of events in order to arrive at an explanation of a specific phenomenon. This research uncovers the unknown, answers questions, identifies the relationship between the past and the present, as well as records, and/or evaluates social movements. In return, the research provides new knowledge that may assist in understanding a different perspective concerning major events. Historical research has this capability to garner new insights concerning social processes external to the library because such customs or practices often impact internal library practices. A perfect example is the de jure and de facto segregation of the South in the early 20th century, which extended to all public

8 accommodations. Using historical research for the study of library history promotes the value of the library, which lies in existing concepts and theories that focus on the ways in which different cultures use social structures. This form of research is also well suited for trend analysis due to the encouragement of causal reasoning, which allows the researcher to consider a sequence of events. The literature review provides background on library history concerning the American nation, the Southern region as it relates to African Americans, and philanthropic efforts. The chapter presents an in-depth narrative on the Julius Rosenwald Fund to give the reader insight into the organization’s investment in the lives of African Americans. Last, the chapter gives the conceptual and theoretical framework in order to guide the research.

American Public Library History

Libraries provide free access to knowledge that has the ability to lead to progress in life.

The public library acts as an open schoolhouse that teaches and gives to people of all ages, genders, economic statuses, and educational backgrounds the knowledge, recreation, and inspiration for that environmental adjustment called education (Shores, 1932). Early 18th century leaders understood the importance of access to books and acknowledged that various forms of education would be the key to producing good citizens. However, the earliest books in America were rare and expensive to acquire. At that time, books in the home mostly belonged to the wealthy and member of the clergy. With such limited access, the subscription library was naturally established. Benjamin Franklin and the Junto, a philosophical association, initially developed the concept of the subscription library. This library later evolved into the Library

Company of Philadelphia in 1731 (Wheeler and Johnson-Houston, 2004). Though the subscription library was open to the public, a membership fee or special authorization was required to gain access. Junto became the blueprint for the “member only” social library.

Allan Ramsay is recognized as the first owner of a formal circulating library, renting his books in 1725. Ramsay was followed by William Rind, in 1762, credited as the first American to circulate materials for profit (Nipps, 1991). Many progressive library developments occurred in communities of Boston, Massachusetts, where local leaders sought a new type of social library.

They sought to establish a specialized library that would cater to a specific audience or discipline. In 1807, the Anthology Club of Boston founded the Athenaeum Library. To date, it remains active and is recognized as one of the oldest independent subscription libraries.

Boston’s community leaders continued this trend when they sought to establish another subscription library. This time, the library would promote virtuous habits among young men engaged in mercantile pursuits and their desire for knowledge. The ambitious desires of the city’s leaders were fulfilled in 1820 with the establishment of the first two mercantile libraries accompanied by the Mercantile Library Association.

School libraries also played an important role in bridging the gap of access. The school libraries first appeared in New York often servicing students and occasionally the community prior to the Revolution as explained by Nipps (1991). One could reasonably argue church and parish libraries, which serviced their congregation and the community, were the first free public libraries, though not tax-supported. These libraries later donated their collections consisting of materials on religion and theology, both public and private, to Southern college and university libraries including Historically Black Colleges and Universities (HBCU). The recipient schools were often Teacher Colleges, consisted mostly of materials on religion and theology. This caused the library to have an insufficient and incomprehensive library to instruct future teachers.

The idea of local, tax-supported public libraries took more than a hundred years since the

Library Company of Philadelphia to be actualized. Though New Hampshire opened the

Peterborough Library to the public in 1833, it was supported by the state’s literary tax. Still, this was significant progress towards establishing provisions for locally supported libraries. These same provisions would help Boston support its continued ventures in literacy. In 1854, the

Boston Public Library became the first public library supported by local taxes (Battle, 2009).

Library Development for African Americans in the North

The North made rapid progression in establishing public school systems as well as libraries during the post-slavery and Reconstruction eras. This progression included schools and libraries exclusively for African Americans. Wilmington, Delaware, was one of the earliest communities where blacks strongly sought educational opportunities to better their lives.

Quakers opened a school for Wilmington’s blacks in 1798, and later in 1816 the African School

Society opened another school exclusively for blacks (Newton, 1998). According to an 1837 survey, the school established was the only school for African Americans operating at that time

(Newton, 1998).

Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, was another progressive Northern city as it related to library development for African Americans. In 1828, the Reading Room Society, consisting of free

African-American men, was formed with the purpose of the education of blacks in the area

(Porter, 1936). The literary society opened the first social library for black men in Philadelphia.

In addition as a response to the exclusion and their need for intellectual activity, free African-

American women of Philadelphia established the Female Literary Society. It was the first social library for black women (Wheeler and Johnson-Houston, 2004). The enlightened city also established the Philadelphia Library Company of Colored People in 1833, later incorporated in

1836, to serve the black community as the initial Library Company of Philadelphia had done for the white community. The literary society provided a place of learning and intellectual exchange

11 as it built a collection that would enlighten its members on literary and scientific subjects. The society also promoted literacy and public speaking among its members (Porter, 1936).

In a similar manner, other cities began to follow the examples of private literary societies.

The city of Baltimore’s Enoch Pratt Free Library and its first four branches introduced service to users of all races in 1886, as a condition of Enoch Pratt’s financial gift (Wheeler and Johnson-

Houston, 2004). The North also led the way in library development by having African-American leaders and administrators. Edward C. Williams (1871-1929) became one of those great leaders.

As the first African American to be educated formally in library science (New York State

Library School, 1900), he worked as a librarian at Adelbert College (now Case Western Reserve

University) and later he became the first African-American director of the Howard University

Library System (Battles, 2009). During this progressive time of library development in the

North, the antebellum South was limited by customs that crippled its development. The region would not follow the North’s library development until decades later.

Gaining Access: African Americans and Southern Public Library History

In the South, the development of library facilities for whites reflected the pace of library service to blacks, which was delayed beyond necessity. For instance, Plessy v. Ferguson (1896) legitimized Jim Crow laws and created a home for social customs that hurt the South’s development. For African Americans, facilities and services were far from equal. During a time of limited economic development, separate facilities for the two races placed a greater tension on states’ restricted financial resources for library appropriations (Lee, 1991). The inadequacy of library provisions, social customs, and psychological factors caused handicaps that affected the progress of all black institutions.

A common misconception among Southern whites was “black development had to proceed, if at all, at a respectful distance behind white development” (Lamon, 1977, pp. 62-63).

This was a destructive attitude for the long-term oppression that not only affected blacks but the entire Southern region. The rural South was a place where even the white residents had limited access to public schools and libraries. The development of those institutions was a direct reflection of social, economic, and political trends of the region. Barker (1936) concluded the multiple factors that influenced development in the South to include: the low per capita wealth, large rural population, unprofitable system of farm tenancy, social deterioration, the large black population, the expense of segregated public facilities, and mass migration from the region. He argued the South had used its deficiencies as an excuse and defense mechanism for continuing in such a fashion. The region could have seized the opportunity to use those counterproductive factors as motivation for the development of creative ways to build greater wealth and establish higher standards.

Neither structural nor social development was progressive for Southern states. Records of library service to blacks in the South prior to 1900 are non-existent; rather progress began in the early 20th century when a number of Southern libraries introduced service to blacks. These services were provided in segregated branch libraries or restricted sections within an integrated library branch. Commonly restricted services at many integrated branch libraries involved denying blacks access to reading rooms and/or the privilege of browsing in the stacks of circulating books (Gleason, 1941). This restricted the ability of blacks to withdraw books from the library. Other integrated libraries, such as the Lexington Public Library (Kentucky), allowed blacks to use a segregated section and to withdraw books. Slowly over time, segregated facilities became preferred over integrated libraries.

At the turn of the 20th century, the South began to experience a boom in the development of libraries exclusively for African-American users. One of the earliest examples was the Cossitt

Library of Memphis, Tennessee. An agreement between the library and the Lemoyne Institute, a school for African Americans, enabled a library facility dedicated to providing service to blacks to be established in 1903. In the agreement, the institute furnished the room, while the Cossitt

Library provided a trained librarian and freely accessible books to all blacks in Memphis.

Another great example of progress in library service to blacks came from Charlotte, North

Carolina where the Charlotte Public Library for Colored People was established in 1901.

Charlotte passed a tax earmarked for a Carnegie public library making it the first known city to build a library for blacks from its own funds (Battles, 2009; Gleason, 1941). It was the earliest example of an independent black library. The library operated under the local government until

1929 when it became a satellite branch of the Carnegie Public Library. This collaboration served as a means to comply with regulations under the Julius Rosenwald Fund Library Program. The library would later participate in the Rosenwald County Library Demonstration and provided a momentous example of service to African Americans.

In 1904, the Rosenberg Library of Galveston, Texas, (a private institution) followed suit with special developments that included a board of directors and a separate branch for African

Americans that opened for service the following year. In addition, the board of directors built an addition to Central High School, making it the first structure with the sole purpose of providing quarters for a public library to be utilized exclusively by African Americans (Gleason, 1941).

Another notable development in Southern public library service for blacks was the Louisville

Polytechnic Library (now the Louisville Public Library) in Louisville, Kentucky. After being denied access to the library, Albert E. Meyeek initiated multiple conferences with the Louisville

Library Board to express the necessity for a library that would exclusively service blacks. Meyeek captured the attention of director William F. Yust, who believed that

“reading skills and access to books were paramount in the scheme for racial advancement”

(Battles, 2009, p. 32). Prior to 1896, Southern library segregation was due to local customs of racism more than to legislation. With the influence of Yust, the board decided to open the monumental Louisville Public Library in 1905. This library is noted as the first public library in the nation to provide library services to the African-American community using a completely

African-American staff (A Separate Flame, n.d.). In 1908, the library relocated to a new facility funded by Andrew Carnegie. This made the Louisville Public Library the first black Carnegie public library. Houston, Texas, provided a similar example. During the year 1909, a group of middle-class African-American citizens opened a library branch using only a classroom at a local high school. The group formed the Colored Carnegie Library Association and requested funding from the Carnegie Cooperation for a better facility. With the support of Dr. Booker T.

Washington and local white leaders, Carnegie agreed to open a new library facility in 1913 to service African Americans (Battles, 2009).

With the development of the National Association for the Advancement of Colored

People (NAACP) in 1909, the nation had an organization dedicated to gaining and preserving civil rights for African Americans. This organization consisted of blacks and whites providing solid evidence that the two races could work together successfully for the greater good, going against the historic Plessy decision. The NAACP attracted the attention of many philanthropists and various levels of government, which led to these groups joining the cause for uplifting the

African-American culture. These organizations and philanthropists provided funds to various educational efforts including library facilities for African Americans.

Philanthropy for Southern Libraries

The overall lack of development in the South is attributed to murky economic, social, and educational conditions. Despite these handicaps, major progress was made in the development of

Southern schools and library facilities. Library service from all rural inhabitants of the Southern region was not provided on effective level until the early 20th century. Much of this growth was due to aid from philanthropists and philanthropic foundations. They pushed city and state officials to provide and retain better-trained leadership of both races who possessed the ability to carry out experiments that demonstrated sufficient means of promoting education and library service with limited funds. With the skills to operate under restricted funding, better leadership could build and equip modern schoolhouses with provisions for a library (Smith, 1940). During the early 20th century, a number of wealthy philanthropists with interest in development of the

South became allies with educators and politicians to provide millions of dollars toward the support of African-American educational, cultural, and social institutions (Bobinski, 1969). For the black community, provisions delivery service for even slower with a few libraries and denial of access to main branches. For example, Andrew Carnegie help cities across the South to develop libraries in the late 19th century and early 20th century for both blacks and whites as educational institutions. Carnegie's decision to assist with the development of public libraries was based on two major reasons: (1) the meritocracy that benefited from libraries and (2) the socialization of immigrants those libraries could (Lorenzen, 1999).

Education was a greater benefit of them that it is today because so few people had an education. Many philanthropists helped to establish thousands of public libraries, which have benefited the education of millions of people. Carnegie sought to provide educational opportunities to those who could not afford formal education. Another example is the faith cabin

16 libraries, 1932–1960. These libraries were formed by volunteer groups who sought to provide blacks access to reading materials in response to the neglect by county and state officials.

William Lee Buffington, founder, left a remarkable and far reaching legacy through 107 faith cabin libraries in South Carolina and Georgia (Lee, 1991). Faith cabin libraries were often associated with schools established by other philanthropists, including Julius Rosenwald (Powell,

2004).

Prophet of the South: Julius Rosenwald (1862-1932)

Another influential philanthropist who had a major impact on the development of

Southern libraries was Julius Rosenwald, born on August 12, 1862 in Springfield, Illinois, who dropped out of school in his early teens to work odd jobs in efforts to support his family. He held multiple jobs simultaneously, including baggage handler for travelers and pumping pipe organs for Protestant churches. Only receiving 10¢ per hour, Rosenwald often argued that the amount of income did not matter as much as a person understanding the importance of saving (Fisk

University, Special Collections and Archives, Samuel Leonard Smith Collection, box 11, folder

4). This mindset stood the test of time and experience as he always had a purpose for his savings.

By age seventeen, he had entered the business world in New York City. He remained active there until 1885 when he became president of Rosenwald & Weil clothing manufacturers in Chicago.

As a leading supplier to Richard Sears’ mail-order business Sears, Roebuck & Co., Rosenwald greatly assisted in the planning for Sears growth and expansion. In 1895, Rosenwald became an investor and elevated the company through the development of Sears’ mail-order business.

During this time, many people lived in rural towns and on farms. Lacking both private and public transportation made it difficult to travel into the city for shopping. This fueled business and allowed Rosenwald’s fortune to accumulate to more than $200 million in the early 20th century.

Prior to his appointment as president in 1908, Rosenwald had served as the treasurer and vice president of Sears. Under his leadership, the company’s revenue multiplied more than 100 times that of 1896 (Fisk University, Special Collections and Archives, Samuel Leonard Smith

Collection, box 7, folder 5). Rosenwald maintained that a factor for successful business operations was ensuring each transaction had a mutual advantage to all parties involved

(customers, employees, the company, and stockholders). The businessman was also the mastermind behind Sears’ refund policy for unsatisfied customers. Under Rosenwald’s guidance,

Sears, Roebuck & Co. also established many programs beneficial to the company’s employees, including the Employees’ Savings and Profit-Sharing Pension Fund of 1916 for employees who served the company for a minimum of 10 years.

A born leader, Rosenwald devoted much of his time to working with philanthropic, educational, and civic organizations. For many years, he served as the president of the Jewish

Charities of Chicago, chairman of the Chicago Bureau of Public Efficiency, and a member of the executive committee of the Chicago Plan Commission. In addition, he served on boards of the

Rockefeller Foundation, Baron de Hirsch Fund, Tuskegee Normal and Industrial (now Tuskegee

University), University of Chicago, United Charities of Chicago, Hull House, the Art Institute of

Chicago, and many other organizations. Rosenwald was passionate about philanthropy and helping those who could not help themselves. In 1910, he began to voice his concerns about the equality and social needs of African Americans. One of his initial philanthropic acts occurred when the Chicago Young Men’s Christian Association (YMCA) made an appeal for aid to construct a YMCA branch for African Americans. Rosenwald offered to give $25,000 to any city towards the construction of such a facility. He required residents of both the black and white communities to raise $75,000 as a collaborative effort, and he informed that both races would be

18 able to use the facility. Thirteen cities met the requirement for the 1910 offer, and, later in 1920, an additional 14 cities raised the money for a total of 25 Rosenwald funded YMCA facilities for

African Americans (Mjagkij, 1992).

In 1911, Rosenwald met renowned educator and author Booker T. Washington and they quickly became close friends. He found Washington’s work to be very impressive and admired him greatly. They remained friends until Washington’s sudden death in 1915. Upon meeting

Washington, Rosenwald accepted an invitation to visit the Tuskegee campus where his interest in

Washington, the Tuskegee Institute, and the students persuaded him to become a member of the board of trustees in 1912. This was a position he served diligently until his death.

On his 50th birthday, Rosenwald confirmed his legacy as a committed philanthropist when he granted approximately $650,000 to a variety of charitable organizations. Among these gifts he provided $25,000 to build private schools near Tuskegee Institute to be administered by

Washington with a single stipulation; he required each school to match or exceed his gift

(Hoffschwelle, 2006). One year later, Washington informed Rosenwald of the financial status of the gift. The communities had raised as much money as they could, matching all but $2,100. He then requested Rosenwald allow him to allocate the balance toward the building of six experimental, one-teacher type (one classroom) public schools for black residents. Rosenwald agreed with the request contingent upon the schools’ communities matching his gift, which was achieved with the help of Washington and additional community members.

The rural schools were built using the Tuskegee Plans, which were designed by Robert R.

Taylor, director of the mechanical industries program and staff architect of Tuskegee. The early designs were easily distinguishable from the later Rosenwald buildings as they reflected the

Tuskegee-style curriculum intended for these schools including space for industrial education, a

19 small classroom for girls’ domestic science work, and boys’ vocational work in a separate shop building (Hoffschwelle, 2006). The first school completed was the Loachapoka School in Lee

County, Alabama at the cost of $942. The African-American community raised $150 toward the purchased two acres of land for the site and also gave an additional $132 for the cost of labor.

The white community contributed $360 and Rosenwald gave $300 toward the establishment of the first Rosenwald School (Fisk University, Special Collections and Archives, Samuel Leonard

Smith Collection, box 11, folder 4).

Washington dedicated each school during the spring of 1914 in the presence of the

Alabama department of education state superintendent, other state agents, and thousands of enthusiastic people -- both black and white. Rosenwald was so pleased upon hearing this news that he granted an additional $30,000 (Hoffschwelle, 2006). The additional aid was distributed toward stimulating the building of an additional 100 Rosenwald schools for blacks throughout the state of Alabama in cooperation with Tuskegee Institute and other city and state officials. The modest program would become the largest school-building program created by a philanthropic agency.

The Julius Rosenwald Fund

By the early 1920s, the school-building program was rapidly growing and succeeding in

Alabama. Other state agents and superintendents took notice and became anxious for Rosenwald to extend his aid for the building of rural schools in neighboring states. The correspondents recognized the long-term benefits to the black community as well as the region. Rosenwald also received a multitude of letters praising his successful efforts from officials and other philanthropic foundations concerned with the state of African-American education (Fisk

University, Special Collections and Archives, Samuel Leonard Smith Collection, box 42).

Rosenwald received these messages with gratitude, but often responded with a humble demeanor that celebrated the men and women who carried on the work. The philanthropist felt the administrators and teachers were more deserving than he.

In August 1917, U.S. Commissioner of Education Dr. P.P. Claxton called a conference with the Southern state superintendents and agents to be held in Washington, D.C. The meeting focused on a report detailing the state of African-American education in the South. The report, commissioned by the Bureau, was authored by Dr. Thomas J. Jones and funded by the Phelps-

Stokes Fund. Rosenwald also attended the meeting and was greeted with many congratulatory chats focused on his generosity in assisting the state of Alabama. He actively expressed the need for schools in the South and attendees countered with the need for aid extension to other states.

Rosenwald suggested the men establish a committee to draft general plans for the proposed enlarged program and submit the plans to him for consideration. Immediately, the men selected

Jackson Davis, field agent of the General Education Board; James L. Sibley, state agent of

Alabama; and Dr. Samuel Leonard Smith (commonly referred to S. L. Smith), state agent of

Tennessee (Fisk University, Special Collections and Archives, Samuel Leonard Smith

Collection, box 42, folder 5).

The three-man committee made four recommendations: (1) the Rosenwald program should extend the school-building aid to other Southern states that had state agents paid by the

General Education Board; (2) all buildings were to have well-designed modern rural school plans; (3) increased aid to $400 for a one-teacher school and $500 for a two-teacher or larger school; and (4) the program was to continue through the Tuskegee Institute. Rosenwald approved the report for extending the school building program. On October 30, 1917, he incorporated the

Julius Rosenwald Fund in Illinois for the “the well-being of mankind” (Fisk University, Special

Collections and Archives, Samuel Leonard Smith Collection, box 42, folder 5). Due to the fact that so many avenues existed that the Fund could assist for the betterment of mankind, for one man or one organization to undertake all matters in need of financial assistance was unpractical.

After careful consideration of all the worthy causes, Rosenwald and the Fund officials agreed the maximum benefit would only be achieved by concentrating on four major areas (education, health, fellowships/scholarships, and race relations).

The lack of modern building plans for the rural schools became an immediate issue. The

Fund commissioned Dr. Fletcher B. Dresslar, professor of hygiene and schoolhouse planning of

George Peabody College in Nashville, Tennessee to survey the schools. He evaluated the schools and provided a report with recommendations on the design, which resulted in Rosenwald opening a Southern office on June 1920 in Nashville, Tennessee. S. L. Smith was appointed as the general field agent, and then later promoted to director of the Southern office. Rosenwald selected Smith because of his education and experience in schoolhouse planning, hygiene, and rural sanitation as an understudy of Dr. Dresslar. Smith also designed modern rural school plans, one-teacher to six-teacher type, in Tennessee. He was committed to being the point of contact for

Southern state superintendents and agents of the fourteen cooperating southern states concerning all general information and budget requests for the school-building program. Soon after the announcement of his appointment, Smith visited the department of education in each of 14 states to assist with budgets and applications for rural schools (Fisk University, Special Collections and

Archives, Samuel Leonard Smith Collection, box 42, folder 5).

As a facilitator, Smith designed and prepared blue prints, building specifications, and bills for every school type. These plans became known as Community School Plans and were used 1920-1928. Other schools not funded by the Rosenwald Fund, both black and white, also

22 adopted the plans. By the philanthropic act of one man, a program destined to become the largest and most effective rural school-building program by a philanthropic agency began to impact the lives of many African Americans and whites in the South. This venture resulted in the construction of “5,358 modern rural schools with a pupil seating capacity of 663,795, located in

883 counties of 15 Southern states, costing $28,424520” (Fisk University, Special Collections and Archives, Samuel Leonard Smith Collection, box 42, folder 5). The school-building program closed on July 1, 1932.

The archival documents in the Rosenwald Fund Archives and the S. L. Smith collection revealed the Julius Rosenwald Fund constantly received requests to expand the scope of aid beyond school buildings, teacher homes, and vocational buildings in the South. The focus was expanded after a discussion on school bus transportation surfaced. Public school authorities in the region did not operate any bus transportation to or from the rural schools. Officials knew the bus transportation was necessary for the successful consolidation and operation of associated

African-American schools and the county training schools. After presenting this information to

Rosenwald in 1927, he granted experimental aid to sponsor transportation for county training schools in two Alabama counties. This experiment proved to be successful as it provided transportation for students to attend school regularly with less harassment. Subsequently, aid was extended for school bus transportation in participating Southern states in 1928.

In 1927, the Fund’s initiated health and library programs in the South. The Fund established these programs to respond to issues exposed by the school-building program. For example, the initial program unveiled the dismal picture of health conditions in Southern communities where mostly infants and school-aged children were affected. Rosenwald consulted

Smith and instructed him to collaborate with official health agencies. The Fund provided aid to

23 employ black nurses associated with county health agencies as an effective means of improving the poor health conditions of blacks. The Fund was reorganized in 1928, with former director and vice president of the Rockefeller Foundation, Edwin R. Embree, being appointed as president. Later, Rosenwald requested a budget for the health program. At the next board of trustees meeting, the budget was approved, making the health program for blacks official. The philanthropic organization contributed millions of dollars to improving the health of Southern blacks (see Appendix A).

Smith encouraged Rosenwald to assist in providing more books to blacks in the South.

Upon reviewing reports on the rural schools, it became apparent the schools lacked library books and did not have nearly enough textbooks. Commonly, children would have to share terribly worn textbooks. Rosenwald argued the purpose of the modern rural schools would be ineffective without the simplest learning tools: books (Fisk University, Special Collections and Archives, S.

L. Smith Collection, box 11, folder 10). Agents of the American Library Association agreed with

Rosenwald on the dire need for books in the schools. However, they warned him against spending a grand amount of money on libraries for the schools without trained professionals. The teachers had no access to children’s books during their training; thus, they were ill-equipped to guide the students effectively without the proper use of the library. Rosenwald decided to provide experimental aid by providing 10 elementary library sets (book sets) to Rosenwald schools for each of the 14 cooperating states. They also gave aid, as an experiment, to five black teacher-training colleges to establish modern libraries on the campuses. The results of the two experiments led to the establishment of the Julius Rosenwald Fund Library Program in 1927.

The library program, discussed in greater detail in Chapter 3, garnered the establishment of nearly 10,000 school, college, and public libraries.

During the 1928 reorganization, the Fund transitioned from private to corporate giving.

Rosenwald gifted 20,000 shares of his stock in Sears, Roebuck & Co., bringing his personal contribution to more than 200,000 shares of stock, which was then a market value of $20 million.

He believed everlasting endowments could easily become a hindrance to progress. Thus, he stipulated all funds allocated to the generation within 25 years of his death (Fisk University,

Special Collections and Archives, S. L. Smith Collection, box 11, folder 4). The board of trustees agreed with Rosenwald, took on the existing programs, and expanded the Fund’s scope to include high schools, colleges, African-American hospitals and health agencies, county library service in Southern states, medical services to persons of moderate means as well as general social studies. The realization that the progress of any group or organization depended largely on creative leadership led to the granting of fellowships and scholarships to black and later white,

Southerners to develop their talents. As time passed, the Fund felt it no longer needed to provide opportunities solely for African Americans, and it incorporated into the general development of

American life. The philanthropic organization shifted its emphasis to being an active program in race relations.

The Julius Rosenwald Fund was not created to exist forever. However, the Fund came to a close sooner than was expected due to the economic crash of the stock market. The Sears,

Roebuck & Co. stock fell from nearly $200 per share to less than $10 per share (Fisk University,

Special Collections and Archives, S. L. Smith Collection, box 11, folder 4). The Fund, determined to meet its financial commitments, limited the programs and concentrated more heavily on wielding influence through studies, publications, and consultation rather than allocating additional funds to other agencies. The board ended the larger programs in general education and social studies. With these changes, the Fund met all of its pledges, cleared debts,

25 and continued to help active programs during the Great Depression. The trustees followed the policy of expending principal and income. The work of the Julius Rosenwald Fund came to a close on June 30, 1948, keeping with the wishes of its founder who had died in 1932. The Julius

Rosenwald Fund intended to use all of its funding for philanthropic purposes and this mission was accomplished through the donation of millions of dollars to education, health, fellowships/scholarships, and race relations (see Appendix A).

Library in the Life of the User

In an era occupied by the rapid growth of information technology and communication capabilities, the value of the library in the life of the user’s perspective has been overlooked. Due to this reality, a need exists to reinvent and re-conceptualize the library in order to stay relevant.

However, the LIS field must promote the importance of the library in the life of the user perspective through research. Traditionally, research in public libraries placed more emphasis on the library and not on its users. Zweizig (1973) called for the profession to shift its concept focus from the user in the life of the library to the library in the life of the user, which would allow for a greater understanding of the contributions public libraries provide to communities. He advocated the need for research in the LIS field with emphasis placed on the user. He also acknowledged key factors that would benefit the field when user-centered research includes the impact or influence on the users being the central focus. In addition, researchers must carefully select a research perspective on the user.

Despite the design of libraries as public service institutions at the time of Zweizig’s call, only 15 studies explicitly explored public library users. However, these studies did not fill the gap in LIS scholarship because they were library-centered. Each study focused on the user in the life of the library perspective neglecting to address responsiveness to societal changes, reference

26 to other fields, theory development, and measures of impact on human terms (Zweizig, 1976).

Lange (1988) credited Zweizig for bringing clarity, a different conceptual framework, and for upgrading the use of methodology and theory for the exploration of user-centered studies. The works of Zweizig influenced many scholars, and they decided to answer his call to produce user- centered research. Kronus (1973) conducted a study to predict patterns of adult library use through regression and path analysis finding education, lifestyle, and urban residence to be principal factors as the best predictors. He also uncovered age to have an indirect effect, but only when education and family size were held constant. Massey (1976) suggested library users be segmented by benefits received from the library or library activities, which include learning, entertainment, children services, and simply a place to go.

In a 1977 study, Zweizig and Dervin determined traditional user studies must venture beyond identifying library users and their frequency in use. Naturally, researchers answered the call using a variation of methods. D’Elia (1980) developed a conceptual model based on the behavior of the library user that included Zweizig’s top seven individual characteristics from his

1973 study and four additional variables concerned with the respondent’s perceived relationship with the public library. He found public library users had the tendency to perceive the library as being more accessible than nonusers. Other key factors presented themselves among users of the library, such as the frequency and intensity of use was directly related to the awareness of special library programs and in-house use was related to the use of other libraries.

Another researcher to answer the call was Madden (1979), who conducted a secondary analysis of a national lifestyle study focused on the activities, interests, and opinions of three user groups (nonusers, moderate users, and heavy users). He found that library use was highly associated with general activity. Also, female nonusers were more likely to become users,

27 whereas male nonusers may respond to information provisions made for home improvement and automobile repair. In addition, his study revealed most users identified themselves as moderate users, whereas only a small portion of users sampled considered themselves to be heavy users.

Last, he declared medium-size libraries were more likely to have the abilities and resources

(human and machine) to satisfy the needs of the three user groups.

More recently, Wiegand (1999) discussed various restrictions the LIS field has placed on itself by focusing mainly on technology and not the user as he argued the size of the field allows for a wider scope of research. The field’s focus, too centered on biography, library expertise, and big library institutions, is devoid of analysis studies focused on the impact of collections and services on library users as well as the ways in which users appropriate both (Wiegand, 1999).

He too advocated for LIS researchers to shift their perspectives from studying the user in the life of the library to include more about the role libraries play in the lives of women, children, minorities, and working-class people.

Wiegand’s research on the Main Street Public Library was a revealing study using the library in the life of the user concept. Wiegand (2011) uncovered two aspects of the public library: (1) public space to demonstrate and teach social behaviors as well as responsibilities acceptable to the community and (2) literary space through collections and services that offered models for successful living, problem solving, and an orderly life. He challenged traditional assumptions about the American public library in the community, whereas traditional thinking and academic teaching has been grounded in a perspective that identifies the public library as “a neutral agency essential to democracy” also known as “the library faith” (Wiegand, 2011, p. 48).

Wiegand (1998) presented the argument the public library is essential to its local community for reasons other than the library faith. Using the library in the life of the user

28 perspective, this exploratory study will reveal reasons the public library is important to the users beyond the library faith. As discussed by Zweizig (1976), a need remains for a body of research that examines “the user in his complex information environment, explicit development of our theoretical concepts of information use, incorporation of the findings from a variety of related disciplines, and use of sophisticated and sensitive methodologies for the interpretation of data”

(p. 55). When this body of research is created and flourishes, the LIS field will have truly made progress in understanding the library user. This dissertation has a goal to answer this call by utilizing the library in the life of the user concept to explore the impact of the Julius Rosenwald

Fund Library Program on African-American users. The research is user-centered as it evaluates the benefits and influences caused by the program’s creation, outreach, and the increase of library services to the African-American community.

Theoretical Framework

Understanding the role of the library in the life of the user can be enhanced by new research guided by theoretical perspectives from other academic disciplines, such as American

Studies (Wiegand, 2003). American Studies researchers can assist the LIS field in gaining knowledge about cultural agencies and practices in American libraries. One theory cannot completely explain how the library functions in the life of the user, thus, two theoretical concepts to inform this research study are utilized.

Sense of Place Theory

The dissertation will examine the impact of the Julius Rosenwald Fund Library Program in the lives of African-American users. To perform this task effectively, one must examine the library users’ emotional attachment to environments and places. Multiple factors influence how individuals perceive different environments and how those environments fit into their world.

Many often refer to the Sense of Place theory as an all-encompassing concept that incorporates other notions describing relationships between humans and spatial setting (Shamai, 1991). This includes values and experiences considering aesthetics as well as a specific feeling felt within a structure. The theory draws upon the understanding of how people interact with their physical and social environments by examining the way a place affects an individual’s life and the ways in which that person creates a sense. Key factors include the difference between settings and the sense of place, which is based on an individual’s experience of them. Each factor is heavily influenced by one’s own contributions.

As explained by Steele (1981), place has two aspects: (1) the particular experience of a person in a specific setting, and (2) the spirit of place as a combination of characteristics that give some locations a special feel or personality. Place experiences may involve immediate feelings and thoughts, such as worldviews, occupational practices, a sense of accomplishment, sense of enjoyment, and intimate knowledge. For example, Feldman (1999) investigated sense of place in a black middle-class community in Birmingham, Alabama and the struggle of a culture to rise above discriminatory practices common in the South. In depth, the author described how the difficult yet eventually victorious battle of the community in overcoming oppression helped to create a sense of accomplishment for then, current and future generations. This study supports

Tuan’s (1977) declaration that place is a center of meaning where human emotion and relationships are emphasized. Sense of place resides in human interpretation and experience.

Specific places have become symbols of power, principles, and ideals. Such places have been used as points of protests and conquests, including libraries. The LIS field must recognize this sense and not lose sight of its importance as it relates to the library in the life of the user.

Libraries seek to create a positive sense of place for its users and serve as a facility where many have developed a sense of belonging. Public libraries often function as central institutions in the daily life of users within small communities (Hersberger, Sua, and Murray, 2007). When the majority of the users are minorities, the library contributes a greater sense of place due to discriminatory social customs. After establishment, libraries focused on the educational, social, and cultural needs of local communities. This created a sense of pride as libraries provided a tool to overcome inequality based on race. In a study on the 135th Street Branch Library in New

York (now the Schomburg Research Center for Black Culture), Anderson (2003) investigated the role of the library in the life of the user during the Harlem Renaissance. During this prominent time, the library staff connected “writers and their readers using literary gatherings; between artists and their viewers with art exhibitions; and between playwrights, performers, and their audiences with theatrical productions” (Anderson, 2003, p. 383). This connection between the library and the community was a great example of creating a positive sense of place that resulted in the library being viewed as an institution for educational advancement, social meetings, and community gatherings.

The Sense of Place theory involves understanding how people develop place attachment and feel a part of a physical and social environment. This attachment is commonly grounded in a

“community’s cultural response to the environment’s features, the role that a place plays in satisfying human needs, historical meanings and symbolism embedded in the location and the possibilities for individuals and groups to identify with space” (Tuan, 1977, p. 1). The efforts of the 135th Street Branch Library staff to expand its services to assist its users created a positive sense for the community and embedded a lasting sense of pride. As the library continues to develop into a place where people of different ages, backgrounds, and interests may visit with

31 comfort and confidence that their information and social needs will be met, the standard of libraries to create positive experiences should be a social mandate. Sense of Place theory is appropriate for this dissertation as it will assist the researcher’s efforts to assess the values and feelings people associate with those libraries funded by the Julius Rosenwald Fund Library

Program.

Life in the Round Theory

In the early 20th century, African Americans were subjected constantly to harsh and often violent acts of racism. For this reason blacks remained within familiar environments. Thus, blacks commonly lived guarded lives within their own communities. These communities were mostly established post-slavery and would not easily expand to welcome white outsiders. To understand the information-seeking behavior of those living in these black enclaves, one must first investigate the social behaviors within the restricted environment. The Life in the Round theory is the appropriate model to conduct such a task.

Elfreda Chatman, a champion of theory development in LIS education, pulled components from various theories in other academic fields to explain the information phenomenon she observed in her field of study. In her efforts to go beyond her studies in information poverty, she found weakness in the borrowed theories (Thompson, 2009). Though each theory built on the previous one, she sought to build larger theoretical concepts. Through her research exploration, Chatman created three theories that greatly benefited the LIS field:

Information Poverty, Life in the Round, and Normative Behavior (Thompson, 2009; Fulton,

2010).

The Life in the Round theory was developed through Chatman’s study of the social world concept of women in prison. She explored the ways women refined their social world in order to

32 survive prison, both mentally and physically. The ethnographic research led her to interview eighty female prisoners, revealing that a life in the round helped to sustain a normative existence.

As explained by Chatman (1999), a life in the round “requires a public form of life in which general knowledge aids in small learning” and “certain things are implicitly understood” (p.

212). Such a life is composed of normal language, worldview, and codes. Understanding this form of life occurs when the information is clear enough to give sensible meaning to things. The residents are very much a part of this process as it is defined by their values. Members, also known as insiders, are not concerned with the outside world because it has little influence on the insiders’ experiences. Social roles and group standards, or norms, are created and sustained by the insiders. As presented by Chatman (1999), six propositions constitute the theory of Life in the Round.

1. A small world conceptualization is essential to a life in the round as it establishes legitimized others within that world who set behavioral boundaries. 2. Social norms force private behavior to undergo public scrutiny deeming behavior, including information-seeking behavior, appropriate or not. 3. The result of establishing appropriate behavior is the creation of a worldview that includes language, values, meaning, symbols, and a context holding the worldview within temporal boundaries. 4. For most of us, a worldview is played out as life in the round. It works most of the time with enough predictability, so there is no point in seeking information. 5. Members who live in the round will not cross the boundaries of their world to seek information. 6. Individuals will cross information boundaries only if a perception exists that (1) the information need is critical; (2) a collective expectation that the information is relevant; and/or (3) a life lived in the round is no longer functioning.

Chatman (1999), arguing a life in the round will have a negative effect on information seeking for everyday behavior, suggested the best use for the theory’s application would be as a strategy for examining social life. If an individual has no need to seek information from an outside world, it is because the individual’s social world is working just fine without doing so.

The information theorist is referring to a specific type of information intended to respond to the

33 needs of individuals within a specific social context. A life lived in the round is a taken-for- granted lifestyle, which acknowledges everyday reality as routine. In contrast, the life is also constraining as behaviors are judged by standards determined by those within the round.

Observing life as lived in the round is crucial to understanding information behavior in the small world context. A multitude of research studies focused on information-seeking behavior and information sharing in the LIS community cite Chatman’s theory. However, very few of those studies focus on the topic of Southern public library history as it relates to African

Americans. Historical racism led to a culture of mistrust among black Southerners. The resulting

African-American culture does not readily trust outsiders and instead seeks information within its own small world. The theory of Life in the Round is appropriate for this study because it explores the overlapping information and social worlds associated with daily life experiences of disadvantage groups. The theory will assist the study in exploring information behaviors rooted within norms and attitudes of the African-American community, which later became challenged when access to library services became the new norm. The theory will be a good measure when analyzing the influence of the Julius Rosenwald Fund Library Program on minority users versus their small world order.

Chapter Summary

This chapter provided a historical background on early library development in America and an in-depth narrative on Southern public library history with a focus on the African-

American community gaining access. This study must provide valuable insight on a murky past in order to guide the reader properly with a foundation understanding on why library service to

African-American users matter. Also, background on philanthropy in Southern libraries was offered with a focus on businessman Julius Rosenwald and the Julius Rosenwald Fund. At its

34 conception, the Fund established a school building program for an ignored group of the population. The interest of the Fund soon expanded to high schools, normal schools, and colleges. However, both pupils and teachers lacked books, which allowed literacy to suffer.

Thus, supplementary reading and extension libraries were introduced into the program.

Rosenwald also became aware of terrible health problems among blacks, and he arranged for medical care through official health agencies and African-American nurses to improve this issue.

The Fund recognized progress of any group depended solely on creative leadership and moved toward granting fellowships and scholarships to blacks, and later white Southerners, to develop their creative talents. Toward the end of its tenure, the Fund incorporated all citizens to benefit from its programs and shifted its focused to mainstream race relations. The Julius Rosenwald

Fund ended all philanthropic activities on June 30, 1948.

In addition, the conceptual and theoretical frameworks were presented within the chapter.

The literature review presented the Sense of Place and Life in the Round theories as they are used to understand emotions attached to places and small-world living. The theories will guide and assist the researcher in explaining the connection between the library and its users. The creation of a sense of place through an emotional experience and examination of information- seeking behavior in a small social world context is utilized as a key theoretical perspective for the investigation on the role of the library in the life of the user.

CHAPTER THREE

METHODOLOGY

Julius Rosenwald Fund Library Program What do you know? Design • What do you want to know • Identify research question • •

Archival Research John Hope and Aurelia E. Franklin Library, Prepare • Special Collections and Archives •Gain Permission to Use

•

Julius Rosenwald Fund Archives Two collections Collect •Samuel Leonard Smith Collection • •

Archival Analysis Microsoft Excel for Organization Analyze • Preset Categories • Emergent Concepts • •

Research Findings Discussions • Southern Library Practices of Non-Rosenwald Share • Libraries •Contributions and Implications Conclusions • • Figure 3.1: Graphic depiction of case study research design

Research Design: Overview

This study focuses on the Julius Rosenwald Fund Library Program established with the purpose of supplying reading materials and financial support to libraries in rural schools, black colleges and normal schools, and communities. By thoroughly investigating the philanthropic efforts of this monumental library program, the impact on the libraries will be revealed. Though the library program no longer exists, the activities of the Julius Rosenwald Fund are well documented. The study takes place in the archives, allowing the researcher to conduct an exploratory, archival analysis of data previously collected. To analyze the content sufficiently and accurately, the researcher created an Microsoft excel sheet to sort and organize the data because the categories serve as labels for summarizing and synthesizing what emerges from the data during the analysis process. Through the analysis of archival documents, this dissertation explores the impact of the program on Southern libraries and, consequently, the role of the library in the life of the African-American user.

Background: The Julius Rosenwald Fund Library Program

Colonial America deemed the library to be the heart of a culture as the library acted as a schoolhouse, freely offering people growth through knowledge. Thus, the library was the heart of grade schools, colleges, and communities. Yet, library service was scarce in the South. In the rural regions, most of the population lacked access, which was a major issue the regions could not afford to ignore if they desired to produce good citizens and compete with the North for big business.

When discussing the activities of the Julius Rosenwald Fund, Southerners often mention

Dr. Samuel Leonard Smith, director of the Southern office in Nashville, Tennessee. For more than ten years, Smith was actively engaged in assisting Rosenwald with the improvement of the rural schools. However, his influence went beyond the school-building program and the stat of

Tennessee. In fact, Smith himself encouraged Rosenwald to assist in the provisions for providing more books to African Americans in the South.

The Library or the Librarian

Agents of the American Library Association agreed with Rosenwald on the immense need for books in the schools. However, they warned him against spending a large amount of money on libraries for the schools without trained professionals. During the training, teachers did not have access to children’s books making the instructors ill-equipped to guide properly the students with use of the library. Also an unjustified belief remained that African-American children would not read despite the presence of library books. This theory was solely based on the assumption that black parents did not or could not read, so people assumed black parents did not encourage their children to read. Despite this misconception, Rosenwald felt it necessary to proceed with overcoming the obstacle instead of concerning himself with whether the library or the librarian should come first. To brainstorm a sufficient solution, he consulted officers from the

American Library Association, the Carnegie Corporation, the General Education Board, and the

Jeanes and Slater Fund. A meeting of the minds resulted in the establishment of the Hampton

Institute (now Hampton University) Library Science School in Hampton, Virginia, for the training of African-American librarians of school, college, and public libraries. This action later encouraged the founding of the Julius Rosenwald Fund Library Program as a cooperative program to develop library service for the rural South.

Prior to the founding of the Hampton Institute Library Science School, one library school was in the South: the Carnegie Library of Atlanta, Library School. However, the school trained only whites to become librarians. The Carnegie Corporation funded the school from 1914-1925, until the corporation agreed to provide the initial funding to organize and support the new school.

Miss Florence Curtis, an African-American librarian, was appointed as the library school’s first director. She equipped the school with a trained staff, which qualified the school to meet the standards to be an accredited library school. After the opening of the Hampton library school, refocused efforts on libraries for rural Rosenwald schools. With cooperation from Jackson Davis of the General Education Board and Alfred K. Stern, director of the Julius Rosenwald Fund’s

Chicago office, all worked together to create an effective plan.

Rural School Libraries

In 1927, the Fund gave experimental aid to purchase ten elementary library sets in

Rosenwald schools. Officers of the Fund, different state departments of education, and librarians acted as consultants for the project. Much time, thought, and devotion went into the selection of books for the smaller schools, including the county training schools. The team also put much consideration into the selection of library equipment, supplies, as well as general instructions on the care and use of the library. The Southeastern and American Library Association approved the books. Each library set contained up to 150 books and Sears, Roebuck & Co. purchased the library sets at wholesale cost. The Fund paid for the cost of transporting the books as well as one third of the cost to furnish the library, including the necessary supplies (Smith, 1940). The

Rosenwald Fund required the rural and public school authorities to pay the remaining costs.

The elementary library sets were given to ten Rosenwald schools per state. State agents selected counties with Jeanes Supervisors, who were African-American teachers elected for their leadership qualities and skills in teaching the industrial arts (Noland, 2009). The teachers worked in rural schools and communities to educate blacks, and they were required by the Fund to care for the library sets. Regulations mandated the county superintendents to give necessary attention to the use and care of the libraries. They also agreed to furnish reports of the projects at the end

39 of the school year. After the schools received the library sets, state officials and a librarian visited each school to give complete instructions on the use and care of the books, including recordkeeping and annual reports. These officials advised the principal and teachers to read each book in order to guide the students sufficiently (Fisk University, Special Collections and

Archives, Samuel Leonard Smith Collection, box 11, folder 10). The following school year,

1928-1929, the Fund doubled the number of library sets for each state. Eventually, the Julius

Rosenwald Fund Library Program extended this offer to all rural schools that met requirements set.

African-American College Libraries

Simultaneous to the experiment with the elementary library sets, the philanthropist agreed to grant experimental aid to five African-American teacher-training colleges. The five colleges were Agricultural & Industrial State College (now Tennessee State University) in Nashville,

Tennessee, Southern University in Baton Rouge, Louisiana, Tuskegee Institute (now Tuskegee

University) in Tuskegee, Alabama, Petersburg Normal & Industrial Institute (now Virginia State

College) in Petersburg, Virginia, and North Carolina College (now North Carolina Central

University) in Durham, North Carolina. Winston-Salem Teacher’s College (now Winston-Salem

State University) in Winston-Salem, North Carolina, was later added because the school trained teachers on a high level for elementary schools, while the other five colleges trained teachers for schools of all grade levels in the state (Fisk University, John and Aurelia E. Franklin Library,

Special Collections, S. L. Smith Collection, box 42, folder 5). At the time, neither of the selected colleges possessed an adequate library. What the colleges considered a library lacked a librarian, an adequate building, modern equipment, and a collection of usable books to accommodate readers.

The Julius Rosenwald Fund Library Program granted each college library $1 for every $2 it raised, up to $2,500, on three firm conditions: the library must have a trained librarian, an adequate library building or reading room with modern furniture, and they must purchase books from a list approved by Miss Curtis (Smith, 1940). Each college agreed to meet the requirements and selected an exemplary teacher to attend the Hampton Institute Library Science School for a year of study, during the 1927-1928 academic years, which was sponsored by the General

Education Board. During the school year, the selected teacher collaborated with Miss Curtis to understand the needs of his or her college to create a proper list of reading materials, modern shelving, and other equipment.

When the librarians returned from their studies, they encountered a completed library facility ready for use beginning in the summer or fall of 1928. Most of the institutions’ boards of trustees exceeded the minimum financial requirement with the cooperation of the General

Education Board, the Slater Fund, and enthused local citizens. This was rightfully so, as most

African-American institutions also serviced their surrounding communities. The Fund’s library program extended aid to 43 black colleges and normal schools.

High School Libraries

In an effort to continue the stimulation of library development, the Fund in 1929 extended the library program to high schools. The match requirement had proven to be a great standard. Thus, the plans for the high schools would not greatly veer from the experiments. Any

African-American high school was eligible to receive $240 in aid towards the purchase of $720 worth of books (Smith, 1940). Dr. Jackson E. Towne, librarian of George Peabody College, prepared a list of 1,000 books as a guide for the schools. To assist the schools in promoting the proper use of the libraries, the Fund agreed to cover expenses incurred by librarians while they

41 visited the schools to instruct the teachers and students on the care of the library. The General

Education Board paid many of the school librarians in the state department of education as they devoted much of their time to assist in developing both white and black school libraries.

County Libraries

In 1928, Rosenwald greatly increased the assets of the Fund and secured Edwin R.

Embree as president. Under Embree’s direction, the scope of the Fund significantly expanded.

With the library program underway at the rural schools and colleges, the Fund decided an immense need for library service still permeated the rural South. Dr. Louis R. Wilson studied the then-current state of rural libraries, unveiling the fact that 71% percent of the South’s population was entirely without library facilities and services (Smith, 1940).

The library program, which had solely focused on school and college libraries, then shifted its attention to the development of county libraries. Rosenwald often demonstrated to

Fund officials the safety in starting a major project with experimental aid to ensure initial success. With the founder’s guidance, officials decided to experiment with county demonstration libraries and appropriated $500,000 for a five-year period. They established key principles to demonstrate the long-term stimulation of Southern libraries. The selected libraries were to act as a “demonstrator” to other counties on the type of library service that should be provided to the community. The principles, strict funding stipulations, required: all persons of the county – urban and rural, white and black – be permitted adequate, free library service; the Fund assist on a diminishing scale over a period of five years; all the public library facilities of the county be under the direction of a trained librarian; the county provide suitable housing for the libraries

(Fisk University, Special Collections and Archives, S. L. Smith Collection, box 11, folder 10). In addition, the Fund insisted on a minimum expenditure of 50¢ per capita for library service,

42 which exceeded the national average. The Fund required its traditional stipulations for funding, calling for the community to provide as much money as possible and obligate themselves to carry on the library service with the same standards after the Fund departed.

Initially, the Fund sought to grant aid to two county libraries in 13 southern states.

However, only 11 counties in 7 Southern states received assistance (see Table 3.1). For various reasons, the other states could not participate. The Fund immediately disqualified Georgia and

Florida because neither state had laws that enabled the counties to appropriate money for libraries. Virginia, Kentucky, and Arkansas were also unable to meet the key principles set forth by the Fund.

Table 3.1: Participants of the Julius Rosenwald Fund Library Program County Demonstration

States Number of Counties

Alabama 3 Louisiana 2 Mississippi 2 North Carolina 1 South Carolina 1 Tennessee 1 Texas 1

The Carnegie Corporation, which had a long interest in library service, contributed multiple grants totaling $200,000 in 1932 and 1933. This aid extended the county library to additional years without further obligation from the Fund (Fisk University, John Hope and

Aurelia E. Franklin Library, Special Collections, S. L. Smith Collection, box 8, folder 7).

Carnegie’s gift enabled the Fund to continue without diminished effect. For seven years,

43 community members of the 11 rural counties had the advantage of library facilities, literature, and adequate services. For the libraries to be the boon of education and race relations in the developing counties that supported them was crucial.

Research Question

The need to convey the impact of the Julius Rosenwald Fund Library Program on libraries established and/or funded by the charitable organization guides the research question.

Research Question: How did the Julius Rosenwald Fund Library Program influence

library practices at Rosenwald-funded libraries and other Southern libraries?

This single question is loaded with many sub-questions, including: What types of services were provided in school and college libraries? Were these libraries also for social use? After library facilities and materials became free to all persons of the community, was the library able to provide various types of library services? How did the professionals evaluate the users’ information needs? After the evaluation, did the services expand? If so, what types of services were offered? As the Fund’s involvement diminished and later departed the county libraries, was the quality of service reportedly maintained? How were the services funded? What became of the trained professionals?

The answers to these questions will be achieved using the qualitative research method content analysis of archival data with the use of categories. The findings from this study will be discussed within the context of historical and sociological concepts to deepen the understanding of the role of the library in the life of the African-American user and the impact of the Julius

Rosenwald Fund Library Program.

Research Site and Access

Archival analysis will be conducted at the John Hope and Aurelia E. Franklin Library at

Fisk University in the Special Collections and Archives department. Founded in 1866, Fisk 44

University is Nashville’s first institution of higher education and currently ranks in the top 20% of all liberal arts institutions in the nation (Fisk University, 2013). Providing a background on the preservation efforts of the institution as a way for the reader to understand why the small liberal arts college has such a profound historical collections is necessary.

Prior to 1928, little effort had been put forth to collect and preserve materials by and about African Americans at Fisk University. With the arrival of Louis Shores in 1928 as the librarian, the university embarked on a systematic plan to build such collections and house the materials separately in an adequate space. A year later, Fisk enlisted the aid of foreign dealers to provide works for its special Negro Collection, resulting in the purchase of 28 pamphlets and manuscripts documenting the early history of black domestic servants in Europe. By the fall of

1930, the institution had hired experienced and knowledgeable bibliophile Arthur Schomburg as curator of the collection. He immediately began to build a collection for Fisk that was similar to his own by acquiring a number of unusual and retrospective works. Simultaneously, through an agreement with the Southern YMCA Graduate School in Nashville, Tennessee, Fisk concentrated on collecting works on African Americans abroad prior to 1865. The university also gathered materials on the blacks in the West Indies and Africa, a large pamphlet collection, and two rare and priceless volumes that remain the choice items in Fisk’s collection (Smith, 2009).

Arna Bontemps, author, librarian, and a key figure of the Harlem Renaissance, became manager of the institution’s library and the first black head librarian in 1943. Although his budgets were consistently meager, he assembled the Special Collections and Archives department by gathering the papers of black luminaries such as Charles Waddell Chesnutt,

Langston Hughes, John Mercer Langston, Scott Joplin, and Dr. W.E.B. Du Bois as well as the archives of the Julius Rosenwald Fund. Bontemps hired professionals who began to process the

45 growing archival and manuscripts collections for use by scholars and researchers.

Today, the library continues to build on the tradition of maintaining a Special Collections and Archives department with the intent to collect, organize, preserve, and make available for scholarly use the official records of the university, the archives of other agencies and organizations, and the personal papers of individuals who have delegated custody to the university. The purpose of the preservation efforts is so researchers can explore African-

American history and culture as well as the heritage of Fisk University. The department houses primary and secondary materials preserved among the 200 manuscript collections, 30,000 books, photographs, and other items collected (Smith, 2009). Scholars utilize the materials for master’s theses, doctoral dissertations, books, articles, and films among other types of publications.

The researcher contacted the dean of the library, Dr. Jessie Carney-Smith, and gave her a description of the dissertation. Permission for the use of the Julius Rosenwald Fund Archives and the S. L. Smith collection was requested and approved in August 2013 (see Appendix B).

Data Collection

The Special Collections and Archives provide researchers with primary sources of historical events deemed to have evidential and informational value. Such materials are crucial to historical research because they validate history. Many cultures have benefited from archival preservation including that of African-Americans. Due to the initial oppression of slavery and the subsequent Jim Crow struggles, countless historical research studies have focused on milestone eras in African-American history with the assistance of archives.

Until the 1980s “white libraries and archives generally showed no interest in collecting primary source materials that dealt specifically with black culture” (Goggin, 1985, p. 261).

Consequently, African Americans, philanthropists, and various organizations that desired to

46 preserve the history made the conscious decision to deposit their records in archives with a focus on black history and culture. African Americans also created or funded separate archives in efforts to retain control over personal documentation, presentation and interpretation, and the terms of access (Jimerson, 2006). African-American history continues to come alive through a multitude of archival and manuscript collections.

The data concerning the Julius Rosenwald Fund has been collected and preserved through similar efforts for future research. This historical research study will use three archival collections to address the previously stated research question; these collections are the Julius

Rosenwald Fund Archives, which consists of two collections, and the S. L. Smith Collection.

The researcher chose these archival collections based on the documentation of the Fund’s activities. Prior to visiting Special Collections, the researcher requested the finding aids

(inventory lists) to pin-point the exact archival boxes with materials believed to be relevant to the

Fund’s library program. This process saved the researcher time from viewing items irrelevant to the research study.

Julius Rosenwald Fund Archives

The Julius Rosenwald Fund Archives consists of three archival collections. However, the research study will analyze materials from the original collection as well as the second supplemental collection. The original collection details the reorganized corporate Fund, 1928-

1948, and contains more than 150,000 items processed in 1969, which occupy 560 archival boxes. The collection is arranged into five series: (1) correspondence; (2) reports;

(3) manuscripts; (4) newspaper clippings, photographs, and scrapbooks; (5) fellowships and scholarships. The materials of the reorganized Fund reflect the new directions taken by its officers who expanded aid to colleges for teacher-training and African-American leadership;

47 fellowships for promising scholars of various disciplines; research on African-American health and medical services; book subsidies for school, college, and county libraries; appropriations for social studies; and contributions to agencies and individuals working in the field of race relations.

Supplement 2 of the Julius Rosenwald Fund Archives consists of 25 archival boxes holding materials that document the private and corporate periods of the Fund, 1917-1946. This collection was processed in the summer of 2013 and has been arranged into eight series: (1) biographical information; (2) correspondence with the board of directors, 1922-1934 and meeting minutes 1817-1930; (3) correspondence with the Board of Directors, 1817-1930 and financial information; (4) correspondence with the Study on Trade Schools; (5) addresses, articles, manuscripts, and reports; (6) scrapbooks and newspaper clippings; (7) photographs; (8) correspondence with the Rockefeller Foundation. In general, the archives of the Julius

Rosenwald Fund document an organization and its efforts to assist the growth of the Southern region with a focus on its African-American culture.

Samuel Leonard (S. L.) Smith Collection

Dr. Samuel Leonard Smith (1875-1956), more commonly known as S. L. Smith, wore many hats in his life such as administrator, advocate, architect, author, and educator. Through traditional hard work and determination, Smith established himself as a national leader and key innovator addressing schoolhouse planning, hygiene, and rural sanitation. In 1920, he was asked by Julius Rosenwald to direct the Fund’s Southern office in Nashville, Tennessee, where he revised community school plans and assisted the Fund in establishing more than 5,000 rural

Rosenwald schools and contributions to nearly 10,000 libraries. After the establishment of the last Rosenwald School, the Eleanor Roosevelt School at Warm Springs (Georgia), Smith retired

48 from the Fund in 1937. The S. L. Smith Collection consists of 59 archival boxes divided into three sections: the Julius Rosenwald Fund materials, S. L. Smith professional materials, and collected materials.

The researcher will focus on the first two sections during the research study. Within the

Julius Rosenwald Fund materials (Section I), there are 12 archival boxes filled with materials focused on the activities of the Fund. Section I contains correspondence from many prominent individuals in education and United States history including Julius Rosenwald, Booker T.

Washington, Dr. Horace Mann Bond, Dr. Charles S. Johnson, President Franklin D. Roosevelt, and President Hebert Hoover. In 1948, Embree wrote a letter to Smith agreeing to send all

Rosenwald files, the Fund’s library, and other memorabilia to Fisk University. Section I also includes a variety of newspaper clippings, photographs, publications, printed materials, reports, writings, and miscellaneous materials.

Within the Smith collection’s professional materials (Section II), are 34 archival boxes filled with materials concerned with the professional career of Smith. The section contains an abundance of correspondence from prominent figures, such as Mary McLeod Bethune, Florence

Curtis, Dr. Fletcher B. Dresslar, Dr. W.E.B. Du Bois, Dr. Charles S. Johnson, George Sullivan, and Dr. Fred McCuistion. The section has a wealth of manuscripts and publications authored by

Smith focused on African-American health, education, libraries, and national conferences.

Data Review Schedule

The Julius Rosenwald Fund Archives consists of three archival collections, and though only two of the collections will be used in this study, a longer collection period is appropriate.

The S. L. Smith collection is familiar to the researcher because she was the processing archivist for the collection during an archivist fellowship sponsored by the Institute of Museum and

Library Services (IMLS). Thus, the knowledge of this collection will allow the research to go directly to helpful resources. Typically, when a researcher investigates a collection, he or she may find unexpected links to other collections not planned for the research. A time cushion of one month is built into the data review schedule to accommodate such an occurrence. In the event that research in a particular collection takes more or less time, such will be noted in the research findings.

Table 3.2: Data Review Schedule

Collection Number of Boxes to Research Timeframe Research

Julius Rosenwald Fund Archives 36 boxes April 2014 (Original collection)

Julius Rosenwald Fund Archives 4 boxes April 2014 Supplement 2

S. L. Smith Collection 19 boxes May 2014

Time Cushion TBD June 2014

Data Analysis

Fidel (1984) and Maxwell (2005) found it best for data analysis to begin as soon as data collection begins. Whereas Yin (2005) concluded waiting until all data has been collected to begin in order for the researcher not to focus on small details, keeping the big picture in mind.

This research study will greatly benefit from archival practices as the data has been collected, arranged, and preserved, which will immediately allow the researcher to pull information relevant to the study. The researcher will employ content analysis of archival data focus on the

Julius Rosenwald Fund Library Program, following the design suggested by Yin (2005).

Content Analysis of Archival Data

Patton (2002) defined qualitative content analysis as any “data reduction and sense- making effort that takes a volume of qualitative material and attempts to identify core consistencies and meanings” (p.453). Hsieh & Shannon (2005) explained the method is for

“subjective interpretation of the content of text data through the systematic classification process of coding and identifying themes or patterns” (p.1278). Content analysis is essentially a coding operation involving “the logic of conceptualization and operationalization” (Babbie, 2013). The researcher will use inductive reasoning to identify important themes or classifications that emerges from the data. Through careful examination and constant comparison, the researcher will be able to provide descriptive and explanatory conclusions concerning the impact of the

Julius Rosenwald Fund Library Program. The qualitative method of content analysis will assist the researcher in providing an in-depth and insightful description of the library in the life of the user perspective and the impact of the Julius Rosenwald Fund Library Program.

Organizing Qualitative Data

The researcher utilized categories to destruct the data to examine the discrete parts for difference and similarities. The combination of data collection and interpretation of the data allows this to become the basis for the analysis. To analyze the content sufficiently and accurately, the researcher created an Microsoft excel sheet to organize the data because the categories serve as labels for synthesizing information revealed during the analysis process.

The study looks at various types of libraries funded by the Julius Rosenwald Fund and the impact of the agency’s involvement on Southern library practices. The researcher has identified four types of libraries the library program funded: rural schools, high schools, colleges,

51 and county libraries. The library types will be used as preset concepts or categories. In addition, the study will also utilize the geographical area and library practices as preset categories. Though the study focuses on the Southern region (in general), the researcher will note provisions made in specific states for library services influenced or encouraged by the possible receipt of Rosenwald funding, if presented in the archival data. The selected time period for the study is 1927-1947.

The researcher chose this time period because the Julius Rosenwald Fund Library Program began with the allocation of funds to elementary libraries in 1927 while the county library demonstration occurred 1929-1937. The additional ten-year frame allows the researcher space to report data that may present long-term outcomes not previously presented.

The researcher will begin data review and organization with preset categories. However, other concepts may possibly emerge while reading and analyzing the data. Microsoft Excel will be used for organizing the categories because the program is accessible on various electronic devices while maintaining the input’s original format. Table 3.3 presents the layout created by the researcher. If more concepts emerge, the researcher will add the category with an explanation.

Table 3.3: Preset Categories for Julius Rosenwald Fund Library Program, 1927-1947 Library Type Geographical Area Library Practices

Elementary School

Black Colleges and Normal School

High School

County

Validity and Reliability

Content analysis produces a high degree of validity due to the lack of intermediate steps between the creation of the phenomenon being researched and the analysis of the data. However, reliability is at risk since a single researcher is studying the phenomenon. This should not disqualify the quality of research data. The concreteness of archival materials studied in content analysis strengthens the probability of reliability. The coding process can be repeated without limits (Babbie, 2013).

Validity and reliability are criteria used to evaluate the quality of research in the conventional research paradigm. As an interpretive method, qualitative content analysis differs from the traditional research in its fundamental assumptions, research purposes, and inference processes. Thus, the conservative criteria are partial for judging the research results of this study

(Bradley, 1993). Taking notice of this issue, Lincoln and Guba (1985) proposed four criteria for evaluating interpretive research work: credibility, transferability, dependability, and confirmability.

Credibility is the “adequate representation of the constructions of the social world under study” (Bradley, 1993, p.436). Lincoln and Guba (1985) recommended a set of actions that would assist the improvement of credibility of research results, including prolonged engagement in the field, persistent observation, checking interpretations against primary data and peer interviews, among other methods. To improve the credibility of the analysis, researchers need to design data collection approaches that are able to gather sufficiently the representations and a clear process for organizing to asserting conclusions. The researcher extended the time period of the study beyond the ending of the county library demonstration for reasons of creditability.

The second criterion set forth by Lincoln and Guba (1985) was transferability, where the researcher’s working hypothesis can be applied to another situation. The researcher is 53 responsible for providing data sets and descriptions strong enough for other researchers to make judgments about the findings’ transferability to different contexts. In this study, the researcher identifies preset cateories with explanation of use.

The procedure for establishing dependability and confirmability is through appraisals of the research process and findings. The researcher determines dependability by checking the consistency of the study’s process, while he or she determines conformability by checking the internal logic of the data, the findings, the interpretations, and the recommendations. The materials that could be used in these assessments include raw data, field notes, theoretical notes, correspondence, coding manuals, and process notes (Zhang and Wildemuth, 2009). The researcher details the process so the study may be duplicated using an excel sheet for the organization of data and end interpretation. The researcher will apply the four criteria throughout the research to the study.

Limitations of the Research

The goal of the study is not generalizability, but instead to gain an understanding of a particular situation and its activity within important circumstances. Few limitations are within the exploratory research study. A major concern for content analysis of archival data is the researcher cannot control collection, arrangement, or preservation of the data. For this reason, the researcher possibly may encounter a gap in records, including data on experimental or demonstration libraries. Thus, the researcher must take this data at face value, keep this limitation in mind while analyzing the data, and report the gaps along with all the findings. The focus of the research is on a single organization during a specific time period in one region of the country. The results cannot be generalized beyond that focus. However, the potential exists for duplication of the research study with a focus on other agencies and organizations dedicated to library development in the same or other geographical regions to attempt transferability. 54

Ethical Considerations

Ethical issues in archival research may occur throughout the research process as critical questions arise from project conception and beyond the final results. Such issues typically involve participants of experiments, interviews, and surveys. For this research project, participant involvement will not be required and the research study will be based solely on the findings using historical documents.

The John Hope and Aurelia E. Franklin Library Special Collections and Archives has a deed of gift for each collection, granting the university complete ownership of the materials.

During archival arrangement and processing of a collection, professional archivists follow the deed of gift and rely on their professional training for necessary discretion. The collections selected for research are devoid of use and copyright restrictions. The researcher is required to disclose, in the permission-to-use application, a description of the project and whether publication is intended. For example, the intent to research using the Julius Rosenwald Fund

Archives and the S. L. Smith Collection is for dissertation research.

In addition, Special Collections assesses fees for reproduction and publication, which also must be paid prior to receiving the requested materials. Another requirement is to cite properly the original work, principal investigators, as well as the data sources. In consideration of research ethics, the researcher will follow the procedures to access the collections. The permission-to-use application as well as the rules and regulations form have been completed, signed, and submitted (see Appendix B). The researcher will follow all rules and regulations as well as the policies and procedures set forth by the John Hope and Aurelia E. Franklin Library

Special Collections and Archives department.

Chapter Summary

The chapter began with an overview of the exploratory, archival analysis design and a detailed narrative on the organization selected, the Julius Rosenwald Fund Library Program, on which the study focuses. This provides the reader with a foundational knowledge, including the

Fund’s purpose of providing library service and facilities to rural African-American schools, colleges, and communities. The researcher will unveil the impact and influence of the monumental program on library practices in the South. A description of the research site was given along with information on the policies and procedures for accessing the archival collections. The overall study design was given with an in-depth discussion on the data collection, which utilizes the data review method after the documents have been previously collected. The data analysis design was explained, focusing on content analysis while making use of preset categories established by the researcher. The remainder of the chapter addressed the researcher’s process to ensure quality data, limitations, and ethical considerations during the study on the Julius Rosenwald Fund Library Program.

CHAPTER FOUR

RESEARCH FINDINGS

Preset Categories

The proposed study used archival analysis to provide a complete picture of the influence the Julius Rosenwald Fund Library Program had on the lives of African-American users by looking at the library practices provided in Southern funded libraries as well as non-funded libraries. The data collection began April 2014 and concluded May 2014. During the data collection, the researcher paid special attention to the archival documents that presented information on the Fund’s library program and the library practices of those libraries funded by the Julius Rosenwald Fund. Specifically, the researcher focused on four preset categories: library type, library practice, geographical area, and time period. Despite the preset categories, the researcher remained unbiased so unanticipated concepts may emerge. The researcher utilized an

Excel sheet for the organization of the data. The findings of the archival study are given in detail below. This chapter examines the library practices at the Rosenwald-funded libraries.

Library Practice by Library Type

During the archival analysis process, the researcher realized the preset categories “library type” and “library practice” should be combined for a more cohesive presentation of the research findings. This was due to the collection’s arrangement, which focused on the library practices and services each library type provided to its users. Otherwise, the findings would had much redundancy.

Rural School Libraries

As previously discussed, the Fund began its work in library development by supplying small libraries to the rural schools. One should note in relation to the rural schools, the term

57 libraries refer to a set of books or book collection provided by the Fund. During the first year,

140 sets were ordered consisting of two different libraries; the original book collection and a supplementary book collection. Book lists were created after consulting with officers of the

American Library Association (ALA), the head of the Hampton Institute Library School, Ms.

Florence Curtis, and other library school administrators. The Fund contributed one third of the total cost and freight charges. The schools paid the remaining balance.

The archival collections used in the study, the Julius Rosenwald Fund Archives and the S.

L. (Samuel Leonard) Smith Collection, preserve the activities and successes of the library program. The collections documented the determination of the Fund’s officials to provide libraries to the rural schools as well as the determination for the initial library experiment not to fail. The Fund’s officials needed the experiment to be a successful indication of what this program could do for the rural South. S. L. Smith was a key administrator who was emotionally invested in the library program. As the person who suggested the program to Julius Rosenwald,

Smith strongly felt an increase in literacy levels would greatly enhance the lives of Southerners.

In a 1927 report, he reported a total of 400,000 volumes in Southern libraries that serviced

African Americans. The Fund officials estimated the titles to be valued at $1.00 each (Fisk

University, John and Aurelia E. Franklin Library, Special Collections, Julius Rosenwald Fund

Archives, box 129, folder 1).

According to documents in the S. L. Smith Collection, the benefit of providing libraries to the rural schools greatly exceeded Smith’s expectations. During the initial year, Smith traveled to many of the schools that had received the libraries. The state agent and county superintendent accompanied him during the school visits. He asked each group of students four questions concerning the reading materials.

1. How many students have read one book? 2. How many students have read five books? 3. Who would like to name the titles of the books you have read? 4. Who wants to share his or her favorite story?

Each visit, the students would raise their hands eagerly in response. All the students had read at least one book, while nearly “90 percent raised their hands” when asked who had read five books

(Fisk University, John and Aurelia E. Franklin Library, Special Collections, S. L. Smith

Collection, box 42, folder 5). The students easily named the titles read and were eager to share their favorite stories, all much to the visitors’ surprise, as the teachers gleamed with pride.

Initially, officials assumed the success was the knowledge of the experiment. Later, officials made clear the eagerness was due to the fulfillment of a genuine desire to read. As time progressed, the practices of the libraries and the students’ eagerness did not fade nor waver.

Officials determined the library practices to be the cause of the successful experiment and the future of the library program.

The key library practice was educating the principals and teachers about the library. One of the requirements was for educators to take a specialized summer course on the care and use of the library at a local teacher’s college. The course was under the direction of the state librarian and often the state’s library field agent. The archival documents detailed the library practices provided at the libraries. Most notably on the list was the responsibility placed on the principal.

The head of the school was responsible for the complete library during the school session.

However, the principal had the authority to appoint a teacher to act as the school librarian or custodian of the library set. The librarian would be charged with duties of recordkeeping, including circulation statistics and noting books added to the collection (Fisk University, John and Aurelia E. Franklin Library, Special Collections, Julius Rosenwald Fund Archives, box 262, folder 1).

Upon receipt of the library, the librarian and staff prepared the volumes by entering each title on a separate line in the accession book. This assured a permanent record of the book in the library. The library practice of recordkeeping assisted the librarian in documenting usage as well as user-reading levels. The Fund was sure to be strict on book preparation because it was essential for proper use.

Free access to use of the books was a library practice given special attention. The use of the library was a condition of receipt. The number one condition to receiving a library set from the Rosenwald Fund was to allow all pupils, teachers, and community residents free access and to use the books. The Fund used this stipulation in efforts to improve literacy to enhance all opportunities in life. Access was the first step to improving the lives of African-American users.

The next steps were teaching the users how to use and care for the library as well as the importance of the books. Library officials gave students a lecture on the proper handling of a book, using bookmarks versus bending upper page corners, utilizing book covers for preservation, and keeping the books out of the reach of small children at home (Fisk University,

John and Aurelia E. Franklin Library, Special Collections, Julius Rosenwald Fund Archives, box

262, folder 1).

Other library practices that allowed the rural school libraries to be successful were the consistent addition of new books and the service provided to community residents. The constant flow of new volumes contributed to the library’s ability to service the community as well as the students serviced on a daily basis. In turn, the school library became an early form of the modern day public library. Collection development was a major contribution to keeping the interest of the readers because the process considered readers on all levels. This helped to debunk the misconception that African-American children could not read because their parents could not or

60 would not read. In reality, African-American children did not have a lack of encouragement, but a lack of supply. The Julius Rosenwald Fund encouraged reading by providing libraries with library facilities and books.

The circulation of books was another positive contribution for those not enrolled in school. The Julius Rosenwald Fund Archives reveals the inability for all school-aged children to attend school. Many were responsible for family farms or held jobs as maids and sharecroppers, which often prevented them from attending schools. The practice of circulation allowed those not able to attend the ability to read books. The books were checked out for a two-week period and allowed one renewal as long as they were kept in good condition. When a student took home a book, library staff estimated at least three other individuals also read the title (Fisk University,

John and Aurelia E. Franklin Library, Special Collections, Julius Rosenwald Fund Archives, box

262, folder 1).

The library program also required the principal or governing teacher to provide annual reports on the use of the library. The state agent and librarian who also visited the libraries filed reports at the end of the experimental year for every school. Each report noted the average black student read as many books as the average white student (Fisk University, John and Aurelia E.

Franklin Library, Special Collections, S. L. Smith Collection, box 42, folder 5). The reports often noted the level of circulation inside the library and outside the library, taking into account the number of nonstudent readers. Due to such a strong desire for reading materials, the library remained in service during the summer months at a minimum of one day per week, using volunteers, parents, and trustworthy older students to operate the library. This was merely a teaser for the eager readers as they anticipated the new school term with hopes of new and exciting titles to conquer. Furthermore, the reports made it evident that books were selected on

61 various levels and provided the users with a healthy recreation and playing a vital part in the reduction of juvenile delinquency (Smith, 1948). Subsequently, a well-read individual made for an eager learner. The libraries were vital in producing better-educated individuals who became productive citizens (Fisk University, John and Aurelia E. Franklin Library, Special Collections,

S. L. Smith Collection, box 42, folder 5).

The library practice of “reading encouragement,” as the researcher has dubbed it, was a key component to the success of the Julius Rosenwald Fund Library Program. Teachers encouraged the students to gain and nurture healthy reading habits while young in an effort to increase their interest in all school subjects. Fund and school officials understood the test of literacy had two components: could a student read and does the student read? The concept behind reading encouragement is whenever a pupil is taught to read and supplied with good age- appropriate literature, discipline is much easier. This newfound discipline may also lead to increased attendance and a rise in the standard of scholarship (Fisk University, John and Aurelia

E. Franklin Library, Special Collections, Julius Rosenwald Fund Archives, box 262, folder 1).

The well-practiced teacher puts life into a narrative by reading it aloud with animation and/or by telling the story to the point that it aroused the curiosity in the students. This practice alone packed the interest, as students would desire to know the whole story. However, the practice was ineffective if the teacher was unfamiliar with the books within the library set. The Fund necessitated each teacher and principal with access to the Rosenwald library to read all the titles he or she was unaware of in order to provide sufficiently accurate reader advisory services to the students as well as the community users.

Due to the successful library practices at the rural schools, the Fund saw fit to spread the benefits to white elementary schools. Ultimately, the elementary libraries created and enhanced

62 the students’ and residents’ appetites for increased reading materials. The Julius Rosenwald Fund

Library Program established and contributed to more than 7,000 libraries to the elementary schools (Fisk University, John and Aurelia E. Franklin Library, Special Collections, S. L. Smith

Collection, box 42, folder 5).

African-American College Libraries

The Julius Rosenwald Fund Archives provides an abundance of documentation on the college division of the library program, its development, and its ultimate success. During the groundbreaking library conference held at the Hampton Institute March 15-18, 1927, a notable librarian and head of the African-American branch of the Louisville Free Public Library, Thomas

F. Blue, spoke about the library as a community center. At this conference S. L. Smith became interested in the establishment of libraries in rural schools and the teacher-training colleges materialized. Jackson Davis, field agent of the General Education Board (GEB), felt the distinct need for libraries of children’s literature to be established for use during teacher education. He suggested to Smith that for the next academic year, the Fund should select five colleges to aid in the purchase of books for a children’s literature library as well as second library for the college itself. The college, the Julius Rosenwald Fund, and the GEB were to distribute the cost of this assistance equally. Davis suggested the initial five institutions (see Chapter 3). These schools were in dire need of library aid, the administration was particularly interested, and plans for improvement were underway.

Though Rosenwald was interested in assisting the college libraries, he did not want to bear the responsibility of the program’s finances and wished for the GEB to formalize their agent’s suggestion. He also hoped for the Carnegie Corporation to bear one third the cost.

Despite the lack of additional support, Rosenwald was not deterred. He did not allow their lack

63 of action toward aiding black college libraries to stop him from assisting the development of black communities. He strongly felt the need for library aid to purchase books because the schools were doing all they could without additional aid. Without an adequate library service that included children’s literature, newly trained teachers had completed an education program lacking any conception of a library for children. Despite the lack of support, Rosenwald allowed

Davis to make the offer to the selected five black colleges on his behalf without using his name or mentioning the Julius Rosenwald Fund, as he did not want the GEB to feel he was attempting to persuade them to make an offer of support. He wanted the officials to recognize the importance of the matter themselves; something the GEB did not do in monetary fashion.

The initial offer to the college libraries to purchase a library of children’s literature and an appropriate college library included Rosenwald’s contribution of one third the cost, which was between $500 and $1,000. Accordingly, the total cost could not be less than $1,500 and not exceed $3,000. The college must acquire the required supplemental sum from other sources. This made it possible for the state’s department of education to apply for aid from other organizations, including the GEB. The offer was set to expire December 31, 1927. As with rural school libraries, the books had to be selected from a list created by Ms. Curtis, who was also responsible for approving book purchases for each college. With the offer made to the experimental group, the college library list began to expand beyond grade-school literature as deemed appropriate.

The college students were older and far more advanced than the students in lower grade levels.

Ms. Curtis, who had developed relationships among the college librarians and presidents, began to draft the college library list based on the needs of the individual colleges.

To encourage a collaborative effort, Fund officials sought the opinions of the head librarians at Columbia University and the University of Chicago to make contributions to the college list. However, racism caused a rift in the relationship. In a 1927 letter, Dr. Raney,

Director of the Libraries at the University of Chicago, wrote to Alfred Stern of the Julius

Rosenwald Fund, expressing the current list was far too advanced for “Negro students in the

South” and it would be best to stick with a simpler list (Fisk University, John and Aurelia E.

Franklin Library, Special Collections, Julius Rosenwald Fund Archives, box 261, folder 5).

Beyond the elementary and high school titles, the college library list consisted of literature covering various collegiate majors, such as physics, economics, anthropology, botany, German,

English, history, education, and library science among other disciplines.

Though Raney had taken no issue with the elementary and high school lists, he felt the college portion needed a radical revision as he argued in the same letter “These titles shoot over the heads of those who are intended to use them” and the list offered was on par with a college course offered at the University of Chicago, whereas the black students of the South were nowhere near such a standard, he assumed (Fisk University, John and Aurelia E. Franklin

Library, Special Collections, Julius Rosenwald Fund Archives, box 261, folder 5). He advised the list needed to be downgraded to the level of high school to match the black colleges’ curriculum. This assumption was based on course offerings of many black colleges, which boasted college courses, but also offered grade school or a college preparatory curriculum at the normal schools. Ms. Curtis later corrected his assumption with proof of consistent growth of the black college including a 1926 study of 99 black colleges that revealed an enrollment of 13,000 black students with projected growth. In a passive-aggressive manner, Raney offered the services of discipline-specific professors from the University of Chicago to overhaul the current list and

65 create a new bibliography. Needless to say, this correspondence created an issue with the Fund and College Board officials.

Alfred Stern addressed Raney to have him explain comments in his letter that were noted as condescending to the black culture. Though he had a valid point in his statement that the black colleges did not have access to the books, he was wrong in thinking the students were not up to par and his harsh criticism did not stop the Fund from providing advanced-level literature to the black institutions. Fund officials refused his offer to create a new list as Davis had initially informed the colleges that Ms. Curtis would be the point of contact for book purchase and approvals since she held the leading role for collection development. Davis voiced, in a letter to

Smith dated December of 1927, it would be disrespectful to Ms. Curtis if the Fund allowed the

University of Chicago professors to form a down-graded list since she had worked diligently with the colleges and understood the needs of each school. She also acquired competent assistance and counsel, and for the previous two to three years had visited and studied the library needs of the black schools (Fisk University, John and Aurelia E. Franklin Library, Special

Collections, Julius Rosenwald Fund Archives, box 261, folder 5).

Though Ms. Curtis was open to suggestions of additions and omissions, she was not willing to allow the current list to be a basis for a new list by those unfamiliar with the college and the students’ needs, and then publish by Hampton University. The Fund knew the Carnegie

Corporation, which financed the Hampton Library School, held her in high regard, as did many other librarians as well. The Hampton faculty selected the primary college library list and faculty members of the University of Chicago provided assistance, but no one could deny the major contributions of Ms. Curtis, which had led to the success of the college libraries. Officials knew no one else had more information about the conditions prevailing in the libraries of black

66 schools; no one else had given the matter more constructive thought; and no one else was in the position to be more helpful continuously in the future. Thus, her wishes were upheld by the

Fund. To the pleasure of many including Ms. Curtis, Rosenwald had a change of heart and decided to allow his name to be used in connection with the aid given to the black college libraries.

The colleges were asked to provide general reports showing the library development over the course of participation or the previous five years. The report requested estimates on funding spent on librarian and staff salaries, the facility, and books as well as volumes added to the overall collection. The table below demonstrates how a few of the colleges were able to grow the university’s library, whereas previously little to no money had been available for library funding.

Table 4.1: College Library Development Funded by the Library Program, 1929-1934 Institution Funding Spent Books Volumes Added Salaries on the Facility

A & M College $20,000.00 $7,500.00 4,402 $10,100.00 (Arkansas)

Florida A&M College $5,400.00 $10,000.00 5,835 $10,642.50

Southern University $6,000.00 $8,000.00 5,893 $8,150.00

State N&I Institute $1,538.33 $11,446.30 3,052 $17,118.60 (Prairie View, TX)

Wiley College $1,457.00 $10,575.00 5,092 $9,049.00

The above table presented information of five black college libraries funded by the Julius

Rosenwald Fund Library Program. Many library administrators noted the form did not take into account the number of staff members sent to training workshops, which the Fund also supported.

State N&I Institute reported they had been able to move into new quarters accompanied by two trained librarians due to financial assistance of the Fund. Others administrators noted they were finally able to secure trained librarians with the financial assistance. For example, Bethune-

Cookman College, established in 1904, noted the institution was finally able to secure a trained librarian in 1930 due to the funding (Fisk University, John and Aurelia E. Franklin Library,

Special Collections, S. L. Smith Collection, box 8, folder 6). The college division of the library program was recorded in history as one of the most encouraging projects undertaken for black colleges to date, and Julius Rosenwald was the man who had made it happen.

High School Libraries

Unlike the experimental aid given to elementary rural schools and black colleges, the

Fund gave aid to high school libraries with additional stipulations. The added conditions were a means to influence practices beyond the library. The archival documents record the commitment of the officials to the development of high schools without limit. In 1926, the Fund agreed to increase the size of the school buildings to nine- and ten-teacher type schools under the condition the additional three or four rooms would be restricted to high school grade levels and a library.

After the implementation of these policies, a survey revealed more than three fourths of four- year high schools for blacks were housed in the larger Rosenwald schools (Smith, 1940). The additional facilities enabled the state’s department of education to accelerate the development of the modern high schools for blacks to state-approved levels and to gain accreditation by the

Southern Association of Colleges and Secondary Schools.

With policy-making organizations supporting the development of African-American high schools, the executive committee of the Fund appropriated $20,000 to provide libraries to these schools beginning the 1929-1930 academic year. The Fund also used this opportunity to enhance

68 the library practices to achieve levels approved by the state’s department of education. In efforts to accomplish this goal, the Fund officials agreed on four key points: (1) Offers were initially restricted to four-year high schools; (2) An inclusive list of books must be created and approved by accrediting agencies of several states; (3) From the inclusive list, a smaller list was compiled to meet the requirements of the accrediting agencies of several states from which book sets could be assembled; (4) Aid was offered toward the extension of existing libraries in African-American high schools where facilities were inadequate (Fisk University, John and Aurelia E. Franklin

Library, Special Collections, Julius Rosenwald Fund Archives, box 281, folder 2). Purchase of the high school book sets was left to the state’s department of education with the understanding the Fund would pay one third the total cost and shipping charges.

The archival materials revealed many similarities between the elementary school and high school libraries, including the responsibility of the book collections and the required course on the care and use of the library. Evidently the practice of reading encouragement was also heavily implemented and had proved to be beneficial. Still, officials approached the development of high school libraries differently. Officials noted they were attempting to help an age group where the majority of library users did not have the benefit of literature available at a young age.

When it came to the library practices at the high school level, school and Fund officials focused on two key elements: the quantity of quality literature and the library facility. The elementary library sets held up to 150 titles, whereas the high school library contained 2,000 titles and a minimum of 15 periodicals. The Southern office in Nashville, Tennessee, carefully prepared the list of books under the editorial supervision of Mr. Jackson E. Towne, Librarian of

Peabody College and consultant in library service for the Julius Rosenwald Fund. The Fund worked with previously complied lists, including those from Southern high school libraries, Ms.

Curtis, the Standard Catalog for High School Libraries, and the American Library Association’s

500-book high school list. The collective effort to build a sufficient list covering multiple disciplines in order to appeal to a varied audience proved to be beyond beneficial to the practice of reading encouragement. This enabled the teacher to assist students and community members with a variety of interests, which fueled their desires to read and pursue further educational opportunities (Fisk University, John and Aurelia E. Franklin Library, Special Collections, S. L.

Smith Collection, box 8, folder 4).

During the development of the high school library, the Fund placed more emphasis on the library facility. Creating an adequate facility actually became a standard practice. As explained by Duff, the complete library is achieved only when the space has acquired a friendly atmosphere and calming character, which motions to the passing student or tugs at the heartstrings of the student who must not be late to class (Fisk University, John and Aurelia E.

Franklin Library, Special Collections, S. L. Smith Collection, box 56, folder 13). Ultimately, the goal was for the library to become the living room or soul of the school.

The Fund and school officials sought to achieve this environment through establishing facility guidelines. The archival collection disclosed the intense detail that went into creating a warm environment that encouraged and welcomed readers of all ages. With a vast supply of reading material available in the library, the officials focused on 10 factors that created a warm setting. These areas considered the location, entrances and exits, number of types of rooms, dimensions and seating capacity, walls, built-ins, floor, heating and plumbing, lighting, and necessary equipment, such as furniture. Today, officials consider the same factors during the development of libraries and bookstore reading spaces. As a result, the library set was no longer about simply providing reading material, but about exposing the students to a variety of topics

70 from which they could learn and potentially become attracted to a specific field of study. The levels of growth in child-age literacy were well-recorded and most pleasing to Fund officials, who subsequently desired to share the library service with the communities on the same level.

With the success of the previous experiments in providing library services, the Julius Rosenwald

Fund extended library service to county libraries in 1927.

County Libraries

The ALA initially suggested the Fund enter in the field by providing county library service. However, the Fund decided to focus on elementary and college libraries because these schools also serviced the local communities. After the 1927 library conference at Hampton, the thought became to establish the collegiate libraries and have the institutions extend library service by truck to the Rosenwald schools and local counties (Fisk University, John and Aurelia

E. Franklin Library, Special Collections, Julius Rosenwald Fund Archives, box 261, folder 5).

Officials assumed this could take the place of the needed county library service and would be the sole financial responsibility of the college. This feat would have been financially impossible for a black college in 1927 without major contributions from outside agencies. Naturally, and in the utmost philanthropic spirits, the Julius Rosenwald Fund board of trustees decided to take on this monumental task during a spring meeting in 1929 since the organization had already begun assisting libraries as part of the rural school program. The initial school-building program gave officials a first-hand glimpse at the need for library service as well as the need for trained

African-American librarians. On account of these facts, the Fund became enthused to aid

Southern library development through county libraries.

The Julius Rosenwald Fund developed a five-year county library demonstration with the intent to develop proper service in the given counties and to work out the optimum scope and

71 methods of library service on a countywide basis. Officials selectively chose the demonstration libraries. Each library was strategically located from the point of view of its influences on the entire region. Also, officials required the library board to commit to providing an adequate library funding of 50¢ per capita of the city and county population (Fisk University, John and

Aurelia E. Franklin Library, Special Collections, Julius Rosenwald Fund Archives, box 259, folder 15). Unfortunately, Florida, Georgia, and Oklahoma were ineligible as none of the three states had made provisions to appropriate funds for library service. A lack of prosperity hindered

Virginia and Kentucky, which rendered them ineligible. Officials made aid available to 11 county libraries for books and services, and they defined aid to include salaries, general maintenance, and book trucks. Table 4.2 lists the eleven counties that participated in the demonstration along with the amount appropriate over the initially agreed five-year period (Fisk

University, John and Aurelia E. Franklin Library, Special Collections, S. L. Smith Collection, box 8, folder 7).

Table 4.2: Participants of the Julius Rosenwald Fund Library Program County Demonstration

State Location

Alabama Walker County Louisiana Webster County Mississippi Coahoma County North Carolina Davidson County Mecklenburg County South Carolina Charleston County Richland County Tennessee Hamilton County Knox County Shelby County Texas Jefferson County

The library service provided by the demonstration county libraries can be described as educational, recreational, and cultural. Services rendered by the public libraries included pay collections, regular circulation of books, and a variety of special programs. Officials established provisions for formal adult education programs, musical and drama organizations, exhibits, art galleries, and the circulation of images, slides, musical scores, and phonograph records (Fisk

University, John and Aurelia E. Franklin Library, Special Collections, S. L. Smith Collection, box 8, folder 8). Other specialized services included books for the blind, lectures, and museum collections available in certain locations.

The S. L. Smith Collection provided many examples of the services rendered in the demonstration libraries. Many of the demonstration libraries built relationships and create collaborations with local museums and schools. For example, at the Chattanooga Public Library, which sponsored a lecture series involving prominent people covering a variety of topics, all facilities and programs were open to the general public. The speaker often would provide annotated bibliographies with titles held by the local library highlighted. Chattanooga’s system also developed a Government Documents department, which operated in close connection with the University of Tennessee. In addition, due to aid from the Fund, many of the county libraries provided mobile service. Many of the libraries purchased book trucks and mobile stations to service rural schools, community centers, hospitals, headquarters of the Boys and Girls Scouts, and transient bureaus.

Another example is the Jefferson County Library (Texas) collaboration with the Gates

Memorial Library of Port Arthur to supply an indefinite loan of 800 books. Gates Memorial agreed to place 350 books with the Lincoln Black School of Port Arthur (Fisk University, John and Aurelia E. Franklin Library, Special Collections, S. L. Smith Collection, box 8, folder 8).

Figure 4.1: Roland B. Hayes Branch of Chattanooga Public Library in Hamilton County, TN, Fisk University, John Hope and Aurelia E. Franklin, Special Collections, Julius Rosenwald Fund Archives

The libraries were well-supplied with literature covering various topics, much like the college and high school libraries. The libraries held a wide range of volumes from nearly 14,000 in Davidson County, Tennessee, to more than 230,000 in Shelby County, Tennessee. However, the Rosenwald archives exposed disparities in the book stock. Though the program called for equal services to be granted to all persons of the counties, the counties often supplied blacks with a smaller supply of books. For example, Mecklenburg County, North Carolina held more than

106,246 volumes, but only 10,540 were for blacks (Fisk University, John and Aurelia E. Franklin

Library, Special Collections, S. L. Smith Collection, box 9, folder 6).

Though the statistics make it evident that not one of the demonstration libraries possessed a satisfactory book collection for servicing blacks, many of the libraries reported increased interest in the services at the branches and potential for wider development. For example, the demonstration library of Louisiana reported far more visitors from various parts of the parishes who had inquired about the potential to develop services in their own parish. Also, the two South

Carolina demonstration libraries largely contributed to statewide interest in libraries (Fisk

University, John and Aurelia E. Franklin Library, Special Collections, S. L. Smith Collection,

74 box 11, folder 10). The Fund continued to push forward in efforts to garner better opportunities for blacks because the county library demonstration greatly benefited local users and neighboring counties. This was something Fund officials enjoyed sharing, especially when one of the demonstration libraries achieved a new level of service.

In order for each of the 11 county libraries participating in the demonstration to have a better knowledge of what the others were doing, the Fund sponsored the Inter-county Library

News Bulletin. In the bulletin, reports from each librarian in charge of the demonstration libraries agreed to issue a quarterly report giving a general statement of the library service in his or her county. Each of these letters contained thrilling progress and stories about readers interested in library service and education. In the initial edition (February 1936), Elizabeth Tombs of the

Walker County Library in Alabama reported the circulation had increased steadily each year from 44,214 in 1931 to 290,626 in 1935 and the number of books mimicked this growth. In

1931, the number of books was 9,098 whereas in 1936 the library’s collection had grown to

22,000 volumes. Although, only 7,813 blacks lived in the county, the circulation increased from

4,853 in 1931 to 23,064 in 1935 (Fisk University, John and Aurelia E. Franklin Library, Special

Collections, S. L. Smith Collection, box 8, folder 8). Officials gave special attention to the schools in the county due to the county board of education’s $4,500 contribution to the annual appropriations. In 1934, officials purchased a general reference collection for each of the 7 accredited high schools of the county.

The Webster Parish Library of Louisiana reported the parish had lacked library service completely prior to the establishment of the parish system. As the income of the library had been less than 50¢ per capita, sometimes down to 43¢ some years, officials used their best judgment during operation. Upon its establishment, the same library collection serviced the community,

75 high school, and grammar school all with one librarian or custodian (untrained) in charge.

Though the Parish School Board provided a facility, equipment, and salary for the librarian, the collections and facility were inadequate. With the assistance of the Julius Rosenwald Fund, by

1936, 12 white library branches and 14 for blacks existed. The number of active library users was 14,732, which was nearly 50 percent of the population. Officials considered Webster to be a typical Southern county in that the population was almost entirely rural; small farmers with small incomes, and a county government with a small income encompassed the county. The parish as well as the other 10 demonstration libraries had gone far to prove the average small town person would read if given the opportunity.

The collections also revealed much of the data that was included in a 1935 study of the county library demonstration conducted by Drs. Louis Wilson and Edward Wright of the

Graduate Library School at the University of Chicago. The Fund appropriated $7,500 for the study. The purpose of the study was to (1) describe the organization, development, and the operation of the libraries; (2) evaluate their services; (3) compare the service to near and outside the area (Fisk University, John and Aurelia E. Franklin Library, Special Collections, Julius

Rosenwald Fund Archives, box 266, folder 2). The collections also held the required data concerning registration, circulation, and the book collection for each library. This study would greatly assist in potential future research projects.

Geographical Area

The Fund’s board of trustees decided to aid in library development based on known conditions concerning the South. The entire Southern region was exceedingly behind in library development. This became apparent in a study revealing 71% percent of the population was without access to library facilities mainly due to the low allotment per capita for public library

76 service, which ranged from 18¢ in Florida down to 2¢ in Mississippi. This was far below the national average of 33¢ per capita. In addition, the region could not afford to provide adequate library service due to its low fiscal status compared to other regions. It was a large, rural, segregated area that needed to provide a facility for whites and blacks. Very few areas in the

South provided services to blacks. Prior to 1929, neither county nor state government had made attempts to provide satisfactory library service to rural blacks that were comparable to the efforts that had built the rural schools or promoted public health. (Fisk University, John and Aurelia E.

Franklin Library, Special Collections, Julius Rosenwald Fund Archives, box 76, folder 12).

Consequently, the service for both groups, black and white, was undeveloped.

Time Period

The library program officially began contributing to the development of Southern libraries in 1927, starting with 10 libraries in each participating Southern state and five teacher- training colleges. As time progressed, more rural libraries joined those with the notable

Rosenwald-funded stamp of approval now able to provide books and a variety of services. Fund officials witnessed success in the various divisions of the library program and gradually extended the services as money permitted. Many of these libraries were funded when Fund’s aid was plentiful. However, most found difficulty in maintaining satisfactory appropriations and services during the Great Depression years of the early 1930s. Yet, because of the heroic efforts of the librarians and determined community members, the libraries managed to keep the services going at reasonably adequate levels. Beyond the funding, the people involved in the library program

(Fund officials, librarians, consultants, and community members) were instrumental in the consistent success of the program during its nearly 10-year operation.

From 1927 until March 1941, the Fund distributed 9,402 libraries (7,191 for elementary schools and 2,211 for high schools). From July 1928 until June 1934, the Fund appropriated monies for the acquisition and development of book collections in 43 black colleges and normal schools. From 1929 until 1936, 11 county libraries participated in the demonstration with the initial five years of funding provided by the Julius Rosenwald Fund Library Program, which led to the organization helping a number of other libraries and organizations. Though no evidence presented itself in the archival documents that stated officials enforced a set time period to operate the library program, the Fund achieved its goal to provide literature in efforts to enhance the reading abilities and educational opportunities to African Americans in the rural South in an optimal timeframe.

Emergent Concepts

During data collection, the researcher remained open-minded so previously unconsidered concepts could emerge. Information on the Fund’s move to aid library development by providing funding to various agencies of influence repeatedly appeared. Officials believed the selected agencies would benefit the geographical areas on a larger scale than the county library demonstration. Upon further analysis, the researcher determined enough information was in the archival documents to identify each area as an emergent concept. This section of the chapter examines emergent contributions to state library commissions, library schools, scholarships and fellowships, institutes and meetings, and extended library service, and library sets for servicemen.

State Library Commissions

Administrators of the library program recognized the most effective agency in establishing new library systems and improving existing service in any state was a properly

78 organized and adequately supported state library commission. The Fund provided aid for the development of state library commissions in the hope the external aid would encourage the state to contribute in efforts to increase the effectiveness of library commissions previously created.

The board of trustees agreed to grant monies to state library commissions in four Southern states where the Rosenwald library program was already operative. Combined, the Fund provided

$21,000 to the state library commissions of Alabama, Arkansas, South Carolina, and Tennessee.

The Fund assisted Arkansas and Tennessee in increasing the state budget to provide an allotment for a library commission on a dollar-to-dollar basis for two years. Although the Fund made a similar offer to Mississippi, the state was unable to meet the requirements. Though

Alabama and South Carolina had previously established state library commissions, they had no paid staff prior to the Fund’s involvement. The Fund assisted both states, Alabama and South

Carolina, in establishing budget provisions to include a state library field worker on a three-year basis. The aid was granted with the understanding that when the three-year period came to an end, the state would be financially responsible for the service of the field worker (Fisk

University, John and Aurelia E. Franklin Library, Special Collections, Julius Rosenwald Fund

Archives, box 76, folder 12).

In addition, the Fund covered the traveling expenses for field workers in seven Southern states to attend various conferences and workshops focused on library extension programs in rural areas. Without aid, the additional training would not have been possible for most of the field workers. The progressive work with the development of libraries in the South through state library commissions contributed to fulfilling the desires for library services and also led to region-wide stimulation.

Figure 4.2: Public Library Book Wagon in Greenville, SC, Fisk University, John Hope and Aurelia E. Franklin, Special Collections, Julius Rosenwald Fund Archives

Library Schools

One of the conditions made by the Fund when granting aid to the county libraries was that the county employed a trained librarian. However, the county library was not always able to do so. One reason was the deficiency in the number of trained librarians. The ALA suggested the

Fund include in its library program a policy of aiding the establishment of library schools. The officers regarded the project of training librarians as having a crucial bearing on the success of the entire library program in the South. The Fund made financial contributions to two influential library schools, Hampton Institute and Emory University.

A grant from the Carnegie Corporation established the Hampton Institute Library School in September 1925 for the education of African-American librarians. The Julius Rosenwald Fund fully endorsed the founding, which made appropriations for Ms. Curtis’ travel expenses and compensation for her visits to various black colleges to assess the library status and needs. The appropriations also paid for the salary of an assistant director (Fisk University, John and Aurelia

E. Franklin Library, Special Collections, Julius Rosenwald Fund Archives, box 129, folder 5). At the time of the establishment of Hampton’s Library School, the Carnegie Library School of

Atlanta (1905-1925) was the only accredited library school in the South; however, it trained only whites for librarianship.

The experience of Rosenwald and the Fund in making contributions to the libraries of black colleges and normal schools in the South made clear the need for the counsel of trained librarians. Thus, the Fund sought to further contribute to the production of properly educated librarians. On November 20, 1929, the Fund appropriated $50,000 on a five-year period, ending

August 31, 1935, to Emory University for the establishment and maintenance of the Atlanta

Library School (formerly the Carnegie Library School) as a department of the university. The

Fund made the appropriation on the condition $20,000 would be obtained for the same purpose from other sources (Fisk University, John and Aurelia E. Franklin Library, Special Collections,

Julius Rosenwald Fund Archives, box 258, folder 9). The Atlanta Library School operated from

1930-1988 on the campus of Emory University.

Scholarships and Fellowships

The Fund also contributed numerous scholarships to induce promising black men and women to pursue work in the library field. The Fund granted 16 scholarships to the Hampton

Institute Library School for students from important Southern college, city, and county libraries.

Upon graduation, the newly trained librarians returned to service. Between 1930-1931, the

Atlanta Library School at Emory University was the recipient of nine scholarships of $1,000 each, for the enticing of promising young men. The archival documents listed an additional gift in 1942 of $4,000 for scholarships to train county library coordinators (Fisk University, John and

Aurelia E. Franklin Library, Special Collections, Julius Rosenwald Fund Archives, box 258, folder 3).

Though fellowships directed to individuals was not a part of the Fund’s library program, one is appropriate to note that between 1929-1934, the Fund granted 35 scholarships totaling

$32,160 to black women and men pursing administrative roles in libraries (Fisk University, John and Aurelia E. Franklin Library, Special Collections, S. L. Smith, box 10, folder 3). Library

Administration ranked fourth in the number scholarships awarded out of a total of twenty subjects. The majority of the recipients studied at Hampton. The fellowships helped elevate the training of notable librarians, including Vivian G. Harsh, who became Chicago Public Library

System’s first black librarian with a branch named for her contributions, and Dorothy Porter-

Wesley, who played a primary role in building Howard University’s book collection and other materials for the study of black history and culture.

Institutes and Meetings

Officials also gave funds for summer institutes and meetings of Southern librarians totaling $1,827. Some of the beneficiaries include: 1929 summer institutes for teacher-librarians in Virginia and North Carolina, a conference for the policy committee of the Southeastern

Library Association, and small sums for the attendance of select Southern librarians at the

National Institute for Library Field Agents in Wisconsin (Fisk University, John and Aurelia E.

Franklin Library, Special Collections, S. L. Smith Collection, box 8, folder 7). In November

1929, the Fund allocated $10,000 for use in conducting a summer institute for black librarians at

Atlanta University. The program remained active during July and August of 1930 and successfully hosted 35 librarians. However, the institute only required $3,381, allowing for the balance to lapse. Last, the Fund appropriated one third for the costs of the “Conference of Negro

Librarians” held November 20-23, 1930 at Fisk University under the direction of Head Librarian

Louis Shores (Fisk University, John and Aurelia E. Franklin Library, Special Collections, S. L.

Smith, box 8, folder 8).

Extended Library Service to African-American Cities

The Julius Rosenwald Fund provided extended library service to museums and libraries in cities with a high African-American population. In connection with the county library demonstration, the Fund appropriated $7,000 for the Charleston Museum of South Carolina in

1929 with funding based on the condition $5,000 would be utilized for continued educational extension work and the balance for the director’s travel expenses and other activities (Fisk

University, John and Aurelia E. Franklin Library, Special Collections, S. L. Smith Collection, box 8, folder 8). The Fund made this appropriation to enlarge the exceptional work of the museum in extension education with a focus on the traveling exhibits to black and white rural schools. With this collaboration proving to be beneficial to the students, the Fund decided to extend library service to predominately African-American county and city libraries.

In 1931, the Mobile Public Library (Alabama) and the Richmond Public Library

(Virginia) were appropriated $2,500 in funds for the development of a library branch for African

Americans. They were required to use the funding for a trained librarian and an adequate book supply. While the Mobile Public Library spent $1,795 between 1931 and 1933, the balance was allowed to lapse because the library system was unable to maintain the branch at the level stipulated by the Fund. Further north, the Fund granted Richmond funding on a three-year period ending December 31, 1934. For every $1 paid by the Fund, Richmond had to match with $2.

Like the Mobile Library System, funds were to be used for the salary of a trained black librarian as well as books. Of the sum, Richmond appropriated $910 for the salary and $372 for the book

83 supply. However, this turned out to be a mirror image of the Mobile system because the

Richmond Public Library System was unable to meet the conditions set forth at the time of appropriation, thus, calling for the balance to lapse (Fisk University, John and Aurelia E.

Franklin Library, Special Collections, S. L. Smith Collection, box 8, folder 8).

The Fund also extended library service to two large cities with a predominately black population. In June of 1931, Fund officials granted $15,000 for a three-year experiment of an extension program focused on library service and adult education at the Auburn branch in

Atlanta, Georgia, and at the 135th Street branch in Harlem, New York. They made the appropriation on the condition $30,000 would be raised from other sources. The additional funding would soon come from the Carnegie Corporation at the rate of $10,000 per year, meeting the Fund’s condition. The Fund granted Atlanta $6,000 per year, while Harlem received

$9,000 per year. The Atlanta branch spent $3,000 for an adequate book supply and $9,000 for salaries. The Harlem branch spent $14,000 for salaries and $3,000 for lectures. Each branch spent the balance on operations, travel, and other miscellaneous expenses (Fisk University, John and Aurelia E. Franklin Library, Special Collections, Julius Rosenwald Fund Archives, box 260, folder 1). Both libraries have been a staple in public library history, from the establishment of each throughout the Harlem Renaissance and the Civil Rights Movement, respectively.

Libraries for Military Servicemen

The Fund created and distributed five libraries (book sets) for black and white rural schools in Southern states. The libraries included books thought to be comprehensive in style, interesting in subject matter, and appealing in format. They made the sets available to thousands of rural schools at two-thirds the cost with the Fund absorbing the remaining third as well as freight charges (Fisk University, John and Aurelia E. Franklin Library, Special Collections,

Julius Rosenwald Fund Archives, box 260, folder 9). Though the sets had been created to enrich a culture and a region, the organization still sought to make a broader impact. The Fund looked at the nation’s treatment of blacks and sought to influence that outlook as well. The war presented the perfect opportunity to do so.

During World War II, many men left the comfort of their homes and lived closely with a group of men of varying national origins, religions, and backgrounds for the time. The change in living quarters often led to an increased understanding of persons and groups previously considered different or inferior. In contrast, some biases persisted so strongly that feelings remained unchanged. Fund officials felt accurate information concerning the different groups, which made up America, would serve to extend further the serviceman’s understanding of all their fellow citizens. Subsequently, the Fund assembled a selection of books and pamphlets on race relations, which it offered freely to any active Army or Navy posts and general hospitals in the country that requested them. The Fund later extended the offer to the Veteran Administration

Hospitals, making the Race Relations Library available to thousands of servicemen during the war.

Southern Library Practices of Non-Rosenwald Libraries

The Julius Rosenwald Fund recognized the Southern region was far too large a region to approach library development with a blanket solution such as general book service. Therefore, the organization sought to aid in the overall development of Southern libraries through a combination of approaches. These approaches included (1) cooperative efforts to increase the amount of materials that were available and accessible; (2) cooperation in the professional training of teachers and librarians; and (3) a cooperative study of regional problems (Wilson,

1934). Though progress was made on monumental levels in the South, the organization

85 understood the limits of what could be taken on financially and service-wide. A key factor in the philanthropic agency’s decision to aid in library development was to stimulate other libraries, organizations, and philanthropists to contribute to the development of Southern libraries for the underserved. The Rosenwald library sets became increasingly popular causing high demand from school and county libraries previously unable to afford to build their book collections beyond worn literature.

A multitude of schools on various levels could now obtain funding from other sources, including the state’s department of education and/or the local community, to purchase one or more of the discounted library sets the Fund had assembled. Officials did not limit this demand to the rural schools across the South. Teacher-training colleges also requested the library sets to assist in the proper training of teachers. In 1948, Dr. Virginia Lacy Jones, the first African

American to receive a Ph.D. in Library Science and the first dean of the school of library service at Atlanta University (1941-2005), also requested a large amount of children’s literature for training teachers and librarians (Fisk University, John and Aurelia E. Franklin Library, Special

Collections, Julius Rosenwald Fund Archives, box 88, folder 1).

This stimulation of book service encouraged other philanthropists to contribute to the development of libraries in various ways. In 1939, an anonymous black-owned business organization in Washington, D.C. read about the generosity of the Fund in the Wilson Bulletin and became inspired to donate books about African-American life to three poorly equipped black high schools (Fisk University, John and Aurelia E. Franklin Library, Special Collections, Julius

Rosenwald Fund Archives, box 129, folder 3). The operation also encouraged other organizations not previously invested in the development of the South to provide reading materials. In 1940, the Los Angeles Schools, Library Textbooks Division gave more than 3,000

86 pounds of discarded books in fair condition to 13 Southern states with the Fund’s paying for the cost of freight to each state’s department of education. The division also agreed to continue this service as the books mounted in the storage warehouse (Fisk University, John and Aurelia E.

Franklin Library, Special Collections, Julius Rosenwald Fund Archives, box 259, folder 10).

This was an important development for the region because it enabled Georgia, Florida, Virginia,

Kentucky, and Arkansas, which were previously ineligible to participate in the library program’s experiments and demonstrations, to finally increase the book collections.

Chapter Summary

This chapter answered the research question concerning library practices at Rosenwald- funded libraries and non-Rosenwald libraries. The researcher anticipated preset categories, and the emergent concepts added to the importance of the archival analysis. The archival documents revealed an agency created by a man who was determined to assist in diminishing the plight of the African American through efforts that would increase literacy levels and educational opportunities. Library practices began with small library sets and soon increased to large library sets consisting of 2,000 titles and 15 periodicals as well as high consideration placed on the library facility. With this grand level of dedication and financial assistance, the library became the heart of each school, freely circulating and weaving into the curriculum of various subjects.

In addition, the Fund established the libraries to enlighten those rural counties and states not funded by Rosenwald of the benefits of library service. Subsequently, the influence spread throughout the Southern region. A desire for an increase in literature and services occurred in neighboring libraries of schools and universities. Growth in the available books, services, and trained librarians was Rosenwald’s goal, and the goal was beyond achieved, providing an eternal impact on the lives of African-American users and whites in the Southern region.

CHAPTER FIVE

DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION

The library and information studies (LIS) field has mainly focused on process and structure, leaving the sub-discipline of library history to be occasionally entertained. The need for historical research in the LIS field is undeniable. Furthermore, a need for culture-based historical studies as it pertains to libraries remains. Although existing research has taken this need into account and has encouraged similar studies, many of the works do not shed new light on the history or use of archival documents. Nor have those produced studies provided a thorough analysis of the impact of lesser-known, yet effective philanthropic organizations that invested in efforts to improve literacy levels among African Americans. For example, many researchers commonly know that the Carnegie Corporation provided a grant to establish the

Hampton Institute Library School, but do not know the influence Julius Rosenwald had in this decision. A more recent example was provided by Battles (2009) focused on the history of public library access and African Americans in the South. In this work, a number of authors made reference to the Julius Rosenwald Fund and how the organizations worked alongside others like the Carnegie Corporation and the Works Projects Administration. Though select authors made mention of requirements to gain from the Fund, none provided an in-depth review or analysis of the impact of the Fund’s library program on African-American life nor did the articles present a discussion on the rural schools acting as the initial public library for the community. Roughen

(2014) provided a literature review of Julius Rosenwald’s motivation and how the Fund redefined Southern library service by changing the perception of the public library to being a force for improving social and educational conditions. However, his review of the literature was just that a review because it did not present an analysis of the program’s impact on the region or

88 the users. On the other hand, this study sought to emphasize the importance of historical research in the LIS field concerning library users and practices.

With the Julius Rosenwald Fund Library Program as its focus, the research utilized archival documents to reveal the deep commitment of a philanthropic organization to improve the lives of African Americans through supplying reading materials. The researcher then thoroughly analyzed those documents to further reveal the library practices that made the program an influential success. The previous chapter discussed the findings from the archival research in terms of the preset categories as well as emergent concepts. It also discussed the library practices of other Southern libraries. This chapter will take the next step by examining those findings as it relates to the research question alongside a discussion on the importance of this program. Last, the chapter will present the study limitations, implications for research, and future research directions.

Research Question

The study is slightly unconventional as it approaches the research with a single question, but the findings are key to revealing the importance of the historical library. Those findings will help to build on understanding the impact of Southern library development and the role of the library in the life of the African-American user.

Research Question: How did the Julius Rosenwald Fund Library Program influence

library practices at Rosenwald-funded libraries and other Southern libraries?

The value of the public library was found it the educational opportunities and scholarship it offered the local community. Of those contributions, the greatest value of the library program was that it provided books to children and adults of the Southern communities. When one is taught to read and consistently encouraged through the supply of more reading material, the

89 pupil will acquire a desire for additional educational opportunities. The South, then an educationally deprived region, needed assistance in cultivating this desire. They were not supplied the necessary materials to fuel this desire mainly because this help was dependent on non-governmental agencies and organizations like the Julius Rosenwald Fund.

The foundation played a key role in restructuring the educational system of the Southern region. Initially, the philanthropic foundation focused on building schools. This process made the lack of literature indisputable. A crucial need existed for library service in the schools and enhancement of those services being offered. The Fund, through both independent and collaborative efforts, contributed in groundbreaking ways to the establishment of library schools, scholarships and fellowships, regional surveys of library conditions, stimulation of county libraries, provisions for state-wide library demonstrations, increases in the county per capita for library service, strengthening of college and university library resources, and an unyielding study of avenues to increase the efficiency of library service in the South.

The effects and importance of such contributions cannot be labeled anything other than grand gestures of care. One can reasonably argue Julius Rosenwald empathized with the plight of the African American. Affectionately known as the Prophet of the South, Rosenwald elevated the region and the people to states’ department of education accredited levels that would have otherwise been further delayed for decades.

Importance of the Study

The presented pyramid structure best illustrates the importance thereof. The foundation of the pyramid is historical research in the LIS field, specifically the importance thereof. Even though the library in the life of the user concept is the link, the peak of the pyramid is the Julius

Rosenwald Fund Library Program.

Julius Rosenwald Fund Library Program

Library in the Life of the User

Historical Research in Library and Information Science

Figure 5.1: Graphic depiction of study’s importance

The importance of historical research in the LIS field supports the entire weight of the pyramid.

With the recent 50th anniversaries of the March on Washington (1963) and the Civil Rights Act

(1964) as well as the upcoming anniversary of the Voting Rights Act (1965) and the sesquicentennial of the Emancipation Proclamation (1865), the American nation must be reminded of the struggle for everyday civil liberties. In the field of library and information studies, this means access to libraries. Historically, African Americans were denied the right to access libraries and their collections. However, the historical role of the library escapes the research agenda as technology rapidly grows and the discipline places more focus on the information retrieval systems. Historical research is important because it preserves history, crucial narratives, and culture. These elements can reduce tunnel vision in the LIS field and assist in the understanding of diverse information behaviors in today's society. The archival analysis examines the importance of historical research in the LIS field through the use of the library in the life of the user concept and solidifies the need via original research on the Julius

Rosenwald Fund Library Program.

Though numerous publications document the Julius Rosenwald Fund, none has conducted a comprehensive history of the organization. A simple Google search will produce information solely about the Julius Rosenwald school-building program, but that is all. A key portion of the school program was the library program. The Julius Rosenwald Fund Library

Program made significant contributions towards the development of Southern libraries to include rural schools, black colleges, and county libraries. Prior to this study, people knew little to nothing about the program, the nearly 10,000 libraries established, or the impact on the multitude of users. As the former special collections librarian for the John Hope and Aurelia E. Franklin

Library at Fisk University, the researcher knows firsthand the Julius Rosenwald Fund Archives is the primary collection, yet external researchers focus on the school-building program and a variety of fellowship benefactors. The researcher discovered the Julius Rosenwald Library

Program during an IMLS-sponsored archival fellowship, hosted by the John Hope and Aurelia E. franklin Library at Fisk University, where the S. L. Smith Collection was assigned as a project.

The study's foundation is based on historical research, which presents new knowledge and fills a gap in LIS (and American History) scholarship concerning Southern library history of African

Americans, library practices in the 20th century, and philanthropic involvement in library development. The study deciphers the library's structure and its characterization as a place. The library goes beyond the physical building as it helps the user evolve by providing food for mental hunger and social interactions. This makes apparent the historical and cultural importance of the library in the life of the user concept.

92 will assist the field in understanding the role of the library in the life of the user, specifically the

African-American user in the 20th century. Thus, the study contributes to the larger yet stalled discussion initiated by Zweizig and reignited by Wiegand concerning the role of the library in the life of the user. The study will highlight this role and provide for a greater understanding of the contributions philanthropists made to Southern libraries and users. The study has potential to influence other historical research studies conducted by LIS scholars focused on the role of the library in the life of the user.

Library in the Life of the African-American User

Some officials designed the library program with a focus on the African-American user and, indeed, benefited the culture of the black South on notable levels. Booker T. Washington, who often argued progress and accommodations for blacks would be best achieved when coupled with those for whites, greatly influenced Rosenwald. This was a thought also shared by

Rosenwald, who was determined to help the African-American culture. As Rosenwald admired

Washington, he sought to break the mold of black progression as they had done with the Fund’s school-building program in 1917, and subsequently with rural school and college libraries.

The college libraries greatly benefited the African-American users, causing them to reach greater heights in education and life. This is evident in the archival documents that showed the increase in the number of trained African-American librarians. At the start of the library experiment in, 1927-1928, a total of six part-time untrained librarians existed. By 1948, the close of the library program, a total of 48 full-time, professionally trained librarians had jobs, primarily due to the assistance of the programs (Fisk University, John and Aurelia E. Franklin Library,

Special Collections, S. L. Smith Collection, box 42, folder 5). In addition, the 43 colleges assisted had acquired several professors with the Ph.D. degree from reputable American

93 universities. In 1927, neither the normal schools nor colleges could boast professors that held this degree of scholarship. Officials of the Fund encouraged this practice in efforts to gain full accreditation and a certain level of respect from other universities.

In a comparative summary, the success of the six experimental college libraries is clear after a 20-year evaluation. By 1948, the total value of the libraries, including the facilities, equipment, furniture, and books, had drastically increased from $20,000 to $2,500,000. The number of books had also significantly increased. During an evaluation in 1927-1928, the six libraries combined held 6,000 volumes considered suitable for use. By 1948, those same six libraries had been able to acquire 300,000 volumes. Another notable achievement of this division of the library program was the expansion of the library budgets from $6,000 to $225,000 in 1948

(Fisk University, John and Aurelia E. Franklin Library, Special Collections, S. L. Smith

Collection, box 42, folder 5). One can safely say without the Julius Rosenwald Fund, the college division of the library program may not have happened due to the lack of enthusiasm from other organizations to contribute financially. Many Fund officials believed this to the most successful layer.

A number of agencies had made attempts to provide library service to blacks. However, issues of racism and segregation disabled these attempts. Rosenwald could have been thinking of

Washington’s belief on black progression and sought a solution that would grant reasonable service to blacks. After giving considerable thought to the procedures that would ensure sufficient library service, the Fund demonstrated quantifiable success in providing service to blacks through stipulations placed on the receipt of funds. One of the conditions was that all persons – black and white, rural and urban – would be allowed access and granted service. This

94 led segregated Southern counties to neglect the social norm of exclusion to gain library service.

Ultimately, this benefited the entire county, not just African-Americans residents.

Many researchers acknowledged the Julius Rosenwald Fund Library program for assisting in providing library services in the rural South. Merriwether (1934) discussed the importance of library services in the South noting the importance of programs and planned instruction on the use of the books and libraries was essential. The Fund changed the geography of reading in the Southern region by making reading materials readily available to African-

Americans as well as whites. Through the use of books, the students pursued wider and more intelligent reading material and educational opportunities. The study conducted by Robbins

(2005) explored the impact of funding for library related projects from the Julius Rosenwald

Fund and the Works Progress Administration (WPA) on the availability of library services and reading materials during the 1930s and 1940s for African-Americans in the South. The findings revealed the Rosenwald libraries were guaranteed to reach African-American children as the

Fund deliberately target African-American schools in hopes of improving their educational opportunities. Whereas the WPA was largely directed by state and local authorities, which were not guarantee to provide the African-American communities equal distribution of funding for services (Robins, 2005). The equitable distribution the Rosenwald Fund practiced to improve literacy skills, demonstrated the positive influence of access to reading materials on the lives of

African Americans, which helped the entire region.

Although the collection development statistics unveiled the truth in Washington’s outlook as counties provided a more substantial amount of books to whites, one could argue African-

Americans took advantage of the available resources more. Despite the disparities, the archival documents showed significantly higher circulation rates among blacks than whites. For example,

95 in a 1936 correspondence, Smith provided Edwin Embree (president of the Julius Rosenwald

Fund) with alarming circulation rates. During the previous fiscal year, the document revealed, the rate of circulation among blacks in Shelby County, Tennessee, had increased 202%, whereas that of whites had decreased 4%. In nearby Davidson County, Tennessee, the rate of circulation among blacks increased 222%, while that of whites had increased 23%. (Fisk University, John and Aurelia E. Franklin Library, Special Collections, Julius Rosenwald Archives, box 129, folder

1). Apparently, it is not necessarily about the number of books available, but access, service, and determination. The library in the life of the African-American user played the role of a catalyst.

Access to various levels of literature often fueled an already rich culture of untiring efforts to acquire more education and share gained opportunities with community and family members.

Overall Study Limitations

In addition to the limitations brought on by the historical qualitative research, this study presented limitations that should be addressed in future research projects. Key factors caused the limitations of this research, including analysis by a single researcher; the use of archival collections at one research center; archival collections from the Julius Rosenwald Fund and a former director, and a single question that focused on just one aspect of the program.

The fact one researcher conducted the historical study is a limitation. With qualitative research, this fact introduced potential biases and errors in interpretations as the researcher gathered and analyzed the data alone. This study did not thoroughly introduce criticisms of the

Fund’s library program. Such a lack of input could also introduce bias in the findings, which could lead to mistaken conclusions. Awareness by the researcher as well as the proper citation of analyzed archival documents helped alleviate this limitation in part so one could gain an

96 independent assessment of the findings. This also provided a level of insurance as it related to the authentic activities of the Fund’s library program.

Although the archival documents were in abundance and preserved the undertakings of the Julius Rosenwald Fund, 1917-1948, the fact remains that the researcher only utilized related collections held at the Fisk University Archives. The researcher was aware of several other personal collections of Julius Rosenwald, Edwin Embree, and other officials involved in the success of the Fund at the University of Chicago and Yale University among others. The chosen collections documented the library program’s activities on multiple levels. However, the use of other archival collections could uncover information that would have benefited the study. In addition, the researcher could only analyze what had been preserved and granted to the Fisk

University Archives in 1948 when the university initially received the collection. The use of more than one archival collection partly diminished this limitation, which helped to fill in information gaps concerning the library program. Still, the findings were valuable as they revealed one impactful program that greatly helped the Southern region.

The use of archival collections from the Julius Rosenwald Fund and former Southern office director, S. L. Smith, may also be problematic for the research study. The Fund itself had cause to report the activities in the most positive light, which created a potential bias. For example, a 1935 study of the county library demonstration conducted by Drs. Louis Wilson and

Edward Wright revealed inequality in collection development at funded libraries. Such records were not available in the archival documents. The archival documents do not answer questions from the funded libraries’ unfiltered point of view on the impact and influence of the Julius

Rosenwald Fund Library Program. Many Southern libraries received monetary support from the

Fund to provide access and reading material, which may influence what the library reported to the Fund. The researcher must recognize this possible bias or filtering of information as questions concerning trends in literacy rates, impact of the library in the life of single persons, and direct influence on other major organizations. This limitation could be diminished in future research efforts through the use of archival documents from funded libraries and state departments of education as well as corroborating resources from those who do not possess a vested interest in the Julius Rosenwald Fund; independent studies.

The final limitation to be noted is the researcher’s approach of a single research question.

Though the question was layered, it looked at one aspect of the library program: library practices. Multitude of factors within the program could have added to this study, such as users, organizations, and other philanthropic agencies involved. Future research directions that present a focus on these areas could eliminate this limitation.

Implications of the Study for Research

In terms of the framework of the research, this study demonstrated the findings have the potential to influence the understanding of the library in the life of the user concept. Zweizig

(1973) established the concept, calling for a shift in LIS research focus from the user in the life of the library to the library in the life of the user. This focus allowed for a greater understanding of the contributions public libraries grant the community. This study demonstrated the framework could be used effectively with various types of libraries, not just public libraries. A new dimension should be added to account for the fact that African Americans needed library service in the South. Although the studies of Zweizig (1973), Madden (1979), Lange (1988), and

Wiegand (1999) addressed the need for the importance of examining the library in the life of the user and answered the call with their own research, none of them really addressed the manner

98 within a historical context. In addition, none of them looked at the library as a method to improve race relations in the South.

One could argue Julius Rosenwald, through the activities of the Fund, attempted to improve race relations with the development of libraries in the South. After all, the purpose of the Fund was to improve the well-being of mankind. This attempt included the consistent supply of books to an underprivileged culture as a way to gain opportunity, but one must not glaze over the stipulations for county library funding. Rosenwald funded county libraries were required to allow all persons of the county to access and use the collection. Basically, this required the county library to desegregate in order to receive funding. As a supplement to an examination of the impact of libraries on race relations in the antebellum South, a researcher will notice the wide gap between the number of volumes supplied to whites and blacks. The investigator should make use of the segregated statistics that note none of the demonstration libraries possessed a comparable book collection for servicing blacks. Such statistics provide an implication for research on the preference occurring during the collection development process and the possible effects on race relations.

Future Research Directions

The research study presented new insights on a philanthropic library program that became lost over time. The nature of the information warranted future investigations that should focus on various components of the program. This study has potential for duplication with the noted limitations further diminished or eliminated in order to confirm the findings independently.

Furthermore, several areas of potential interest emerged during the course of analysis as being beyond the scope of this research study. Yet, those areas remain worthy of future exploration.

The findings and discussion provided a wealth of information on the success of the college division of the Julius Rosenwald Fund Library Program. This area piqued the researcher’s interest concerning the current status of the Rosenwald-funded black college libraries. A research study involving mapping of the forty-three libraries in efforts to conduct a

100-year comparative study would demonstrate the ongoing value of the library program to black colleges. Such a study should also make use of the archival documents that provide reports authored by Ms. Florence Curtis on her visits to the various black colleges, 1930-1931, as well as the five-year reports on library work in the individual colleges, 1927-1932. The use of archival documents from neutral organizations, without a vested interest in presenting the Julius

Rosenwald Fund in a positive view, will help to eliminate presenting information with biases.

Though the study used the theoretical framework only to guide the researcher, one could find value in future work that investigated one or more of the funded library types as public sphere settings. The Public Sphere concept considers the role of the library, typically the public library, as a place for open discussion by citizens about matters of public interest without external pressures. This can be successfully applied to the school and college libraries as those facilities initially serviced the community. In addition, the concept of Public Sphere also lends itself to research seeking to confirm the library as a place. The findings indicated efforts to build a relationship between the library facility and the user by the Julius Rosenwald Fund’s putting much consideration into the details of the rural high school library facility. The librarian and/or library staff may have also played a role in cementing this bond. Further investigation into this relationship and the importance of the library, including the librarian in Southern communities would also contribute to the Sense of Place theory.

100

Conclusion

Often, only one person needs to spark a difference; in 1917, that individual was Jewish philanthropist Julius Rosenwald, who sought to improve life and education for African

Americans in the South. During the Fund’s quest to increase literacy levels, various individuals recognized no greater gift to African-American education than one that offered the opportunity to know books. Through books, a person gains not only the knowledge of the content and an increase in vocabulary, but also the old imaginative tales. Though the Julius Rosenwald Fund ended its formal service to libraries simultaneously with the activities of the foundation, the benefits provided to black and white citizens of the rural south as well as the long-term advantages to the development of library service in the South were undeniable. Over the course of eight years, the Julius Rosenwald Fund Library Program granted $657,118 to general library service (see Appendix C). Services provided include demonstrations of adequate library service in eleven counties, aid in library schools (both black and white), contributions to black college and city libraries, and the support of state library commissions. What made the library program most successful was the fact that services provided to the rural schools, colleges, and the counties consistently grew with collaborations that often led to self-sustaining service. The library program’s multi-tiered approach provided a variety of benefits not to only blacks, but also the entire Southern region. Not only did the program establish immediate library service in rural areas, it also encouraged neighboring counties to follow the example of the Rosenwald-funded libraries. The Julius Rosenwald Fund Library Program was a notable platform that contributed to multiple historical avenues that include both library history and American history.

101

APPENDIX A

TOTAL EXPENDITURES OF THE JULIUS ROSENWALD FUND

EXPENDITURE ALLOCATION

Education

School Building Program $5,362,361 Library Services 860,335 Teacher Education 1,646,181 University Centers and Colleges 3,461,827 $11,330,704 Health and Medical Services

Negro Health $1,701,928 Medical Services 1,315,390 3,017,318 Fellowships 1,655,911 Race Relations 3,004,485 Other Activities

General Education and Mental Science $927,222 General Social Studies and Public Administration 860,335 Miscellaneous 620,496 1,831,601 Administration 1,404,155 Flexible Money

To be utilized for unpaid bills. 5,450

Grand Total $22,249,624

This table does not include the multiple personal gifts Julius Rosenwald gave to the Fund.

At the time of his death in 1932he reportedly contributed more than $60,000,000 of his own money and stock (Fisk University, Special Collections and Archives, S. L. Smith Collection, box

11, folder 4). 102

APPENDIX B

SPECIAL COLLECTIONS AND ARCHIVES ACCESS FORMS

103

104

105

APPENDIX C

EXPENDITURES OF THE JULIUS ROSENWALD FUND LIBRARY PROGRAM

LIBRARY SERVICE ALLOCATION

1. County Library Service

Charleston County, South Carolina $80,000 Coahoma County, Mississippi 10,200 Davidson County, North Carolina 16,833 Hamilton County, Tennessee 74,152 Jefferson County, Texas 12,000 Knox County, Tennessee 24,374 Mecklenburg County, North Carolina 40,000 Richland County, South Carolina 68,750 Shelby County, Tennessee 58,500 Walker County, Alabama 46,668 Webster County, Louisiana 40,000 Survey of Library Demonstrations 7,500 $464,275

2. State Library Commissions

Alabama, Arkansas, South Carolina, and Tennessee 21,000

3. Emory University Library School 63,000

4. Hampton University Library School 16,000

5. Southern Library Institutes and Conferences 5,708

6. Charleston Museum, South Carolina (demonstration of 7,000 extension service in books and exhibits)

7. African-American City Libraries

Atlanta, Mobile, Richmond, and New York 18,077

8. Black College Libraries (additions to books at 43 colleges) 54,975 9. Southern Library Field Representative 7,083

Grand Total $657,118

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APPENDIX D

FISK UNIVERSITY ARCHIVES PERMISSION TO PUBLISH

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REFERENCES

Primary Resources: Fisk University, John and Aurelia E. Franklin Library, Special Collections, Julius Rosenwald Fund Archives.

Fisk University, John and Aurelia E. Franklin Library, Special Collections, S. L. Smith Collection.

Secondary Resources: A separate flame. (n.d.) The Louisville free public library. Retrieved from http://www.lfpl.org/western/htms/sepflame.htm

Anderson, S. (2003). The place to go: The 135th street branch library and the Harlem Renaissance. The Library Quarterly, 73(4), pp. 383-421.

Ascoli, P. M. (2006). Julius Rosenwald : the man who built Sears, Roebuck and advanced the cause of Black education in the American South. Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press

Babbie, E. (2013). The basics of social research (6th Ed.). Belmont, CA: Wadsworth/Cengage Learning.

Barker, T. D. (1936).Libraries of the South: A report on developments 1930-1935. Chicago, IL: American Library Association.

Battles, D. (2009). The history of public access for African Americans in the South, or, leaving behind the plow. Lanham, MD: Scarecrow Press.

Beilke, J. R. (1997). The Changing Emphasis of the Rosenwald Fellowship Program, 1928-1948. The Journal of Negro Education, 66 (1). 3-15.

Berg, B. (2001). Qualitative research methods for the social sciences. Boston: Allyn and Bacon.

Bobinski, G. (1969). Carnegie libraries: Their history and impact on American public library development. Chicago, IL: American Library Association.

Bradley, J. (1993). Methodological issues and practices in qualitative research. Library Quarterly, 63(4), 431-449.

Chatman, E. (1999). A theory of life in the round. Journal of the American Society for Information Science, 50(3), 207-217.

D’Elia, G. (1980). The development and testing of a conceptual model of public library user behavior. Library Quarterly, 13, 410-430.

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Elena, T., Katifori, A., Vassilakis, C., Lepouras, G., & Halatsis, C. (2010). Historical research in archives: user methodology and supporting tools. International Journal on Digital Libraries, 11(1), 25-36.

Feldman, L. B. (1999). A sense of place: Birmingham's black middle-class community, 1890- 1930. Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press.

Fidel, R. (1984). The case study method: A case study. Library & Information Science Research, 6(3), 273-288.

Fisk University. (2013). John Hope and Aurelia E. Franklin Library. Retrieved from http://www.fisk.edu/academics/library

Fulton, C. (2010). An ordinary life in the round: Elfreda Annmary Chatman. Libraries & the Cultural Record, 45(2), 238-259.

Gleason, E., (1941). The Southern negro and the public library: A study of government and administration of public library service to negroes in the South. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.

Goggin, J. (1985), Carter G. Woodson and the collection of source materials for Afro-American history. The American Archivist, 48(3), 261-271.

Hoffschwelle, M. (2006). The Rosenwald schools of the American South. Gainesville, FL: University Press of Florida.

Hsieh, H. & Shannon, S. (2005). Three approaches to qualitative content analysis. Qualitative Health Research, 15(9), 1277-1288.

Jimerson, R. (2006). Embracing the power of archives. The American Archivist, 69(1), 19-32.

Kronus, C. (1973). Patterns of adult library use: A regression and path analysis. Adult Education, 23(2), 115-131.

Lamon, L. (1977). Black Tennessee: 1900-1930. Knoxville, TN: University of Tennessee Press.

Lange, J. (1988). Public library users, nonusers and type of library use. Public Library Quarterly, 8(1/2), 49-67.

Lee, D. (1991). Faith cabin libraries: A study of an alternative library service in the segregated South, 1932-1960. Libraries & Culture, 26(1), 169-182.

Lincoln, Y. & Guba, E. (1985). Naturalistic inquiry. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage Publications.

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Lorenzen, M. (1999). Deconstructing the Carnegie libraries: The sociological reasons behind Carnegie’s millions to public libraries. Illinois Libraries, 81(2), 78-78.

Madden, M. (1979). Marketing survey spinoff: Library user/nonuser lifestyles. American Libraries, 10(2), 78-81.

Massey, M. (1976). Markey analysis and audience research for libraries. Library Trends, 24(3), 473-481.

Maxwell, J. (2005). Qualitative research design: An interactive approach (2nd Ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

Merriwether, L. (1934). High school library service in Tennessee Rosenwald demonstration units. Peabody Journal of Education, 12(3), 126-133.

Mjagkij, N. (1992). A peculiar alliance: Julius Rosenwald, the YMCA, and African Americans, 1910-1933. American Jewish Archives, 44(2), 585-605.

Newton, J. (1998). Black Americans in Delaware: An Overview In Carole C. Marks (Ed.), History of African Americans of Delaware and Maryland's Eastern Shore (2nd ed.) (14- 31). Wilmington, DE, State: Delaware Heritage Commission.

Nipps, K. (1991). Ann Shallus’s circulating library. Journal of Library History, 26(4), 608-610.

Noland, J. (2009). Jeanes Supervisors. In Encyclopedia of Alabama. Retrieved from http://www.encyclopediaofalabama.org/face/Article.jsp?id=h-2327

Patton, M. (2002). Qualitative research and evaluation methods. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

Perkins, A. (2011). Edwin Rogers Embree : The Julius Rosenwald Fund, Foundation Philanthropy, and American Race Relations. Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press.

Porter, D. (1936). The organized educational activities of negro literary societies, 1828-1846. The Journal of Negro Education, 5(4), 555-576.

Powell, T. (2004). Communities of collaboration: A struggle to increase literacy in South Carolina. PhD dissertation, University of South Carolina, Columbia, SC.

Robbins, L. (2005). Changing the Geography of Reading in a Southern Border State: The Rosenwald Fund and the WPA in Oklahoma. Libraries & Culture, 40(3), 353-367.

Roughen, P. (2014). Julius Rosenwald: A review of the literature of his motivations and impact in redefining library service in the south. The Southeastern Librarian, 62(2), 2-9.

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Schutt, R. (2006). Investigating the Social World: The Process and Practice of Research 5th Ed). Thousand Oaks, CA: Pine Forge Press.

Shamai, S. (1991). Sense of Place: An empirical investigation. Geoforum, 22, 347-358.

Shores, L. (1932).Library service and the negro. Journal of Negro Education, 1(3/4), 374-380.

Steele, F. (1981). The Sense of place. Boston: CBI Publishing.

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Tuan, Y. (1977). Sense and place. Retrieved from http://greenmanual.rutgers.edu/newcommercial/strategies/senseofplace.pdf

Wheeler, M. & Johnson-Houston, D. (2004). A Brief History of Library Service to African Americans. American Libraries, 35(2), 42-45. Accompanied by: Timeline in Library Development for African Americans.

Wiegand, W. (1998). Main Street Public Library: The availability of controversial materials in the rural Heartland, 1890-1956. Libraries & Culture, 33(1), 127-133.

Wiegand, W. (1999). Tunnel vision and blind spots: What the past tells us about the present; reflections on the twentieth-century history of American librarianship. Library Quarterly, 69(1), 1-32.

Wiegand, W. (2003). To reposition a research agenda: What American studies can teach the LIS community about the library in the life of the user. Library Quarterly, 73(4), 369-373.

Wiegand, W. (2011). Main Street Public Library. American Libraries, 42(9/10), 46-48.

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Zhang, Y. & Wildemuth, B. M. (2009). Qualitative analysis of content. In B. Wildemuth (Ed.), Applications of Social Research Methods to Questions in Information and Library Science (pp.308-319). Westport, CT: Libraries Unlimited.

Zweizig, D. (1973). Predicting amount of library use: An empirical study of the role of the public library in the life of the adult public [Doctoral Dissertation]. Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University.

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Zweizig, D. (1976). With our eye on the user: Needed research for information and referral in the public library. Drexel Library Quarterly, 12, 48-58.

Zweizig, D. (1979a). Approaches to the study of public library services and users: The recommendations of a study panel to the National Center for Education Statistics. Public Library Quarterly, 1(3), 258-266.

Zweizig, D. (1979b). The informing function of adult services in public libraries. RQ, 18(3), 240-244.

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BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH

EDUCATION: Ph.D. Candidate, Information Studies, 2015 School of Information, Florida State University Dissertation: Developing Southern Libraries to Influence the Life of the African-American User: An Exploratory, Archival Analysis

Master of Science, Library & Information Studies, 2009 School of Information, Florida State University Concentrations: Leadership & Management, Reference & Instruction

Bachelor of Science, Political Science, 2008 College of Social Sciences and Public Policy, Florida State University

RESEARCH INTERESTS: - Administration of Information Organizations - African-American History - Information Access and Services - Preservation - Southern Public Library History - Special Collections and Archives

PROFESSIONAL EXPERIENCE:

Head of Special Collections and Archives, August 2014 – present Thomas G. Carpenter Library University of North Florida Oversees and administers the development and management of the library’s special collections and archives holdings and services. Under the general supervision of the Director of Technical Services, the librarian is responsible for all functions, operations, and policies of Special Collections and is committed to integrating into the broader institutional environment. Supports the Dean and Director of Development in donor relations and outreach and will work to collaborate successfully within the library, the university, and the larger community. This collaboration includes working closely with many parts of the library such as: the Director of Public Services, the Director of Development, and the Digital Projects and Preservation Librarian.

Consultant, June – September 2014 The Jackson Foundation, Inc. Conduct a variety of independent investigations in the planning, development, and implementation within the overall scope of the research project.

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Special Collections Librarian, June 2013 – August 2014 John Hope and Aurelia E. Franklin Library Fisk University Manage the Special Collections and Archives Department, maintains the department according to current practices and technological advances in the administration of research collections and within the mission of the Franklin Library at Fisk University. Service and interpret information to students, faculty, and scholars as well as provide assistance in the use of print and electronic resources. Answers reference/research questions, assists in policy-making for the department, and make recommendations for keeping policies current. Supervises departmental staff, writes grant proposals, prepares reports, maintains electronic files, assists with budget management, strengthens the book and manuscript collections, and ensures preservation of the research resources (including archival processing) by implementing applications that support collection accessioning and description, location tracking, and provenance registration that meet standards such as EAD. Promote use of the resources through outlets such as social media, university publications, presentations, lectures, and participation in workshops and public programs.

Archival Manager (OPS), June – December 2012 Meek - Eaton Southeastern Regional Black Archives Research Center and Museum Florida Agricultural and Mechanical University Develops and implements plans in processing, managing and preserving archival collections with adherence to the Society of American Archivists standards and best practices. Report processed collections to Library of Congress NUCMC. Trains staff in archival policies and procedures to ensure high levels of productivity and quality. Implements best practice procedures for the reading room to adequately service all patrons. Works with the Director to develop and coordinated programs of outreach and instruction to the University and community to enhance awareness and use of the archival records for research and teaching. Works closely with the Director to develop narrative for grant funded opportunities. Work closely with the Director to acquire new materials that adhere to the archives’ core mission.

Processing Archivist, June 2011 – June 2012 Institute of Museum and Library Services: Increasing African American Diversity in Archives Fellowship John Hope and Aurelia E. Franklin Library, Fisk University (host institution) Arrangement, description, catalogue, preservation, reference, and outreach for collections of African American archival materials; processed three historically significant collections.

Senior Criminal Justice Information Technician May 2010 – June 2011 Florida Department of Law Enforcement Updates existing records and creates records in CCH system via use of computer terminal by analyzing and interpreting disposition and sentencing information; maintain liaison and makes telephone contacts as needed to verify criminal history data and/or obtain final disposition information from Clerks of Court, State Attorney, and Law Enforcement personnel; performs all other related duties and/or tasks as position and agency requires.

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Reference Department Summer Intern, 2009 Florida Atlantic University Assist patrons with finding reference materials, accessing electronic reference products through the Internet and using word processing, computers/network, and printers. Instruct lecture-style research classes. In addition, assist Reference Librarians.

Reference Associate II, July 2008 – July 2009 Palm Beach County Public Library System Monitor the scheduling of public internet computers, assist patrons with finding reference materials, accessing electronic reference products through the Internet and using word processing computers/network printers/copy machines. Instruct hands-on and lecture-style computer classes to the public, troubleshoot computer problems, and manage serials/periodicals using computer spreadsheets. In addition, assist Reference Librarians.

Senior Library Assistant, November 2006 – July 2008 Leon County Public Library System Charge and discharge materials to the public, register borrowers, retrieve library materials, use computers for bibliographic searching, resolve inquiries concerning the circulation of materials and advise public of materials to meet reading needs, open and close out register as needed.

INSTRUCTION EXPERIENCE:

Graduate Teaching Assistant, 2009 – 2014 School of Information, College of Communication and Information Florida State University Assist in the administration of web-based graduate courses and serve as a point of contact for students. Courses taught include: Foundations of Information Professions (Fall 2009, Spring 2010, Fall 2012), Management of Information Collections (Fall 2009, Spring 2010, Fall 2010), Management of Information Organizations (Summer 2010), Assessing Information Needs (Spring 2011, Fall 2013), and Information and Society (Summer 2013).

Adjunct Instructor, 2012 Florida Agricultural and Mechanical University Face-to-Face Courses: Introduction to African-American History (Fall 2012), First Year Experience/Student Life Skills (Fall 2012)

Computer Literacy Instructor, 2008-2009 Palm Beach County Public Library System Face-to-Face Courses: Beginning Computers, Email and Internet Basics, Internet Tips and Tricks, Introductory Internet, Windows XP, Word Processing

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AWARDS:

2014 Sol & Beverly Hirsch Scholarship School of Information, Florida State University

2014 Eugene Garfield Doctoral Dissertation Fellowship Beta Phi Mu International Library and Information Studies Honor Society

2011-2012, Increasing African American Diversity in Archives Fellowship Institute of Museum and Library Services (IMLS)

PROFESSIONAL AFFILIATIONS:

- Association for the Study of African American Life and History (ASALH) - Black Caucus of the American Library Association Inc. (BCALA) - Society of American Archivists (SAA)

PUBLICATIONS:

Articles Johnson, A. (submitted). Libraries, Librarianship, and the Julius Rosenwald Fund. The Journal of HBCU Research + Culture (HBCUR+C).

Johnson, A. (accepted). “National Association for the Advancement of Colored People” in African American Leadership: A Concise Reference Guide, Mark Golson (Ed.). Mission Bell Media.

Johnson, A. (2014). “Ruby Berkley Goodwin” in Black Women of the Harlem Renaissance Era, Lean’tin L. Bracks and Jessie Carney Smith (Eds.). Scarecrow Press.

Johnson, A. (2014). “Mary White Ovington” in Black Women of the Harlem Renaissance Era, Lean’tin L. Bracks and Jessie Carney Smith (Eds.). Scarecrow Press.

Johnson, A. (2014). “Lillian Tucker Lewis” in Black Women of the Harlem Renaissance Era, Lean’tin L. Bracks and Jessie Carney Smith (Eds.). Scarecrow Press.

Johnson, A. (2011). “Service to African Americans” in The American Public Library Handbook, Guy A. Marco (Ed.). Goleta, CA: Libraries Unlimited.

Conference Papers and Presentations Johnson, A. (October 2014). Libraries, Librarianship, and the Julius Rosenwald Fund. Paper presented at the HBCUstory Annual Symposium, Washington, D.C.

Johnson, A. (April 2013). The Need to Care for HBCU Archives and Special Collections. Presentation at the HBCUstory Annual Symposium, Nashville, TN.

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Johnson, A. (February 2013). Living Up to NAACP Standards. Speech presented at the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People 104th Ceremony hosted by the Florida State University Chapter, Tallahassee, FL.

Johnson, A. (October 2012). "Got Research? Archival Procedures and Collections" Research Forum presented at the Florida A&M University Black Archives, Tallahassee, FL.

Johnson, A. (September, 2012). HBCU Archives and African American Archivists: Are We Equipped? Presentation at the Association for the Study of African American Life and History Annual Conference, Baltimore, MD.

Johnson, A. (August 2012). Rules of Engagement: The Politics and Pleasures of Living Archives. Presentation at the Society of American Archivist Annual Conference, San Diego, CA.

Johnson, A. (June 2012). Rosenwald: Research and Records. Presentation at the National Rosenwald School Conference, Tuskegee, AL.

Poster Johnson, A. (June 2012). The S. L. Smith Collection at Fisk University. Poster presented at the National Rosenwald School Conference, Tuskegee, AL.

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