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The Impact of Remedial Mulch on Phosphorus Absorption in Macadamia Integrifolia. a Thesis Submitted to the Graduate Division Of

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The Impact of Remedial Mulch on Phosphorus Absorption in Macadamia Integrifolia. a Thesis Submitted to the Graduate Division Of 38~3 UNfVERS1TY OF HAvVAI'1 LIBRARY THE IMPACT OF REMEDIAL MULCH ON PHOSPHORUS ABSORPTION IN MACADAMIA INTEGRIFOLIA. A THESIS SUBMITTED TO THE GRADUATE DIVISION OF THE UNIVERSITY OF HAWAI'I IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF MASTER OF SCIENCE IN AGRONOMY AND SOIL SCIENCE May 2004 By Guy S. Porter Thesis Committee: Russell S. Yost, Chairperson Mike A. Nagao James A. Silva TABLE OF CONTENTS Acknowledgments .iv List ofTables vii List ofFigures .ix Preface xiii Chapter 1 1 Background 1 Origins 1 Description 1 Growth and Production 3 Nutrient Absorption Uptake 6 Soi1. 11 Soil Phosphorus 12 Mulch 14 Objectives and Hypothesis 16 Objectives 16 Hypothesis 17 Chapter 2 18 Materials and Methods 18 Field Experiment. 18 Site Identification 18 Site History 18 Site Soils 22 Weather 23 Management. 24 Experimental Design .24 Experiment Design .24 Plot Construction 25 Mulch 25 Mulch Treatment. 25 Mulch Composting .27 Sample Design 29 Foliar. 29 Soi1. 31 Root Biomass 31 Trunk Circumference 31 Harvesting 31 Nut Quality 32 Statistical analysis 34 Statistics 34 Greenhouse experiment. 35 The Problem 35 Design and Procedure 35 Sample Collection 36 111 Analysis 36 Alternative Diagnostic Tissue Experiment.. 36 The Problem 36 Design and Procedure 37 Ana1ysis 37 Chapter3 38 Result and Discussion 38 Initial Conditions 38 Initial Soil and Foliar Survey 38 Mulch Composition 38 Climatic effects 41 Field Experiment Resu1ts .41 Soil Phosphorus Concentration .41 Proteoid Root Growth 48 Trunk Circumference Growth 55 Foliar P Concentration 57 Yield analysis 66 Nut Quality analysis 69 Greenhouse Experiment. 82 Greenhouse results 82 Moisture loss 82 Temperature change 82 Alternative Diagnostic Tissue Experiment. 85 Results 85 Correlation Analysis 86 Correlation method 86 Soil P vs. Proteoid Root Mass 86 Soil P vs. Trunk Growth 86 Rainfall vs. Foliar P % 89 Autocorre1ations, Spectral Analysis, and Cross-corre1ations 92 Methods 92 Autocorre1ations 93 Spectral analysis 100 Cross-corre1ations l 00 Rainfa1l. 100 Day-length 107 Chapter 4 116 Discussion and Conclusion 116 Response to Mulch 116 Root Growth 117 Reduction in Surface P 118 Trunk Growth 119 Foliar P 120 Bark P Concentrations 121 Nut in shell yields 121 IV Nut quality 122 Mulching options 122 Time series analysis 124 Summary 126 Appendix A: The Modified Truog Method 128 Appendix B: Day-length calculation formulas 129 References 130 v ACKNOWLEDGMENTS: This project and its completion could not have been fulfilled without the generous contributions and support of the Hawaii Macadamia Nut-growers Association. And especially Mr.'s Alan Yamaguchi and Hillary Brown, orchard manager for Mauna Loa Macadamia and general manager for MacFarms, respectively, whose contributions of in-site, expertise, provision of labor and equipment, and historical orchard data for analytical use, made this project possible. VI LIST OF TABLES Table Page 1. Suggested leafconcentrations for macadamia 7 2. Soil P concentrations for selected orchards 13 3. ADSC analysis ofmu1ch 15, 39 4. Keaau husk mean yields 67 5. Keaau yield probability 68 6. Kona husk means yields 70 7. Kona yield probability 71 8. Kona shell mean yields 73 9. Kona shell yield probability 74 10. Keaau nut quality 76 11. Keaau nut quality probability 77 12. Kona husk nut quality 78 13. Kona husk nut quality probability 79 14. Kona shell nut quality 80 15. Kona shell nut quality probability 81 16. Bark Diagnostic Tissue Results 85 17. Rainfall-Foliar P correlations 92 18 Kona husk autocorrelation coefficients 94 19. Keaau husk autocorrelation coefficients 95 20. Keaau husk spectral densities 101 21. Kona husk spectral densities 101 Vll 22. Kona husk rainfall cross-correlations 104 23. Keaau husk rainfall cross-correlations 105 24. Kona husk day-length cross-correlations 110 25. Keaau husk day-length cross-correlations l11 Vlll LIST OF FIGURES Figure Page 1. Map ofAustralia 2 2. Macadamia pendulant raceme 4 3. Schematic ofproteoid root structure 8 4. Sap solutes for Banksia pronotes 10 5. Iron oxide-phosphate binuclear bridge formation 14 6. Map ofthe Island ofHawaii I9 7. Location map ofKona trial. 20 8. Location map ofKeaau trial.. 21 9. General condition ofA'a land 23 10. Implemented trial photograph .26 11. Plot design 26 12. Forms used for mulch implementation 28 13. Photograph ofimplementation method 28 14. Photograph ofNew Leafdata leaf.. 30 15. Photograph ofOld Leaf data leaf.. 30 16. Photograph ofsoil sample collection template 32 17. Photograph ofsoil sample 32 18. Average soil P concentration from 2000 survey 39 19. Average foliar P for initial survey 39 20. Keaau husk soil P concentration .43 21. Kona husk soil P concentration 44 IX 22. Kona shell soil P concentration .46 23. Comparison ofcumulative soil P reduction .47 24. Comparison of0-5 cm depth soil P concentration .47 25. Proteoid root growth into mulch for a single year. .49 26. Keaau husk root growth at three depths 50 27. Kona husk root growth at three depths 51 28. Kona shell root growth at three depths 53 29. Annual trunk growth difference for Keaau husk. 56 30. Declining growth rate for two-years at Keaau 56 31. Annual trunk growth difference for Kona husk 58 32. Increasing growth rate for two-years at Kona 58 33. Annual trunk growth difference for Kona shel1.. 59 34. Cyclic representation offoliar concentrations at MacFarms 60 35. Keaau foliar Old LeafP concentrations 61 36. Keaau foliar New LeafP concentrations 6l 37. Kona husk foliar Old LeafP concentrations 63 38. Kona husk New LeafP concentrations 63 39. Kona shell Old Leaf P concentrations 65 40. Kona shell New LeafP concentrations 64 41. Kona husk rainfall vs. yields correlation 72 42. Greenhouse pot trial water 10ss 83 43. Greenhouse pot trial average weekly water 10ss 83 x 44. Greenhouse pot trial temperature change with depth 84 45. Cumulative root mass-soil P correlation at Kona 87 46. Cumulative root mass -soil P correlation at Keeau 87 47. Cumulative soil P- trunk growth correlation at Kona 88 48. Cumulative soil P- trunk growth at Keaau 88 49. Correlation ofKona Old Leafwith rainfall.. 90 50. Correlation ofKona New Leafand rainfall.. 90 51. Correlation ofKeaau Old Leafwith rainfall 91 52. Correlation ofKeaau New Leafwith rainfall 91 53. Comparison ofKona and Keaau Old Leafmulch autocorrelations 96 54. Comparison ofKona and Keaau New Leafmulch autocorrelations.........97 55. Comparison ofKona and Keaau Old Leafnon-mulch autocorrelations...98 56. Comparison ofKona and Keaau New Leafnon-mulch autocorrelations.99 57. Graph ofKona all leaftype spectral densities 102 58. Graph ofKeaau all leaftype spectral densities 102 59. Keaau rainfall- foliar P cross-correlation for all leaftypes 106 60. Kona rainfall- foliar P cross-correlations for allleaftypes .l06 61. Comparison ofKona and Keaau Old Leaf mulch vs. rainfall cross-correlation 108 62. Comparison ofKona and Keaau Old Leaf non-mulch vs. rainfall cross-correlation 108 63. Comparison ofKona and Keaau New Leaf mulch vs. rainfall cross-correlation 109 64. Comparison ofKona and Keaau New Leaf non-mulch vs. rainfall cross-correlation 109 Xl 65. Keaau daylength - foliar P cross-correlation for all leaftypes 112 66. Kona daylength - foliar P cross-correlations for all leaftypes 112 67. Comparison ofKona and Keaau Old Leaf mulch VS, day-length cross-correlations 113 68. Comparison ofKona and Keaau Old Leaf non-mulch vs. day-length cross-correlations l13 69. Comparison ofKona and Keaau New Leaf mulch vs. day-length cross-correlations 114 70. Comparison ofKona and Keaau New Leaf non-mulch vs. day-length cross-correlations 114 XlI PREFACE The Australian perennial evergreen Macadamia integrifolia was introduced into the Hawaiian Islands in the latter part ofthe nineteenth century. It was a popular ornamental tree amongst islander gardens for many years before gaining attention for its delicious nut. Discovery of macadamia's potential as an addition to local delicacies lead to commercial cultivation in the 1920's. Commercial development of the macadamia was solely a Hawaiian effort from the 1920's to the 1980's when its commercial growth spread internationally (Shigeura et aI, 1971). Originally found in deep, phosphorus and iron poor sedimentary soils along the riversides in the subtropical rainforests ofEastern Australia, macadamia was successfully adapted to Hawaii's volcanic soils as an agricultural crop (Handreck, 1997). As commercial growth developed, management technique and nutrient requirement in the microclimates and soils of Hawaiian macadamia orchards were researched and formulated to provide optimal health and yields. Sufficiency indexes for soil and foliar nutrient levels were developed as guidelines for orchard fertilization practice. The index for Hawaii's soils was divided into heavy soils, light soils, and A'a land. The soil index was classified based on substantial differences in bulk density, clay mineralogy, and soil characteristics affecting soil fertility. The foliar index, used primarily as a diagnostic tool, was experimentally developed based on nutrient sufficiency of tissue levels for the macro and microelements (Cooil et aI, 1966; Shigeura et aI, 1971; Chia, 1983; Bittenbender and Hirae, 1988; Tamimi et Xlll aI, 1994). Orchard management strategies based on these indexes are designed to promote cost effective optimal growth and yields. Where orchard planting practices place macadamia orchards in Hawaiian soils with high adsorbing properties, the alumina and iron sesquioxides, oxides, and amorphous material contained in these soils gives them the ability to fix and retain very large quantities of phosphorus (P) (Fox and Searle, 1978). In some mature orchards where high concentrations of soil P are found in the upper soil layers a disproportionately low foliar tissue P concentration is also found. Even with large additions of inorganic P fertilizer and excessively high soil P levels, foliar tissue P concentration remains low indicating inefficient nutrient absorption. These large applications of P fertilizer that have become adsorbed to surface soils may also be partially transported into waterways by runoff during heavy rain and become environmentally problematic.
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