A University of Sussex DPhil thesis Available online via Sussex Research Online: http://sro.sussex.ac.uk/ This thesis is protected by copyright which belongs to the author. This thesis cannot be reproduced or quoted extensively from without first obtaining permission in writing from the Author The content must not be changed in any way or sold commercially in any format or medium without the formal permission of the Author When referring to this work, full bibliographic details including the author, title, awarding institution and date of the thesis must be given Please visit Sussex Research Online for more information and further details In Search of the Building Blocks of a Human Rights Culture: Lessons from the Treatment of Irregular Immigrants in Malta Daniela DeBono Submitted for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Migration Studies Department of Geography University of Sussex 15 November 2011 2 Declaration _____________________________________________________________________________________ I hereby declare that this thesis has not been and will not be, submitted in whole or in part to another University for the award of any other degree. Signature: _______________________ 3 Abstract _____________________________________________________________________________________ The treatment of irregular migrants in Malta is problematic from a human rights perspective, for it contravenes the principle of universalism that is intrinsic to human rights philosophy. This study investigates this treatment. Crucially, it identifies four elements of political practice in the absence of which it is contended a human rights culture cannot flourish, as well as underlying patterns in Maltese political culture which contravene these four elements. Its ultimate aim is to propose meaningful, effective and long-lasting human-rights-compliant solutions to the treatment of irregular immigrants in Malta. Based on a reading of foundational documents of the modern human rights movement, especially the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, the thesis posits that human rights should be ‘located’ between the political and the cultural. The four basic principles of human rights identified as framing the optimal political conditions for the nurturing of a human rights culture are related to dignity, a cosmopolitan orientation, democratic practice and a commitment to equality. This concept of a human rights culture is innovatively used as an analytical tool for examining Maltese responses to irregular migration. This is done in a two-way manner, with the examination of practice enriching the identified theoretical framework, and the theoretical framework then guiding the search for possible new human-rights- consistent policy directions which Malta could take. Drawing on a range of ethnographic methods, including in-depth interviews and participant observation, this study brings to light the difficulties of putting into practice human rights principles within an already established local culture grappling with its own ghosts like occupations and colonial experiences. Although resistance to change is often difficult to identify since it is shrouded in ‘modern’ language, hidden under security arguments or bureaucratic explanations. Interviews and a range of documents illustrate the multi-layered misconceptions, stereotypes and fear that play out among the Maltese. 4 Note on Gender/Interviews _____________________________________________________________________________________ The researcher’s responsibility to guarantee full anonymity to the interviewees is a challenge when writing about a small community. In addition, irregular migration in Malta is a highly charged and politicised field making the preservation of anonymity even more important. The reader is therefore being alerted to the following action that has been taken to avoid the identification of interviewees. When referring to interviewees, gender has been deliberately mixed up. This means that when an interviewee is referred to as a ‘he’ or ‘him’, it can be either a man, or a woman, and vice versa. This was the most effective way to safeguard anonymity and avoid any negative repercussions on the interviewees. To this end the reader will note that very little information is given about the interviewees. This should not detract from the value of the interviews since the role of the interviews was not one of statistical analysis, but used to obtain collective wisdom, to give further depth to the discussions and to furnish the text with quotes. Although this measure understandably removes some of the texture of the research, it was justified with the reasons given above but also because gender was not explored in this study. This should not, however, be taken to mean that the researcher believes gender is not significant or important. Ideally it would also have been explored, but the limitations of this study did not permit it. Similarly, there are other characteristics of the interviewees which could have been explored but were not referred to such as class and age. 5 Table of Contents _____________________________________________________________________________________ Declaration ..................................................................................................................... 2 Abstract ..................................................................................................................... 3 Note on Gender/Interviews .............................................................................................. 4 Table of Contents .............................................................................................................. 5 List of Figures .................................................................................................................. 10 List of Tables ................................................................................................................... 10 List of Acronyms .............................................................................................................. 11 List of Maltese Legislation and Case Law ........................................................................ 13 Acknowledgements ......................................................................................................... 15 Chapter 1: Introduction .............................................................................................. 17 1.1 The research: Human rights, irregular migration and Malta ........................... 17 1.2 Purpose of the research: Aims and research questions ................................... 20 1.3 Significance and contribution of the study ...................................................... 21 1.3.1 The case study of irregular migration in Malta ......................................... 21 1.3.2 Why human rights? ................................................................................... 23 1.3.3 Why culture? ............................................................................................. 23 1.3.4 Inadequacies of other views ..................................................................... 24 1.4 Methods and Methodology .............................................................................. 26 1.4.1 Human rights culture as an analytical tool (The Research Process) ......... 27 1.4.2 Primary sources ......................................................................................... 28 1.4.3 Secondary sources .................................................................................... 35 1.5 Researcher’s positionality ................................................................................ 36 1.6 Outline of the thesis ......................................................................................... 39 Chapter 2: The Tetrahedron Model of Human Rights Culture ................................... 43 2.1 Introduction ...................................................................................................... 43 2.2 Human rights: Modern visions ......................................................................... 45 2.2.1 Modern human rights are a global-local utopia ....................................... 45 6 2.2.2 Modern human rights need cultural legitimacy ....................................... 48 2.2.3 Modern human rights best seen as empty signifiers ................................ 52 2.3 The concept of a human rights culture ............................................................ 54 2.4 The Tetrahedron Model of Human Rights Culture ........................................... 57 2.4.1 Four basic elements of the modern human rights movement ................. 57 2.4.2 Four building blocks of a human rights culture ........................................ 69 2.5 Conclusion ........................................................................................................ 71 Chapter 3: Irregular immigrants in Malta: Context, facts and figures ........................ 73 3.1 Introduction ...................................................................................................... 73 3.2 The Republic of Malta and foreigners: A snapshot .......................................... 74 3.2.1 Physical geography .................................................................................... 74 3.2.2 Socio-historical, political and economic overview .................................... 76 3.2.3 Demographic details ................................................................................