2. Greeks and Indigenous Population at Berezan (Borysthenes)

Henri Tréziny (dir.)

Grecs et indigènes de la Catalogne à la mer Noire Actes des rencontres du programme européen Ramses2 (2006-2008)

Publications du Centre Camille Jullian

2. Greeks and indigenous population at Berezan (Borysthenes)

Sergey L. Solovyov

DOI: 10.4000/books.pccj.491 Publisher: Publications du Centre Camille Jullian, Éditions Errance Place of publication: Aix-en-Provence Year of publication: 2010 Published on OpenEdition Books: 13 February 2020 Serie: Bibliothèque d’archéologie méditerranéenne et africaine Electronic ISBN: 9782957155729

http://books.openedition.org

Printed version Date of publication: 1 June 2010

Electronic reference SOLOVYOV, Sergey L. 2. Greeks and indigenous population at Berezan (Borysthenes) In: Grecs et indigènes de la Catalogne à la mer Noire: Actes des rencontres du programme européen Ramses2 (2006-2008) [online]. Aix-en-Provence: Publications du Centre Camille Jullian, 2010 (generated 02 April 2020). Available on the Internet: . ISBN: 9782957155729. DOI: https://doi.org/10.4000/books.pccj.491. 2. Greeks and indigenous population at Berezan (Borysthenes)

Sergey L. Solovyov

he initial stage of Greek penetration into cultural and trading expansion of ancient Greeks into Scythia covered from the middle up to the last the Northern Pontus, and in the transmission of Greek quarter of the 7 th century BC. These frames culture on the vast territory of forest-steppe and steppe are Tdetermined by the first Greek imports found in the Scythia. Borysthenes became a powerful ‘magnet’, Northern Black Sea hinterland and by the foundations of drawing the representatives of indigenous population Greek settlements in the coastal zone (fig. 185). into its economic and political influence, also due to its The ancient settlement on the Berezan Island, which advantageous position in the mouth of two major rivers formerly was the peninsula, where the ancient Greeks of Scythia, those of Borysthenes and Hypanis. Natives, first settled, when they sailed into the Northern Black in turn, left numerous traces of their presence in the Sea region, holds a key to the story of ancient Greek material and spiritual culture of Berezan. colonisation of the area (fig. 186). The Berezan settle- According to ancient literary evidence on the ment, known in the ancient world initially by the name Borysthenes’ foundation, it is dated back to 647/46 BC. Borysthenes, was the first link in a chain of Greek city- Nevertheless, a revision of archaeological evidence, states, which appeared on the northern coast of Pontus which Berezan provides, has definitely shown that rele- in the Archaic period. Together with those other city- vant archaeological materials really consist of a very small states, Borysthenes became an active participant in the group of painted Greek vessels (Solovyov 2007, 38-40),

Fig. 185. The map of the Northern Black Sea area : 1- Greek and local sites ; 2- Scythian tombs with Greek pottery of the 7 th century BC.

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Fig. 186. The map and views of the Berezan Island.

which were mostly composed of SiA Id, by the classification of M. Kerschner and U. Schlotzhauer (2005), jugs and plates (so-called stemmed dish), accompanied by a number of North Ionian bird bowls dating not earlier than 630 BC, and isolated finds of Protocorinthian pottery, those of Linear kotylai dating to 650–630 BC (Bukina, Cat. 78 and 79), as well as hand-made local ceramics originated in the forest-steppe Scythia, those of tulip-shaped pots of Late Chyornyi Les culture, which were decorated with applied ornamentation separated by finger-prints with punctures (fig. 187). Meanwhile both imported and local pottery can not be a strong argument of Greek and Natives inhabitation before around 630 BC. Just in the following decades of the 7 th century, pottery seems to reflect a time of com- parative steadiness of the site as a trading emporion for the Northern Black Sea coast. The ways and rea- sons of Greek penetration into the Northern Black Sea now are mainly found out (Tsetskhladze 1994, 1998 ; Koshelenko, Kuznetsov 1998 ; Domanskij, Marčenko 2003 ; Solovyov 2007). In turn, the appearance of Fig. 187. Greek (Inv. B90.21, B172, B69.29, B254, B83.19, B451, Scythians on the coast is also explained by the specific B69.60) and local (Inv. B69.217) pottery of the first stage character of their economy and the seasonal dependence of colonisation from Berezan. of cattle breeding (Gavrilyuk 1999, 138-9).

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Fig. 188. Archaic dug-out dwellings of the Berezan settlement.

The recently made archaeometric analysis of Greek During the first three quarters of the 6 th century pottery from Berezan provides some observations on BC the only types of dwelling on the Berezan settle- ethnic composition of traders and their trading habits. It ment were constructions dug in the ground, so-called turns out that the late 7 th century BC imported pottery was ‘zemlyanki’ (fig. 188). They were built half in and half generally dominated by South Ionian, mainly Milesian out of the earth in an area occupying from 5 to 16 square products, while the market in the 6 th century BC was meters. These buildings were architecturally crude, dominated by North Ionian products. The mutable par- characterised by simplicity of construction and interior tition between South Ionian and North Ionian products layout. The basic distinction among dug-out construc- can reflect a free market or can also indicate changes in tions lies in the form of dwellings : the layout may be the origin of probably newly arrived settlers (Posamentir quadrangular, oval, or circular. The duration of their 2006, 161-2, figs. 2-4 ; Posamentir, Solovyov 2006, 127). functioning averaged from 5 to 12 years. Nearly 250 Nevertheless, the small number and typological such dwellings have been found up to the present time. It unvariety of Greek imports and handmade pottery of the turned up that composition of dwellings varied by diffe- 7 th century might specify the irregularity and the short rent parts of the settlement (fig. 189). The North-western duration of first contacts between Greeks and Natives section was dominated by dug-outs of circular and oval (Solovyov 1998, 208-12 ; 2007, 41). They needed plenty layouts. In turn, the Eastern section was dominated by of time for getting better acquainted with each other. dug-outs of quadrangular shapes. The central area of More than a quarter of the century has passed before the settlement was clear of domestic architecture in that the first traces of their permanent and joint residing on time, and likely was composed of household structures, Berezan have appeared, which were those of the cultural those of storage pits and dug-outs. layer and dwellings on the site, and burials in the necro- It was attested that the building practice of the first polis (Solovyov 1999, 3-4). inhabitants of Berezan was determined mainly by local

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Fig. 190. Spatial organisation of dug-out construction Fig. 189. Dynamics of Berezan dug-outs varied by layouts. on the Berezan settlement.

traditions of dug-out construction. Not only the morpho- incised ornamentation, reflecting ceramic traditions logical indicators of the Berezan dug-outs show that, but characteristic of forest-steppe Scythian cultures of the also the spatial arrangement of the settlement, which Early Scythian time. Another table pottery, which has developed haphazardly, with no regulation of construc- polished surface decorated with both incised and com- tion, and was shaped exclusively by the elementary rules bed ornaments, was characteristic of the Kizil-Koba of communal living and by the conditions of economic (or earlier Taurian) culture in the Crimean peninsula, activity (fig. 190). Resting on dug-out construction, the which dated, respectively, from the 8 th to the first half of urbanisation of the Berezan settlement could not be fully the 6 th century BC, and from the second half of 6 th to the realized in principle (Solovyov 1996). first half of 4 th century BC. The appearance of such pot- Nevertheless, the strongest local tradition is attested tery on Berezan is dated as early as the second quarter by handmade pottery, which composition consists of of the 6 th century BC, whereas the earliest finds of such varied typological groups and represents a steady com- pottery in Crimea are dated from the third quarter of this plex of various categories of vessels (Marčenko 1988 ; century (Solovyov 1995a). The coarse jars and bowls Senatorov 2005). First of all, it composes of coarse with fluted surface, which appeared on Berezan in the kitchen ware decorated with applied decoration separa- second quarter of the 6 th century BC, attest the presence ted by finger-prints with punctures and tableware with of population whether derived from the Northern Thrace

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or being strongly influenced by the Thracian culture. On the whole, the statistic analysis of ceramic assemblages from Berezan dug-outs has shown that fragments of Greek trade amphorae made up the largest part of finds (up to 80 % of all pottery fragments). Leaving amphorae out of account, the ratio of imported Greek ware to hand-made pottery was approximately 80 % to 20 %. In isolated instances the portion of handmade pottery increased by 10–20 %. So, one can assume that certain particular features of the construction of dug-outs on Berezan, which at first glance appear accidental (especially, the three layout types of dwellings, changes in the frequency of their occurrence in separate areas of the settlement, and the apparent absence of construction regulations in general), in fact directly reflected the diversity of the local culture. The fact of this heterogeneity became clear primarily as a result of the observed combination of specific characteristics of Berezan dug-outs with other features of daily life for Berezan inhabitants. Most important in this regard was the combination of dug-out features with the types of hand-made pottery widely used in everyday life and discovered in fill inside dug-outs (fig. 191). It turned up that in places, where circular dug-outs were concen- trated, pottery related to that of the middle Dniester region, which seemed to be under the strong influence of Thracian culture, tended to predominate. In parts of Berezan occupied by rectangular and to some extent oval structures, a different type of hand-made pottery Fig. 191. Composition of hand-made pottery from Berezan dug-outs predominated. This other type can be linked only to the varied by layouts. pottery of the middle Dnieper region, which was settled by forest-steppe Scythian tribes. Statistical analysis of this material from Berezan, Fig. 192. Share and composition of hand-made pottery in the Late Archaic sites of the Low Bug area. supplemented by similar data from a series of other sites

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Fig. 193. Berezan dug-out 41 of the second quarter of the 6th century BC.

296 2. SERGEY L. SOLOVYOV - GREEKS AND INDIGENOUS POPULATION AT BEREZAN (BORYSTHENES) in the lower Bug River region, demonstrates the signifi- high number of ‘extraordinary’ shapes such as askoi, ala- cance of the correlation abovementioned (fig. 192). The bastra, lydia, etc. On the whole the spectrum of shapes explanation of the facts can be found just in the course of is dominated by table amphorae, jugs, krateres, plates or Greek colonisation in the northern Black Sea area. The stemmed dish, and drinking cups. The latter in turn com- active and successful Greek economic activities drew pose of well-known types of the North Ionian area, such some groups of indigenous population from the forest- as bird-, rosette-, meander-, lotus-, eye-, banded-ware- steppe Scythia into the process of occupying the lower and animal-frieze bowls. The South Ionian pottery of Bug River region. Owing to certain features of their that time is represented by the so-called Ionian cups and culture (particularly in building practice and making Fikellura pottery. It is worth noting that the Berezan sett- and decorating hand-made pottery), the forest-steppe lement also became one of the most important places of Scythian groups were drawn mainly from two areas, discovery for the Aeolian dinoi of the so-called London those of the middle Dniester and middle Dnieper regions. Dinos Group (Posamentir 2006, 161-4, fig. 4, 10, 11 ; The culture of the nomadic Scythian population, Posamentir ; Posamentir, Solovyov 2006, 2007). which is also reflected in archaeological materials at Other groups of Greek pottery compose of Early the site, probably comprised a third component of indi- and Middle Corinthian aryballoi, kotylai and pyxides genous cultural influence on ancient Berezan. Owing (Bukina 2008 ; Bukina), Chiot chalices and lekanai (Ilina to specific characteristics of nomadic way of life, the 2005), Clazomenian krateres and jugs (Ilina), as well as steppe-Scythian culture was very heterogeneous and of Attic black-figure vessels, which earliest examples are included components of those cultures with which the dated to the first quarter of the 6th century, including the nomads came into contact. Thus, the derivation of one workshops of Sophilos, the Gorgon Painter, the Komast of the groups of hand-made pottery used in the nomads’ Group and the Polos Painter (Smith ; Petrakova 2005, everyday life is linked to regions settled by tribes of the 2009). The overall number of Athenian black-figure Kizil-Koba culture in the Crimean peninsula. imports increases towards the middle of the century. Cultural differences between the groups of natives, The distribution by shape of Athenian black-figure who (willingly or unwillingly) ended up residing in the pottery from Berezan reveals preferences in certain lower Southern Bug River region, can be seen not only periods. In the early years of the 6 th century amphorae in the type of dwellings or ceramic assemblages, but also are prevalent, though the overall number of finds is not in other details of everyday life on Berezan (Solovyov particularly high. By the second quarter of the century 2005, 126-35). Particularly important in this regard cup imports, first Komast then Siana Cups, have greatly are cult objects, types of work tools, weapons, and increased, and continue steadily towards the mid-cen- adornments, those of bronze nail-shaped pins and mus- tury. In the middle years of the century the large number hroom-shaped pendants, glazed paste beads, bone tools of black-figure krateres and other open mixing vessels is for working hides, stone dishes, and many other objects, notable. During the third quarter of the 6 th century cups aside from weaponry. All of those have been found in far outnumber other shapes in popularity, these being great quantities on Berezan, and the great majority of the Little-Masters that number 69 % of the total finds which are linked to local cultures. recorded (Smith). Therefore, in my opinion, there is no doubt that most Without any doubt, the wide development of trade of the more visible features of ancient Berezan culture dominated in relations between Greeks and Natives in during the first three quarters of the 6th century BC were Berezan. The same could perhaps be inferred from han- rooted in the local cultures of the northern Black Sea. dicraft production, which initially also had a seasonal However, it is also clear that some part of Berezan culture character. The best example of such a seasonal craft site must have belonged to the Greek colonists, whose exis- is at Yagorlyk on the Dnieper delta not far from Berezan. tence in this region is of course without doubt. The remnants of temporary iron-, bronze- and glass- It was the statistic analysis of ceramic assemblages making workshops, dated from the 7 th century BC, have from dug-outs that has shown that the fragments of trade been found on the site (Ostroverkhov 1979). There were amphorae from Klazomenai, Chios, Lesbos, and Miletus iron-making workshops on the Berezan settlement too. made up the largest part of the numerous finds (Dupont Moreover, new evidences of bronze-making and pottery 2005), followed by those of imported Greek ware. manufacturing workshops have recently been unco- The composition of Greek table pottery in that time vered on Berezan, as early as the early 6 th century BC was dominated by North Ionian production. It was (Domanskij, Marčenko 2003). noticed that this ceramic material showed a surprisingly Probably, the first Greek settlers could use any part limited variety of shapes and the same time surprising of the dug-out constructions as temporary dwellings amount of almost identical objects, and among them (Solovyov 2008). One of the most notable features of

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absence of a large number of early Greek graves can also specify rather small share of Greeks among the first settlers on Berezan. The necropolis materials attest that the quantity of Greek colonists has sharply been grown in the second half of the 6 th century BC. More than half burials were dated by that time. Cardinal changes in the cultural face of the Berezan settlement took place at the end of the third quarter of the 6 th century BC. During a very short time the whole territory of the settlement was built up with aboveground houses of generally Greek types (Solovyov 1999, 64-79). As it has been established, this was preceded by prepa- ratory work to fill the dug-outs and storage pits, and to level the surface of areas designated for aboveground construction (fig. 194). The newly erected houses had an area of 100 to 260 square meters and consisted of a few living and household rooms that were grouped around an interior courtyard. Depending on their designated purpose, the rooms held stoves, hearths, portable braziers, and the heating system of a fireplace type, paving, and drains. In the courtyards, partially paved with fragments of pottery and small stones, there were located wells, root cellars, altars, and drains. The houses were most likely one-stored, although the wall construction of Berezan buildings would not prevent the construction of a second floor. The quality of the construction work varied and seemed to depend on the wealth of the home- owner. On the whole, construction techniques were of a fairly high level. The architectural appearance of the Berezan houses Fig. 194. The map of the Late Archaic residential area ‘B’ of Borysthenes. indicates the urban character of construction. All the dwellings were grouped in blocks of eight or more houses. The area of such a block approached 2000 square such buildings is the stone basement arranged around all meters. The size and placement of the blocks were regu- the sides of a pit (Solovyov 1999, 59-63, figs. 43, 44, lated by a developed network of streets, which was 46 ; 2008, figs. 3 and 4) (fig. 193). The aboveground evidently set up from the beginning by an approxima- parts of the wall were constructed of mud bricks. The tely regular plan. Regulation of the area of the settlement lower row of the masonry consisted of large polygonal occupied by aboveground buildings evidently did not slabs placed sidewise. The dwelling was one-chambe- extend to the outskirts, where right up to the beginning red ; however, its interior space was divided into two of the 5 th century BC dug-out construction continued, ‘halves’ with separate functions : living and food-pre- although to a significantly lesser extent than before. paration areas, where stoves and hearths were located. I have no doubts that the urbanisation of the Berezan Moreover, the inhabitants of the dug-out also used of settlement could have been implemented without a portable braziers. Finds from these buildings are com- one-time, mass immigration of Greeks and without the posed, as usual, mainly of fragments of amphorae from organising role of institutions of city authority. In my various manufacturing centres of Ionia and Greece. Both opinion, the earlier inhabitants of the Berezan settlement decorated and cooking pottery is well represented too. abandoned the peninsula in a peaceful way, not due to Among numerous and diverse archaic burials in any violence on the part of the Greeks, possibly upon the Berezan necropolis only few can be referred to the the conclusion of an agreement between the settlers and first half of the 6 th century BC (Vinogradov, Domanskij native leaders. Such an agreement may have included 1996). Mostly of them were cremations and children’s payment of redemption fees or some other obligation for interments in vases. At the same time, so appreciable the land granted to the Greek colonists, probably for an

298 2. SERGEY L. SOLOVYOV - GREEKS AND INDIGENOUS POPULATION AT BEREZAN (BORYSTHENES) unlimited period of time. Only a very small number of consisted in the fact that the spiritual life of Borysthenes the former dwellers of Berezan evidently remained living inhabitants now took on typically Greek characteris- on the peninsula. These people were possibly involved tics. Primary among these characteristics are traces of in construction work at the new city or had some other Greek cults. Attributable materials, which were dis- relationship with the newcomers. covered in aboveground houses, included remnants of From that time the indigenous population was mainly fixed and portable altars, numerous graffiti on vessels, used in developing of agriculture on Borysthenes chora. and dedications to various deities of the ancient Greek Natives, those of farmers and settled nomads, being pantheon, cultic terracotta, stone statuettes, and stone under the influence of Greek economy and policy, and clay lamps. The single known cult construction on became dependent on the Greek community, which the Berezan – the temple of Aphrodite – has been erec- granted them lands on lease and allowed bartering at ted at the same time (Nazarov 2001 ; Kryzhytskii 2001). the city markets. Semi-dependence status of Natives At that time were issued the first Borysthenes coins is attested by archaeological data from chorai of (Solovyov 2006), those were cast of bronze in shapes of Northern Pontic cities, those mostly of Ionian. A form arrowheads and dolphins, and in shape of large segment of non-economic coercion was slavery. The epigra- combined images of both an arrowhead and a head of phical evidence such as lead letters from Berezan and tuna. One of the earliest in the Northern Pontus jewel- Phanagoria (Vinogradov 1971 ; 1998) and Herodotus lery workshop with bronze punches has been revealed in mention the slaves, most probably non-Greek by their Berezan (Treister, Solovyov 2004). origin, among the population of early Greek colonies in The uncovered part of the Berezan necropolis mainly the Northern Pontic region. belongs to the same time (Vinogradov, Domanskij That the new settlers of Berezan possessed a politi- 1996). The earlier section of the necropolis has not pre- cal organisation of the polis type also seems difficult to served because of destructive effects of a sea. In the doubt. By the end of the first third of the 5 thcentury BC second half of the 6 th – the first half of the 5 th century BC Borysthenes reached its greatest dimensions that it had 90 % of burials were inhumations in simple funeral pits never attained before or since. The construction work on with quadrangular or oval shapes. The skeletons found Borysthenes reached its peak, which undoubtedly gave in them mostly were laid extended on a back, oriented by it the characteristic features of a classical city. a head, as a rule, to Northeast or Northwest. In this group In the last quarter of the 6 th century BC cardinal 33 % of deceased were buried writhed and laid on a side. changes developed in practically the entire cultural It is possible to attribute them with the indigenous popu- sphere of the Berezan settlement (Solovyov 1999, 64-97). lation of the Northern Pontic area, although the question Substantive changes occurred in the composition of the on ethnicity of writhed burials, which were recovered in ceramic complex of the settlement. Most significant the necropolis of Ancient Greek cities, is still rather far was the growth of wheeled pottery, both cooking and from the final decision. About 7 % of burials were chil- table ware. From this time onwards, most of this pot- dren’s interments often-made in large ceramic vessels. tery consisted of products from Athenian workshops. As a rule, amphora and, less often, pithos-shaped urns Among other shapes of the pottery stemmed cups taper were used for this purpose. Cremations have made no off in quantity during the later years of the 6 th and the more than 4 % of Berezan burials. The funeral fire rem- early years of the 5 th centuries BC, only to be replaced to nants, which were assembled in a funeral pit or in an urn, some extent by skyphoi ; lekythoi also increase in popu- have been buried there on a fireplace or anywhere on larity in the years around 500 BC (Smith). Attic products the necropolis. In the necropolis there were also uncove- gradually supplanted Ionian pottery in the daily life of red remnants of funeral feasts. The burial gifts in graves Borysthenes’ citizens. Excluded from this process were used to be inexpensive, diverse on the structure, but as of course the amphorae produced by Ionian potters. It is a whole forming rather standard set of subjects. They well known that wine was in huge demand in the mar- were submitted by amphorae, plain and painted jugs ketplaces of the Northern Black Sea region, sought after and krateres, cups, lekythoi, askoi, aryballoi and lydia by both Greeks and Natives. (fig. 195). The amount of hand-made pottery in the ceramic Besides the deceased in writhed poses, which ethni- complex of Berezan declined substantially in compa- city is still open to debate, the rest bodies were buried by rison with earlier times. In addition, the composition Greek funeral rites. By the way, it is necessary to note of such pottery also changed : many specialised forms that a location of the cemetery of indigenous population disappeared, but hand-made imitations of Greek origi- keeps unknown. nals became frequent. The following changes in the Borysthenes’ life One further very important change of this time occurred at the end of the first third of the 5 th century BC

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Fig. 195. The map of the Berezan necropolis excavated by G. L. Skadovskii (after Lapin 1966), Late Archaic burials and funeral goods.

(Solovyov 1995b ; 1999, 98–113). These changes led to details of the interior layout of the dwellings consisted the decline of construction work, a sharp reduction in the of stoves, hearths, portable braziers, and large vessels area of aboveground house-building and an increasing for storing foodstuffs. It has become evident that there amount of dug-out construction. In that time a settle- are key distinctions between the newly spreading house- ment arose on the place of the abandoned aboveground building and that, which existed there earlier and on the houses. The main feature of the newly arising settlement peninsula’s eastern coast during the Classical period. It structure was the construction of dwellings dug into the is possible to assume that a return to dug-out construc- ground. The gap in time between the abandonment of tion in the western part of Berezan was not a result of the aboveground dwellings and the building of dug-outs was activities of Greek colonists. so small that it is almost undetectable in the dating of It is well known that at the end of the first third of finds. It was traceable only stratigraphically. The pottery the 5 th century BC the cultural and historical situation in was dominated by Greek ceramics, however the pots the northern Black Sea region underwent fundamental characteristic of steppe Scythian were also recorded. changes (Marčenko, Vinogradov 1989). In that period of Four dug-outs and a series of storage pits of that political instability in Scythia the appearance of dug-out time have been uncovered (fig. 196). Two dwellings buildings on the urban outskirts of the Berezan settle- possessed quadrangular form, and one dug-out had a ment in the 5 th century BC was most likely connected circular shape. Despite these different forms, the two to the settling there of the rural non-Greek population constructions possessed the same feature : the stone of Borysthenes. Its inhabitants, having found themselves basement walls and the aboveground parts of walls made in a dangerous situation, were evidently forced to find of mud bricks. The walls were plastered with clay. Fixed protection from Greek community, which however was

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Fig. 196. Residential construction of Classical Berezan. living with just the same fears. Then, certain sections and fishermen, those of citizens of the Olbia state. The of the urban and possibly rural Berezan population may one exception found up to the present time is a building have overflowed into Olbia, which was another ancient rectangular in form and possessing a large area. This Greek centre of the region. building was single-chambered, where two stone bases From that time decline of Berezan settlement has gra- for support columns were situated. In the opinion of its dually started. The later existence of ancient Berezan is excavator, the building was not used as a residence but the history of an ordinary agricultural and fishing sett- possibly had some kind of social (probably cult) purpose lement not very visible against the background of other (Nazarov 1996, 14-5, Abb. 3). villages of Olbia polis (Solovyov 1999, 114-27). In the The excavations in the western part of the island second half of the 2nd to the first half of the 3rd centuries have revealed a different kind of evidence about life AD, the island went through a new upsurge of residential at the settlement in the 2nd and 3rd centuries AD. In the activity. The archaeological evidence from excavations northwest area, about ten dug-out dwellings from that on the eastern coast of the island revealed the cultural time were unearthed (fig. 197). The area of the buildings layer of that time, containing numerous building remains varied little, from 10 to 18 square meters, and as a rule and finds mainly those of pottery. The buildings being the depth of their foundation-trenches exceeded 1 meter. constructed without any regulation seemed to be small, All these dug-outs were rectangular in form. One fea- rather disordered houses of many rooms, not particu- ture characteristic of the interior of these dug-outs was larly distinguishable in appearance from the well-known a two-part stove built into the side of the foundation- rural buildings of outlying Olbian areas. The owners of trench. The use of stone in the construction of dug-outs these buildings were probably Greek peasants, artisans, was evidently episodic, and was usually connected

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Fig. 197. Residential construction of Roman Berezan.

with reinforcing separate parts of the sides of a founda- invasion ; as well as nomadic Scythians and Sarmatians tion-trench or with building aboveground stone walls. who had settled and moved into outlying Greek villages. Sometimes for this purpose were used marble slabs This conclusion is supported by finds of handmade pot- with dedications to Achilles Pontarches, which served tery of the first centuries AD, the share of which ranged whether as a base for the central support column holding 23-27 % of all ceramic fragments found in dug-outs (of up the roof of the dwelling or as steps for the entryway. course, not counting amphorae). There is an impression that the spirit of Greek culture The cessation of life on Berezan evidently coincided and its religious values were alien to the inhabitants of with the complete collapse of Olbia chora and the down- these dwellings, which also differed from Olbiopolitai fall of Olbia itself because of the first Gothic invasion. in their way of life. In conclusion, it is worth noting first that the local These particular features of dwellings in the western traditions, especially those of dug-out construction part of the settlement make it necessary to distinguish and handmade pottery making, deeply were rooted in their inhabitants from the rest of the Berezan population culture of the Berezan settlement ; and, second, almost in Roman times. These differences may be explained by thousand-year history of the Berezan settlement reveals the ethnic and social heterogeneity of Olbian society, continuous interaction and coexistence of two cultures especially in its outlying regions, which included variety and two worlds, those of Greeks and indigenous popu- economically and socially dependent groups. These lations. From the moment of their first meeting and up groups primarily consisted of representatives from to the end of classical world these processes, being not native areas, which may have included the descendants dependant on their forms and intensity, rendered signi- of those members of the multi-ethnic rural Olbian popu- ficant influence on a course of history of the Northern lation of Late Hellenistic times who survived the Getae’s Black Sea coastal area.

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