The Professional Constructor

Fall 2019 | Volume 44 | Number 02

Journal of the American Institute of Constuctors

IN THIS ISSUE: Accuracy of Drone Based Surveys to Measure Stockpile Volume Effects of Organizational Trust and Project Delivery Variables on BIM User Confidence Building Information Model-Based Quantity Takeoff - Leadership Support and Training Attraction and Retention of Minority Managerial Employees at Electrical Contractors Commercial Construction Schedule Collaborators and Current Scheduling Practices Fall 2019 | Volume 44 | Number 02

The Professional Constructor

Journal of the American Institute of Constuctors

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The Professional Constructor

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EDITOR Jason D. Lucas, Ph.D. Assistant Professor, Clemson University

ARTICLES IN THIS ISSUE PAGE 6 Accuracy of Drone Based Surveys to Measure Stockpile Volume Joseph M. Burgett, Scott Shaffer, and Eric Stuckey

PAGE 15 Effects of Organizational Trust and Project Delivery Variables on BIM User Confidence Jason D. Lucas and Saw Sri Neeharika Vijayarao

PAGE 30 Building Information Model-Based Quantity Takeoff - Leadership Support and Training Morgan Tagg, James P. Smith, Jay P. Christofferson, and Kevin R. Miller

PAGE 41 Attraction and Retention of Minority Managerial Employees at Electrical Contractors Ben F. Bigelow, Anthony J. Perrenoud, and Anusree Saseendran

PAGE 52 Commercial Construction Schedule Collaborators and Current Scheduling Practices Evan D. Bingham, Jay P. Christofferson, and Mark Hutchings

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Accuracy of Drone Based Surveys to Measure Stockpile Volume

Accuracy of Drone Based Surveys to Measure Stockpile Volume Joseph M. Burgett, Clemson University | [email protected] Scott Shaffer, South Carolina Department of Transportation | [email protected] Eric Stuckey, South Carolina Department of Transportation | [email protected]

ABSTRACT This paper outlines a two phase experiment evaluating the accuracy of volumetric calculations using a commercially available drone and structure-from-motion (SfM) software. In the first phase, a large cardboard pyramid with a known volume was used to simulate a stockpile. Using georeferenced images collected by a Phantom 4 Pro drone and the SfM software ContextCapture, the computed volumes ranged between 1.5% and 3.3% of the actual volume. In the second phase of the experiment, a photometric survey was created of a large SCDOT borrow pit. The volumetric calculations were computed using conventional survey practices and with drone collected images. There was a 9.8% difference between the two methods with the drone base model providing significantly higher model resolution and number of data points. Keywords: Drone, Survey, Stockpile, Volume

Joe Burgett, PhD is an endowed associate professor at Clemson University’s Nieri Family Department of Construction Science and Management. His area of research is with unmanned aerial systems with specific applications to the built environment. Dr. Burgett is a member of the Board of Directors for the American Institute of Constructors and the Exam Writing Committee. Scott Shaffer is an IT Consultant II at the South Carolina Department of Transportation. His area of expertise is in Engineering Software (CADD) and unmanned aerial systems. Scott has been with the department for 20 years. He has a BS degree in Business Administration from The Citadel and an ABS in Engineering Technology from Midlands Technical College. Scott retired from the United States Navy (Seabees) after 21 years of service. Eric Stuckey has 20 years of professional experience at the South Carolina Department of Transportation (SCDOT) in the Information Technology field. He earned his Bachelor of Science at the University of South Carolina in Information Technology Management in 2001. During his career at SCDOT, he has worked in both the Administration and Engineering divisions of the agency in numerous Information Technology capacities. He is the Engineering Technology and Research manager for the agency and serves as the liaison between the IT Services department and the Engineering Division to manage and direct the agency’s engineering technology initiatives to include Unmanned Aerial Systems (UAS).

Accuracy of Drone Based Surveys to Measure Stockpile Volume

INTRODUCTION has significantly grown. As of the middle of 2018, 100,000 remote pilot certificates have been issued by The first recorded use of an unmanned aerial vehicle the FAA (FAA 2018b). Based on current trends, the dates back to 1839 when the Austrians used explosive FAA projects that there will be 450,000 registered filled hot air balloons to attack the city of Venice commercial drones by 2022 (FAA 2018c). Many (Dronethusiast 2019). Since then the technology has construction companies are used drones for surveying, significantly increased although the use throughout construction site inspections, safety inspections, th the 20 century has primarily remained for military project reports, marketing, live feed/virtual tours, applications. With advances in GPS technology site logistics, BIM models, thermal imaging and and availability of low cost aerial platforms, drones quantity take offs (Ayemba 2019). This last use case made significant inroads into many civilian activities is the focus of this paper. Many contractors and state (Remondino, Barazzetti, Nex, Scaioni, Sarazzi departments of transportation are using drones as a 2011). However, adoption of the technology in the tool to calculate stockpile and earthwork volumes. Unites States has been slow especially compared Images captured with the drones processed through to Europe. This was primarily due to significant commercially available software can create point restriction the FAA placed on commercial drone clouds significantly denser than conventional survey use. Prior to August of 2016, a lengthy approval methods at a fraction of the time. The question that process was required by the FAA and the issuance of remains and will be addressed in this paper is “how a “Certificates of Waiver or Authorization” (COA) accurate are the volume calculations.” This paper for commercial drone use was not guaranteed. The provides the results of a structured experiment where restrictions on commercial drone use evaporated a large cardboard pyramid with a known volume is almost overnight with the issuance of Title 14 Part used to evaluate the accuracy of surveys created 107 of the Code of Federal Regulations (Part 107) from drone missions with different parameters. The and significantly opened the skies to commercial experiment is then continued in an active state DOT drone activity. borrow pit where the drone based calculations are compared to the volumes computed by a professional land surveyor licensed with the state. Title 14 Part 107 Part 107 opens the airspace for most commercial drone use cases but does provide requirements PREVIOUS STUDIES and limitations. One of the requirements is that The use of UAS for geomatics applications is the drone operator must hold an FAA remote pilot not a new concept. Military surveillance and certificate. The certificate is earned by passing a two reconnaissance applications were being explored as hour knowledge test which covers sectional charts, early as the 1970s (Przybilla and Wester-Ebbinghaus airport operations, Part 107 rules, weather and a host 1979). However, what is now thought of as modern of other topics. The exam does not have a practical UAS photogrammetry really began in the early component and demonstrating competence flying an 2000s (Colomina, Blázquez, Molina, Parés and Wis aircraft is not required. Some of the restrictions placed 2008; Colomina and Molina 2014; Eisenbeiss 2008). on flying drones include operating during daylight Driving the increase use of UAS for surveying and hours, not flying over people, flying in Class G mapping was the development of low-cost platforms airspace or receiving air traffic control authorization, and cameras coupled with improved GNSS/INSS for maintaining line of sight with the aircraft, register precision drone navigation (Remondino et al. 2011). the drone with the FAA and reporting damage caused Because of the speed at which new technology is by the drone in excess of $500 (FAA 2018a). The driving this field, past studies remain relevant for FAA will grant waivers to some of these restrictions only a short period of time and current technology if the risk associated with the mission(s) has been is not extensively tested (Hugenholtz, Walker, properly mitigated with alternative methods. Brown, and Myshak 2014; Siebert and Teizer With the technology commercialize and much of the 2014). However, several recent studies have been regulations removed, drone use in the United States conducted showing the potential of using drones for

Accuracy of Drone Based Surveys to Measure Stockpile Volume pre-construction surveys. One example was a study grass cut short and no trees or other obstructions. In conducted by Hugenholts et al. where an Aeryon the test field, 17 aerial targets were evenly distributed. Scout drone with a Photo 3S high-resolution camera The aerial targets were 12”x12” with a black and was used to capture georeferenced images of a white checkerboard pattern making it easy to locate stockpile of gravel (2014). The models created had the center from drone imagery. The targets were then a resolution of 0.11 feet with a RMS error of 0.003 located by the surveyor using a GeoMax Zoom 80 2” ft. The drone based volumetric calculation was reflectorless robotic total station. In the center of the within 2.55% of actual. Siebert and Teizer showed field, a cardboard pyramid was erected. The pyramid similar results in their study where they surveyed was constructed with 3 feet x 3 feet x 3 feet cardboard an open test bed and had errors of 0.020 feet in the boxes (1 cubic yard each). The base was made of horizontal direction and -0.036 feet in the vertical nine boxes, the middle tier had 4 boxes, and top tier direction (2014). Lucieer, de Jong, and Turner had 1 box. Figure 1 is a picture using a standing adult used an OktoKopter equipped with a Canon 55D for size reference. The total volume of the pyramid DSLR camera to monitor landslides in their 2014 was 378 cubic feet (14 cubic yard). study. In their experiments, they found a horizontal accuracy of 0.230 feet and vertical accuracy of 0.200 feet (2014). The most comprehensive study on the accuracy of drone based surveys found in the literature was conducted by Aguera-Vega, Carvajal- Ramirez and Martinez-Carricondo in 2017. Aguera-Vega et al. studied the influence of altitude, terrain morphology and number of ground control points on digital surface model accuracy. The study compared 60 photogrammetric models considering five terrains, four flight altitudes and varying number of ground control points. The RGB camera used was a Sony Nex 7 mounted under a MikroKopter drone (Moormerland, Germany). They found that the most accurate combination of fight altitude and number of ground control points was 164 feet and 10 ground control points which lead to an accuracy Figure 1: Cardboard Pyramid Stockpile of 0.17 feet horizontally and 0.26 feet vertically. Simulation Each of these studies used commercially available technology and support the position that drone based The drone used in the experiment was a DJI Phantom models can be used for preconstruction surveys and 4 Pro equipped with a 20 mega-pixel RGB camera. determine stockpile volume. This is a commercially available drone and commonly used for construction and surveying activities. Six METHODOLOGY pre-programmed missions were created using the Pix4D capture app. Each of the pre-programmed The accuracy of drone based stockpile calculations missions created a flight path for the drone to take were tested in two phases. The first phase was to images at regular intervals. Three of the missions conduct an experiment using a 3D object with a collected data at 125 feet. The altitude of 125 feet known volume. The second phase was to use an was chosen as it is high enough to avoid most trees active state DOT borrow pit and compare the drone and other obstruction but still close enough to collect based quantities with the quantities determined by a high resolution images of the ground. The images professional land surveyor. The following sections were all nadir (straight down) and had an overlap of explains the two phase in more detail. 80%. Three iterations (A, B and C) of this mission were completed to see if the results of the models Phase 1: Pyramid Experiment were repeatable. Two of the pre-programmed For the first phase of testing, a two acre test field missions captured “oblique” (angled) images by was secured. The test field was an open field with circling the pyramid at 35 feet and 55 feet altitudes.

Accuracy of Drone Based Surveys to Measure Stockpile Volume

Table 1: Pre-programmed Missions with Descriptions

Mission Title Description Nadir (straight down) images captured at 125 feet elevation (iteration 1). 80% overlap 125’-A between images. Nadir (straight down) images captured at 125 feet elevation (iteration 2). 80% overlap 125’-B between images. Nadir (straight down) images captured at 125 feet elevation (iteration 3). 80% overlap 125’-C between images. Circular mission around the pyramid at an altitude of 35’. Oblique (angled) images were 35’-Oblique captured at 10 degree intervals around the pyramid. Circular mission around the pyramid at an altitude of 55’. Oblique (angled) images were 55’-Oblique captured at 10 degree intervals around the pyramid. Nadir (straight down) images captured at 350 feet elevation. 80% overlap between 350’-A images.

The drone was programmed to take an image at from where it was computed in the 3D survey. The 10 degree intervals so a total of 36 oblique images CPe will be provided as horizontal CPe (ground were collected with each mission. The last pre- surface) and vertical CPe (elevation). programmed mission was set at 350 feet and also collected images at 80% overlap. This elevation Phase 2: Application in Active DOT Borrow Pit was selected as it was near the 400 feet maximum An active South Carolina Department of altitude allowed by the FAA and still maintained a Transportation (SCDOT) borrow pit was used reasonable safety margin. Descriptions of the six in the second phase of the study. The portion of missions are provided in table 1. the borrow pit used had an area of .6 acres and an When the drone captures an image, it embeds meta- elevation change of 55 feet. A professional land data within the image file. Most relevantly for this surveyor with the SCDOT located eight aerial experiment, is includes the GPS coordinates of the targets. Similar to the pyramid experiment, some drone when it took the image (accuracy = +/- 3 of these points were used as GCP in the survey and feet) and the angle of the camera. With the image the others as check points to measure accuracy. The and the meta-data, a 3D surveys can be created four GCP were also used as corners of the borrow with structure-from-motion (SfM) software. For pit measured. Calculations for how much earth this experiment, “ContextCapture,” provided by would need to be cut and filled to level the plane of Bentley Systems Incorporated was used as the SfM the four points were computed using the SCDOT software and created the surveys and stockpile conventional methods and with drone images and volumes. SfM software. The volume calculations and contour maps were compared using both techniques. Accuracy of the surveys were measured in two ways. First, the pyramid erected in the test field had a known volume of 378 cubic feet. The volume of the pyramid in the survey was computed and RESULTS compared to this known value. The second means Accuracy without the Use of Ground Control of measuring accuracy was the Check Point error Points (CPe). In the test field, 17 aerial targets were geo- located by the surveyors. Four of these targets were The first phase used a cardboard pyramid asa used as ground control points (GCP) to locate the control structure. It is known from the literature that survey on the earth’s surface. The other 13 target adding GCPs increases the accuracy of the drone were check points and not used to create the model surveys; however, these are often not available to but rather test for accuracy. The CPe is the distance constructors. The first experiment was to test the from the known, geo-located center of the target accuracy of the survey without using GCPs. Most commercial grade drones, including the one used

Accuracy of Drone Based Surveys to Measure Stockpile Volume in this experiment, are equipped with an on-board Volumetric calculations does not required absolute GPS unit. The GPS is used to navigate as well accuracy however. The cut and fill volume of a as imprint in the image file the coordinates of the stockpile is based on a relative plane such as the drone and camera angle when the image was taken. surrounding ground surface. For the calculations in The GPS unit is far from survey grade and has an this experiment, the flat surface around the pyramid accuracy range of a yard or more from actual. The was the relative plane which the cut calculation was accuracy of this first survey, titled “Flight 125A – benchmarked. Figure 2 shows a screenshot of the 0 GCP” is shown in table 2. The “average ground software where four green spray painted dots are resolution” (AGR) is the average area of the survey used as corners of the plane in all of the survey field that is represented by one pixel of the image. models created. The Flight 125A – 0GCP survey The higher the drone’s altitude when collecting estimated that the pyramid had a volume of 477 data, the more of the field is represented by a single cubic feet which is 26.3% greater than the known pixel. Images collected closer to the survey will value of 378 cubic feet. This level of error makes have a smaller AGR and have more resolution in the the model all but unusable for most construction surveys created. The average size of one pixel in purposes. However, the accuracy of this model was the Flight 125A – 0 GCP survey was .03 feet. A significantly improved when GCPs were added to measure for how well a photometric model was the survey. constructed is the RMS re-projection error (RMSe) typically measured by the pixel. A model with an RMSe than one is generally considered a “high quality” reconstruction (Bentley 2019). This does not necessarily mean that the accuracy is high as it could be reconstructed with a large AGR. A low re-projection error simply means that the images were stitched together well. Table 2 also provides the horizontal and vertical CPe. This survey did not include any GCPs and relied on the aircraft’s GPS to locate the model on the earth’s surface. For the Flight 125A – 0 GCP survey, the average computed distance from the seventeen check points from true location is 8.2 feet horizontally and 490.6 feet in the vertical direction. This makes the point that GCPs are needed if you are using drone based surveys and Figure 2: Volumetric Calculation in Bentley’s require absolute accuracy. ContextCapture

Table 2: Results of Surveys Created from Phase 1 Images

Actual Computed AGR RMSe Horizontal Vertical. volume volume Percent # Survey Name (ft) (pixel) CPe (ft) CPe (ft) (cu. ft) (cu. ft) Diff. 1 Flight 125A - 0 GCP 0.03 0.72 8.20 490.6 378 477 26.3% 2 Flight 125A - 4 GCP 0.03 0.75 0.03 -0.02 378 384 1.5% 3 Flight 125B - 4 GCP 0.03 0.75 0.04 -0.02 378 389 2.9% 4 Flight 125C - 4 GCP 0.03 0.76 0.04 0.03 378 390 3.3% Flight 125A with 5 0.03 0.64 0.04 0.01 378 386 2.1% Obliques - 4 GCP 6 Flight 350A - 4 GCP 0.09 0.79 0.05 0.06 378 434 14.8%

Accuracy of Drone Based Surveys to Measure Stockpile Volume

Optimal Number of Ground Control Points vertical CPe. The survey created from flights 125B and 125C overestimated the volume by 2.9% and Adding GCPs add both absolute and relative 3.3% respectively. accuracy to the drone based surveys. However, surveying GCPs can be time consuming and there is Impact of Oblique Images on Accuracy a diminishing return with additional GCPs. Bentley recommends that GCPs be spaced 20,000 pixels The surveys described above were created from from one another which in this case (AGR = .03 nadir images only. When recreating a 3D model, feet) would be every 600 feet (Bentley 2018). The it is often helpful to add oblique images so that test field was approximately 250 feet x 350 feet so the sides of the objects can be reconstructed more three GCPs should have been sufficient. To test accurately. The researchers tested to see if the this recommendation, the researchers created six accuracy of the volumetric calculations would surveys with images from Flights 125A sequentially improve if oblique images were added. The drone adding one GCP with each survey. The median 3D was programmed to circle the pyramid at 35 feet error of the remaining check points was used to and 55 feet above the ground capturing images at 10 evaluate the accuracy of the model and determine degree intervals. Those images were added to the the optimal number of GCP that should be used for data set from Flight 125A – 4 GCP. The accuracy the rest of the surveys. The results of the surveys of the new survey can be seen in table 2. There was can be found in table 3. The models with zero, a marginal improvement in the reprojection error one, and two GCPs all were over 490 feet from true and vertical CPe compared to the Flights 125A, B location. However, once the third GCP was added, and C. The volume of the pyramid was estimated the median 3D error was reduced to .12 feet and then to be 434 cubic yards which was 2.1% greater than to .08 feet when the fourth GCP was added. For the actual. This is also very similar to what was seen remainder of the experiments, the researchers used with the surveys without the oblique images. With four ground control points as an “optimal” number. the conditions of this specific experiment, oblique The remaining 13 aerial targets were used at check images did not improve the volume estimate. points. Impact of Altitude on Accuracy Table 3: Optimal Number of Ground Control Points There is an inverse relationship between the altitude in which the data was captured and the accuracy of Survey Name GCP 3D Median Error (ft) the models. However, the higher the drone is flown, Flight 125A - 0 GCP 490.45 the more land area is captured with a single image Flight 125A - 1 GCP 491.47 reducing the flight time needed to complete the Flight 125A - 2 GCP 490.71 survey. For the test field used in this experiment, Flight 125A - 3 GCP 0.12 it took approximately five minutes from takeoff to Flight 125A - 4 GCP 0.08 landing to collect the images at 125 feet. It took the Flight 125A - 5 GCP 0.09 drone approximately half that time to collect images of the same area at 350 feet. While relatively Accuracy when Ground Control Points Used insignificant for this small test bed, doubling the flight time may be a significant limitation when surveying As expected, when 4 GCPs were added to the Flight a larger site. The results of the survey created from 125A survey, the accuracy significantly improved. images captured at 350 feet can be seen in the last Table 2 shows that survey Flight 125A – 4 GCP row of table 2. Because of the higher altitude, the computed the pyramid to have a volume of 382 AGR was .09 feet which is three times the pixel cubic feet which is 1.5% more than the actual size of a similar survey created from data collected volume. The experiment was repeated two more at 125 feet. Despite being constructed with lower times with images captured with the same pre- resolution images, the model was stitched together programmed flight path but at different times of the well as represented with a reprojection error of .79 day. The results of survey “Flight 125B – 4 GCP” pixels and CPe’s comparable to the other surveys. and “Flight 125C – 4 GCP” are found in table 2. There was a significant decrease in volumetric All three surveys had very similar horizontal and calculation accuracy however. The “Flight 350A

Accuracy of Drone Based Surveys to Measure Stockpile Volume

Table 4: Borrow Pit Survey Accuracy

RMSe SCDOT Borrow Pit AGR Check Point Error Check Point Error Survey (ft) (pixels) Horizontal (ft) Vertical (ft) Check Point 1 0.005 0.019 Check Point 2 0.04 0.70 0.016 0.065 Check Point 3 0.012 0.022

– 4 GCP” survey computed the pyramid to have a Notice that in this view, even the tracks of the excavator volume of 434 cubic feet which is 14.8% larger than are visible. its known volume. This is significantly larger than Table 5: Comparison between Photometric and Conventional the inaccuracies seen with data collected at 125 feet Survey Quantity Calculation which ranged from 1.5% - 3.3%. Application of Drone Survey at SCDOT Borrow Photometric Conventional Quantity Survey Survey Pit Cut (cu yd) 3,511 3,039 The second phase of the study was to compute Fill (cu yd) 295 139 volumes at an active SCDOT borrow pit and compare Total Cut (cu yd) 3,217 2,900 with conventional practices. Images from 90 feet, Difference (cu yd) 317 125 feet and 200 feet were used to create the survey. As shown in table 4, the AGR was .04 feet and the Difference (%) 9.8% RMSe was .70 pixels which are comparable to what was found with the phase one, 125 feet surveys. At the borrow pit, five GCPs and three check points were used. The horizontal CPe ranged from .005 feet - .016 feet and the vertical CPe ranged from .019 feet - .065 feet which is also fairly equivalent to what was seen with the phase one surveys. A base plane elevation was created by averaging the elevations of four GCPs. Cut and fill calculations were computed to determine the fill needed to level the surface to the base plane. Table 5 shows that the photometric survey calculated a total of 3,217 cubic yards of earth would need to be cut from the site to level the plane. This was about 10% more than what was computed by the professional land surveyor (2,900 cubic yards) using a robotic total station. As the exact quantities of the borrow pit are not known, it is difficult to make definitive conclusions on the accuracy. However, assumptions can be made based on the resolution of the output. Figure 3 provides a comparison between a conventional 3D contour plan created using 250 points from the total station and the photometric survey using 239,700 points captured by the drone. The drone based survey Figure 3: Comparison between Conventional has significantly higher resolution and captures the Topographic (top) and Photometric (bottom) shape of the surface much more precisely. Figure 4 Survey is a blow up of the embankment below the excavator.

Accuracy of Drone Based Surveys to Measure Stockpile Volume

above the surface was consistently within .03 feet which is within tolerance for many construction activities. The drone surveys also estimated the simulated stockpile very well with three different surveys computing the volume with 3.3% or better of actuals. In the second phase, volumetric calculations using conventional and drone based surveys were compared. There was nearly a 10% difference in the volume computed. Given the accuracy seen in phase one and the difference in volume estimates in phase two, it appears as if there could be some significant gains by the SCDOT if this technology Figure 4: Embankment Area of Photometric is deployed to supplement current practices. Survey ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS CONCLUSION The researchers would like to acknowledge and thank This study demonstrates that commercially available Jeff Brown with the SCDOT for his help with the study. drones and software can be used to create models with Mr. Brown is a licensed professional land survey and a high degree of accuracy. In the first phase of the was very generous with his time computing volume at study, a 378 cubic foot pyramid was used to simulate the borrow pit. The second phase of the study would a stockpile. The horizontal and vertical error of the not have been possible without his help. drone survey created from images collected at 125 feet

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Accuracy of Drone Based Surveys to Measure Stockpile Volume

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Effects of Organizational Trust and Project Delivery Variables on BIM User Confidence

Effects of Organizational Trust and Project Delivery Variables on BIM User Confidence Jason D. Lucas, Clemson University | [email protected] Saw Sri Neeharika Vijayarao, Clemson University | [email protected]

ABSTRACT The use of Building Information Models (BIM) for construction planning has increased in all areas except for automated processes such as quantity take-off. Many model users lack confidence that a model, typically created by a third party, has accurate enough information in it to rely on the data for planning the project. This research is looking at how factors of organization trust and variables related to project delivery can raise user confidence in these situations. Factors of organizational trust were identified through a literature review. Two surveys were utilized to identify which factors were significant in raising user confidence. Finally, observations on how to set up a project to maximize user confidence in BIM and promote a more collaborative use of BIM are included.

Keywords: Building Information Modeling (BIM), Organizational Trust, Project Delivery

Dr. Jason Lucas is an Associate Professor at Clemson University in the Department of Construction Science and Management. His research interest include emerging technology in construction and utilizing technology to augment construction education.

Saw Sri Neeharika Vijayarao completed her Master of Construction Science at Clemson University.

Effects of Organizational Trust and Project Delivery Variables on BIM User Confidence

INTRODUCTION ambiguity concerning who is responsible for the accuracy of the data (Singh, Gu, & Wang 2011). Building Information Modeling (BIM) is the process of creating a computer-generated model Typically, the resulting model from the BIM containing precise geometry and relevant data process is a federation of sub-models that have for supporting the construction, fabrication, different authors (Figure 1). In a federated model procurement and operational phases of a facility process, different authors create the models at (Eastman et al, 2008). BIM utilizes an intelligent different times of the project, at different levels of model based process that provides insight for detail, and for different purposes (Reinhardt and planning, design, construction, and management Klancnik 2009). Integration of these various sub- of buildings (Azhar, 2011). In 2014, the global models, along with the use of traditional contract BIM market was worth $2.76 billion with forecasts documents, can lead to challenges in trusting suggesting the market would reach $11.54 billion a model’s accuracy and requires validation of by 2022 (TMR, 2015). As the popularity and the data within the model (Azhar et al, 2008). applications of BIM grow, many contractors are Estimators lack confidence in automatically realizing that the cost saving benefits easily exceed producing something that was previously controlled the added cost of utilizing BIM on a project. This manually (McCuen, 2008) especially when the data potential return on investment is leading more source may contain unknown inaccuracies (Lucas contractors to explore BIM utilization (Azhar et al, et al, 2015). Utilization of a BIM for estimating 2011; Berstein, 2012). labor and cost on a job is one of the lowest adopted uses of BIM (Bernstein, 2012). The majority of Automated BIM processes are those that rely on the industry utilize spreadsheet-based solutions software to produce analysis results from a model. or 2D-based software when creating estimates for Quantity take-off for estimating or structural design jobs; very few utilize a BIM or 3D-based solution analysis are examples of potential automated (Welsh, 2018). Some of this comes from the loss processes. Automated measurement can increase of manual interpretation during the estimating the speed of estimating and potentially improve process that is no longer there once this process is accuracy of quantities when time is not available automated (Shen and Issa, 2010). This challenge to carry out detailed manual takeoffs (Tulke et al, is compounded further when liability for model 2008). Because the model often already contains inaccuracies is undefined by the contract documents identified individual components required for (Sing et al, 2011). a project, a material takeoff can be performed by populating a detailed list of components and Common contracting methods do not support assigning appropriate costs. When it comes to collaboration and model development well and trusting automated BIM processes, however, many need to better support the BIM workflow (Alwash contractors are showing great caution (Lucas et al, et al, 2017). Unless the contracting methods 2015; Berstein, 2012). Since the model is typically include an integrated project delivery or design- not contractually binding, there is a degree of build method, the designer and contractor are not

Architectural Structural Design MEP Design Model Federated Model Design Model Model

Data owned and controlled by the author Data Referenced for Planning Figure 1: Federated BIM (model)

Effects of Organizational Trust and Project Delivery Variables on BIM User Confidence contractually bound to each other. In this situation, commitment, caring, responsibility (Lewis et al, the designer is contractually obligated to provide 1985; Das et al, 2004; McAllister, 1995; Whitener construction documents that represent the scope et al, 1998), and handling of uncertainty and risk of work to the owner. These documents generally (Das et al, 2004). only include 2D drawings, specifications, and This research is looking into which aspects of other general conditions provisions. If the designer organizational trust and project delivery influences creates a model, the accuracy of the model in this user confidence of BIM accuracy to use it more type of contract is not contractually binding. The effectively to support automated processes. owner then utilizes the 2D documents as the basis Most potentially automated processes, such for the contract for construction. Any designer as cost estimating, have risk to the contractor model (e.g. from the architect or engineers) that connected to them. This can lead an estimator the contractor has access to will typically include to have little confidence in what someone else a stipulation that the designer is not responsible had created unless there is time to scrutinize the for any errors. Because of this, the risk of details and become comfortable with the provided inaccuracy falls on the contractor who in turn information in the model. This study looks at what becomes very hesitant of using a third party model variables may increase the user’s confidence level for construction planning. When an integrated with the model’s accuracy. By isolating these project delivery or design-build delivery method variables, project management teams can develop is utilized, a contracted link between the designer interdisciplinary relationships that foster trust and and contractor exists, so these methods typically promote a more inclusive use of BIM. Increasing lead to a more collaborative use of the BIM as the user confidence of the third party authored models accuracy of design information can be contractually allows for a more streamline approach to BIM use obligated. Even in these cases, some hesitation through the project’s lifecycle. still exists when utilizing these models for higher risk activities, such as determining the cost of the This research utilizes three models of trust as project, because as the end use, the contractor did defined in literature as a framework for the study not create the model (Lucas and Vijayarao, 2018). (Table 1). Hartman et al (2002) defines variables of trust as falling into categories of Integrity, In order to support a more collaborative use of Competence, or Intuitive Trust. Rouseau et al the model there needs to be a higher level of (1998) identifies categories as Calculus-based, confidence in the accuracy of information contained Relational, and Institution-based. Lastly, Lewicki within the BIM. Various factors of trust related and Bunker (1996) grouped factors into categories to interpersonal relationship as well as aspects of Deterrence-based, Knowledge-based, or of project delivery need to be explored to better Identification-based trust. understand how projects can be set up to help increase user confidence in using BIM created This paper documents the classification process by third party authors. Relational and contractual of the variables related to trust identified within trust concepts have multiple dimensions, variables, literature. It then outlines the development of a and related behaviors and there effects on user survey to identify the effect of each variable on confidence may provide insight to better develop the model user’s confidence in using BIM for a project team and collaboration for advanced automated processes. An analysis of the findings is uses of BIM. Trusting behaviors involve elements included. Lastly, the elements of trust that have the of expectation, confidence, willingness, belief, most significant impact on user confidence and how behavior (McAllister, 1995; Whitener et al, 1998), these elements can help improve project delivery reliance, hopefulness, optimism, honesty, mutuality, and BIM use is discussed. dependency, sharing of values, reciprocity,

Effects of Organizational Trust and Project Delivery Variables on BIM User Confidence

Table 1. Models of Trust

Hartman et al, 2002 Rousseau et al, 1998 Lewicki and Bunker, 1996 Integrity trust Calculus-based trust Deterrence-base trust Ethical trust/belief that one party Trust that is motivated by self- Parties can be trusted to keep will routinely look after the interest or economic incentives their word to avoid sanctions for interests of another party violation Competence trust Relational trust Knowledge-based trust The belief that the other party Trust emerging through Parties know each other well can perform the work assigned repeated/direct interactions enough that their behavior between parties toward each other is predictable Intuitive trust Institution-based trust Identification-based trust The emotional or “gut feeling” The role played by legal Mutual understanding is that one party can trust the institutions, cultural and developed to the point where intentions and actions of the societal norms in promoting parties can act on each other’s other party – not verifiable trust trust within a culture behalf

Methodology The second objective involved using a modified The research examines how variables of project Delphi study. The first survey targeted identifying delivery, project team composition, and other categories of trust and project delivery factors non-technical dimensions related to trust affect that significantly influenced user confidence in user confidence in a model. The objectives of this the model. A second survey took the identified research include: (1) defining relevant dimensions categories and broke them down into relevant of organization trust and project delivery potentially dimensions of trust to see which variables had the related to user confidence in the use of a model greatest impact. Finally, the results were analyzed developed by another author; (2) identifying to identify dimensions of trust that have an effect each dimension’s impact on the confidence and on user confidence and should be considered when willingness of a construction professional to use setting up a project team to promote successful a model authored by another party for automated integration of BIM. processes; and (3) identifying methods for planning Organization of Influencing Variables and executing a project that promotes higher user confidence and greater levels of trust between Table 2 shows the factors of trust related to project project participants who author and use BIM. delivery in construction, project management, and related fields identified through the literature review. The first objective required completing a literature review identifying dimensions of organization Beyond the variables identified in the literature, trust related to project delivery. These dimensions other variables were identified through discussions classified into categories. Additionally, some factors with the industry, open-ended responses from the identified from a prior research study as effects prior study (Lucas et al, 2015), and through the of user confidence in BIM use (Lucas et al, 2015) piloting of the survey tool. These variables are were also included. included in Table 3.

Effects of Organizational Trust and Project Delivery Variables on BIM User Confidence

Table 2. Variables of trust from literature related to study

Reference Agreement Contractual Economic Self Interest Economic Incentives Trust Sanctions for Breach of Transaction Cost Analysis Perceived Risk Confidentiality Communication Personal Experience/Rapport Reputation/References Competence Integrity Trust Intuitive Performance Fairness/Transparency Technology Knowledge of the Self-Interest Legal System (Contracts) Societal Norms Training Education and Policy about Use Organizational Boundary Role Person Certification Kadefors, 2004 X X X X - - - X - X X ------X X X - - - Wong et al, 2008 X ------X ------X - - Pinto et al, 2009 X ------X ------Rousseau et al, 1998 - - X X ------Eccles, 1981 - - - - X ------Reve & Levitt, 1984 - - - - X ------Stinchcombe, 1985 - - - - X ------Winch, 1989 - - - - X ------Bang, 2002 - - - - X ------Saeed et al, 2008 - - - - - X ------Giddens, 1991 ------X ------Rotimi et al, 2015 ------X X - - - - X X ------X - Zajonc, 1980 ------X ------Gayeski, 1993 ------X ------Bolton et al, 2016 ------X ------Pruitt & Kimmell, 1977 ------X ------X ------Krammer, 1999 ------X ------Hartman et al, 2002 ------X X ------Bierhoff & Vornefeld, ------X ------2004 Resnick et al, 2002 ------X

Effects of Organizational Trust and Project Delivery Variables on BIM User Confidence

Table 3. Other Identified Variables

Influencing Variables Description and Accompanied Assumption to be Tested The Level of Development (LOD) that is specified for a model indicates how much detail and data is included for each system of the model. An assumption Level of Development would be a higher LOD would indicate a more accurate estimate or result from an automated process. A well-documented BIM Execution Plan, with precise supply chain details will BIM Execution Plan boost the confidence of the end user. (Much like a boundary role person from above) Assigning a person to assure the accuracy of information, like a fact checker in journalism, can help identify Model Coordinator a quality modelling process, thus raising someone’s trust in the quality of the content of that model. (Much like certifications) Would knowing a modeller had past experience Modeller Experience with the process help the user have a higher level of confidence in the model’s accuracy? A clear defined process with open exchange of data that allows for constant Transparency of Process review would help promote confidence in the process. Professional affiliations of the modeling author in professional ganizationsor that Affiliations promote the efficient use of technology/BIM.

Table 4 shows the classification of the variables Table 4, Relational Trust and Identification-based as they relate to the identified models of trust Trust had similar variables and definitions. For the of Hartman et al (2002), Rousseau et al (1998), purpose of the questionnaire, they were treated as and Lewicki and Bunker (1996). Additional one category, Relational Trust. The questionnaire factors relating to Contractual Agreement and was designed to provide insight as to the Education that did not fit in a designated category effectiveness of a variable on the decision-making were classified under “Other” in column 4. Note process to trust and use the information in a model that some of the identified variables could fit in that was authored by someone else. Question 1 of multiple categories. In these cases, the contextual the questionnaire addressed the use of BIM by the definition from the literature helped determine respondent for planning or managing construction which category was the variable’s “best fit”. projects and question 2 addressed the amount (in years) of that experience. The remaining Survey Design questions utilized a 7-point Likert scale allowing The first questionnaire included questions to gauge the respondents to rank their perception of each the attitudes of professionals using BIM towards statement (Table 5). A high score (7) represents each of the identified 10 categories. From these 10 a high degree of effectiveness of the dimension categories, 13 questions relating to the different described where a lower score (1) indicates the variables made up the web-based self-administered dimension does not have an effect. questionnaire. From the identified variables in

Effects of Organizational Trust and Project Delivery Variables on BIM User Confidence

Table 4. Classification of Variables

Hartman et al, 2002 Rousseau et al, 1998 Lewicki and Bunker, 1996 Other Integrity Calculus-based Deterrence-based Education Integrity Economic self interest Sanctions for breach of Certification Fairness/Transparency Transaction cost analysis trust Perceived risk Self interest Competence Relational Trust Knowledge-based Contractual Agreement History Personal experience Fairness/transparency Model level of detail Reputation History Personal experience BIM execution plan Communication Regulation History Boundary role person Performance Communications Reputation Knowledge of technology Communications Performance Intuitive Institutional-based Identification-based Perceived risk Boundary role person Communication Intuition (Gut feeling) Legal systems Personal experience Societal norms History Regulation Regulation Organizational policy Affiliations

Table 5. Questions connected to each category

No. Question Dimension 3 How likely are you to trust the information in a BIM (model) when making decisions Calculus with severe financial consequences? (e.g. Basing an entire project budget on Based information received from a BIM) 4 To what extent does the inclusion of contractual obligations of BIM use, (such as a specific Level of Development, an owner required BIM Execution Plan, Formal Contractual Deliverables of a Record Model to the owner, etc.) affect your confidence in the agreement accuracy of a model developed by another party? 5 How likely is it for your confidence to be increased by the appointment of a boundary role person? A boundary role person is responsible to assure the accuracy of the model Contractual and for keeping the line of communication open between the key players, as well as agreement being available to take your questions, grievances, etc. 6 To what extent does the formal post-secondary education of the model’s author related to BIM processes influence your acceptance of the model as being accurate? Education

7 To what extent does the certification of the model’s author(s) from a reputed training program influence your acceptance of the model as being accurate? Education

8 To what extent would you say that your level of confidence in model accuracy is fueled by the author’s integrity? Integrity being you believe that the author(s) will look out for Integrity your best interests in addition to their own.

Effects of Organizational Trust and Project Delivery Variables on BIM User Confidence

Table 5 (Continued). Questions connected to each category

9 If the accuracy of a model is a contractual obligation and any breach of trust (e.g. Errors in accuracy) is penalized through economic sanctions or other monetary means Deterrence to motivate the creation of a more accurate model, how likely is this to affect your confidence in the accuracy and use of that model? 10 How much of an effect does previous interactions (past experiences) with the author(s) Competence and their associated entities have on your confidence in the accuracy of the model? 11 To what extent does your personal knowledge of a model’s author(s) influence your Knowledge trust in their professional competence and ability to deliver an accurate model? Based 12 To what extent does your intuition play a role in your acceptance of a BIM as being accurate? Especially when the information fed into the BIM is done so by third parties Intuitive with whom you do not have an acquaintance. 13 To what extent does the documentation culture at your organization to make models Institution and other electronic forms of documentation influence your confidence in the models of Based a third party author? 14 To what extent does the author’s affiliation with a reputed organization/company affect Institution your confidence in the model’s accuracy? Based 15 How much of an affect does repeated interactions with the models and its author(s) Relational have on your level of confidence in the accuracy of the information?

Contacts from 50 companies, mostly from the southern mode. This was followed by testing the statistical U.S., that have contact with the department were used significance of the data by performing a t-test. The as a convenience sample. Contacts who were not the selection of t-test is based on the sample size of less most appropriate at their organization to respond were than 30 and the nature of interval data collected encouraged to pass the survey on to someone else through the Likert scale questions. The t-test was who had the experience and knowledge to complete performed and compared to a 95% significance level the survey. A total of 29 responses were collected. Of (p< 0.05 = significant) and 20 degrees of freedom those responses, 21 reached the experience threshold (n-1). The Hypothesized Mean of 4, the median of set at 4 years (the minimum average requirement for the 7-point Likert scale, was used in the analysis. A most “BIM Manager” positions posted on a random summary of the descriptive statistics is included in sampling of public job listings). The experience level Table 6. of the qualified respondents ranged from 4 years to 14 years (average of 7.4 years of experience). Summary of Findings Descriptive Analysis Descriptive statistics were administered on the data collected to calculate mean, standard deviation, and

Effects of Organizational Trust and Project Delivery Variables on BIM User Confidence

Table 6. Descriptive Analysis of the results

Significant Question Mean (µ) SD (σ) Mode Range T-Test (p) (p<0.05) Q3 3.190 2.015 1 1 to 7 0.087 No Q4 5.095 1.444 4 2 to 7 0.003 Yes Q5 5.238 1.151 6 1 to 6 0.053 Yes Q6 3.238 1.659 4 1 to 6 0.162 No Q7 3.429 1.761 5 1 to 6 0.007 No Q8 5.095 1.630 5 1 to 7 0.000 Yes Q9 5.762 1.630 6 3 to 7 0.000 Yes Q10 6.000 0.976 7 4 to 7 0.000 Yes Q11 5.381 0.999 6 3 to 7 0.000 Yes Q12 4.524 1.763 5 1 to 7 0.199 No Q13 5.667 1.084 6 4 to 7 0.000 Yes Q14 5.095 1.231 6 2 to 7 0.001 Yes Q15 6.238 0.971 7 4 to 7 0.000 Yes

Administering this test reveals that not all factors Influence of Experience on Responses are statistically significant in influencing the respondent’s trust in building information models. One of the factors of influence examined was the The dimensions that have an influence on user effect on the years of experience using BIM to the confidence are;Contractual agreement (Q4 and respondents’ responses. Because of the distribution Q5), Integrity (Q8), Deterrence (Q9), Competence of respondents and the average amount of (Q10), Knowledge Based (Q11), Institution experience, the respondents were grouped by those Based (Q13 and Q14), and Relational (Q15). The with 4 to 6 years of experience (10 respondents dimensions that did not have signification influence with 4.8 years average experience) and those with on the user confidence areCalculus Based (Q3), seven or more years of experience (11 respondents Education (Q6 and Q7) and Intuitive (Q12). These with 9.7 years average experience). The average four also had the lowest means of all the questions. responses for each of the questions based on years of experience is included in Figure 2.

Figure 2. Average rating per question based on respondent’s experience with BIM

Effects of Organizational Trust and Project Delivery Variables on BIM User Confidence

Table 7. Correlation Coefficientsr) ( for each dimension based on experience

Question Category r Strength Q6 Education (Post Secondary) 0.369 Moderate Q7 Education (Certifications) 0.552 Strong Q8 Integrity 0.566 Strong Q9 Deterrence 0.404 Moderate Q11 Knowledge Based 0.440 Moderate

Further statistical analysis included a correlational Follow Up Survey Analysis study (Table 7). Correlations were considered The first survey higher level to understand the statistically strong if r > 0.500 and moderate if categories of trust that affected user confidence in 0.500 > r > .300. A correlation under .01 indicated using a BIM developed by a third party author. A a nonexistent correlation. second survey was developed to provide a better The strong and moderate correlations for Q6-9 and understanding of the individual variables of the Q11 were looked at more closely. Scatter plots were nine categories that had statistically important developed for these five dimensions. Even though findings. Table 9 documents the individual factors Q6, Q7, and Q8 were moderate and strong, the of each category and served as the framework of scatter plot does not show a linear relationship. Q9 the second survey. and Q11 are linear in nature and both show a slight negative correlation with fewer outliers though the The second survey consisted of twenty-nine (29) slope is not significant. This suggests that years of questions grouped by category from survey 1. The experience does not relate to rating of any category goal was to identify which variables had the most for this group of respondents. impact. The survey was sent back to the original 21 respondents who qualified for the first survey. Most Influential Factors 14 responses were received. The respondents had After the Likert-based questions, an open response an average of 6.8 years of experience utilizing question was included asking respondents to list the BIM. The lower response rate is attributed to three greatest influences that affect their confidence two respondents moving organizations, three in using a model developed by someone else. The respondents who did not respond to the initial or open responses were coded for similar content two follow-up requests to participate, and two that and organized into a ranking of the top five by were removed from the response pool after starting frequency mentioned (Table 8). but not completing the survey. The questions were based on a 7-point Likert scale to rank Table 8. Most Influential factors on Confidence their agreement with 7 being the highest level of in Third Party Authored Model. agreement, 4 being neutral, and 1 being the lowest level of agreement. Factors Frequency th Past Interactions with Author 10 Six (6) variables of the top 11 (tie for 10 ) based on mean level of agreement were in the top two ranked Author’s Skill and Experience 7 categories for the first survey (Table 11). Relational Participant’s Buy-in to BIM Process 7 aspects of having personal experience and personal Model Organization 5 history with the model author are important to the Organization Reputation 5 user’s confidence in the model’s accuracy

Effects of Organizational Trust and Project Delivery Variables on BIM User Confidence

Table 9. Examined Factors from Statistically Significant Categories

Survey 1 Factors/ Variables Included in Survey 2 Q4/5 Contractual Agreements 4.1 Level of Development of the model being specified in the contract 4.2 Owner required BIM execution plan 4.3 Formal Deliverables of a record model being required by the owner 4.4 Inclusion of Formal Contract Addendum (Ex. AIA E203, G201/G202, or ConsesusDoc 301) 4.5 Assignment of a boundary role person to coordinate BIM use Q8 Integrity 8.1 The author’s transparency regarding the model development 8.2 Openness to share model data 8.3 Forthcoming in identifying model changes Q9 Deterrence 9.1 The severity of sanctions for the violation of the contract 9.2 Promise of future business with the model author influencing the severity of sanctions Q10 Competence 9.1 Repeated interactions with the model author 9.2 Trust in the a third party that recommended the model author 9.3 Communication skills of the model author 9.4 Overall performance of the model author 9.5 Your knowledge of model technology 9.6 Model author’s prior construction experience Q11 Knowledge-Based 11.1 Reputation of the Author 11.2 Integrity of the model author Q13/14 Institution Based 13.1 Author’s organization’s documentation culture 13.2 Author’s organization’s reputation for BIM/ technology use 13.3 Author’s organization’s policies in terms of BIM use 13.4 Regulations and control of model authoring/use of author’s organization Q15 Relational 15.1 Personal Experience 15.2 Personal history with the organization 15.3 Personal history with the author 15.4 Your organization’s history with the organization (past work/ projects) 15.5 Line of communication between the companies 15.6 Restricted nature of information sharing 15.7 Open nature of information sharing

Effects of Organizational Trust and Project Delivery Variables on BIM User Confidence

Table 11. Top Variables with Reference to Prior Category Ranking

Category Survey 1 Rank Variable Mean Mode Range Relational 1 15.1 Personal Experience 6.454 7 5 to 7 Relational 1 15.3 Personal history with the author 6.454 7 4 to 7 10.1 Repeated interactions with the model Competence 2 6.083 7 4 to 7 author Knowledge- 5 11.2 Integrity of the model author 5.910 6 5 to 7 Based 13.2 Author’s organization’s reputation for Institution 4 5.820 7 4 to 7 BIM/ technology use Knowledge- 5 11.1 Reputation of the Author 5.636 5 4 to 7 Based Relational 1 15.2 Personal history with the organization 5.630 6 4 to 7 Competence 2 10.4 Overall performance of the model author 5.583 6 4 to 7 Integrity 7 8.3 Forthcoming in identifying model changes 5.580 7 2 to 7 Competence 2 10.5 Your knowledge of BIM technology 5.500 5 4 to 7 Integrity 7 8.2 Openness to share model data 5.500 6 2 to 7

For those variables that received the lowest means Discussion in terms of agreement, three of the five were Team Development and BIM User Confidence initially ranked in the second to last category, Contractual, in the first survey. All five also Trust establishes and sustains relationships had a larger range of responses and less overall (Luhmann, 1979; Lewis and Weigert, 1985; agreement. Three of the five have a mode of 3, Rousseau et al. 1998; Kramer, 1999). The presence which is in the “disagree” range of the scale. Table of trust can improve organizational culture 12 shows the five variables with the lowest rate of (Whitener et al. 1998). From this research, it agreement. appears that the presence of trust in developing a relationship between project members can also

Table 12. Lowest Variables with Reference to Prior Category Ranking

Category Survey 1 Rank Variable Mean Mode Range Contractual 8 4.2 Owner required BIM execution plan 3.420 3 1 to 6 Relational 1 15.6 Restricted nature of information sharing 3.818 3 2 to 6 4.4 Inclusion of Formal Contract Addendum (Ex. Contractual 8 4.070 3 2 to 7 AIA E203, G201/G202, or ConsesusDoc 301) 9.2 Promise of future business with the model Deterrence 3 4.250 5 1 to 7 author influencing the severity of sanctions 4.1 Level of Development of the model being Contractual 8 4.285 5 2 to 7 specified in the contract

Effects of Organizational Trust and Project Delivery Variables on BIM User Confidence improve the trust within a collaborative, multi- a BIM Execution Plan is created. The BIM organizational environment. This goes well with Execution Plan is often a contract requirement of the argument of Homayouni, et al. (2010) that the owner that exists between project players or a team must create a social and organizational required by contractors between the contractor and foundation to support collaboration before you can the sub. One methodology for creating this plan successfully implement inter-organizational BIM is the Building Information Modeling Execution with transparent technology use. Ozorhon and Planning Guide (CIRCP, 2010). Within that guide, Karahan (2017) added that human-related factors one of the first steps is to create common goals, are essential to successful BIM implementation. communicate strategy, and understand roles and responsibilities of different project members. The Contracts and BIM User Confidence authors place an emphasis on having the team Traditional contracts allow for allocation of risk. members’ work on setting these up. The results These types of contracts typically have two gaps as of the current research would suggest that having they are related to the collaborative BIM process team members work together on this is important that deal with the transitional phases between for developing relationships among the team design and construction and then again between members to promote more efficient use of BIM construction and post-construction (Hamdi and and more confidence in the process between the Leite, 2014). Traditional contracts need to be players. The defined requirements that result as a structured in a way to address common issues of deliverable of the planning process are important authorship and intellectual property in ways that to ensure the project is organized and there are supports a collaborative process (Alwash, Love, documented goals, but without a relationship & Olantunji, 2017). For a collaborative contract that promotes transparency and trust between the to effectively promote a collaborative relationship, project participants, they may not be as effective as it must be viewed as an execution guideline and they could be. not just a method for shifting risk to other parties Conclusions and Future Research (Pishdad-Bozorgi and Beliveau, 2016). Some limitations to this research are the use Gaps between design and construction are often of a convenience sample and smaller pool of addressed through contractual language that deal respondents. In order to test the findings of the with methods of deterrence (Hamdi and Leite, study, additional review of the top impact factors 2014). However, based on the current study need to be validated by a larger respondent findings, these are some of the least effective pool. A larger survey to industry can be used to methods for improving a user’s confidence in identify agreement with some of the conclusions the accuracy of a building information model of the research. A short, concise survey sent out turned over by another author. In addition, typical to a large base should result in a larger number contractual stipulations like an owner required BIM of respondents. Additionally, a framework for execution plan, BIM specific contract addenda, and developing the relationships taking advantage of required level of development specifications were the other top variables based on literature review all in the five least influential variables in terms will be explored as a practical way to apply the user confidence. This suggests that contractual findings of the research. This will be reviewed by language alone will not ensure a successful project industry professionals and pilot tested in project delivery in terms of utilizing BIM in a more groups where feedback can be received by way of effective way. focus groups as to its effectiveness. Project Execution The research discussed looks at methods for For most projects that utilize BIM for construction, promoting a higher level of confidence in the model

Effects of Organizational Trust and Project Delivery Variables on BIM User Confidence users for using a building information model that was The study identified that aspects of developing a authored by someone else in automated processes relationship between the user and author of the and for making important project decisions. Though model can help increase the user confidence in the contract methods are adapting to a more collaborative model’s accuracy. This in turn can help increase the project delivery, there are still challenges to using BIM willingness of the user to utilize the model to its full to its full capabilities in a collaborative project. Most capacity. When BIM is utilized to its full capacity the model users are hesitant as to the accuracy of a model project workflow becomes more efficient. Though created by someone else in terms of using the model contract language, BIM execution plans, and other for critical project processes where accuracy of the organizational issues and project delivery structures model would be linked to project risk (e.g. estimating). are important, they do not appear to have the same level of impact as the personal relationship.

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Effects of Organizational Trust and Project Delivery Variables on BIM User Confidence

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Building Information Model-Based Quantity Takeoff - Leadership Support and Training

Building Information Model-Based Quantity Takeoff – Leadership Support and Training

Morgan Tagg, James P. Smith*, Jay P. Christofferson, and Kevin R. Miller Bringham Young University | [email protected]

ABSTRACT Building Information Modeling (BIM) plays an important role in the modern construction industry. BIM models are tools that help stakeholders perform a variety of functions including communication, visualization, trade coordination, and clash detection. A less commonly utilized functionality of BIM that shows strong potential to improve efficiencies and reduce error is model-based quantity take off (QTO). The literature identifies eight challenges to implementing BIM QTO. This paper focuses on the leadership and training elements inherent to two of the identified challenges – 1) New skills and training, and 2) reluctance of employees to adopt. Through semi-structured interviews with estimators, preconstruction managers, BIM managers, and virtual design & construction (VDC) managers, valuable insights on BIM QTO implementation among commercial general contractors were gathered and analyzed. The current state of practice related to leadership support and training in this area suggests a wide range of approaches and confidence, even amongst those that are actively attempting BIM-based QTO. Three specific workflows are identified along with current training and professional development practices.

Key Words: Building Information Modeling, Quantity Takeoff, Training, Virtual Design and Construction, Preconstruction

Morgan Tagg is a recent graduate of the Masters in Construction Management program at Brigham Young University. He is currently working for Skidmore, Owings & Merrill Inc. in Geneva, Switzerland.

James P. Smith, PhD is an Assistant Professor in the Construction Management program at Brigham Young University. Dr. Smith teaches preconstruction and his research efforts focus on trust-building in the construction delivery process, lean construction, and alternative project delivery methods.

Jay P. Christofferson, PhDis a Professor in the Construction Management program at Brigham Young University. Dr. Christofferson teaches Estimating and also authored a widely used textbook, “Estimating with Excel: Keys to Unlocking the Power for Builders”.

Kevin R. Miller, PhD was a Professor in Construction Management program at Brigham Young University before he tragically passed away in a car accident on March 16th, 2018. He was the Committee Chair for Morgan’s thesis and is an honorary author on this project.

Building Information Model-Based Quantity Takeoff - Leadership Support and Training

INTRODUCTION to use BIM for QTO notwithstanding the potential for time savings, quicker design feedback, and The rapid growth of Building Information increased estimating accuracy. Modelling (BIM) over the past 10 years has influenced and challenged the traditional design, The purpose of this research was to identify how project management and relationship aspects of current BIM-practicing GCs are implementing the construction industry (Jones and Bernstein, advancements in BIM technology to perform QTO 2012). BIM is defined as “a digital representation within their organizations. This information can help of physical and functional characteristics of a us acquire a better understanding of the challenges facility. As such it serves as a shared knowledge in an effort to identify and test possible solutions. resource for information about a facility forming This paper focuses on the portion of the interviews a reliable basis for decisions during its lifecycle and data that were specific to leadership support from inception onward” (NBIMS, 2017). BIM’s and current training practices experienced by the capabilities and features reach far beyond 3D respondents. modeling and visualization and include the “digital description of every aspect of the built asset… LITERATURE REVIEW Creating a digital BIM enables those who interact BIM Evolution in the AEC Industry with the building to optimize their actions, resulting in a greater whole life value for the asset” (NBIMS, BIM features have attracted the attention of 2017). architects, engineers, owners, general contractors and trades since its creation. The level of BIM Various stakeholders such as designers, engineers, adoption in North America has increased throughout constructors and facility managers are naturally the years from 28% in 2007, to 49% in 2009 on to interested in the benefits available through BIM. 71% in 2012 (Jones and Bernstein, 2012). As of Although the model is regularly used to assist clients 2013, 38% of the trades and 39% of GCs were rated and others in visualizing the project, additional as “high” and “very high” BIM implementers (Jones capabilities of BIM are gaining popularity and and Bernstein, 2014). utilization in the industry. Research suggests that BIM is used by construction project stakeholders The 2015 Smart Market Report (Jones and Laquidara- in the following primary areas of the project Carr, 2015) stated that, the industry had sufficiently delivery process: phasing and scheduling, virtual matured with regard to BIM implementation to tours for clients and end-users, analysis of options, deeply transform the way the industry functioned. sustainability analyses, site logistics, energy The research suggested that BIM was not merely performance analyses, building management, on- changing the way architects designed and modeled site project management, clash detection, cost but rather how the overall construction industry estimation, and quantity takeoff (QTO) (Azhar et operated. Emphasis on areas such as collaboration al., 2012; Willis and Regmi, 2016). Additionally, the between stakeholders and improving techniques such coordination of technical components of buildings as prefabrication were driving general contractors through the BIM supports enhanced teamwork to higher productivity and efficiency (Jones and among project participants (Azhar, 2012). Many Laquidara-Carr, 2015). of these areas have shown great success and are As of 2015, it had been noted that BIM had a being effectively implemented across the industry. strong impact on the overall quality of construction However, the examined literature of the past eight documentation, its understanding by the stakeholders years did not provide evidence of an efficient use of and organizational potential. However, aspects such BIM capabilities in the QTO process. Anecdotally, it as diminished project cost, accuracy of construction appears that general contractors (GCs) are reluctant costs and bidding, productivity, reportable safety

Building Information Model-Based Quantity Takeoff - Leadership Support and Training incidents and other numerically quantifiable the next updated version of the plan. aspects had not received quite as high ratings as the Difficulties GC’s Face Using BIM for QTO documentation quality or organizational potential features of BIM (Jones and Laquidara-Carr, 2015). GC’s face a variety of challenges to the effective utilization of BIM-based QTO. Generally speaking, State of Implementation in QTO Activities Aram et al. (2014) indicated that QTO software In Australia, the results of a survey stemming from platforms must meet three primary conditions the study of the status of BIM adoption in the cost in order to provide useful quantities: i) both estimation process indicated that 94% of respondents architectural and structural models must be suitable still used 2D drawings for QTO, while 22% used 3D for QTO; ii) information must be quantitative in CAD models and only 20% experienced 3D BIM nature; and iii) designer-provided models must intelligent parametric models (Aibinu & Venkatesh, include the complete information needed for these 2014). These numbers show how difficult it can be tasks. These issues, among others, create challenges for contractors to move away from traditional take- to efficient and accurate QTO, deterring GC’s from off methods. There is some evidence that a mix of higher levels of adoption. both methods (2D and 3D) are being used but that Aibinu and Venkatesh (2014) ranked eight different the shift towards BIM QTO was slow and uncertain challenges from the survey they conducted in (Aibinu & Venkatesh, 2014). Additionally, figures Australia. Similarly, at the same period and in the from the Royal Institution of Chartered Surveyors same country, Smith (2014) listed 6 comparable (RICS) 2011 survey of BIM usage by estimators challenges with an additional challenge being the in the UK and US showed that only 10% of legal, contractual and insurance aspects. This paper respondents used BIM regularly in QTO and cost addresses two of the challenges identified in the estimation activities, in contrast to 29% with limited previously mentioned studies: engagement and 61% without any engagement (RICS, 2011). BIM-based QTO is showing promise 1. New skills and training – Forgues et al. (2012) across the basic construction industries as well. pointed out that the use of BIM QTO software Vitasek and Matejka (2017) showed the successful required specific training and that the accuracy implementation of BIM-based QTO for a heavy of the results needed to be monitored and civil project in the Czech Republic. tested to ensure that the system was reliable. Along the same lines, Smith (2014) indicated Historical Take-Off Methods that, although software and technology were Two categories of QTO exist, manual and electronic. expensive, the greatest cost for GCs lay “in Manual take-off is traditionally performed by staff training and development.” This change estimators using 2D drawings and colored markers applied to all participants of the construction that identified each of the relevant materials. The project. For automated model-based QTO to be measurements were then recorded into a ledger or possible, designers needed to adapt the design spreadsheet. This process was tedious and great methods to accommodate the estimator’s needs. care was necessary to ensure information accuracy, Additionally, GC participants and facility especially on large and complex projects. managers needed to be trained to be able to manipulate and work with models regularly. Electronic means were used to accelerate the process, first with the digitizer and later with software that 2. Reluctance by employees – Making a change in a allowed estimators to view the electronic 2D plans company’s tools and processes created difficulty and measure the quantities on the computer. The among teams. Bachman (2009) stated, “for many quantified parts of the plans were easily visualized, people, rapid change can be difficult, and nearly relatively speaking, and saved for comparison with all culture changes take time. Implementing

Building Information Model-Based Quantity Takeoff - Leadership Support and Training

BIM across the firm needs to be seen as more provide project estimates and bids to clients, they evolutionary than revolutionary”. This principle would be the most knowledgeable in BIM model use is certainly applicable to the transition from and QTO tools available. Since the distinct processes traditional QTO to BIM-based QTO. Willis and and procedures were likely to be fairly specific to Regmi (2016) supported the idea that “there each company, it was determined that a qualitative must be a cultural shift in the attitudes and research method was most appropriate to discover expectations of project participants” for the and analyze how GCs were taking advantage of successful use of BIM in project management. BIM’s capabilities in the estimating field. Smith (2014) also found that the “cultural In order to select the participants, the authors business change” was a challenge for many contacted a list of 40 potential interview candidates companies as certain staff members would drawn from a convenience sample of their industry not adapt to that change. However, the study contacts. Their selection was conditional on regular revealed that attitudes had been changing in the BIM use in the QTO process whether as a means two previous years “as professional staff realize to quantify materials, or simply to visualize a that if they do not evolve with this technology project during the estimating process. Several of and develop expertise they will be left behind” the contacted participants referred the researchers (Smith, 2014). to other BIM estimators within their company. METHODOLOGY Given that the research was qualitative, it was necessary to contact and discuss the topic with The principal objective of this research was to knowledgeable practitioners who were willing to identify current practices of commercial GC’s in share their experiences and give specific, in-depth the BIM QTO process. This paper focuses on data information about their current practices along with and responses relevant to the previously mentioned insights on successes and challenges they faced in challenges facing leadership in implementing and the field. A total of 22 participants were interviewed, training BIM QTO within their organizations. More out of which 20 were retained. The 2 participants specifically, this paper addresses the following whose data was not retained for analysis were research questions: familiar with the technology but had not been using 1. Does commercial GC leadership support the it in their QTO efforts. While the generalizability of implementation of BIM-based QTO? If so, how? this study is limited by the size and nature of the sample selection, the relative infancy of this topic in 2. What software are commercial GC’s using for academic literature justifies research that supports a BIM QTO? foundation for future work. 3. How did those who support and implement There were two steps to the data collection: 1) a BIM-based QTO learn the requisite skills? general demographic information survey via e-mail; 4. For those actively using BIM in the QTO and and 2) a semi-structured interview. The interviews estimating processes, what kind of training allowed the researcher to gather respondents’ (both initial training and continuing professional thoughts, historical information and opinions. development) is happening? Although the set of 10 interview questions were the same for each interview, the semi-structured The focus of this study was to gain an understanding approach allowed the researcher to ask additional of the current state of BIM use in the QTO process questions on topics participants brought up that from those whose jobs and responsibilities involved weren’t part of the initially prepared questions. This QTO and estimating, usually known as estimators methodology gave some flexibility to build on the in commercial GCs. Since they were responsible to information as it was received during the interview.

Building Information Model-Based Quantity Takeoff - Leadership Support and Training

FINDINGS the experience or number of BIM estimators. Five companies had 25 and above BIM estimators (the Demographics highest was 100) and four respondents indicated that The answers provided in the demographics survey they did not know how many were in their company. regarding the time companies and estimators were The types of projects companies worked on using involved in BIM-based QTO confirmed that the BIM QTO covered a wide range of buildings such as technology was in its early stages. Both companies office spaces, airports, education buildings for every and participants were using BIM QTO on average age group, hospitals, medical centers, entertainment about 6 years. In this data set, there was no specific facilities, shopping centers, prisons, hospitality correlation between company size and their buildings and residential among others. Project sizes experience using BIM for QTO. The minimum ranged approximately from 10,000 to 1.7 million experience for both company and participants was square feet, the average being between 135,000 and close to 2 years. A difference was noted on the 765,000 square feet. These findings indicated that maximum experience of companies and estimators. BIM QTO was not limited to specific project types The company that used it the longest had 12 years or sizes and covered many different buildings. of experience and the most familiar respondent had been taking off simple volumes for 20 years. The Interview Responses next highest experienced participant was practicing In the following description and analysis of the BIM QTO for 10 years. findings, it is important to remember that the The survey provided insightful information on what answers stemmed from semi-structured interviews. role each participant played in the company. Fifty Therefore, there were no lists of potential answers percent of them had a BIM, VDC or technology from which to choose. All provided answers came related job title (one of which had a joint title as from the participants’ experience in their field of VDC and preconstruction manager). Thirty-five expertise. It was interesting to note, however, that percent had estimator titles (one of which had a joint upon analysis the answers fit into a relatively limited title as preconstruction director and chief estimator). number of categories for most questions. Ten percent were preconstruction managers and the Respondents were asked to describe the source of remaining individual was a database manager who their BIM QTO training. Figure 1 details the various defined his title as being more of a data manager, provided sources and the percentage of respondents performing integrations between the estimating that claimed each. Respondents were allowed to state software and accounting program. As the interviews multiple sources where applicable. Most individuals progressed, another question about the respondents’ reported multiple sources of training. background became important. The goal was to understand what relationship they had with BIM The results yielded 5 general categories. The QTO when their title was not technology related. highest-ranking category was “self-taught” (95% of The results showed that of the 50% who did not respondents) and was given by each participant but have a technology title, 60% had a previous BIM/ one. Respondents explained that since the technology VDC experience or were technology driven, and was new and not many resources were available, 40% came from a traditional estimating background. most of the learning took place through trial and error while trying to accomplish certain tasks. Figures for the company yearly revenue differed Furthermore, this aspect showed the respondents’ widely. The lowest revenue was $300,000 and the desire and motivation to learn to perform BIM-based highest was 7 billion dollars. The average for the QTO. Those who did not have such motivation sample was a little over 2 million dollars. No direct were not likely to pursue learning the software correlation was found between yearly revenue and and discarded the idea as it required a more self-

Building Information Model-Based Quantity Takeoff - Leadership Support and Training

Figure 1: Sources of BIM QTO Training disciplined approach to learning. The individual receiving training through their organization. This who did not report as being “self-taught” claimed a training was provided in different ways. Some firms lack of time and pressing deadlines. This individual hired software companies to train the estimators in ultimately resorted to using the traditional 2D take- specific aspects of BIM software (not always 100% off techniques to overcome BIM QTO challenges. BIM QTO related), some had in-house estimators or As expected, it seemed that there was a direct BIM / VDC managers provide formal training and, correlation between the estimator’s motivation and in one case, the company challenged the estimator desire to use BIM for estimation purposes and the to learn how to perform BIM-based QTO, allowing dedication to learning the techniques with no or him to allocate the necessary time to accomplish that little additional external support. task. Moreover, the same proportion of participants explained that they also sought help through the The second highest ranking category (60% of internal resources (co-workers or BIM / VDC respondents) included indirect training resources managers) of the company. Some organizations through online tutorials, webinars or specialized placed BIM/VDC managers and estimators close conferences on the topic of BIM-based estimating together in the office to encourage such collaboration. and QTO. This category is clearly related to self- It was not unusual to hear respondents explain that learning but includes a specific description of way they often sought help on specific aspects from their that education was obtained. Proficiency with BIM colleagues, allowing them to slowly broaden their software came from actively searching for new skillset over time. tutorials and webinars and then spending time implementing the new skills through practice, and Interestingly, only 20% of the participants learned trial and error. BIM QTO skills during their university degree training. This indicates that industry is pushing the A little over 33% of the interviewees described shift from traditional takeoff to BIM-base QTO.

Building Information Model-Based Quantity Takeoff - Leadership Support and Training

Figure 2: Average Time Spent Monthly for BIM QTO Professional Development

Time Spent in Professional Development job responsibility, were too busy with current work to keep up with ongoing training or were waiting for Interviewees were also asked how much time they overall model quality to improve before spending spent each month, on average, receiving or pursuing additional time on BIM-based QTO. additional training related to BIM QTO. The answers to this question are summarized in Figure As it relates to training, respondents were also 2. Responses were divided into four categories. asked to identify which software they used for BIM Several respondents mentioned that they were QTO. Figure 3 includes their responses. Sixteen of developing and polishing their skills continuously, the twenty respondents mentioned using more than but when asked to actually quantify their devoted one software so multiple answers were allowed. time in a given month, they fell into categories as Overall, nine QTO software packages were indicated in Figure 2. mentioned, out of which three clearly differentiated Sixty percent of the answers ranged between one to themselves from the rest. The top three were four hours of professional development a month. In Assemble, Autodesk Navisworks and Autodesk most cases, such development took place irregularly Revit, with Assemble being a step ahead in and in sporadic bursts as some respondents attended popularity. The other six were only mentioned once conferences or took time to learn about a new or twice. software coming out. These figures were usually days or hours per year brought down to a monthly Assemble’s popularity seemed to be essentially due basis. The majority of the respondents indicated an to its ease of use and the short training time required average of 1 to 4 hours a month. Only two individuals compared to other software packages. It was noted indicated practicing more, with 6 to 8 hours and 10 by respondents that Assemble was comparatively to 15 hours a month, respectively. Two participants user-friendly whereas Navisworks required more spoke of “very little” which was interpreted as a training time and expertise to be able to extract range between 0 and 1 hour a month in this study. quantities efficiently. Navisworks, however, was The three respondents who explained that they identified as allowing more flexibility in selecting didn’t continue developing their BIM QTO skills and isolating elements in the model. One individual indicated that it was because it either wasn’t their differentiated his own software use and that of the

Building Information Model-Based Quantity Takeoff - Leadership Support and Training

Figure 3: Software Packages Used for BIM-Based QTO other estimators, indicating that he used a mix As identified in Figure 4, Assemble was the of Assemble and Navisworks whereas the other most used software package for QTO. Although estimators relied solely on Assemble. Navisworks and Revit were named by the same number of individuals (10 each), as seen in Figure It was evident that the software choice was in 3, their actual average use showed substantial constant evolution. Several respondents had differences. used different software packages in the past and explained regularly testing new ones. The results were indicative of the software being used at the time the interviews were conducted. It was common for participants to refer to software packages they had worked with in the past but had left behind. The quest for the ideal tools and workflow was felt throughout the discussions. Two individuals noted that the software choice also depended on the level of detail needed for the estimate. For conceptual estimates, Sketchup and D-Profiler seemed adequate. For detailed estimates, more powerful tools were used such as Navisworks, Revit or Assemble. Another aspect Figure 4: Average Use of the Most Popular BIM that came into play was the format of the model QTO Software Packages file. In some instances where the original creator of the model had not used Revit, specific software Over the course of the interviews, the following packages able to open other file types became insights relating to training and leadership support necessary. also emerged:

Building Information Model-Based Quantity Takeoff - Leadership Support and Training

• Receiving support from the leadership of the CONCLUSIONS AND estimating department took approximately two RECOMMENDATIONS years. The participants of this study should be considered • It was difficult to find people with the skills to BIM QTO pioneers in the sense that 95% of them navigate and analyze 3D models. were self-taught. Their training came essentially • There was a clear distinction within through their own use of the available tools and organizations between BIM and non-BIM online resources as they became available. Several people. of them referred to help from internal BIM-users, receiving company sponsored training or some • According to one respondent, all GC employees instruction in their post-secondary education. Most should know how to use BIM for their tasks. estimators indicated that no formal BIM QTO training was available in previous years and that • In addition to the relevant GC employees, BIM they learned through trial and error. That training QTO training should also be directed towards essentially covered how to use specific BIM owners and authorities to help them understand software, but not the overall BIM QTO processes, the process and benefits it would bring to all tricks and techniques. However, it appeared that at parties. the time of the study, the tendency was changing as The impact of leadership was also discussed in depth the first generation of BIM-estimating trainers were with the interviewees. Not surprisingly, leadership’s beginning to provide official BIM QTO training reluctant involvement or enthusiastic support directly to their teams. Some taught specific classes that impacted the level of implementation achieved by were being implemented to help estimators use organizational proponents of BIM QTO processes. A models and learn about the tricks and pitfalls of specific case was reported where younger estimators BIM QTO, not only demonstrating the software’s who were interested in using BIM for QTO but QTO capabilities. Thirty percent of the respondents were not doing so in order to align with their more are now responsible for providing training to other senior supervisors who were not familiar with the employees within their organization. technology. A similar situation was also shared Amongst the participating companies, it became where young technology-driven estimators were not clear that one particular company had far more BIM able to embrace BIM QTO because of the current estimators than the average comparison companies. leadership that had over 30 years of experience was One respondent from this organization indicated not willing to take the risk of changing their current that the company leadership was driving BIM QTO methods. Another respondent indicated that it took implementation and development. They pushed roughly 2 years of requesting support to receive the use of BIM and VDC “all across the board.” It leadership backing. One individual described the was worth noting that the author interviewed two stark difference evident between his current and employees from that company, the first being a previous employer – in his previous position, he had VDC engineer and the second being of a traditional no support from the leadership and felt the push back estimating background, but using BIM QTO from the estimating team. The position he held at the nonetheless, although to a lesser degree than that of time of the interview had been specifically designed the VDC engineer. for him to develop BIM QTO. He provided training and support to the estimating team in all BIM QTO BIM QTO Workflows aspects. At the time of the study, it was apparent that the roles of the BIM/VDC managers differed from traditional estimators. These individuals are interacting with

Building Information Model-Based Quantity Takeoff - Leadership Support and Training each other in different ways, and utilizing BIM to is adjusting the model to provide control model support their project goals in different ways as well. elements for accuracy in quantification. Similar As such, three different workflows between these to the Comparison Approach, the Controlled groups emerged: BIM Approach is likely a temporary solution while confidence in the BIM-based QTO and its 1. Comparison Approach: In some cases, both associated processes is established. estimators and BIM/VDC managers would extract the quantities on their own. Quantities At the time of these interviews, none of the were then compared in an effort to establish respondents were exclusively using BIM QTO internal confidence with the accuracy of BIM for estimating. There does not appear to be an QTO. This process was most common where acceptable level of confidence in the process as of the estimators’ confidence in BIM QTO was yet. low and BIM managers were looking to Several comments pointed towards a motivational demonstrate the benefits of BIM-based QTO to difference between those that were comfortable company leadership or other involved parties. with BIM-based work and those that were not as This approach likely has a relatively short life comfortable. One respondent stated that if people as quantification efforts are being wastefully did not understand basic navigation of 3D models, duplicated. Once a measure of confidence is they tended to avoid them altogether. Another stated developed in the ability to perform accurate that some employees that were trained in BIM QTO BIM QTO, resources allocated to traditional retained the skills and some did not. This could be estimating would likely be reduced. linked to how much time those employees spent 2. Combined Approach – Another possible working with the model following the training. workflow evident from the interviews involved A third believed that it should be the employee’s both parties coming together at the beginning personal choice to become BIM proficient, not only of the project to identify the highest and best company-driven. use of available takeoff resources. The BIM Those whose current title or current interests managers and estimators discuss what items can related to the BIM QTO tools were those that were be efficiently and confidently extracted from the personally self-driven and passionate about the BIM versus items that could be more effectively tool. Several of them had become the company or accurately taken off using the traditional 2D BIM QTO trainer. Some yearned for leaner and approach. This approach allows companies to more automated systems to become more efficient. be selective about which quantities they feel can It was evident that they tried to make the most confidently be determined by the differing takeoff of the available software packages and often methods. The acceptable margin for error is also looked for new and better techniques to increase considered when making this determination. their efficiency notwithstanding the challenges 3. Controlled BIM Approach – A third workflow they faced. They were at times pushing this new suggests having the BIM specialists prepare technique despite reluctance from estimators, and adjust the model to ensure the expected supervisors and executives. The personal drive standards of design and BIM elements are and passion seemed to be the main factor that led consistent with organizational expectations for them to keep improving the available tools and QTO. The adjusted, or controlled, model is then processes. Individuals with these types of profiles given to the estimators to perform QTO. This will certainly be the ones that will bring BIM QTO approach may also involve a duplication of to the next level in the upcoming years. efforts between the design team, or the original For those leaders that are interested in developing or creators of the model, and the BIM specialist that enhancing BIM QTO within their organizations, the

Building Information Model-Based Quantity Takeoff - Leadership Support and Training authors recommend identifying those individuals that reported by those in the survey is an acceptable fit the described profile. These individuals are likely to commitment for the potential benefits of an improved push the software and industry into the next generation process in this area. Additionally, the relevant software of estimating practices. The authors also recommend is rapidly evolving to reduce the risk and challenges incorporating and expecting professional development that currently exist, so regular training is critical to for those working with BIM-based QTO. The average staying up to date. amount of time devoted to professional development

REFERENCES Aibinu, A., and Venkatesh, S. (2014). “Status of BIM Adoption and the BIM Experience of Cost Consultants in Australia.” Journal of Professional Issues in Engineering Education & Practice, 2014, 140(3). Aram, S., Eastman, C., & Sacks, R. (2014). A knowledge-based framework for quantity takeoff and cost estimation in the AEC industry using BIM. In The 31st International Symposium on Automation and Robotics in Construction and Mining (p. 1). Azhar, S., Khalfan, M., and Maqsood, T. (2012). “Building Information Modeling (BIM): Now, and Beyond.” Australasia Journal of Construction Economics and Building, 12(4), 15-28. Bachman, M. (2009). “BIM’s Effect on Design Culture.” Accessed April 29, 2017. http://www.di.net/articles/ bims_effect_on_design_culture/ Forgues, D., Iordanova, I., Valdivesio, F., and Staub-French, S. (2012). “Rethinking the Cost Estimating Process through 5D BIM: a Case Study.” Construction Research Congress 2012. ASCE 2012. Jones, S., and Bernstein, H. (2012). “Smart Market Report: The Business Value of BIM in North America: Multi-year trend analysis and user ratings (2007-2012).” McGraw-Hill Construction. Accessed January 10, 2017. Jones, S., and Bernstein, H. (2014). “Smart Market Report: The Business Value of BIM for Construction in Ma- jor Global Markets: How Contractors Around the World Are Driving Innovation With Building Informa- tion Modeling.” McGraw-Hill Construction. Accessed March 31, 2017. Jones, S., and Laquidara-Carr, D. (2015). “Smart Market Report: Measuring the Impact of BIM on Complex Buildings.” McGraw-Hill Construction. Accessed January 12, 2017. National BIM Standard (2017). “About the National BIM Standard - United States.” Accessed April 7, 2017. https://www.nationalbimstandard.org/about RICS (2011), RICS, 2011 Building Information Modelling Survey Report, Building Cost Information Service (BCIS), RICS, London RICS (2013), What is BIM?, Royal Institution of Chartered Surveyors, www. rics.org/. Smith, P. (2014). “BIM & the 5D Project Cost Manager.” Procedia – Social and Behavioral Sciences, 199 (2014) 475-484. Vitásek, S, and Matějka, P. (2017) “Utilization of BIM for automation of quantity takeoffs and cost estimation in transport infrastructure construction projects in the Czech Republic.” IOP Conference Series: Materials Science and Engineering. Vol. 236. No. 1. IOP Publishing. Willis C., and Regmi T. (2016). “Exploring the Future Use of BIM in Construction Project Management in Can- ada.” 52nd ASC Annual International Conference Proceedings.

Attraction and Retention of Minority Managerial Employees at Electrical Contractors

Attraction and Retention of Minority Managerial Employees at Electrical Contractors Ben F. Bigelow, University of Oklahoma | [email protected] Anthony J. Perrenoud, University of Oklahoma Anusree Saseendran, Texas A&M University

ABSTRACT Diversity in the managerial workforce in construction is limited, with a shortage of talent in the industry and the demand projected to grow over the next ten years. The challenge of attracting and retaining managerial talent is exacerbated for trade contractors as they have historically promoted management from the trades. This study explored differences, based on ethnicity, when it comes to factors that attract and retain managerial talent in electrical construction. Data was collected through a nationwide survey of management employees of electrical contractors. It was found that while some factors were influential for all ethnic groups, certain factors became more or less influential for minorities. Recommendations are made for more effective minority recruitment and retention in electrical construction. Specific factors are reported as well as conclusions drawn from the body of data collected.

Keywords: Recruiting, Retention, Age, Construction Management.

Ben Bigelow Ph.D. is an Associate Professor and Director of the Haskell and Irene Lemon Construction Science Division at the University of Oklahoma. His research focuses on human resource issues in construction, housing, and construction education. Anthony Perrenoud Ph.D., CRIS is an Assistant Professor in the Haskell and Irene Lemon Construction Science Division at the University of Oklahoma. His research focuses on construction risk management, workforce development, leadership, and procurement practices. Anusree Saseendran M.S. is a doctoral student in the College of Architecture at Texas A&M University. Her research interests include organizational behavior, risk maturity, and the impact of human dimensions on performance.

Attraction and Retention of Minority Managerial Employees at Electrical Contractors

Introduction electrical contracting are minorities. Despite this discrepancy, industry professionals continue to In the construction industry, there is a growing do the same things to recruit and retain talent. talent shortage (Escamilla & Ostadalimakhmalbaf, Increasing the number of minorities in managerial 2016). This shortage affects both skilled trades positions in electrical construction, to levels at least putting work in place and management overseeing consistent with national averages, could represent projects (Bigelow, Zarate, Soto, Arenas & a long term solution to the talent shortage. Perrenoud, 2017; Hodges & Crowley, 2014; AGC, However, what attracts and retains a minority 2014). According to the BLS (2018) (Bureau to electrical construction is likely different than of Labor Statistics), the construction industry is what attracts or retains non-minorities. This study predicted to grow 13 percent between 2018 and explored factors that are effective in recruitment 2024. While every contractor appreciates demand, and retention in general and then to identify what this growth will exacerbate the talent shortage, differences might exist for minorities and non- which in turn is likely to drive up costs and delay minorities regarding these factors. This study schedules. With knowledge about construction sought primarily to identify nuances in traditional management as a career path limited (Francis approaches that can be more effective in minority & Prosser 2012), if different approaches are not recruitment. Specifically, it sought to understand utilized to address the talent shortage, forecasts what differences exist between minorities and indicate it will get worse (BLS, 2018; AGC, 2014). non-minorities regarding the factors that attract and For trade contractors, the talent shortage is retain them. The research question that framed this anticipated to be an even greater challenge. Trade project was: What are the differences in the factors contractors have skilled trade and managerial talent that attracted and retain managerial workforce needs, but the pipeline for managerial talent at in electrical construction when compared by trade contractors has historically been to promote ethnicity? promising tradesmen. So while promotion of a This study is significant because it provides tradesman may address a managerial problem empirical research, and draws conclusions from it only augments a skilled trade shortage. that research, on recruitment and retention of Historically commercial general contractors managerial talent in electrical construction. It followed a similar path for identifying managerial also provides empirical data that could be used talent (promoting promising tradesmen) however, to make future comparisons between different more and more have shifted to hiring college construction industry segments, which would graduates. Reasons for this shift by general increase understanding of the differences that exist contractors is not documented. It is likely due, between industry segments and trades, and lead to at least in part, to demand as management of the more effective HR strategies. construction process has become more complex. Further the lag in educational achievement Review of Literature of construction workers compared to other industries may have impacted it (Escamilla & As a result of the high cost involved with finding, Ostadalimakhmalbaf, 2016). developing, and replacing talent, employee recruitment and retention is a serious issue in The shift to recruitment of college graduates the construction industry. Compounding those by commercial general contractors required expenses, workforce turnover can result in the a different strategy. To address the current loss of productivity and expertise (Chih, Kiazad, talent shortage, different strategies are also Zhou, Capezio, Li, and Restubog, 2016). The U.S. needed. The researchers hypothesized that construction industry has the highest annual quit recruitment of minorities could be one strategy rates (20.3%) in the world (BLS, 2014). So in to address the managerial talent shortage in the the face of a talent shortage, effective recruitment construction industry. According to the BLS and retention of talent represents a competitive (2018) minorities make up 22 percent of the total advantage for firms who take it seriously (Chih et managerial workforce in the United States. But, al. 2016). only 10 percent of the managerial workforce in

Attraction and Retention of Minority Managerial Employees at Electrical Contractors

Although age diversity is increasing in most snowball sample, the total distribution of the organizations today (Boehm and Kunze, 2015), survey and thus the response rate is unknown. gender and ethnic diversity have seen little change. Over 850 surveys were started in the online system. However, because the organizational environment After filtering for incomplete or inapplicable can significantly influence an employees’ responses, 707 surveys constituted the sample used psychosocial outcomes (Boyas, Wind, Ruiz, 2015), for analysis. To maximize the sample size for each an increased level of minority participation in question, pairwise deletion was used, as such the management may be necessary to effect change. sample size for each question varied. In construction research, the topic of recruitment The survey used for this study had been previously and retention has seen some investigation. The employed in other projects. As a result, some psychological contract of workers and its effect of the threat to internal validity was mitigated. on retention was considered (Chih et al., 2016). For those previous studies, the survey went Recruitment and retention has been explored through a focus group process to ensure it would from the perspective of general contractors with collect the desired data. Additionally, prior to managerial employees (Humphrey & Bigelow, distribution for this study, an advisory group from 2016). Of electrical contractors with managerial ELECTRI International reviewed the survey for employees based on age (Bigelow, Perrenoud, clarity and understanding. The group consisted Rahman, & Saseendran, 2019), and of skilled of three professionals working in the electrical trades working for electrical and drywall construction industry, two employees of ELECTRI contractors (Bigelow et al., 2017). While these International, the Principal Investigator, and a studies considered recruitment and retention in the graduate student. Although these processes are not construction industry, from various angles, they perfect, they reduce the threat to internal validity. did not specifically consider minorities or compare them to other groups of workers, and more The exact number of management positions at specifically minorities in construction management. electrical contractors in the U.S. is not known. As a result, no existing data to compare against However, NECA reports that there are over 70,000 could be found. This gap in the body of knowledge electrical contracting firms in the United States is where the current study offers a contribution, (NECA, 2018), and the BLS (2018) reports that as it represents the first attempt to consider ethnic there are 403,800 construction management jobs minorities specifically in managerial recruitment (in any type of construction). To be conservative, and retention in construction. the population was overestimated at 100,000 (if there are 400,000 construction management jobs, Methodology it is highly unlikely that 25% are in electrical construction). Based on a conservative population This study was a mixed methods design, collecting of 100,000, a 95% confidence level, and a both qualitative and quantitative data. But a confidence interval of 5, a sample of 383 was focus was placed on the quantitative results. This needed. With 565 data points threats to external research was exploratory in nature, investigating validity were mitigated with a robust sample. the differences, based on ethnicity, in factors that Additionally, because the sample represents attract and retain managerial talent to electrical responses from across the U.S., threats to external contractors. Data was collected in the Spring and validity were further mitigated. Summer of 2017 using a web-based, researcher designed study. The survey was initially sent Respondents were asked to indicate their ethnicity to members of ELECTRI International (The based on seven different options. The options Foundation for Electrical Construction) which include: American Indian/Alaska Native, Asian, conducts research for the National Electrical Black/African American, Hispanic/Latino, Native Contractors Association (NECA). A snowball Hawaiian/Pacific Islander, White, and Other. To sampling technique was used, so it is unknown if identify the factors that are most influential, and the sample was limited to ELECTRI International where differences occur between the ethnicities, and/or NECA members. Further because of the a 5-point Likert scale was used for responses

Attraction and Retention of Minority Managerial Employees at Electrical Contractors

(1 = Highly Positive, 2 = Slightly Positive, 3 = = 27). Hispanics are included with the minority No Influence, 4 = Slightly Negative, 5 = Highly group, but with a group size nearly at 30 the Negative). The Likert scale responses allowed for Hispanic group results are also reported separately. descriptive and basic inferential statistical analysis Minorities were younger than non-minorities in of the data. Open-ended/qualitative questions the sample. All minorities averaged 43 years old were also included in the survey that provide some (Hispanics averaged 44 years old). Non-minorities context to the quantitative results. on the other hand averaged 48 years old. This study was funded by a grant from ELECTRI Educationally, minorities and non-minorities International. This sponsorship is why the survey differ. Among minorities, 90% had more than was distributed through ELECTRI membership, a high school education, whereas only 83% of and they were involved in the refinement of the non-minorities did. However, for those that have survey. Human Subjects approval was obtained for gone to college, degree completion is higher for the study. non-minorities, 47% of minorities have earned a Description of the Sample degree compared to 69% of non-minorities. While these differences occurred in higher educational The sample was predominantly made up of white attainment, craft training was consistent for both (93%) men (90%), which is consistent with the groups at about 60%. population in construction. Table 1 displays the breakdown of gender and ethnicity in the sample. Geographically, 39 of the 50 United States are The overall sample should be considered externally represented in the sample and no more than valid and generalizable to the broader population 11% came from any one state. Of the 39 states of management in electrical construction. But, represented, minorities in 14 different states were because of the small representation of minorities obtained. Among participants, the states of Texas (n = 50) in the sample, comparisons should be and Florida accounted for the highest density of interpreted with caution. With a small overall minorities in managerial positions, at 23%. In sample of minorities, results are presented as California 17% of participants were minorities, and minorities vs non-minorities (grouping the five in Georgia 13% were minorities. minority groups together). According to Gliner, In general, minorities had spent less time in the Morgan, & Leech (2009), in social science research industry, suggesting that the numbers of minorities to compare groups a minimum sample size of 30 in managerial positions may grow in the future. should be used. The only individual minority group Table 2 displays the percentages of minorities vs that came close to this number were Hispanics (n non-minorities based on time in the industry. Table 1. Breakdown of Ethnicity and Gender of Sample

Ethnicity Male Female Total American Indian 7 (1.1%) 0 7 (1%) Asian 4 (0.6%) 0 4 (0.6%) Black or African 7 (1.1%) 2 (3%) 9 (1.3%) Hispanic 24 (3.8%) 4 (6%) 28 (4%) Pacific Island 2 (0.3%) 0 2 (0.3%) White 590 (93%) 63 (91%) 653 (93%) Total 634 69 703

Table 2. Minorities vs Non-Minorities Years in the Industry

< 1 Year 1-5 Years 5-10 years 10-15 Years 15+ Years Minorities 6.1% 16.3% 12.2% 10.2% 55.1% Non-minorities 1.2% 7.1% 6% 10.2% 75.2%

Attraction and Retention of Minority Managerial Employees at Electrical Contractors

On average, minorities and non-minorities were Although there was only one statistically significant introduced to the industry at about the same difference between the groups, an evaluation age, but minorities joined the industry quicker. of the data using descriptive statistics revealed Minority groups learn about the industry about various differences of note. These results while not 6 months later than whites (age 21.67 vs 21.12). statistically significant, have practice significance However, minorities entered the industry sooner and merit reporting particularly as the Likert scale after learning about it. While non-minorities used included a “no influence” option in the middle learned about the industry at just over 21 years which could skew a comparison of means in a old, they didn’t join the industry until an average t-test. age of 28.8, more than 7 years later. Minorities learned about the industry at 21, but joined at Attraction 23.5, less than two years later. However, a higher The factors used, had been identified as positive percentage of non-minorities indicated that influences in attracting individuals, so it was electrical construction management was their first expected that there would be very few negative career choice at 44%, vs 29% of minorities. The responses. As such, the researchers were seemingly contradictory results here may be linked particularly interested in the number of “no back to degree completion, where more non- influence” responses, as well as any differences minorities have completed degrees and would have between positive and negative influence responses. taken longer to join the industry. Table 4 displays the results collected for each factor Results and Discussion comparing minorities to non-minorities, when the responses were coded by positive, negative or no Due to similarities in the factors that attract and influence. Differences of 10% or more in positive retain individuals, data addressing attraction and or negative responses are noted and discussed. retention are presented separately to ensure clarity. With only 29% of non-minorities reporting Individuals were asked about a series of factors that “career advising” as positively influential and have been identified to attract and retain employees 66% reporting no influence, the data suggests that (on a Likert scale). Participants were also asked career advising is ineffective or not taking place for what attracted them as open-ended questions. The non-minorities. All minorities are better at 38% quantitative results regarding factors are presented positive, but Hispanics alone drop to 22% positive, first, followed by the open-ended qualitative data. and 22% negative. These results suggest that the An analysis using inferential statistics (t-test) was influence of career advising does not make a big conducted to identify any statistically significant difference between minorities and non-minorities. differences between minorities and non-minorities Further the high no influence results in all groups regarding the seven factors identified to attract suggest career advising did not happen for most of individuals to an industry/company. Those factors the participants, supporting the findings of Francis include: Career Advising, Family Influence, Salary/ and Prosser (2012). Wages, Industry Image, No Other Opportunities, The factor “family influence” showed a Career Opportunities, and Available Training considerable difference between non-minorities (Bigelow et al., 2017). Table 3 shows that and minorities, supporting the inferential statistical minorities were significantly different from findings. While 64% of non-minorities reported non-minorities on family influence, (p = .000). a positive family influence to pursue a career in Inspection of the two group means indicates that electrical construction management, only 42% the average family influence for minorities M( = of all minorities and 46% of Hispanics indicated 3.52) is significantly lower that the score for non- family was a positive influence in their decision. minorities (M = 4.03). The difference between These results suggest a considerable difference means is 0.5067 on a 4-point scale. The effect between the groups when considering the influence size d is approximately 0.51 which is a typical. of family. Minorities and non-minorities were not statistically different on any of the other factors. The factors “salary/wages”, “career opportunities”,

Attraction and Retention of Minority Managerial Employees at Electrical Contractors

Table 3. Comparison of Minority and Non-Minority Electrical Construction Managers on Attraction Factors.

Variable M SD t df p Career Advising 0.264 697 0.792 Minorities 3.31 .879 Non-Minorities 3.34 .795

Family Influence 3.573 700 0.000 Minorities 3.52 1.052 Non-Minorities 4.03 .940

Salary/Wages -0.062a 50.945 a 0.951 Minorities 4.15 1.072 Non-Minorities 4.14 .803

Industry Image 0.964 694 0.336 Minorities 3.49 .930 Non-Minorities 3.62 .879

No Other Opportunities -0.882 692 0.378 Minorities 3.10 .805 Non-Minorities 2.98 .913

Career Opportunities -0.266 697 0.790 Minorities 3.98 .934 Non-Minorities 3.95 .818

Available Training -1.429 699 0.153 Minorities 4.02 .956 Non-Minorities 3.83 .888 aThe t and df were adjusted because variances were not equal.

and “available training” produced no remarkable image, that number falls to 45% for all minorities and differences between the groups. While some small 31% for Hispanics, with no influence numbers rising differences were observed between groups on these accordingly. These numbers as a whole are interesting factors, they were too small to reliably report. as they suggest the industry may not suffer from a negative image as is often reported, however for Negative responses about the influence of “industry minorities and Hispanics in particular the industry is image” were consistent across the groups (7%, 6%, not viewed positively. & 8%), however the differences observed between the positive influence and no influence between With exactly the same percentages of no influence the groups were noteworthy. While 52% of non- responses (67%) in all three groups “no other minorities were positively influenced by the industry opportunities” only influences a small percentage

Attraction and Retention of Minority Managerial Employees at Electrical Contractors

Table 4. Influence of Specific Factors in Attracting to Electrical Construction Management.

Factor Influence Non-Minority Minority Hispanic Career Advising Positive 189 (29%) 18 (38%) 5 (22%) None 433 (66%) 25 (52%) 13 (56%) Negative 29 (5%) 5 (10%) 5 (22%) Family Influence Positive 420 (64%) 20 (42%) 13 (46%) None 220 (34%) 25 (52%) 12 (43%) Negative 14 (2%) 3 (6%) 3 (11%) Salary/Wages Positive 552 (84%) 38 (79%) 21 (78%) None 94 (14%) 6 (13%) 2 (7%) Negative 22 (3%) 4 (8%) 4 (15%) Industry Image Positive 338 (52%) 21 (45%) 8 (31%) None 263 (41%) 23 (49%) 16 (62%) Negative 48 (7%) 3 (6%) 2 (8%) No Other Opportunities Positive 116 (18%) 11 (23%) 8 (30%) None 432 (67%) 32 (67%) 18 (67%) Negative 98 (15%) 5 (10%) 1 (4%) Career Opportunities Positive 452 (69%) 34 (71%) 19 (70%) None 188 (29%) 12 (25%) 6 (22%) Negative 11 (2%) 2 (4%) 2 (7%) Available Training Positive 396 (61%) 34 (71%) 17 (63%) None 235 (36%) 12 (25%) 8 (30%) Negative 22 (3%) 2 (4%) 2 (7%) of the population. It is worth noting however, 5 displays the themes that emerged and the response that while more non-minorities report this was a count for each. negative influence (15%), suggesting they had other The top three factors that emerged are also three of opportunities, minorities and Hispanics (23% and the specific factors already presented, which supports 30% respectively) reported it was a positive influence, them as factors that attract individuals to industries. suggesting their job/career opportunities were more Based on the percentages of responses to each theme/ limited than non-minorities. These responses and factor some differences between the groups can be those to industry image could be interpreted to identified. complement each other as an individual who needs work may pay less attention to industry image. Pay was the most frequently reported factor that attracted minorities to electrical construction as Before asking participants about how specific factors an open-ended response. When compared to the influenced them to select the construction industry, responses by non-minorities it was reported almost the researchers asked what attracted individuals to twice as frequently by minorities. These results electrical construction as an open-ended question. suggest that pay is a more important motivation for This was done to avoid the influence of a list of minorities than for non-minorities. factors. After coding the responses, 36 distinct themes emerged. Of the 36, 21 had enough responses to Family was slightly more frequently reported by merit reporting for the sample as a whole. Minority non-minorities, as an open-ended question. This is responses fell into 16 of the reported themes. Table consistent with the quantitative data where family

Attraction and Retention of Minority Managerial Employees at Electrical Contractors

Table 5. Attraction Themes from Open-Ended Question

Factor Non-Minorities Minorities Hispanics Good Pay 101 (15%) 13 (27%) 7 (25%) Family Business or Family in the Business 148 (21%) 7 (14%) 5 (18%) Needed a Job/Job Available 52 (7.5%) 5 (10%) 4 (14%) Working With My Hands 42 (6%) 4 (8%) 4 (14%) Technology/systems/controls 18 (3%) 4 (8%) 2 (7%) Degree/School/Training For It 13 (2%) 4 (8%) 2 (7%) Career/Job Opportunity 55 (8%) 3 (6%) 2 (7%) Training Provided/Apprenticeship 16 (2%) 3 (6%) 2 (7%) Interesting/liked it 67 (10%) 3 (6%) 2 (7%) Skilled Trade 23 (3%) 3 (6%) 2 (7%) Relationships (friends) 18 (3%) 2 (4%) 2 (7%) The Company 8 (1%) 1 (2%) 1 (4%) Requires Planning/Thinking/Problem Solving 15 (2%) 1 (2%) 1 (4%) Working Outdoors, Not a Desk Job 5 (1%) 1 (2%) 1 (4%) Autonomy/Flexibility/Freedom 2 (>1%) 1 (2%) 1 (4%) Industry Size & Reputation 7 (1%) 1 (2%) Benefits 21 (3%) See Work Progress Daily/Build Things 19 (3%) Steady Job/Job Security 18 (3%) Variety of Challenges/Locations/Projects 17 (3%) Good Respectable Work/Physical Work 8 (1%) *percentages are based on total responses from each group was found to be more influential on non-minorities. with their hands, but rather by thinking and problem Unfortunately, further context of these findings is not solving (Bigelow et al. 2019). available as it appears to contradict other research by Escamilla, Ostadalimakhmalbaf, and Bigelow (2016). Various other themes have small differences between minorities and non-minorities and some themes Needing a job was a theme reported by a slightly were reported only by non-minorities. However, the higher percentage of minorities than non-minorities. differences that occur between groups regarding these The quantitative factor of “no other opportunities” was other themes are too small to be significant. They are influential for more minorities than non-minorities. presented in Table 4 to allow the reader to review. These results suggest that the need for employment with few opportunities impacts minorities more so Retention than non-minorities. To assess retention between minorities and non- Of interesting note, was the theme “working with minorities, participants were asked about the influence my hands”. This theme was more influential for of eight specific factors on a Likert scale. As with minorities and especially Hispanics. This finding is the attraction factors, retention factors had been particularly interesting as it has been reported that identified in previous research (Bigelow et al. 2017). younger age groups are not attracted by working The factors related to retention included: Salary/ Wages, Performance Bonus, Non-Monetary Rewards,

Attraction and Retention of Minority Managerial Employees at Electrical Contractors

Table 6. Influence of Specific Factors in Retaining Talent in Electrical Construction Management.

Factor Influence Non-Minority Minority Hispanic Salary/Wages Positive 562 (89%) 41 (89%) 21 (81%) None 62 (10%) 3 (6%) 3 (12%) Negative 9 (1%) 2 (4%) 2 (8%) Performance Bonus Positive 530 (84%) 37 (80%) 20 (77%) None 88 (14%) 6 (13%) 4 (15%) Negative 15 (2%) 3 (7%) 2 (8%) Non-Monetary Rewards Positive 399 (63%) 29 (63%) 16 (62%) None 196 (31%) 14 (30%) 9 (35%) Negative 36 (6%) 3 (7%) 1 (4%) Reception of Feedback Positive 448 (71%) 29 (64%) 17 (65%) None 157 (25%) 15 (33%) 8 (31%) Negative 24 (4%) 1 (2%) 1 (4%) Manager Relationships Positive 528 (84%) 32 (71%) 19 (73%) None 86 (14%) 12 (27%) 6 (23%) Negative 18 (3%) 1 (2%) 1 (4%) Coworker Relationships Positive 565 (90%) 37 (80%) 21 (81%) None 56 (9%) 9 (20%) 5 (19%) Negative 9 (1%) 0 (0%) 0 (0%) Development Opportunities Positive 450 (71%) 35 (78%) 19 (73%) None 163 (26%) 8 (18%) 5 (19%) Negative 18 (3%) 2 (4%) 2 (11%) Provided Training Positive 444 (70%) 33 (72%) 16 (62%) None 171 (27%) 9 (20%) 7 (27%) Negative 16 (3%) 4 (9%) 3 (12%)

Reception of Feedback, Manager Relationships, Minority perspectives Coworker Relationships, Development Opportunities, and Company Provided Training. Table 6 displays the Because the attraction and retention questions asked results regarding these factors in attracting managerial are not specific to any ethnicity, minority participants talent to the electrical construction industry. were asked some specific follow up questions to obtain a deeper understanding of their perceptions Specific factors relating to retention showed only and challenges. When asked what barriers they have two differences of note between minorities and non- faced as minorities in the industry, over 25% report minorities. The factors that showed a difference they have not experienced any. However, about 20% between the groups were the two relationship factors, reported experiencing discrimination. coworker relationships and manager relationships. In both cases relationships exerted a stronger positive influence on non-minorities, with minorities reporting To gain insight into how a company might increase the higher levels of no-influence. number of minorities in their organization, minority participants were asked what employers could do to better attract and retain more minorities. From

Attraction and Retention of Minority Managerial Employees at Electrical Contractors the many responses to this question, two distinct in the industry may indicate a shift occurring themes emerged 1-Educate and 2-Forget ethnicity. in the industry. While minorities have been In attracting minorities, 42% of responses revolved underrepresented in construction management, around the idea of advertising to minorities with a higher percentage of minorities still earlier specifically and communicating the opportunities in their careers we may be witnessing a change as available in electrical construction management. the previous generations age out and are replaced Specific comments included “get into high by younger generations. Given the evidence of schools early” and “target them, show them the racism that exists, particularly in an industry like opportunity”. These results suggest increasing construction where change is slowly adopted minority participation could be as simple as at best, the transition to a younger generation educating/communicating in the right places. of decision makers may be the only way an increase in minority representation in construction To attract and retain more minorities, forgetting management is realized. ethnicity was also a strong theme. Although only 20% of minorities reported having faced To get the message out regarding careers in discrimination, 30% brought up the need to electrical construction management, education and promote and work based on performance, not communication are needed. Qualitative results ethnicity. One participant commented: “forget suggesting marketing and outreach should occur classifications and focus on ability” while another in schools and through community organizations, said: “attract more people that are qualified, combined with data suggesting that family has period”. These results suggest discrimination less influence on minorities than non-minorities, based on race is a real issue for the industry. recruitment efforts should be focused on minority schools and communities. However, it will not Discrimination in the industry is not an invention happen on its own, it will require proactive efforts by minorities either. Responses from non- from industry professionals. minorities to the question: “What factors do you believe keep more minorities from working in Relationships for minorities were less influential the electrical construction industry?” indicated than non-minorities (They were strongly positively that non-minorities have witnessed race based influential for both groups, just more so for non- discrimination occuring in their companies. minorities). The difference in the influence of Further, some responses by non-minorities were relationships, particularly with managers, may blatantly racist confirming that it is a barrier at least be a reflection of fewer minorities in those roles, some minorities can expect to face in the industry. and result from indirect discrimination where relationships between individuals of different Conclusions backgrounds are less readily formed. As more Not surprisingly, the differences that exist between minorities assume managerial positions, these minorities and non-minorities, regarding what results may change, however in the interim, attracted and retains them in electrical construction managers and colleagues alike should be management are limited. While the differences are encouraged to form a broader circle of relationships small and nuanced, conclusions regarding ethnicity within their organization. in recruitment and retention are still drawn from The researchers recommend that future research the results and can be used to increase ethnic on this topic be conducted to explore in greater diversity in electrical construction organizations. depth the differences reported, seeking greater With degree completion lagging among minorities, understanding of why the differences occur. The and “some college” reported as the highest researchers also recommend future study with a education completed for a larger percent on larger sample of minorities to support or refute minorities, targeting student who struggle in the findings of this study. Research investigating college is a recruiting strategy that should be the influence of family for minorities, particularly exploited. Hispanics, is also recommended as the results contradict the seemingly well-known family ties Higher numbers of minorities with less time that exist for that ethnicity.

Attraction and Retention of Minority Managerial Employees at Electrical Contractors

References AGC. (2014a). 2014 workforce survey national results. Retrieved from: http://www.agc.org/galleries/ news/2014_Workforce_National.pdf Bigelow, B., Perrenoud, A., Rahman, M., Saseendran, A. (2019). An Exploration of Age on Attraction and Retention of Managerial Workforce in the Electrical Construction Industry in the United States. International Journal of Construction Education and Research. doi: 10.1080/15578771.2019.1611678 Bigelow, B., Zarate, V., Soto, J., Arenas, J., Perrenoud, A. (2017). Attracting and Retaining Tradesmen, an Evaluation of Influencers on Construction workers in Two Different Trades in Texas.International Journal of Construction Education and Research. doi: 10.1080/1557871.2017.1280103 Boehm, S. A., & Kunze, F. (2015). Age diversity and age climate in the workplace. In Aging workers and the employee-employer relationship (pp. 33-55). Springer, Cham. Boyas, J. F., Wind, L. H., & Ruiz, E. (2015). Exploring patterns of employee psychosocial outcomes among child welfare workers. Children and Youth Services Review, 52, 174-183. Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS). (2018). Construction Managers. Retrieved from http://www.bls.gov/ooh/ management/construction-managers.htm Chih, Y. Y., Kiazad, K., Zhou, L., Capezio, A., Li, M., & D. Restubog, S. L. (2016). Investigating employee turnover in the construction industry: A psychological contract perspective. Journal of Construction Engineering and Management, 142(6), 04016006. Escamilla, E., & Ostadalimakhmalbaf, M. (2016). Capacity Building for Sustainable Workforce in the Construction Industry. The Professional Constructor, 41(1), 51-71. Escamilla, E., Ostadalimakhmalbaf, M., Bigelow, B. (2016). Factors impacting Hispanic high school students and how to best reach them for the careers in the construction industry. International Journal of Construction Education and Research, 12 (2), 82-98. Francis, V., & Prosser, A. (2012). Career counselors’ perceptions of construction as an occupational choice. Journal of Professional Issues in Engineering Education and Practice, 139(1), 59-71. Gliner, J. A., Morgan, G. A., & Leech, N. L. (2009). Research methods in applied settings: An integrated approach to design and analysis (2nd edition). New York, NY, US: Routledge/Tayor & Francis Group. Hodges, L., & Crowley, E. (2014). Understanding and estimating skilled labor shortages. Cost Engineering, 56(3), 24-32. Humphrey, C., Bigelow B. (2016). Employee Loyalty Among Construction Management Field Personnel, Estimators & BIM/Design Specialists: Best Practices for General Contractors. The Professional Constructor. 40(1). 37-50 National Electrical Contractors Association (NECA). (2018). NECA & the Electrical Contracting Industry. Retrieved from https://www.necanet.org/about-us/overview/neca-the-electrical-contracting-industry

Commercial Construction Schedule Collaborators and Current Scheduling Practices

Commercial Construction Schedule Collaborators and Current Scheduling Practices Evan D. Bingham, Bringham Young University | [email protected]

Jay P. Christofferson, Bringham Young University | [email protected]

Mark Hutchings, Bringham Young University | [email protected]

ABSTRACT Construction mangers use the project schedule to communicate aspects of construction timing critical to project success. These schedules may be created using the collaboration of multiple project stakeholders or be the creation of a single manager. The tools used to create and communicate the schedule could range from hand drawn to critical path computer software. Because these practices may vary from company to company, commercial construction mangers can benefit from an understanding of common scheduling practices in the industry. This paper is a report of findings for commercial contractors working in the western United States. Construction managers working for 23 commercial construction companies were contacted through an online survey. The research compiles the results of 129 total surveys from these companies. Practices of commercial contractors for how the project schedule is created managed and updated is reported. The schedule is most often created by the project manager (34%), superintendent (18%), or dedicated scheduler (18%). An average of three others are consulted while the schedule is made, this is most often a subcontractor (45%). On average two separate scheduling software are used, with primary use of P6 (71%) and Microsoft Project (24%). The majority of contractors are updating the schedule on at least a weekly basis (51%). The data presented in this paper serves as a benchmark for industry leaders, and could be a basis for identifying areas for improvement of schedule development.

Key Words: Scheduling, Scheduling Software

Evan Bingham, PhD is an Assistant Professor in the Construction and Facilities Management Program at Brigham Young University. His focus in teaching and research relates to surveying and geomatics, as well as construction scheduling and cost control. Evan has a PhD from Arizona State University in Civil Engineering. Evan is also a licensed General Contractor in the state of Utah and Arizona.

Jay Christofferson, PhD is the Chair of the Construction and Facilities Management program at Brigham Young University. Jay is a licensed general contractor and built homes in Salt Lake and Utah Counties. He specializes in developing computer solutions in management, communication, and estimating for construction companies.

Mark Hutchings is an Associate Professor in the Construction and Facilities Management Program at Brigham Young University. Mark teaches courses in real estate, company management, and construction accounting. He has been a builder for over 30 years.

Commercial Construction Schedule Collaborators and Current Scheduling Practices

Introduction Owners participating in research surveys specified causes of project delay were related to contractor Construction managers play a major role in the and labor issues. Recent studies in the USA, construction and completion of projects. Much of Scandinavia and the United Kingdom, suggest that their work is reviewing, clarifying, and coordinating up to 30% of construction work is rework, labor is information required by the field management and used at only 0-60% of potential efficiency, accidents subcontractors performing the work on the jobsite. can account for 3-6% of total project costs, and at For many people, the largest indicator that a project least 10% of materials are waste. There is plenty of was successful is that construction activities were scope for improving efficiency and quality simply completed on schedule (Minks and Johnston 2004). by taking waste out of construction (Egan, 1998). But many projects struggle to be finished on time (Bingham 2014). The purpose of this study is to find There are many possible reasons for schedule over- out what tools and practices construction industry runs. Subcontractors not performing as scheduled, professionals are using to form and communicate material procurement problems and weather are the project schedule. The focus of this research is a few common factors which impact schedules. to gather insights of construction professionals Umble & Umble, (2000) commented that “projects to help construction managers keep projects they almost always seem to be behind schedule and over manage on schedule. Perspectives of individuals budget, and project content is often compromised. with varying roles within construction companies Simply put, the conventional ways of scheduling were sought to determine what tools or practices and managing projects somehow falls short.” are currently being used by construction mangers to create and communicate the schedule. Research While industries, such as manufacturing, have efforts answer questions about who is creating the made advances in production and product delivery, schedule, who is consulted for schedule input, what the construction industry has not made advances computer software programs are used to create that reflect significant changes in productivity or project schedules, how often are project schedules delivery (McKinsey 2019) updated, and what methods are used to track Construction managers begin their work soon after schedule progress. a new project is awarded to the general contractor The construction industry struggles with a reputation and before the work begins at the building site. of not finishing projects on time. When projects They have titles such as Project Executive, Project finish later than intended, it can be costly to owners, Manager, Superintendent, Project Engineer, general contractors, subcontractors, and tradesmen Scheduler, and each of these mangers may play a associated with these projects. “In construction, different role in the project. Their work includes delay could be defined as the time over-run either mitigating and managing risks inherent with a beyond completion date specified in a contract, or construction job. They are responsible of being sure beyond the date that the parties agreed upon for work on their project moves forward and stays on delivery of a project” (Assaf & Hejji, 2006). The schedule; creating and managing a realistic schedule research by Assaf &Hejji, found that about 76% of that will deliver the project they are responsible for the contractors indicated the average schedule over- managing effectively and efficiently. However, the run for the projects they have experienced is between construction manager’s role does not stop there. 10% and 30% of the original project duration. Some research suggests finishing a project on a Approximately 56% of the consultants participating predetermined schedule is not always the best in the same survey specified the same percentages measure of project success. Projects are often and another 25% of the consultants indicated 30% to considered successful when they meet schedule 50% average time over-run for completing projects. deadlines and stay within budget. However, project

Commercial Construction Schedule Collaborators and Current Scheduling Practices success, even within the same organization, can be deliver the project within the original terms outlined measured differently. Some people are interested in in the contract. Requests for information (RFI’s), technical performance, others with design criteria, clarifications, change orders add construction costs. and others on meeting schedule deadlines (Pinto & These added “costs” are not always solely monetary, Slevin, 1988). as they may also impact the project schedule. Project effectiveness may be assessed by different Literature Review interest groups such as stockholders, managers, customers, employees, and so on. Criteria for A competent project manager is an important measuring project success must therefore reflect component to project success (Hwang and Ng, 2013). different views (Stuckenbruck, 1986). According According to Frank (2002), the project manager has to Freeman and Beale (1992), “an architect may direct influence over 34-47% of project success. consider success in terms of aesthetic appearance, He also states that from a general perspective, the an engineer in terms of technical competence, an project manager influences approximately 50% of accountant in terms of dollars spent under budget, project success, the project office organization about a human resources manager in terms of employee 20%, the project host organization about 20%, and satisfaction, and a chief executive officer rate their the external environment about 10%. success in the stock market”. The project manager represents the general contractor Shenhar, Dvir, and Levy (1997) suggest that and leads project support. They assist owners, construction managers cannot just focus on their architects and engineers with implementation of project staying on schedule and within budget. design ideas by facilitating communication and They must be aware of possible gaps between the the flow of information required to successfully technical and the practical or actual needs of the complete a project. A few of the important customer. “Construction managers must be aware coordinating activities they perform include of the results expected from their projects, and reviewing architectural plans for possible questions, they must constantly focus their attention on these forwarding addendum and requests for information results during the project management process. (RFI’s) to and from project team members, tracking Construction managers must act decisively to rectify project progress and budgets. Regular meetings any gap between project perceived performance between the project manager, owners, architects, and and actual customer needs”. They must also be engineers facilitate the flow of required information mindful of the business aspects of the project to to the project team. their company and that it represents an aspect of the The role of project managers is different than the company’s struggle for competitive advantage in the on-site superintendent. The project manager works market. with the on-site superintendent to coordinate efforts Construction industry procurement methods are of subcontractors who provide skilled labor and changing and much of the risk is being transferred materials. Superintendents require information to the general contractor (Bedelian, 1996). Design updates to complete their projects within the improvements and efforts to incorporate new scheduled timeframes. Accurate schedules facilitate technologies increase the demands contractors must accurate planning and coordination efforts between meet. Delivering projects within the constraints all parties involved in projects. required by its designers can be difficult. Construction Scheduled completion dates are often missed by companies are good at solving challenges but there general contractors. An informal interview of are costs related to implementing new ideas. Because architects was also conducted by the researcher (Gall most projects are unique, the nuances each one brings et al., 2003). They were asked about their experience can challenge the project manager to successfully working with commercial contractors. Using an

Commercial Construction Schedule Collaborators and Current Scheduling Practices historical perspective seeks to capture the individuals’ of the all the major industrial sectors, characterized by life experiences from their own perspective (2003). adversarial practices, disjointed supply relationships As a part of this research, questions were directed to and a lack of trust between clients, main contractors the topic of project schedules. When the architects and subcontractors. Projects are invariably treated were asked the general question of how often as a series of sequential and predominantly separate projects finish on schedule, their responses indicated operations where the individual players have very that no more than 10% finish on time. When asked little stake in (or commitment to) the long-term how many projects finished early, they answered that success of the resulting building.” A project team less than 5% finish before the scheduled finish date. has significant influence in the cost and timing of Additionally, a senior architect said, “The problem a project (Dissanayaka and Kumaraswamy, 1999). of project schedules not being met is probably the Construction projects are unique in their nature, and biggest issue the construction industry faces.” He construction managers that work effectively with the went on to ask why general contractors do not make project team contributes to the project finishing on multiple CPM (Critical Path Method) models of schedule. the schedule, suggesting that doing so might help Construction managers perform an important plan for contingencies when unanticipated changes function in successful completion of a project. As occur. Very often, unanticipated events will occur a project begins, the construction manager is part which affects the project schedule. of the general contractor team that decides which Owners believe the cause of most delays is due to subcontractors should be included as a part of the both the contractor and the subcontractors. Awarding project team. Most general contractors cannot jobs to the lowest bidder is the most frequent cause provide all the resources required for building a of project delay. From the contractor’s perspective, project. Subcontractors provide expertise, materials, the owners are the largest reason for project delay. skilled labor, as well as a large percentage of the labor Owners also hire the lowest bidder and their force for commercial contractors. Subcontractors capabilities to perform can often lead to delays as are an important component in a project finishing well (Assaf and Al-Hejji, 2006). on schedule. All parties involved with a construction project have a vested interest in seeing it finish Schedules are a form of communication of on time. However, subcontractors are often the performance expectations for the project. They cause of delays in a project (NEDO, 1983; Majid communicate dates of milestones and when and McCaffer, 1998). One of the main factors of construction activities should to be performed. poor project performance is how the contractor Schedules are used for planning labor requirements, cooperates with subcontractors (Cheng and Huang, material delivery, and coordinating work with 2012). Contractor performance is positively and all trades involved. Architects and engineers use strongly associated with the relationships they have schedules to follow construction progress. They with subcontractors (Kale and Arditi, 2001). If a provide timing that assists with answering questions sense of alienation and mistrust develops between and providing updates or required information to contractors and subcontractors, it can be difficult keep the project moving forward without delay. to build a sense of teamwork, which can become “The schedule should be used to focus the work team the cause of productivity barriers (Hsieh, 1998). and to communicate to them the details of who is Construction managers that effectively work with doing what, when, and where (Newitt, 2005). Open subcontractors offer value to the general contractor and clear communication of questions and answers and project team. is vital for keeping a project on schedule. For a general contractor, finishing projects on Fearne & Fowler (2006) stated in their research, “The schedule can have an influence with their ability to construction industry is arguably the least integrated

Commercial Construction Schedule Collaborators and Current Scheduling Practices win additional work. “Assessing project outcome designs, new technologies, and materials contribute is of extreme importance to everyone involved to challenges construction managers face when – managers, customers, and other stakeholders” building projects. However, these things also give (Cleland (1986) and Kerzner, 1994). A contractor’s owners more value with their projects. “Clients are past performance is one of the most important the core of the process and their needs must be met by determinants of predictive performance (Tam and the industry” (Latham, 1994). Construction managers Harris, 1996). Project history has influence in the must be better prepared to meet these complexities. selection process for future work. Contractors who When contractor performance improves, it will lead complete projects successfully are more likely to to improved client satisfaction, contractor reputation, achieve project targets (stay on schedule) in the and competitiveness (Xiao and David, 2003). future. It is, therefore, contractors of high repute and Technological changes and advancements have better past performance who will bring improved impacted how general contractors conduct business client confidence for completing their project on and how construction managers oversee their time (Xiao and Proverbs, 2003). projects. Celan and Dorman (1995) and Russell International studies show poor contractor and Jaelski (1997) recognized changes that were performance has a large impact in their competitive coming to the construction industry and argued that ability for obtaining work (Enshassi et al. 2009). construction managers must supplement traditional In the United Arab Emirates, studies show that functions with other non-engineering knowledge and shortages of skilled labor, poor supervision and site skills. Their research insights into industry changes management, unsuitable leadership, and equipment were echoed by Ahmad (1997) who suggested failure contribute significantly to poor contractor that project management functions be paired with performance (Faridi and El Sayegh, 2006). information technology (IT) functions. Computer programs and IT functions have become an integral According to Odeh and Battaineh (2002), 4 of the part of how business is transacted since the research top 5 reasons for project delay were shared by both done in 1997. contractors and consultants. These reasons include (1) owner interference, (2) inadequate contractor Expectations, roles, and workloads of construction experience, (3) financing, and (4) payments of managers continue to increase. Their ability to draw completed work. They also found that improper upon and use a variety of skills, knowledge, or planning was troublesome to general contractors. tools can increase their ability to perform. With the Contractors were reluctant to use or update schedules increasing diversity of projects and the requirements on a regular basis. This claim was substantiated that come with them, construction managers cannot in their research when only 8 of the 63 sampled only rely on skills they have acquired through their contractors responded positively to updating the years of service to the company they work for (Celan schedules of their projects. Sweis et al. (2014) and Dorman, 1995) and (Russell & Jaselski, 1997). reported similar results. “Poor project planning Construction managers must be proficient with more and scheduling by contractors was ranked by both than traditional technical and construction skills. owners and consultants as one of the most important Edum-Fotwe & McCaffer (2000) recommended four factors of poor contractor performance”. essential skills for construction managers. This list includes leading, communicating, negotiating, and Accurate schedules assist construction managers, problem solving. but they typically do not anticipate challenges or issues which come up during construction. The Methodology construction industry has become increasingly complex. Engineering advances, societal The focus of this research is to gather insights of expectations with the life span of buildings, complex construction professionals to help construction

Commercial Construction Schedule Collaborators and Current Scheduling Practices managers keep projects they manage on schedule. western United States, were contacted through emails Perspectives of individuals with varying roles within and phone messages to ask for their participation construction companies were sought to determine in this research. Emails provided an anonymous what tools or practices are currently being used by link to the survey and this research compiles the construction mangers to create and communicate the results of 129 returned surveys. The construction schedule. professionals responding to this research consist of 26 project executives, 44 project managers, 31 The strategy for data collection and analysis centers project engineers, 24 project superintendents and 4 on the development of an inferential model. In this other management roles (scheduler). model answers to questions of interest can be found by drawing inference about key parameters (Ramsey Limitations to this study include its focus on 1997). commercial contractors in the western states, In the preliminary phase of research questions of caution should be used in inferring findings to other interest were identified by the research team. The states or the nation as a whole. The similar building primary research questions were: conditions that exist in the western states, may not be consistent to other geographical locations. • Who typically creates the schedule for the projects? While certain aspects of project management are identified, further research into specific topics • Who is consulted as the schedule is being will be necessary for a deeper understanding. For created? example, it was found that 45% of subcontractors • What percentage of subcontractors used for are typically consulted while project schedules are the project are consulted to determine schedule created. No further inquiry was made as to which sequencing and durations? specific subcontractors, or trades, were consulted. For clarification, the researchers provided generally • Which computer software program(s) is (are) accepted definitions used to describe job titles used to create project schedules? commonly found in commercial construction • How often are project schedules updated? companies. These definitions are not intended to be exhaustive. They are meant to give common • What method best describes how construction understanding of job titles used in this research. activities are tracked? Project Executive – Company employee involved • What percentage of projects finish on schedule? with creation, oversight, and implementation of company policies. Their years of experience Surveys were used to collect research data. Survey provide them opportunities to develop questions were created to gain understanding relationships and business opportunities in of tools being used to make and update project advance of actual project construction, with schedules. The population of interest included owners and industry professionals, through construction professionals with varying roles and their tenure in the construction industry. Their experience. Job titles, such as project executives, experience can help as business proposals are project managers, project engineers, schedulers, on- written, as well as influence the bidding of site superintendents, and other people who might projects. They provide insight, experience, and assist in the development and communication of the oversight to project managers and the projects project schedule were included in this research. they manage. A project executive is typically responsible for overseeing several projects and Construction professionals, working for 23 assisting project managers and superintendents commercial construction companies building in the

Commercial Construction Schedule Collaborators and Current Scheduling Practices

with risk management as well as resolving sequencing. A project superintendent also difficult issues that arise during construction of provides regular updates to the project manager specific projects. to compare the project schedule with actual project progress. Project Manager – Company employee that has direct responsibility for initiating, planning, The Association of General Contractors (AGC) coordinating, execution, monitoring, controlling, was contacted to identify commercial contractors. and closing a project. A project manager might Employment information for graduates of a local oversee more than one project at a time. The university also identified additional commercial project manager coordinates major resources for construction companies in this geographical area. A the project, including meetings among owners, list of 36 commercial construction companies was architects, engineers, on-site employees, and the compiled from these sources. transfer of information from one party to another. If contact information was available, an attempt to A project manager is also responsible for the contact them by phone was made to increase the acquisition of materials, labor, trade contractors, probability of receiving a response to the research and other project resources. The project manager survey. The initial contact person was asked to works closely with the project superintendent. distribute the survey to relevant people working The project manager may visit job sites but with, and including, construction managers in typically works from company headquarters. their company. If people could not be contacted by However, with large and particularly complex phone, an introductory email was sent. This email projects, the project manager might work on-site contained a general introduction to this research with the project superintendent. and researcher. An anonymous link, which was Project Engineer – A project engineer assists the generated to the research survey by Qualtrics, was project manager with special emphasis on taking included in the email introduction. Follow up emails care of project documentation (RFIs, submittals, were sent to the contacts asking for participation warranties, change orders, schedules, etc.). A to this research project. A total of 23 companies project engineer might be assigned to more than participated in the research. These contacts led to one project and typically works from company 129 completed surveys, with a response rate of 72 headquarters. Again, with large and particularly percent. complex projects, the project engineer might Survey questions were reviewed by the researchers work on-site with the project superintendent. and distributed to previously identified commercial Scheduler – A scheduler is typically responsible to construction companies. Research results from document, update, and monitor project schedules the Qualtrics survey were exported into an Excel as directed by the project superintendent and workbook to facilitate analysis of the answers. the project manager. Not all companies have a Data from answers to questions were converted designated scheduler. into distribution tables for analysis. Keeping with data analysis strategy identified earlier in this paper; Project Superintendent – A project superintendent researchers went through iterations of exploring the is a company employee of the general contractor data, formulating models, checking those models, that directly oversees construction activities at and then repeating steps as more data was gathered. a project construction site. They are typically Finally, the information used as an inferential tool responsible for overseeing and coordinating to answer research questions. The communication on-site efforts of trade contractors, material of these result came in the form of a master’s thesis deliveries, inspections of construction activities, (Davies 2018), in addition to other scholarly works direct company labor, and subcontractor like this paper.

Commercial Construction Schedule Collaborators and Current Scheduling Practices

Table 1. Years of Experience in the Construction Industry based on Job Title

Average # of Years % of Reponses Average # of Years Average # of Project Position in Construction by Position in Current Position Managed Each Year Industry 18.42% Project Executive 26.54 9.15 2.43 38.16% Project Manager 19.55 9.48 2.04 26.32% Project Engineer 11.15 4.68 1.71 17.11% Superintendent 27.75 16.62 1.62

Findings to schedule subcontractors are a few of the activities that help construction managers when an accurate Surveys were emailed to commercial contractors for schedule is created for a project. The culmination participation in this research. Individuals, contacted of good decisions and good planning are vital to by email, were asked to distribute the survey link to help projects finish on time. Table 2. shows who is company employees with differing job descriptions creating the project schedule. to collect research data. These job descriptions included project executives, project managers, Table 2. Who Creates the Project Schedule? project engineers, project (on-site) superintendents, and other people who work as construction managers. Job Title Percentage One hundred and thirty-two surveys were completed Project Executive (only) 1.30% in Qualtrics. Three surveys were discarded because Project Manager (only) 32.47% they were not completed with enough information to Project Engineer (only) 5.19% contribute to this research. Demographic information Project Superintendent (only) 18.18% of people responding to this research is shown in Company Scheduler (only) 18.18% Table 1 below. Project Executive & Project Super 1.30% Project executives had an average of 26.54 years of experience in the construction industry and an Project Manager & Project Super 7.79% average of 9.15 years in their current position. Project Project Manager & Scheduler 6.49% managers had the highest response rate and had an 3 People Involved 3.90% average of 19.55 years working in the construction Project Team 5.19% industry and an average of 9.48 years in their current position. Project engineers had an average Project managers are the people most often of working 11.15 years in construction and 4.68 responsible for creating a project schedule. They years in their current position. Superintendents had create a schedule 32.47% of the time without the the highest average number of years in construction assistance of another company employee. Project at 27.75 years. They also had the highest average superintendents and an employee dedicated to making number of years working in their current position project schedules are the next most likely people to with 16.62 years. create a project schedule without assistance. Survey results showed an equal percentage of schedule Accurate schedules have an impact on the creation (18.18%) between these two job titles. successful delivery of projects to their owners. Schedules impact many people involved with a When two people actively create a project schedule, project. Company planning, material procurement, project managers and project superintendents most anticipating labor requirements, and knowing when often work together at 7.79% of the time. Project

Commercial Construction Schedule Collaborators and Current Scheduling Practices managers working with an employee dedicated Table 3. Number of People Consulted while to making project schedules is slightly lower than Making a Project Schedule working with the project superintendent (6.49%). Number of People The project manager can be generally involved with Consulted when Making the 55.84% of schedule creation when other categories Schedule n % are included. They are also involved with the project Zero 1 1.30% superintendent, the company scheduler, is one of One 4 5.19% three people involved, and part of the project team. Two 17 22.08% Similar to, but lower than project managers, project superintendents created or were directly involved Three 16 20.78% with the creation of a project schedule 36.36% Four 24 31.17% of the time. The other significant percentage for Five 10 12.99% creating a project schedule (29.87%) was for a Six 5 6.49% company employee (scheduler) dedicated to making Total 77 100.00% schedules for projects. of the time while making the schedule. Other Though the schedule may be created by one or people being consulted during schedule creation more individuals on a project team, there may be a are company owners (42.86%), project engineers number of consultants giving input into the project (36.36%), material providers (35.06%) and project schedule, Table 3 shows the results of how many superintendents (33.77%). people are consulted while the project schedule is being created. Four people were most often involved While the data for question two shows that (31.17%) when creating the project schedule. Two subcontractors are consulted 90.91% of the time people were involved with this process 22.08% of to create a project schedule, question three of the time. Three people involved in the process was the survey asked specifically what percentage of next highest number (20.78%) and five people being subcontractors are consulted. Table 5 shows the involved (12.99%) was ranked fourth. distribution of these answers. Table 4 shows who is being consulted as project When looking at data from these two questions schedules are created. Data in this table does not together, it is understood that nine out of ten account for the job title of who is responsible for subcontractors working on the project are not spoken creating the schedule. to. Rather, those making the schedule receive input regarding schedule creation from construction From this data, we see that subcontractors are professionals with whom they will be working. An consulted 90.91% of the time by the person average of 45% of all subcontractors working on a responsible for making the project schedule. project were consulted to determine the durations Project executives are consulted 51.95% of the time for their scopes of work. and when the project manager is not the person making the schedule, they are consulted 46.75% Scheduling software has become an important

Table 4. Who is Consulted During Schedule Creation?

Company Project Project Project Material Project Other Owner Executive Manager Engineer Subcontractor Supplier(s) Super (Scheduler) Other 33 40 36 28 70 27 26 2 1 42.86% 51.95% 46.75% 36.36% 90.91% 35.06% 33.77% 2.60% 1.30%

Commercial Construction Schedule Collaborators and Current Scheduling Practices

Table 5. Percentage of Subcontractors Table 6. Number of Programs Used for Consulted During Schedule Creation Scheduling Projects

% of Subs Consulted When Number of Programs Used for Scheduling Projects Creating Project Schedule % Single Program Used for Scheduling 67.11% 0%-10% 5.19% P6 36 11%-20% 23.38% Microsoft Project 12 21%-30% 18.18% Suretrak 2 31%-40% 7.79% Viewpoint 1 41%-50% 10.39% Total 51 51%-60% 9.09% 2 Programs Used for Scheduling 23.68% 61%-70% 1.30% Microsoft Project & Suretrak 5 Microsoft Project & P6 (P3) 5 71%-80% 15.58% P6 & Suretrak 5 81%-90% 3.90% Microsoft Project & Bluebeam 1 91%-100% 5.19% P6 & Excel 1 Total 100.00% Suretrak & CoConstruct 1 Total 18 tool for understanding the timing involved with all 3 Programs Used for Scheduling 7.89% aspects of a project. Proficiency with scheduling Microsoft Project, Suretrak & P6 (P3) 2 software can help construction managers plan for Microsoft Project, Suretrak & Excel 1 critical activities that can impact a project schedule. Microsoft Project, P6 & Excel 1 Respondents were asked which software programs Microsoft Project, Suretrak & Phoenix 1 they use when creating project schedules. Table 6 P6, Prolog & Bluebeam 1 shows percentages of how many software programs are used when project schedules are created and the Total 6 programs being used. Accurate schedule updates help with planning of Most commercial construction companies (67.11%) required construction activities. Understanding surveyed, use only one software program to create which activities are on time and which ones are a project schedule. Of the construction companies late will help construction managers understand if using one software program, P6 is used most often and where adjustments need to be made. Survey (70.59%). Microsoft Project is the second highest recipients were asked how often they updated used single program for creating schedules (23.53%). project schedules. Table 7 shows how often project Only two other software programs were reportedly schedules are updated. used when a construction company used a single software program for making schedules. These The highest number of responses (50.65%) reported were Suretrak and Viewpoint and they accounted that project schedules were updated at least weekly. for less than 6% of the single programs used. A The second highest response (24.68%) was that smaller number of managers (23.68%) reported schedules were updated twice a month. Monthly that they used two software programs for creating updates to projects schedules were reported to project schedules. Microsoft Project was used with happen 18.18% of the time. This means that 75.33% P6, Suretrak and Bluebeam and they accounted for of the people who finish their projects on schedule equal percentages of use (27.78% each). Only 7.89% 90-100% of the time update their schedules at least of people reported that they used three different twice a month. Those who update project schedules software programs for creating project schedules. at least once a month or more is equal to 93.51%.

Commercial Construction Schedule Collaborators and Current Scheduling Practices

Table 7. How Often the Project Schedule is One of the general research questions asked was: Updated What percentage of time do the projects you manage finish on schedule? The average response to this How often the Schedule is Updated % Count question was that projects finish on schedule on At Least Weekly 50.65% 39 average 83.07% of the time. A closer look at response Twice a Month 24.68% 19 rates is shown in Figure 1. Monthly 18.18% 14 Projects finishing on schedule 100% of the time Quarterly 2.60% 2 occurred most often (21.71%). The second highest Semi-Annually 0.00% 0 rate (19.38%) were projects finishing on schedule Random 3.90% 3 90%-94% of the time. Finishing on schedule 95%- Never 0.00% 0 99% of the time was the third highest rate (18.60%). Total 100.00% 77 Conclusions and Recommendations Planned Percent Complete (PPC) method of tracking construction activities compare the scheduled finish The purpose of this study has been to find what date with the actual finish date of a specific activity. tools and practices construction mangers are using This method of tracking construction activities helps to create and manage the project schedule. This construction managers know if a subcontractor is research found that project managers create project ahead, behind, or on schedule with their contracted schedules most often. They will typically create it scope of work. alone, but will consult an average of four other people in the process of creating the schedule. This process Nearly all participants (94.81%), who responded to always includes several subcontractors working this research, reported that they use Planned Percent on the project and will less often include a project Complete as the method that best described how executive or the project owner. Surprisingly, project they track construction activities. Other possible superintendents were not consulted as often as the answers to this survey question included Earned project executive and project owner, even though Value Analysis (EVA) (0%), billing invoices (1.3%), demographic information shows they generally “Other” methods received 3.9% of responses. have more years of experience in the construction

Figure 1. Percentage of Time Projects Finish on Schedule

Commercial Construction Schedule Collaborators and Current Scheduling Practices industry and more years of experience in their position. vital to finishing the projects they manage on schedule. Additionally, the research found that a project manager Limitations to this study include its focus on would most commonly use P6 as the only software commercial contractors in the western US. Similar program to create the project schedule. building conditions that exist in this region, may not Once the schedule is created, it should be updated. The be consistent to other geographical locations. While purpose of tracking and updating construction activities certain aspects of project management are identified, is to adjust the schedule as needed so that the project further research into specific topics will be necessary can be delivered to its owner by the contracted date. for a deeper understanding. For example, it was found This research found that half of the project schedules that 45% of subcontractors are typically consulted are updated weekly and nearly all of them are updated while project schedules are created. No further inquiry using the “planned percent complete” method of was made as to which specific subcontractors, or trades, tracking construction activities. Over half of those were consulted. To draw more general conclusions, one responding to this research consider these activities as would have to increase the population surveyed.

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