A Professional Journal of National Defence College

Volume 18 Number 2 December 2019

National Defence College EDITORIAL BOARD

Chief Patron Lieutenant General Sheikh Mamun Khaled, SUP, rcds, psc, PhD Editor-in-Chief Major General A K M Abdullahil Baquee, rcds, ndu, psc Editor Colonel M A Saadi, afwc, psc Associate Editors Brigadier General Md Shamim Kamal, ndu, afwc, psc, M phil Lieutenant Colonel Muhammad Alamgir Iqbal Khan, psc, Arty Assistant Editors Assistant Professor Nishat Sultana Assistant Director Md Nazrul Islam

ISSN: 1683-8475

DISCLAIMER

The analysis, opinions and conclusions expressed or implied in this Journal are those of the authors and do not necessarily represent the views of the NDC, or any other agencies of Bangladesh Government. Statement, fact or opinion appearing in NDC Journal are solely those of the authors and do not imply endorsement by the editors or publisher.

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in retrieval system, or transmitted in any form, or by any means, electrical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without the prior permission of the publisher.

Published by the National Defence College, Bangladesh Design & Printed by : ORNATE CARE 87, Mariam Villah (2nd floor), Nayapaltan, Dhaka-1000, Bangladesh Cell: 01911546613, E mail: [email protected] CONTENTS Page Foreword vi Editorial vii Abstracts ix

Integration of Special Education with National Education System: Bangladesh Perspective 1 By-Brigadier General Md Mostagousur Rahman Khan, BSP, SGP, ndc, afwc, psc

Role of Human Resource Management for Enhancement of Knowledge Management in : A Study 23 By-Brigadier General Md Mizanur Rahman, ndc

Use of Modern Cooling Towers with Nanofluids in Industry Sector: An Approach to Protect Riverine Aquatic Life Environment of Bangladesh 43 By-Brigadier General Md Habibur Rahman, ndc

Bangladesh as a Global Footwear Sourcing Hub by 2030: Strategic Options 72 By-Brigadier General Mirza Md Enamul Haque, ndc

Evolving Rivalry in the : Strategy Options for Bangladesh 98 By-Commodore M Zakirul Islam, (E), ndc, psc, BN

An Effective Way Towards Localizing Sustainable Development Goals (SDG)-Translating Two Specific Areas of SDG into Action in Two Unions 121 By-Additional Secretary Dr. Shahnaz Arefin, ndc Nepal-Bangladesh Relationship: Prospects and Challenges for Economic Cooperation 145 By-Brigadier General Homnath Dawadi, ndc

Insecurity as an Impediment to Economic Development in Nigeria 166 By-Colonel Umar Musa Aliyu, ndc, psc

Achieving Unorthodox Deterrence Ability by Bangladesh Army 186 By-Lieutenant Colonel Abul Hasnat Mohammad Mahmud Azam, afwc, psc, Arty

Competency of Bangladesh Army in Changing Scenario of Peacekeeping Operation (Pko): Requirement in Training and Equipment 202 By-Lieutenant Colonel Shahzad Pervez Mohiuddin, afwc, psc, Sigs

Towards Capacity Development for a Research and Development Organization in 217 By-Group Captain Md Asif Iqbal, afwc, psc

IV FOREWORD

National Defence College has been striving since 1999 with a vision to be the premier national centre of excellence on leadership, defence, security, strategy and development studies - meeting the challenges of the 21st century. Since its inception, the college has been relentlessly presenting time - befitting academic curricula to the potential policy planners, senior leaders and strategic thinkers of the future. The college aims to create a balanced outlook and bring a visualization amongst the Course Members with a strategic and operational level understanding. The chronicles of past 20 years testify the viability of the academic system that has contributed to this leading institution in gaining reputation of excellence at home and abroad. National Defence College being the highest level national institution in Bangladesh, has always been emphasizing on conducting research on contemporary issues of national importance. The common aim of research work is to enable Course Members to make original contribution to a subject of national or international interest, which has influence on national security and development. NDC journal reflects the notable research works carried out by Course Members and Faculty of the college. I am assertive that the Research Papers included in this journal encompassing varied subjects would be considerably useful for the readers. I congratulate all authors who contributed to this journal. I appreciate the sincere efforts of Research and Academic Wing and acknowledge the hard work of editorial board to publish this journal in due time.

Sheikh Mamun Khaled, sup, rcds, psc, PhD Lieutenant General Commandant

V EDITORIAL NDC Journal is a bi-annual publication of National Defence College. The articles for this journal (Volume 18, Number 2, December 2019) have been selected mostly from individual research papers submitted by Course Members as part of course curricula. The papers included in this journal reflect multi-dimensional issues related to national security and development. The ideas, opinions, and suggestions expressed in these papers have been developed through curricula-based discussions and discourse held during the course. These are purely non-attributive and bears the testimony of the research conducted by the course members. We shall consider ourselves pleased to receive any suggestive criticism from the valued readers.

A K M Abdullahil Baquee, rcds, ndu, psc Major General Senior Directing Staff (Army)

VI ABSTRACT

INTEGRATION OF SPECIAL EDUCATION WITH NATIONAL EDUCATION SYSTEM: BANGLADESH PERSPECTIVE

Brigadier General Md Mostagousur Rahman Khan, BSP, SGP, ndc, afwc, psc Equivalency in different forms of education is of great importance. In Bangladesh, three main educational courses are existing: General Education, Madrasa Education, and Technical and Vocational Education. Among these systems corresponding or parallel values or grades are also present. However, there is another form of education existing in Bangladesh known as special education for the children with special needs. But this special form of education does not have any corresponding level or values parallel to other forms of existing education system of Bangladesh. The aim of the present research is to frame an equivalent integrated education system combining all four types of available education systems (General Education, Madrasa Education, Technical and Vocational Education and special Education) of Bangladesh. Furthermore, this research has also addressed the common area of education where all children including the special need children will learn, educate and socialize together in the same class room. Hence, the early childhood development program (ECDP) has also been studied in the context of global perspective in order to propose an ECDP model integrating all children. The researcher followed mixed method approach for the study which included questionnaire survey, semi-structured interview and document analysis. Academicians, special educators and therapists were chosen to conduct the study. Related literature has been studied for the comparison with a view to equalizing different forms of education and an appropriate integrated education structure and ECDP model structure for Bangladesh has been proposed.

Key Words: Special Education, National Education System, Childhood Development Program

ROLE OF HUMAN RESOURCE MANAGEMENT FOR ENHANCEMENT OF KNOWLEDGE MANAGEMENT IN BANGLADESH ARMY: A STUDY

Brigadier General Md Mizanur Rahman, ndc Human Resources Management (HRM) and Knowledge Management (KM) are considered two of the most important factors within organizations that help them to achieve a competitive advantage. The efficient and effective HRM can help

VII the organization and its managers to create conditions for prudent management of the members and their knowledge in the organization. Currently Bangladesh Army is thriving to transform its manpower from moderate to high knowledge intensive, aiming to immerse itself in higher value added activities to continually sustain the competitiveness with the rivalries. However, there is an urgent need to revitalize its existing HRM practices for the enhancement of the ongoing initiatives of managing the organizational knowledge capital.

The objective of the study was to identify the shortcomings in the current HRM in Bangladesh Army in enhancing the KM for better organizational performance. The intention was to provide an insight for the hierarchy on the concept of KM and help in identifying the reforms Bangladesh Army may need in the existing HR system for success in KM. The study examined six factors of HRM that may influence the KM in Bangladesh Army. These factor are: Recruitmentand Selection, Training and Development, Performance Appraisal, Career Management, Rewards and Benefits and Disciplinary Measures. The theoretical framework was drawn out and questionnaire was designed based on the factors chosen. The data collected were later analyzed and inferences were drawn there from.

The research evidently found that certain reforms in the current HRM in Bangladesh Army are very essential to enhance the overall KM of the officers. The most important one is to conceive KM as a mainstream concept and developing conducive strategy that will enhance the overall KM process. Few other significant reforms the research recommends based on the findings which of all validate the hypothesis. The paper has great practical implications, because the policy makers of Bangladesh Army can take necessary and beneficiary initiatives to enhance the KM of officers. Limitations and future directives of this research have been explicitly uttered.

Key Words: Human Resource Management, Knowledge Management, Bangladesh Army.

USE OF MODERN COOLING TOWERS WITH NANOFLUIDS IN INDUSTRY SECTOR: AN APPROACH TO PROTECT RIVERINE AQUATIC LIFE ENVIRONMENT OF BANGLADESH

Brigadier General Md Habibur Rahman, ndc Thermal pollution is the degradation of water quality by any process that changes ambient water temperature. A common cause of thermal pollution is the use of water as a coolant by power plants and industrial manufacturers. When water

VIII used as a coolant is returned to the natural environment at a higher temperature, the sudden change in temperature decreases oxygen supply and affects ecosystem composition. Fish and other organisms adapted to particular temperature range can be killed by an abrupt change in water temperature (either a rapid increase or decrease) known as “thermal shock.” To protect the riverine or sea acquatic life environment different technologies have been introduced to keep the water temperature normal. Among them modern cooling towers with nano fluid give the best devident which are economical and friendly to the power plant and industry sector.Cooling towers are evaporative heat transfer devices in which atmospheric air cools warm water with direct contact between the air and the water by evaporating cooling of water. The main objective of this study is to analysis the cooling tower performance, comparing the performance of natural and induced draft cooling tower and finding out the effect of adding nano fluid (instead of nano fluid toner is used) to circulating cooling fluids. This was done by establishing and modifying experimental set up constructing computer program and varying the quality of circulating fluids by adding together at different ratio.

Natural and induced draft cooling tower and computer program gives us the various data required for calculation. From the result obtained a comparative study on terms of tower characteristics (kav/L), water to air flow ratio (L/G), efficiency, range, percentage of make-up water and evaporation heat loss are presented in graphical form. The graph showed that the performance of cooling tower is affected by the type of cooling tower and the quality of circulating fluids. The graphical analysis shows the cooling tower characteristics and efficiency decrease with an increase in (L/G) the induced draft cooling tower shows better performance than natural draft cooling tower. The result also shows that with the adding of toner with water cooling tower performance increase and as tower percentage increases the tower performance also increase.

Key Words: Cooling Towers, Nanofluids, Industry Sector, Environment

BANGLADESH AS A GLOBAL FOOTWEAR SOURCING HUB BY 2030: STRATEGIC OPTIONS

Brigadier General Mirza Md Enamul Haque, ndc Ready-made garment is our main export product and has become major driving force of rapid economic growth and development. By creating jobs for millions, the sector contributed in poverty reduction, standard of living and improvement in gender equality etc. To make the country a middle-income one, we have to

IX reduce dependency on only RMG as exportable item. As such, there is a need to identify more and more export oriented manufacturing businesses. Engaging in footwear industry is one such promising sector that Bangladesh must grab. China, the top footwear manufacturing country, is gradually exiting this industry due to high cost and this widow of opportunity is likely to be available for next 3-4 years only. Countries like Vietnam and India are likely to grab the opportunity. Country has abundance of easily trainable work force, access to good quality leather and several operational medium to large footwear factories. The RMG success story may be replicated for mass production of footwear as it follows the similar production chain. It may be mentioned that many renowned brands and retailers of footwear are showing their kin interest to source from Bangladesh already. This study shows that Bangladesh having all the potentials of exporting footwear products of $5 billion by 2025 and $15 billion by 2030 and become one of the major global sourcing hubs after China and Vietnam. Government needs to provide continuous policy support and improve the efficiency of trade related office. Though current logistic and infrastructure support is inadequate, hope to improving by 2025 with ongoing initiative of government. RMG supported by footwear as a global sourcing hub definitely will boost the economy in achieving expected GDP for SGD.

Key Words: Ready Made Garment, Economic Growth and Development, Footwear Industry

EVOLVING RIVALRY IN THE BAY OF BENGAL: STRATEGY OPTIONS FOR BANGLADESH

Commodore M Zakirul Islam, (E), ndc, psc, BN Bay of Bengal (BoB) is the largest bay in the world, bordered on the north by the deltaic regions of the , Brahmaputra and Meghna rivers, on the east Myanmar Peninsula and Nicobar ridges including Malay Peninsula, and on the west the Indian peninsula and Sri Lanka. Since the maritime conflicts during 1971 Bangladesh war of liberation, the bay remained relatively calm without much attention from world powers. However, in recent days clouds of conflicts are appearing in the sky of the Bay. The main contributors to this scenario are the two major regional powers India and China. As a part of Indian Ocean (IO), India wants its natural influence on BoB. Also trade and commerce for her eastern and north eastern region is heavily dependent on the Bay. China wants to develop its southwestern regions through connectivity as well as reduce dependency on the Malacca Strait by gaining access to the Bay. As such

X China is developing partnership with small littorals like Myanmar and Sri Lanka and promoting connectivity through projects like ports, roads and pipelines. Recently USA has appeared in this contesting scenario by aligning with India and renaming its Pacific Command as US Indo-Pacific Command. This is a part of US Rebalancing Strategy mainly to offset increasingly powerful China in the region. Other regional actors like Japan and Australia are also appearing in the contesting scenario and making alliances with regional powers, mainly to protect their economic interests and energy security. Bangladesh is heavily dependent on BoB regarding her livelihood, trade and commerce. It is now trapped in between the evolving rivalry among the regional and extra-regional powers in the Bay. However, the country has a few leverages to deal in this contesting scenario. But, these leverages can only be utilized in conjunction with appropriate policy standings. As such Bangladesh needs to remain ready with a set of strategy and policy options to be used at times of need in a conflicting situation in the Bay.

Key Words: Rivalry, Bay of Bengal (BoB), Indian Ocean.

An Effective Way Towards Localizing Sustainable Development Goals (SDG) - Translating Two Specific Areas of SDG into Action in Two Unions

Additional Secretary Dr. Shahnaz Arefin, ndc The study is about Localizing Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). 17 Goals and 169 targets of SDGs are built on the successes of the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs). Bangladesh, after achieving success in MDGs, would now like to achieve the SDGs to further improve the overall scenario of Bangladesh to stand as the most promising country demonstrating remarkable economic growth, peace, prosperity, and well-being. To achieve SDGs globally, adequate focus has been given to localization of SDGs, especially to conceptualize, internalize, and demonstrate SDGs in action at the local government level. Localizing SDGs means linking local and regional governments’ agendas with the global goals, and empowering local governments. If Union Parishads, the lowest tire of administration, are not in harmony with the central government while performing their constitutional responsibilities, the achievement of SDGs for Bangladesh will remain not-so-achievable. Out of 17 goals, this research proposal aims to identify two selected specific areas of SDG namely SDG 3 and SDG 6; on how it is being conceptualized at Union Parishad level; and how to further strengthen translating SDG into action, at least SDG 3 and SDG 6 in two selected Union Parishads namely Jahanabad and Ranihati respectively Rajshahi

XI and Chapawi Nobabgonj Districts. A Review and Validation Consultation was organized at the field level followed by “Consultation Workshop” at PKSF.

Constitutional mandate makes it imperative that Bangladesh localize the SDGs. The Local Government Act (2009) strengthens the local government by incorporating global best practices for direct participation by citizen in planning and social accountability. The road map for localizing the SDGs, prepared by the UNDP, aims to support local and regional governments and their associations to implement and monitor the SDGs, and to influence national policy-making with a view to creating an enabling environment for action at local and regional level.

The research finds that there is an acute need to identify local indicators, and develop the necessary data collection processes to enable local governments to measure local progress towards agreed targets, ensure disaggregated targeting, and monitoring of the most vulnerable to ensure universal and equitable basic service provision to all. Things are possible only by ensuring sufficient political will at the central government level for decentralization, and related constitutional protections/enabling legislation.

Key Words: Sustainable Development Goals (SDG), Millennium Development Goals (MDGs), Local Government

NEPAL-BANGLADESH RELATIONSHIP: PROSPECTS AND CHALLENGES FOR ECONOMIC COOPERATION

Brigadier General Homnath Dawadi, ndc Nepal and Bangladesh are countries which are close in geography as well as culture. They have also historically shared positions and attitudes in both international and regional forum, political and economic. The relationship between them mostly characterized by mutual respect, trust, cooperation and a personal, people to people relationship. Though both the countries are very close in terms of proximity and there are lots of possibilities for economic cooperation through engagement in trade, tourism and power, this potential is not being explored, and trade is not progressing as it is supposed to be. However, that is not the case in the present. Nepal and Bangladesh have a lot of unexplored potential as trade partners. This alliance has the potential to be one of South Asia’s powerhouses. Nepal is a landlocked country, located in between India and China, whereas Bangladesh has free access to ports. Economic co-operation between these two countries looks obvious, with Nepal and Bangladesh covering each other’s weaknesses so well.

XII This paper deals with exploring benefits the two countries and can have through bilateral trade, and the economic implications of forming this trade relationship, while also considering the challenges and the obstacles such a trade relation might create. It also explores the history of trade relations between countries in the South East of Asia, their successes and their failures, and what can be learnt from the mistakes of the past. The role of India and China, as close neighbours, for the development of Nepal and Bangladesh and the region is prominent, and this paper also discusses how these two powerhouses can help the Nepal-Bangladesh relationship. Finally, this paper tries to provide some suggestions and improvements on the already existing relations, while also setting a way forward for potential treaties and agreements that will help expand the economic horizons of Nepal and Bangladesh. In this regards, all levels from the government, bureaucrats, businessmen, to personal relations need to be approached seriously, so that we can develop connectivity for movement of goods and services, ease trade and transit services, make simple.

Key Words: Nepal-Bangladesh Relationship, Economic Cooperation, Bilateral Trade.

INSECURITY AS AN IMPEDIMENT TO ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT IN NIGERIA

Colonel Umar Musa Aliyu, ndc, psc Nigeria’s democratization process from 1999 to date has been very eventful, remarkable and commendable, but also characterized by myriad of insecurity issues that constitute impediment to sustainable economic development in the country. The insecurity issues have also led to wanton destruction of lives and properties worth millions of dollars across the country. These insecurity issues include frequent cases of assassinations, politically motivated ethnic conflicts, kidnappings/abductions, agitations for secession, herders/farmers conflicts, armed robbery, piracy, corruption, armed banditry, illegal oil bunkering, oil pipeline vandalism, the Boko Haram insurgency etc. This was the patriotic motivation that necessitated the study of Insecurity as an Impediment to Economic Development in Nigeria. The main thrust of this research study is the Boko Haram insurgency, being one of the major insecurity issues in Nigeria that impede sustainable economic development in the country. Nigeria is ranked number 3 on the Global Terrorism Index 2017. Despite the fact Nigeria is rich in natural resources; however the United Nations Human Development Index 2017 ranked Nigeria number 152 out of 188 countries. Also, Nigeria has a Human Development Index of 0.527 and Multidimensional Poverty Index (MPI) of 0.279. The Gini Coefficient Index for Nigeria is 43. The broad objective of this study is to

XIII find a lasting panacea to the myriad of insecurity issues that constitute impediment to economic development in Nigeria. The hypothesis implicit in this study is that the implementation of the recommended multi-dimensional initiatives and measures is expected to mitigate the Boko Haram insurgency, being an impediment to economic development in Nigeria, and thereby facilitating economic development in the country. The theories/analytical framework adopted for this study are a combination of the Relative Deprivation Theory, the Frustration Aggression Theory and the Conspiracy Theory. The findings of the study proffered answers to the research questions. These include the ranking of the causes of Boko Haram insurgency, the sources of funding of the terrorist group, the interest of the supporters, the motivation of the Boko Haram terrorist and also suggested ways of cutting-off funding/logistics support to Boko Haram. Furthermore, the study proffered a panacea to the Boko Haram insurgency, being one of the major insecurity issues that impede economic development in Nigeria. Finally, the study recommended multi-dimensional initiatives and approaches comprising political, military, economic and diplomatic measures for the mitigation of the Boko Haram insurgency, in order to facilitate sustainable economic development in Nigeria.

Key Words: Insecurity, Democratization, Economic Development.

ACHIEVING UNORTHODOX DETERRENCE ABILITY BY BANGLADESH ARMY

Lieutenant Colonel Abul Hasnat Mohammad Mahmud Azam, afwc, psc, Arty Apparently, military power and economic resources should determine who wins and who loses and thus, rational and fundamental principle of conflict has been that power should determine victory in war. Commonly held deterrence theory is based on the balance of military capabilities between the belligerents. Thus, traditional deterrence theory suggests that to deter a potential enemy one has to have stronger military capabilities and thereby, the weak is virtually precluded from the possibility of deterring a considerably stronger opponent. It makes me wonder that if it holds good always, then how country like Bangladesh will be able to deter its potential big adversaries. Is deterrence possible for Bangladesh without resorting to arms race? However, recent outcomes of some asymmetric conflicts suggest that supremacy in military capability and economic power are not always the prime determinant of deterrence. Therefore, though geostrategic and economic realities do not suggest Bangladesh to boost its military arsenal to attain conventional deterrence ability, yet there might be window of opportunities open for Bangladesh to deter its potential

XIV adversaries. Therefore, in my research, I tried to figure out the possibility where a weak actor will able to deter a stronger one by adopting unconventional strategy. I tend to call it ‘Unorthodox Deterrence’.

Key Words: Bangladesh Army, Military Power, Economic Resources, Deterrence Theory.

COMPETENCY OF BANGLADESH ARMY IN CHANGING SCENARIO OF PEACEKEEPING OPERATION (PKO): REQUIREMENT IN TRAINING AND EQUIPMENT

Lieutenant Colonel Shahzad Pervez Mohiuddin, afwc, psc, Sigs Bangladesh (BD) Army has been participating in United Nations Peace Support Operations (UNPSO) for more than two decades. Being one of the largest troops contributing countries (TCC), Bangladesh has earned good reputation in the international arena. However, the performance of Bangladeshi peacekeepers in recent years is mixed with success and failures. Few incidents under chapter VII operation drew wide spread criticism in international arena and also questioned the ability of Bangladeshi Peacekeepers to operate under this type of challenging situation. These incidents also indicated that Bangladeshi peacekeepers are not operationally robust enough to operate effectively in the changing scenario of PKO. A study on the basis on available publications, reports and views of experienced officers and contingent commanders revealed a number of underlying causes related to training and modern equipment that contributed to failure in robust peacekeeping. The survey and interviews included both present and previous contingent commanders and experienced officers. The findings and recommendations are expected to benefit Bangladesh Army to take necessary steps to train and better equip the future peacekeepers in accomplishing their duties under a more challenging and professional environment.

Key Words: Bangladesh Army, Peacekeeping Operation, Training and Equipment.

TOWARDS CAPACITY DEVELOPMENT FOR A RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT ORGANIZATION IN BANGLADESH AIR FORCE

Group Captain Md Asif Iqbal, afwc, psc A nation needs to keep pace with the changes and advancement to attain her defence capability. Bangladesh is no exception to that. As per defence capability, neighbouring

XV India is far ahead and Myanmar is rapidly developing her military potentials. Thus to remain at par and to make balance of power, Bangladesh needs to modernized her defence might. Bangladesh Air Force (BAF), a key element of Bangladesh defence forces, needs also to develop her competence to face the threat’s changing scenario. Besides, procuring advance equipments, indigenous research and development (R&D) can be the key factor for her capability development and modernization. Thus, the objective of this research is to review the existing R&D practices for identifying the issues and challenges, rationale of a R&D organization in BAF and to recommend a possible framework of R&D organization for BAF. To achieve the objective, the issues and challenges of existing R&D practices were questioned to examine the rationale of R&D organization in BAF and to suggest a possible framework of a R&D organization for BAF through case studies of different R&D organizations at home and abroad. This research is qualitative and explorative in nature based on primary and secondary data. The data were collected through focus group discussion, key informant interviews, reviewing previous researches on the topic & official documents and personal observation. Besides, books, journals and open sources were consulted. Having hope due to successful completion of UAV project and conversion of General Purpose Bomb in to Precision Guided Munitions, R&D in BAF could not progress much due to absence of a R&D organization, supervision through dedicated R&D directorate and budget constraint. A R&D organization, with the supervision of dedicated R&D directorate could be the key dynamics for BAF capability development and modernization by exploiting her personnel, expertise, resources and infrastructure. Budget constraint should also be addressed to make the R&D organization as an effective one. This will ultimately enhance the overall military competence of Bangladesh. The major recommendations include the scope for further study in BAF for necessary modification in the recommended framework and thereafter to coordinate with Ministry of Defence for the establishment of proposed R&D organization in BAF.

Key Words: Bangladesh Air Force, Defence Capability, Research and Development.

XVI INTEGRATION OF SPECIAL EDUCATION WITH NATIONAL EDUCATION SYSTEM: BANGLADESH PERSPECTIVE

Brigadier General Md Mostagousur Rahman Khan, BSP, SGP, ndc, afwc, psc

Introduction The education system of Bangladesh has progressed a long way in last few decades. Lot of initiatives were taken by Bangladesh government to bring positive changes and to ensure better educational outcomes in Bangladesh. In recent years, the government has also given due consideration to develop the Special Education (SE) system of Bangladesh. Special education is a separate system of education for the special need children with disabilities. It is usually organized according to their impairment categories. In Bangladesh, the rights of special children are reserved by the constitution and through different policies. But there is no set organizational guideline concerning special education grading, evaluation and certification system corresponding to the regular mainstream education. Therefore, absence of a corresponding integrated education system for both special and mainstream national education has made the education status of special children more uneasy. Besides, importance of need for an appropriate model for early childhood care and education for both mainstream and special children is also felt. Hence, this research is an endeavor to evaluate the special education to propose a corresponding integrated education structure for both special and mainstream national education. Besides, an appropriate model has also been proposed on early childhood care and education for both mainstream and special children together. The main objective of the research is to know the nature of special education system for differently able persons in Bangladesh. The specific objectives of the present research are: To propose a corresponding integrated

1 Integration of Special Education with National Education System: Bangladesh Perspective education system for both special and mainstream national education; and To recommend an appropriate procedure for early childhood care and education system for both mainstream and special children.

Integrated Education Scenario in Bangladesh Bangladesh is committed to give each child a broad and deep foundation for a lifelong journey of learning, providing additional support for those who need it. To bring out the best in every child, Bangladesh education system emphasizes an education for all concepts. There are estimated 16 million people with disabilities in Bangladesh, which is 10% of the country’s population (Disability in Bangladesh, 2016; World Bank, 2016). In spite of large number of disable people, there is no integrated education system or structure in Bangladesh. Every special educational institution in Bangladesh has been following its own special education structure. For example, Proyash Institute of Special Education has established five special programmes (called as schools) to provide educational opportunities and facilities to ensure the most appropriate teaching for the specific types, age and ability of the children. The age of the students in the schools are between 6 to 14 years (Khan, 2016).

The special schools are School of Autism, School of Intellectually Challenged, School of Physically Challenged, School of Hearing Impairment and School of Visual Impairments. The main aim of all the schools is to provide opportunities to explore the potential of students and to support them in their education. Proyash focuses on the strengths of students, encourages them to learn, play and interact with their peers irrespective of their disability. The main objectives of the Special Schools are to provide education in Activities of Daily Living (ADL) to bring sustainable improvement in five major parameters of development. Those are motor functioning, socialization, cognitive, language, communication and self-help skill. The educable children are given education following the National Curriculum and Text Book Board (NCTB). The trainable children are also given vocational training.

2 Each special school comprises of nine classes and each class has different curriculum. The nine classes are grouped in three levels: Junior, Middle and Senior level. Junior level follows the curriculum of pre-primary and primary class up to class IV and middle school follows the curriculum of class V to class VII. The senior level or prevocational class is equivalent to class VIII (Khan, 2016). The curriculum of all special schools is prepared following the guideline of NCTB. The Subject of different levels are Academic Education Programme (Language education, social studies, Mathematics, religious education, moral education, science and general education), training in Self Help Skills (daily living activities, health and hygiene, behavioral activities), sports, swimming, co-curricular activities (music, dance, art etc), vocational training etc (Khan, 2016).

An academic year is divided into three semesters and a semester takes about four months (Figure 1). The classes are Junior Class Level I (age between 6 to 7 years), Junior Class Level II (age between 7 to 8 years), Junior Class Level III (age between 8 to 9 years), Junior Academic Readiness (age either between 9 to 10 or 12 to 13), Middle Class Level I (age between 10 to 11 years), Middle Class Level II (age between 11 to 12 years), Middle Class Level III (age between 12 to 13 years) and Senior/Pre-vocational (age between 13 to 14 years). At the age of six, a student is placed at Junior Level-I. Depending on the child’s progress in first semester, the successful student is promoted to Junior Level II. In the same way a student may move to Level- III (Khan, 2016).

Based on their performance, a few students may complete all three levels (junior or middle) within a year. Students who are not able to complete one level within one semester are allowed to attend maximum two more semesters to complete a level. Based on the progress of the child in between Junior and Middle class or in between Middle and Senior Class, he/she will be promoted to Academic Readiness Class for a duration of 01 year (age either between 9 to 10 or 12 to 13 years). The child will be prepared for academic class for mainstream education. The special student who could not be mainstreamed will be promoted to Senior Class (for a duration of

3 Integration of Special Education with National Education System: Bangladesh Perspective

01 year) which is otherwise pre-vocational for onward promotion to the Vocational School at the age of 14 years.

Figure 1: Class System/Structure of Special Education Institution

Source: Khan, 2016

Education system of Special Education Institute is illustrated the diagram below:

Figure 2: Education System of Special Education Institution

Source: Khan, 2016

4 The special education starts from ECDP at the age of 2-3 years. The students continue to reach the main objective of either mainstream and they are rehabilitated through job placement by the time they reach to 18- 22 years (Khan, 2016).

Special Education Special education (SE) refers to schooling in separate locations, such as special schools, units, or classes, including the structures used in any school that identify students as “special” (such as withdrawal from the classroom for specialist teaching or therapy or high levels of one-to-one adult support). This interpretation reflects the current literature, which associates “special education” with particular ways of thinking about students with disabilities and with educational structures that differentiate students from their peer groups (Deppeler et al, 2010; Evans, J. and Lunt, I., 2002; Marcon, 2002).

Inclusive Education or Integrated Education (IE) Inclusive education (IE) or integrated education (IE) is based on the programme of ‘education for all’. “It is about building more just society and ensuring right to education of all pupils irrespective of their specific physiognomies or complications” (Ahuja A. and Ibrahim M, 2006; Epstein, 2007). The term individual physiognomies cover a broader area- gender, race, religion, sexual preferences, culture, language, learning style and disability. In an inclusive school a teacher has to take responsibility of a diverse group of students and offer them educational facility addressing their level of intelligence and potential capability. Ahuja & Ibrahim (2006) says that, “inclusion is not only about philosophy but more importantly about the practical changes that must bring about in order to help the children with special needs and all other children in our school system to excel and unfold their potential”. According to UNESCO, 2009, “An IE can only be created if mainstream schools turn to be more inclusive - in other words, if they become better at educating all children in their

5 Integration of Special Education with National Education System: Bangladesh Perspective communities” (p.8). So, inclusive education is not a concern of a special school rather it is a shift mindset, policy and programmes for all mainstream schools to ensure the basic human right of education for all. Thus, IE can ensure a ‘base for a more just and equal society (UNESCO, 2009).

Method Both qualitative and quantitative approaches were applied to collect and analyze data. Primary and secondary data were collected from the document analysis, interview and questionnaire. Interviews were taken from the parents, teachers and from a few expert academicians.

Sampling of the Study Purposive sampling technique was used to select suitable respondents from different educational institutions in Dhaka, because one of the main objectives of this research was to explore the strengths and weakness of the proposed integrated education structure and integrated early childhood model. The objective of purposive sampling is to get feedback from the key respondents of the related field. It helped to understand the strength and weakness of proposed model. As the purpose of the study is to identify the special and integrated education system for differently able persons of Bangladesh, three types of participants- university teachers, special teachers (shadow teachers) and therapists of inclusive schools were chosen to conduct the survey. All the Participants are from different special and mainstream education institutions in Dhaka. The university teachers teach and focus the mainstream learners and have supportive teachers for handling the special learner. The special teachers are those who teach the special children. Most of the participants are quite experienced in their teaching career. Although, other participants have started their journey with inclusive education very recently, they have quite effective understanding of the system. The different age groups of the participants are shown below.

6 Table 1: Age distribution of survey participants Age Group Participants (%) 20-25 8 % 25-30 10 % 30-35 16 % 35-40 14 % 40-45 15 % 45-50 12 % 50-55 11 % 55-60 9 % Above 60 5 % Total (%) 100%

Most of the participants have started their journey as a special and inclusive teacher without any training. They have explored the system and learnt from their own experience. But they have attended trainings in the later stages of their teaching career.

Although, special and inclusive teaching in Bangladesh has come to light in recent years but the experience level of the teachers surveyed states that special and inclusive teaching in Bangladeshi context is not a recent trend. The following table shows the experience level of the participants of the study.

Table 2: Teaching and therapy experience of survey participants Experience Level Participants 1-5 years 25 % 5-10 years 60 % Above 10 years 15%

Sample Size Estimation Questionnaire survey was conducted among 10 administrators and academicians, 50 special teachers, 50 mainstream teachers and 50 guardians. 7 Integration of Special Education with National Education System: Bangladesh Perspective

In case of interview, 5 experts of related fields (university professors of special education) were interviewed. The questionnaire was prepared for understanding strengths and limitations of the proposed integrated and early childhood education model in Bangladesh as well as abroad.

Instruments To administer the survey, the researcher has used document analysis, a questionnaire survey and an interview session with few participants. The questionnaire was arranged with regard to distinguish their view on proposed integrated education model of Bangladesh to view and discover the effectiveness of proposed model. Besides, the interview session was done to get some detailed idea on the research area that was not mentioned in the questionnaire.

Data Collection Procedure Information were collected from document analysis and from teachers and experts. Information from secondary sources such as text books, journals, printed materials, programme reports of different agencies and internet publications were the major source of information. In addition, the government policies, legislation and guidelines on the related area published as gadgets and reports were also reviewed. Related research reports or articles have been reviewed as the secondary sources of data. International trend of integrated education was also reviewed with the help of available books, journals, online articles and write-ups. The survey participants were briefed about the questionnaire in detail. The researcher was present there while the participants were filling up the questionnaire. As mentioned above, some learners (randomly chosen) were also surveyed through an informal interview session.

Result and Discussion In the findings part, the document and questionnaire have been analyzed in details with the obtained responses. The themes that evolve from the document analysis and questions have also been explained in this chapter.

8 Comparative Analysis of Bangladesh Education System with Austria, Japan, Ireland, Switzerland, Macedonia and Latvian Education System At Austria, Japan, Ireland, Switzerland, Macedonia and Latvia, the school starting age is between 5 to 6 years. These countries have been following integrated education system for long time, where the most striking feature of their education system is the recognition of education as a right and not a business. They have many private special education centers, however, amazingly they are also low cost or totally free. They also operate and provide all facilities like public schools by government mandate. Early recognition of disabilities and intervention is required to provide proper care, which is ensured in all the countries discussed in this paper. The governments as well as educators have realized the importance of integrated education system in those countries i.e. Austria evolved their integrated system as a result of mass awareness and systematic experiment conducted with the participation of all stakeholders. The rights of all children are preserved not only by the constitution, but also by the people themselves, which they believe to keep as a core value. Their integrated education system is well developed and special needs children attend early childhood programme and primary education in same schools and their disabilities are taken into account (Austria and Ireland). The children begin their education in normal school together and then their education system is gradually separated for regular and special students respectively.

It is noticeable that, their governments and special educators have realized the importance of small class size. The teacher-student ratio and the class size are limited. Furthermore, they provide outstanding facilities for children with special education needs. Another important factor of their success is the proper flow of information to all, which is controlled and monitored centrally. This centralized system provides required information regarding available institutions, services etc. to the parents, educators, and caregivers, by which they can decide and choose the best for them and their children.

9 Integration of Special Education with National Education System: Bangladesh Perspective

The curricula are also unique and most innovative. The philosophy is to allow mainstream and special children to enjoy learning and discover their potentials together. They have only one state curriculum or in other words their primary education follows a unified or integrated/inclusive curriculum. However, this curriculum is flexible and provides teachers independence in classrooms.

The focuses of education of those countries are unique and the special students spend more time in the normal classroom. Students are not burdened with work – little or no homework is provided. Physical exercise and outdoor activities are a big part in their curriculum. There is also a great emphasis on reading for pleasure and watching TV which allows learning outside the class and helps to develop independent thinking. They also emphasize on learning first language. Furthermore, there are courses in art, music, cooking, carpentry, metalwork and textiles carpentry etc; that give students a well-rounded education and encourage them to opt for vocational schooling. In fact, about half of the students choose to go to vocational school after completing their high school.

The philosophy of grading and evaluation is also based upon what is best for students. Just like homework, they have very few examinations. The aim is not to make a comparative evaluation of students but to make sure every student gets the lessons. Automatically, students are almost given promotion which is prudent. Holding a student back is one of the worst things a school can do. Weak students are given extra support so they can overcome their weaknesses while not being held back a year. The grades of students are kept unpublished but used to determine the needs of individual students. For a failing student, decisions to help the student to be taken together with parents and teachers. At the end of the primary experience there is a mandatory standardized test – the only major examinations.

Due to the close care of teachers and lack of demoralizing strategies every student performs well. The best student, special student and the worst student are all good students and the difference between the best and the worst is the lowest in the world.

10 This is not a testament to the amount of money a developed country can spend on special education but the philosophy and strategy. Special teachers of those countries are paid more than Bangladesh as well. The number of hours’ students spend in schools and teachers are required to teach only four hours daily. In those countries, the teachers are also given 2 days a week for personal professional development.

Important reason for their success is of high quality teachers. The minimum requirement of a primary school teacher is Master’s degree and then teachers are chosen from only the top 10%. The salary of the teachers of those countries are also higher than our country. The salary is quite substantial and is a reason for attracting the best qualified teachers. They are provided with best possible academic and on job training for handling special children. There is much to be learned from their success.

Proposed Integrated Education Structure for Bangladesh Taking lessons from Austria, Japan, Ireland, Switzerland, Latvia and few other countries education system, an integrated education structure for Bangladesh has been proposed as stated below:

11 Integration of Special Education with National Education System: Bangladesh Perspective

Figure 3: Proposed Integrated Education System Model for Bangladesh

* Medicine, Nursing, Dintistry, Speech Language Pathology, Occupational Therapy, Physical Therapy, ICT, B.Ed, Law, Agriculture, Banking, Graphic Design Skills etc. * Carpentry, Data Entry, Fashion Modeling, Furniture Design, Medical Assisting, Washing, Photocopy, Cleaning, Farming, Computer, Gardening, Sewing, Hotel Management, Bakery, Office Management, Shopkeeping, Music, Dance, Sports, Art and Craft, Cooking, Painting etc.

In this model, four types of education system namely: regular education including English medium, madrasha education, vocational and special education is considered. According to the model, special education will have equivalent degree to normal education. As per proposed model, education system in Bangladesh has been divided into several categories: special education, regular education including English medium and madrasha education.

As illustrated in the figure, early childhood development programme (3-5) and pre-primary education/kindergarten (5-6) are equally important and obligatory for all children. In the second stage, primary skill certificate/

12 primary education/standard V/Ebtedayee (6-10+) education will be valued with parallel class/grade. Thereafter, the further upper grade for all category students will be Junior Technical Certificate (JTC)/Junior High School/Standard VIII/Dakhil (11-13+). Next upper grade for all category students will be Secondary Technical Certificate (STC)/Secondary High School/O level/Dakhil level (14-16+).

Next higher level for all category students will be Higher Technical Certificate (HTC)/HSC/A level/Alim (17-18+). Thereafter, undergraduate programme for special needs students will be trade course, diploma & vocational graduate and technical graduate which will be considered as equivalent to regular undergraduate programme consisting of BA/ BSc (Honours), professional degree, BA (Pass), Diploma & vocational and Fazil (19-22+). Finally, Master’s Degree, MPhil degree, Doctoral degree and post-doctoral degree and research will be applicable for regular students only (23+).

As per proposed model of normal, vocational, madrasha and special needs education examinations system should be different while certificate value of it will be considered equal for job placement or any other needs. In special needs education, each child will be assessed by the respective class teacher based on his/her performance.

Proposed ECDP Model for Bangladesh At the moment, there is no recognized ECDP programme in Bangladesh. In international arena, ECDP is considered as the base of general education for all category of students. Proposed ECDP model will be applicable for all category students of Bangladesh. The most important feature of the model is the values of educational thinking. Proposed model shows more flexible, integrated and collaborated approach.

This will promote an education based on global and total approach to children’s overall development. This model has two parts: early childhood care and education settings and early childhood development activities.

13 Integration of Special Education with National Education System: Bangladesh Perspective

ECDP Model 1: Early Childhood Care and Education Settings

Figure 4: Early childhood care and education settings

As per proposed model, the age of early childhood programme range is between 3 to 5 years. The children will be allowed to participate in two settings for ECD programme: home settings and center settings. Home settings are categories to own home (kin, parents, care giver) and others home (informal caregiver and licensed family child care home). Again, center settings are categories into three parts: periodic (playground), full day (hospital and child care) and part day (pre-school).

14 ECDP Model 2: Early Child Development Activities

Figure 5: A dynamic model of early childhood development programme and activities

Model 2 as the core model of ECDP illustrated its different activities. The proposed activities of ECDP model have got its two domains: developmental domain and sub-domain. Developmental domain includes

15 Integration of Special Education with National Education System: Bangladesh Perspective specific activities and its implementation strategy like muscle development, personal and social skill development, intellectual development, language development, emotional development, ethics and values etc. Sub-domains consist of some skills which include different activities, such as: play, practice, question answer, group play, group work, role play etc; methods are necessary. These are the skills with which a child can acquire the ideal values he/she need to achieve in life. These skills also help to keep the developmental domains functional. Parents and siblings are most important factors influencing children’s development. Therefore, it is important to include them in the learning process.

Questionnaire Analysis The questions lead to survey about two important themes and models. Those are Corresponding Integrated Education Structure and Integrated Early Childhood Development Programme for Bangladesh.

Question 1 Do you feel the necessity of integrated corresponding education structure for Bangladesh?

In response to this question total 84% participants agreed with the model integration of education structure and only 21% did not agree with the proposed model.

Question 2 Do you feel the necessity of certificate for special education system as good as regular mainstream education system? Almost all the participants (90%) agreed on the point that the certification system for special education to be introduced as good as regular mainstream education system while only 9% did not agree with the proposal.

16 Question 3 Do you agree with the proposed corresponding in targeted education structure for Bangladesh?

In reply to the question of the proposed corresponding integrated education structure of Bangladesh, 90% participants agreed on the model structure. In contrary, only 6% opined against it and 3% recommended for medication.

The positive response on the necessity of the proposed model indicate the serious need of such an integrated structure for corresponding special as well as the mainstream education system.

Question 4 If the answer of question number 3 needs modification, please specify the specific modification?

Table 3: Feedback of Question 4 Answer type No. of Participants Percentage (%) Need to clarify rehabilitation 35 21.22 % system Need to define more specific 65 78.78% about equivalence system

Most of the participants believe that proposed model of corresponding integration of education system for Bangladesh is a good innovation. However, few also suggested for some modification and clarification of the model, especially rehabilitation system, equivalent system of special education and mainstream education. In response to their suggestions few modifications have been incorporated. However, before further implementation a detail analysis may also be carried out.

17 Integration of Special Education with National Education System: Bangladesh Perspective

Question 5 In order to implement the proposed model, do you feel the necessity of a separate education board? Or same board should be given the responsibility? Most of the Participants (72%) supported for a separate education board for special education system. However, few participants (27%) believe that existing education board can take the responsibility with some resource’s augmentation.

Maximum percentage of response is in favor of individual education board.

Question 6 Do you feel the need of early childhood education programme for Bangladesh education system? Most of the Participants (96%) agreed on this point that early childhood education programme for Bangladesh education system is very significant. On the contrary, only 3% participants think that, existing education system of Bangladesh can provide early childhood education facilities.

Question 7 All special and regular children should attain ECD programme together and screening should be done in the process of ECD programme? In response to this question 84% participants agreed that special and regular children should attain ECD programme together and screening should be done in the process of ECD programme. On the other hand, only 15% participants opined against.

As most of the participants’ responses are in favor of integrated and mainstream education, children should attain ECD programme together and screening should be done in the process of ECD programme.

18 Question 8 What should be the appropriate age range for early childhood education programme?

Table 4: Feedback of Question 8 Answer type No. of Participants Percentage (%) 2-5 30 66% 2-6 110 18% 2-8 15 9% 2-10 10 6% No Comment 0 0

Maximum participants suggest appropriate age range of early childhood programme is 3-5, few participants opined about appropriate age range of early childhood programme is 3-6, few participants think that, appropriate age range for early childhood programme is 4-6, the rest of the participants (6%) think about appropriate age range of early childhood programme is 4-8. Participant’s response to this question is given below in a Bar chart.

Chart 1: Survey Result on Question 8

As maximum participants suggest, appropriate age range for early childhood programme should be between 2-5 years of age.

19 Integration of Special Education with National Education System: Bangladesh Perspective

Question 9 Do you support the proposed ECD model or you suggest modification? Most of the participants believe that proposed model of ECDP for Bangladesh is a good innovation. However, few also suggested for some modification and clarification of the model. As 84% said ‘yes’ tothis question, it has been proved that proposed ECD model is well accepted. They only understand the literal meaning of words and phrases. However, only 9% responded ‘no’ to this question and only 6% responded ‘need modification’ to this question. Participant’s response to this question is given below in an area chart.

Chart 2: Answer the proposed ECD model

Maximum percentage of responses are in favor of proposed ECD model of Bangladesh. Therefore, only minimum percentage of response neglected it and few respondents suggested to revise it. However, before further implementation a detail analysis may also be carried out.

Question 10 If answer needs modification, please specify the specific modification? Most Participants believe that proposed model of integrated education system for Bangladesh is an innovative research work in the perspective

20 of Bangladesh. But they suggested us some areas of the model needs to modify, especially age range, parent’s acceptance and related areas need to be more specified. Most of the Participants (72%) supported for a separate education board for special education system. However, a few participants (27%) believe that existing education board can take the responsibility with some resources augmentation.

Conclusion From the literature review and through examination of existing educational arrangement of Bangladesh, a model of integrated education system or structure and an ECD programme for Bangladesh has been proposed. Following the proposed model, a thorough survey and interview was carried out to validate the applicability of both the model. The result of the survey and interview was analyzed in length and breadth, where most of the respondents agreed on the proposed model while a very few have not agreed. From the survey it seems that it’s a very useful and timely proposed corresponding integrated education structure for Bangladesh. This will also create an opportunity for the government to review the model of Bangladeshi education system.

References 1. Ahuja, A., & Ibrahim, M, (2006) An Assessment of Inclusive . Dhaka: UNESCO, P.6 2. Baxter, V. & Petty, K., Preschool curricula: Finding one that fits. (2008) Texas Child Care, 32(2), 34-39. 3. Deppeler, Joanne and Harvey, David and Loreman, (2010). Inclusive Education: A Practical Guide to Supporting Diversity in the Classroom. USA: Rutledge, P.15. 4. Epstein, A. (2007). Essentials of Active Learning in Preschool. Ypsilanti, MI: High/Scope Press. P. 4 5. Evans, J. and Lunt, I. (2002). Inclusive education: are there limits? European Journal of Special Needs Education, PP.1-14

21 Integration of Special Education with National Education System: Bangladesh Perspective

6. Evans, J. L et al. (2000) Early Childhood Counts: A programmeming guide on early childhood care for development. Washington D.C. The World Bank. P.47 7. Khan, M. R. (2016). “Programmes and Programme Components of Proyash for The Education and Inclusion of the Children with Special Needs: An Evaluation of the Academic and Support Service Structure” (Unpublished MPhil thesis). 8. Marcon, R., (2002) Moving up the grades: Relationship between model and later school success. Early Childhood Research and Practice, (4) 1. Retrieved from http://ecrp.uiuc.edu/v4n1/marcon.html 9. Myers, R. (1992) The Twelve Who Survive: Strengthening Programmemes of Early Childhood Development in the Third World. London, Routledge. PP.24-25 10. UNESCO. (2009) Policy guidelines on inclusion in education. Paris: UNESCO. IX 11. UNESCO. (1994) Salamanca Statement, United Nations Educational, Scientific, Cultural Organization. P.10

Author Brigadier General Md Mostagousur Rahman Khan, SGP, afwc, psc is commissioned in the East Bengal Regiment in 1990. He held various Command and Staff appointment in his career. He also served as Executive Director & Principal of Proyash Institute of Special Education. Prior to join NDC, he was commanding a very reputed Infantry Brigade.

He is a graduate of Defence Services Command and Staff College, Mirpur and obtained his Masters in Defence Studies from National University, Bangladesh. He is also a graduate of Armed Forces War Course (afwc) from National Defence College (NDC) and obtained his Masters of Security Studies (MOSS) from Bangladesh University of Professionals. He has also obtained his Master of Philosophy (MPhil) from Bangladesh University of Professionals. He participated in the United Nations Peace Keeping Operation with Bangladesh Battalion.

22 ROLE OF HUMAN RESOURCE MANAGEMENT FOR ENHANCEMENT OF KNOWLEDGE MANAGEMENT IN BANGLADESH ARMY: A STUDY

Brigadier General Md Mizanur Rahman, ndc

Introduction

The recognition of knowledge as a key strategic asset is very popular today which explicitly brings the issue of Knowledge Management (KM) in the forefront of the organizational strategy. Since the beginning of the 1990s this KM has gained a significant role in research as well as in practice in today’s global organizations. Due to the knowledge emerging competitive pressure of globalization and the knowledge economy, organizations are now focusing on the management of the knowledge of their employees, just as they do for the otherresources. Alongside this, the spectacular take- off of KM is now placing great emphasis on the management of the possessors of the knowledge asset i.e. Human Resource. Because many technicist and IT driven approach to KM, primarily adopted by many organizations, failed largely due to ignoring the people issues associated with KM (Scarbrough and Swan, 1999). A mutual reinforcement between KM-related HR practices is assumed to be critical KM features (Oltra, 2005; Hansen, 1999). HR functions are now therefore, being aligned with the competing perspective of integrating the management of people into the management of knowledge. All these empirically suggest that there is a practical need to maintain a degree of congruency and symbiotic positive link between HRM and KM in the organization to foster better organizational performance. In the Defence sector, the new era of warfare highlights the rising importance of having a knowledge advantage over adversaries. Thus it brings KM to the fore of commanding operations. The concept of transition in the military from traditional soldier to knowledge worker is globally under way to achieve knowledge supremacy. A US

23 Role of Human Resource Management for Enhancement of Knowledge Management in Bangladesh Army: A Study

Marine Corps General introduced the idea of the strategic corporal in 1999, and since then the concept of KM has gained widespread academic and military recognition (Byrne and Bannister, 2013, p. 71). Modern militaries are now embracing credible changes in the HR practices to influence their KM doctrine. The capture of knowledge is now a big challenge for most organizations, but even more so for military and defence sector. There comes the unique role of HRM. Given the current global scenario, Bangladesh Army like other armies of developed and developing countries are also facing an operational environment that is changing at an increasingly rapid pace. Over the last few years, Bangladesh Army has embraced the need of knowledge and learning and enhanced structures for education and training. It has also modernized its weaponry, network arrangements systems and procedures to face the needs of tomorrow. However, as a concept and strategy it is yet to draw the right attention of the hierarchy. There is also a lack of correct information in different processes, for different people at different levels. Many are exiting the forces at different stages of their career with significant explicit and tacit knowledge which seems a great loss on the part of the army. On the other hand, the HRM issues are still being dealt by a traditional concept of personnel administration (Sagir, 2013) by different branches and directorates with seemingly incoherent focuses. Besides, it is apparently observed that persons with right knowledge and aptitude are sometime not being positioned at right place and at right time. Consequently, individual knowledge is sometimes remaining unutilized or underutilized and thus is fading over time. It is also assumed that a lifelong learning culture and motivation is somewhat missing to some extent due to lack of appropriate and sustainable organizational support. All the above observations epitomize that some drawbacks or inefficient management of certain HR functions may be significantly affecting the enhancement of overall KM in Bangladesh Army and consequently challenging its competitiveness.

24 Existing HRM and KM Practices of Officers in Bangladesh Army

The HRM in Bangladesh Army is a kind of bureaucratic “Personnel Management” form of operation. The population in the organization is categorized in basic three classes namely; Army officers, JCOs and Other Ranks, and civilian employees. With the purpose of ensuring better management, different branches and directorates in the Army Headquarters mainly develop strategies and policies on HR issues and implement those through formations, and units. They also monitor the results of those strategies and policies and revisit them as and when required. On the other hand, the KM in Bangladesh Army has not been adopted as a separate strategy. The KM functions of the officers are, by and large, planned, coordinated and executed by the General Staff Branch at the Army Headquarters. Formations also plan and execute some KM functions within their scope and purview. Besides, some other branches and directorates in the headquarters also support the KM initiatives in tandem from their point of view.

Current Shortcomings in HRM

• Inadequacy in Branding: Amidst emerging challenges of enormous prospects in the dynamic domestic and global job market, our army’s marketing campaign is falling short to attract the desired section of talented youth. Survey found that marketing and recruitment tools appear to be working just fine in terms of quantity but unable to present the army as a profession in right perspective to attract attention of aspiring talented section of the youth.

• Mismatch between the indicated Academic Quality and Actual Academic Quality: Grade Inflation is a matter of serious concern amongst the intellectuals, academicians and HR personnel of Bangladesh for last couple of years. The impact of this grade inflation

25 Role of Human Resource Management for Enhancement of Knowledge Management in Bangladesh Army: A Study

is aptly substantiated by the statistics from ISSB. Academic credential of the recently selected officers is well above the threshold, but this group of officers often falter in terms of depth of knowledge and application. At this backdrop, it may be argued that there may be a need of re-assessing the selection process and refurbish it appropriately.

Training, Development and KM

• Limited and Formal Pattern for Knowledge Sharing: There are limitedopportunities to share knowledge through some structured form of interactions like, Study period, Model discussion, Tutorial discussions etc. Since these forms are quite formal, these do not contribute much to the creation of new knowledge. Besides, these decorum and formality do not adequately motivate or encourage the officers particularly the young generations to participate with open mind and unwavering interest. • Limited Exposure for Face-to-face Interaction: The induction process of officers could not keep pace with the expansion of Army in the last six years. Therefore, the Army is running with almost 40% (MS Branch, 2018) shortage of officers. Conversely, professional, co-professional and extra-professional commitments have increased in manifolds. In such a situation completion of an event is more important than perfection. Officers are less interested in mentor- apprentice interaction while firefighting an event. • Contradiction in Priority Setting: Traditionally, a key player of unit Basketball team is much adored by unit authority and enjoys a celebrity status in the unit; the best gunner of the unit is just the one who does his job well. On the other hand, consequence of a failed administrative event is so serious and persistent that it surpasses the reward of an excellent training event. In sum, there seems an inherent contradiction among the officers in particular, in setting their appropriate priority. • Lack of Online Training: The current shortage of officers particularly in the units has almost gone beyond natural adaptability.

26 Although many corporate organizations are mitigating this challenge through appropriate delivering of training online, Bangladesh Army is yet to explore this on larger spectrum and use it as a way out to this menacing problem. However, it is needless to mention that something that need to be taught on ground must not be compromised through taping online advantage. Anobjective and balanced assessment is imperative.

• Inadequate Focus for Creation of Hyper Specialists:In the context of rapidly changing global environment, it is a need of time to create true specialists on aspects even beyond basic parameters and to keep them upgraded with new advents on a regular basis. Currently there are four approaches observed with regards to developing and employing hyper specialist in Bangladesh Army:

▪▪ Develop hyper specialist and employ them effectively. Example: AMC and ADC. ▪▪ Develop hyper specialist but do not employ them effectively. Example: EME, Sig and Ord. ▪▪ The need for hyper specialist is felt, some effort is taken to develop but employ them as generally trained personnel. Example: AC, Arty and Engrs. ▪▪ Do not feel for any specialization and no effort is taken to develop so. Example: Inf and ASC.

All the above suggest that there is need for progressive specialization all over in Bangladesh Army and make best and timely use of them for greater dividend.

Career Management and KM

• Lack of Participation in Decision Making: Study found that due to lack of adequate participation in the decision making process and the consequent individual emotional attachment to the organization,

27 Role of Human Resource Management for Enhancement of Knowledge Management in Bangladesh Army: A Study

many officers lack due commitment to the outfit and thus it affects the knowledge creation and sharing. • No Organizational Knowledge Repository: Officers in various courses at home and abroad gain and develop their own knowledge banks which are worth useful. However, there is no organizational system to acquire and preserve those knowledge banks most of which could be used as reference for future discourses and decision makings. • Lack of Lifelong Learning Culture: Officer’s impulse for knowledge gathering and knowledge creation for certain time is observed to be driven mostly by the focus on optimum fulfilment of their promotion criteria, a power conduit indeed. Organization does not promote much on knowledge gathering as a lifelong learning culture. As such when the prospect of further promotion is sealed due to some limitations, most individuals’ motivation for fostering knowledge required for the organizational development also lose theirstrength and belongingness. On the contrary, officers eventually plug in their focus for acquiring knowledge and expertise that will only benefit him or her for second career. • Insufficient Organizational Sponsorship for Higher Study: The current policies although encourage higher study of the officers, however, very few get organizational sponsorship. Besides, there is no master plan for this higher studies that pursues synergy between organizational interests and personal needs. Nonetheless, the knowledge attained through higher studies are not recognized much and thus not utilized to the best of the organizational benefits. As such, wealth of this diversified knowledge together remains unutilized or under-utilized. • Lack of Preservation of “Lessons Learned”: There is no explicit provision of preserving the “lesson learned” in any form.Besides, general practices in the Army lacks in efficient and timely use of “lessons learned” as a source of further learning and decision making. • Lack of Timely Employment: A good number of officers are being trained every year on different utility disciplines like GTO, BI, and OMP

28 etc. However, study found that considerable portion (67%) of them are employed according to their specialization between 5-10 years of the completion of training. Besides, even a part of them (approximately 10%) are not employed at all on their fields of specialization in their entire career. The similar picture is also prevalent in case of foreign courses and higher studies. Thus it reveals that certain part of knowledge and efficiency is being wasted, lost, or remaining unutilized in the process due to lack of proper and timely planning of employment. • Frequent Posting and Lack of Priority of Placement: Frequent and premature posting are sometime affecting the learning process. Officers in their process of learning, develop certain informal groups for sharing their knowledge and experience. If they are posted frequently, this team building efforts and stability get hampered which in turn affects the motivation and commitment for learning and exploration of knowledge. Besides, it is also observed that for posting officers, staff and instructional appointments are given priority. Thus, units are generally being deprived of the service of high quality officers which in turn is affecting the learning environment in the units.

Rewards, Benefits and KM

• Insufficient Linking of Rewards to KM Functions:It has been observed that individuals are most commonly rewarded in the Army for what they know, not what knowledge they actually share. As a result, officers often hoard their knowledge for personal gain only. This is hindering the free sharing of knowledge across the organization and promoting unethical culture of showing highhandedness within the organization.

Challenges to Efficient KM

• Absence of Organizational KM Concept and Strategy: Knowledge in Bangladesh Army exists in doctrines, policies and procedures, operations and training manuals, information systems, workflow and database etc. However, it is still in nascent stage to manage its rich

29 Role of Human Resource Management for Enhancement of Knowledge Management in Bangladesh Army: A Study

treasure and fructify. There is a lack of awareness and understanding about KM as a whole in the organizational context.

• Inadequacy of Quality HRM Approach: The current HR functions in Bangladesh Army do not adequately follow modern approaches of HRM which is a separate and most vital aspect in today’scorporate management. Many of our officers and men working in different HR functions do not have appropriate academic knowledge on HRM. Neither qualification in HRM is a prerequisite for such placements. The HR functions are mostly being managed by some policies and recurring practices which, at the best, are sometime modified to suit the critical needs. It is more of general management than professional HRM. As a result, the professional linking of various HR functions to efficient KM is not receiving appropriate consideration.

• Lack of Structured Organizational Memory: Bangladesh Army has a very traditional concept of maintaining organizational memory. Libraries at different garrisons and training institutions are, by far, the major knowledge store for officers and men. However, most of these libraries are not connected to global hosts of e-books and journals. Besides, there are very few websites at Headquarters level which store very limited policy related information. More so, those are not very interactive and not well connected to other global knowledge nodes which could facilitate the officers to find the probable links to their professional interest and encourage for further search. Alongside, there is no e-platform where officers can share their professional knowledge and meet their queries electronically from any location which could benefit the officers and organization as a whole.

• Individual Fear of Uncertainty: Survey found that the majority of the officers’ pursuance for higher study is mostly driven by the tacit fear of uncertainty about individual post-retirement value perception in the global market. As a result, there is an absence of interest in choosing the subjects for higher study having organizational relevance.

30 There is also a lack of motivation to use this knowledge explicitly for attainment of the service’s goals and objectives.

• Shortage of Officers: The shortage of officers currently distracting and undermining both individual and collective KM. It is not possible to cover up this growing shortage overnight. Therefore, the existing potency of officers has to be managed very prudently so that their productivity is maintained and enhanced. In this regard, Bangladesh Army needs to have a holistic concentration to redefine the aspects to see that the basic knowledge process is not hampered.

• Absence of Systematic Approach to Knowledge Transfer: There is no systematic approach to knowledge transfer particularly from one who is leaving the organization on retirement to those remaining. As a result, huge knowledge repository along with its contexts and contents is lost in the process.

• Lack of Joyful Knowledge Sharing Culture: It is often claimed that knowledge add value when it is shared with others. However, majority of the respondents perceive that Bangladesh Army lacks joyful learning and knowledge sharing culture. It seems people are just selectively focused to acquire or share knowledge to meet short term needs mostly under pressure. It is more of managing things than thriving for gaining expertise or fostering learning across all members for value creation that would lead to sustainable organizational performance.

• Scarcity of Up-to date Knowledge Database: Although Military Secretary Branch in the Army Headquarters maintains individual service profile but this does not include the informal knowledge discourses one undergoes in his or her career. This data shortage often impacts the employment decisions by underemphasizing one’s knowledge potentials. This, in essence, is hampering the motivation of the officers in pursuing advance learning.

31 Role of Human Resource Management for Enhancement of Knowledge Management in Bangladesh Army: A Study

• Impacts of Internet and Social Media: The current surge of Internet and social media have offered seamless opportunities to officers to enhance their knowledge for professional development. However, too much of living in the virtual world is although keeping them more connected socially but is holding them from learning on ground through mutual person-to-person interactions, which is an antecedent of organizational knowledge development. Thus, knowledge sharing in the overall context in the army is suffering. Absorbing this phenomenon and yet creating scope for training and education through building relationship is therefore, a great challenge for the current leadership in the army. • Limited Organizational Support for Knowledge Rehabilitation: Almost all the officers at the verge of their retirement endure their service with certain level of pre-occupation of concern about their secure rehabilitation. Army authority has very negligible support in this regard. Consequently, many officers suffers from cognitive dissonance of perceived shortcomings of qualifications to market demands. Besides, the huge deposits of professional knowledge has very scarce scope for re-use in the army. As a result, army is losing huge potential of this knowledge acumen. This needs to be addressed appropriately so that organization can salvage andreuse thisvaluable knowledge repository for future discourses.

Suggested Reforms in HRM for the Enhancement of KM in Bangladesh Army Strategic Level

• Adoption of Knowledge Management as a Strategy: The foremost priority task for enhancing the knowledge management in Bangladesh Army is to acknowledge the “Knowledge Management” as a key concept in the basic fabric of the organization by its hierarchy. The decision makers should conceive the paradigm shift and changing landscape of the modern world to knowledge age and set “achievement

32 of information and knowledge superiority” as a distinct service goal. This once achieved sufficiently, the follow up action would be to support and facilitate in designing and implementing strategy and tools, processes, systems, structures, and cultures and allocate resources and capabilities to improve the creation, sharing, and use of knowledge.

• Formulation of HRM Strategy and Policy: An efficient KM is the process outcome of best HRM practices. Therefore, Bangladesh Army should formulate a more effective HRM strategy and policy that synchronizes all requirements emanated from the knowledge management activities. It should address the aspirations of the officers’ about knowledge acquisition, knowledge sharing, and focus exhaustively to maintain their motivation and commitment.

• Establishment of Separate HRM Branch: The Hierarchy should conceive the need for a separate HRM Branch given the existing seemingly disharmonized and silo like HR practices of multiple branches and directorates. For that, we need to revamp our current HR practices to identify the core issues and go away with the redundancies. This will not only revitalize the potentials of human capital but also explore the knowledge potentials to attain better organizational performance.

• Adoption of Knowledge-oriented HR Practices: Bangladesh Army should re-evaluate its traditional HR practices and tune those as a consistent and cohesive approach forming a knowledge-oriented fit among all its activities. All the HR practices must consciously address the competitive value of knowledge and leverage knowledge internally and externally to create a knowledge sharing environment.

Functional Level

• Encouraging More Candidates from Cadet Colleges and Military Administered Colleges: The finest outputs can significantly

33 Role of Human Resource Management for Enhancement of Knowledge Management in Bangladesh Army: A Study

be attributed to optimum quality inputs. Similar with the case of Knowledge acquisition where its quality largely depend on the quality of the knowledge beneficiary alongside the acquisition process. On the current context, Bangladesh Army need to focus on revamping the tools for attracting the talent pool of candidates. In this regard, it must concentrate more on the ready pool in the cadet colleges and the army-run schools and colleges and motivate them through teachers, by organizing interactive workshop, offering incentives, counseling etc.

• Counselling Potential Candidates by Formation: Different Formations should counsel the potential candidate pool in their respective areas in a prescribed way in collaboration with BNCC authority and civil administrations as a standalone effort or as a subsidiary task during any outdoor deployment. While doing so, formations must organize the best team of officers with moderate knowledge and experience on the likely aspirations of the candidates and should go prepared. Local visit to different formation activities may also be arranged for those potential candidates. However, security must not be compromised.

• Matching Training Needs with Appropriate Job Specifications: In the case of the existing acquisition process, Bangladesh Army should come out of its traditional concept of training to more demand-driven and technology based education and training. Individual must understand and believe in the purpose of acquiring of the knowledge and be able to relate his knowledge on ground very quickly and easily. For that a sound estimation of training need is a primary necessity. Military Training Directorate should diligently match every training requirement with the appropriate job specifications with a clear understanding of purpose and strong focus on future utility. Alongside, timely selection of the most competent person for training needs a thoughtful setting where Military Secretary Branch has its role to play.

34 • Encouraging Knowledge Acquisition outside One’s Main Domain: Authority at different tiers should encourage the acquisition of knowledge outside main domain through policy and incentives. The training curricula of different training courses should also focus on expanding the knowledge horizon of individual trainees beyond just traditional concept. This will broaden officers’ intellectual horizon and push their efficiency towards current and future organizational needs and aspirations.

• Creation of Hyper Specialization: Keeping in mind the emerging changes in the warfare and technology, Army should focus on creating hyper specialists on various professional aspects and invest right efforts to keep them optimally functional. Individual must also be convinced and encouraged for such specialization. For this, we should first identify the critical elements at different levels of dispositions and select the best lot of officers and men for turning them to hyper specialists. They should also feel dignified for their specialization irrespective of their career prospects.

• Encouraging, Incentivizing and Supporting New Creation: Bangladesh Army should readily look for in-house creation of new knowledge on many contemporary and competing aspects by encouraging, incentivizing and adequately supporting all such creative efforts. Our existing training system both at institutions and units or formations must add this “phenomenon of creation” as a priority feature. Alongside, our existing posting phenomenon and other related policies should remain flexible to adequately backup any new knowledge creation effort.

• Revitalizing the Knowledge Sharing Culture:Organizational learning culture should encourage sharing of experience on diversified professional events as a regular trend instead of just confining it within some formal or semi-formal educational and training events. The working procedure and environment should be more flexible and learning-oriented and leave aside the petty formalities.

35 Role of Human Resource Management for Enhancement of Knowledge Management in Bangladesh Army: A Study

• Cultural Adaptation: Bangladesh Army should be more accommodative to the diversity of its men and leave its “melting pot” idea that people will automatically assimilate into the existing culture. Rather, our Army should recognize the differences in its generations and adapt its culture and expectations accordingly keeping the fundamentals intact. This will foster mutual trust, respect, better understanding and confidence within its people.

• Timely Placement: Officers must have adequate scopes to utilize and test their knowledge and skills at appropriate time and place. Individual will feel contented once he will have right and timely placement where he can make best use of his full potentials. This will also make him more committed to enhance his knowledge. Military Secretary’s Branch should have a thoughtful fore planning so that there is no or limited time gap between training and employment.

• Encouraging Higher Study through Utilizing the Knowledge for Organizational Development: Bangladesh Army should remain considerate and acknowledge all kinds of higher studies pursued by individual officers whether it followed proper permission or not. This will encourage them to pursue more studies. More importantly, Army should have proper record of all higher studies and make best use of this huge knowledge deposits for organizational development. This will lower the dependency on external service providers and reduce cost incurred there from.

• Valuation of Accrued Knowledge after Retirement: Army should recognize the value of the long-earned knowledge and experience of retired officers and think of utilizing this strong base of knowledge for the progress of the Army in particular and for the country in general. To do so, Army Welfare and Rehabilitation Directorate may maintain a database of knowledge and experiences of officers like bdjobs.com, explore its network and connectivity outside in the corporate market and open up avenues to suit them in as per different organizational requirements. The Directorate may also act

36 as an intermediating platform to provide advices to officers on the contemporary requirements of higher study or other potential job requirements of the job market. The existing structure and facilities of RAOWA committee may be capitalized for this purpose. Besides, Army should also look for their employment opportunity within and may employ them as resource personnel (very limited use in NDC in practice). Besides, Bangladesh Army, as a long term priority, may think of having a separate think tank institutes of its own comprised of eminent retired military personnel. The benefits of these efforts will be exponentially exciting and self-explanatory in the context of the global strategic environment.

• Provision of “One Stop” Knowledge Portal: Bangladesh Army should accumulate all the knowledge (explicit and implicit) of its members in a knowledge bank and make a provision so that anyone in the organization can access in and make best use of its facilities for professional and organizational development. Our existing Army Basic Website should be redesigned and thoughtful a “One Stop” knowledge portal should be innovated using smart technologies and introduced by professionals where all officers should be encouraged through a comprehensive policy and incentives to deposit their knowledge stock for re-use. This will gradually become a huge asset of collaborative intelligence for the organization. The same portal can even be used for multipurpose issues like posting of national, regional and global contemporary news of professional interest, sharing of stories of new concepts and successful inventions, Sharing of pre-course materials of different training courses at home and abroad, query clarification through authorized experts, policy guidelines, posting of event calendars, health awareness notifications, etc. A part time core team may manage and supervise this portal.

• Setting up of a “Lesson learned” Knowledge Warehouse: Beside the above portal, Bangladesh Army may have a provision of a separate knowledge warehouse which will only store the “lesson learned” from

37 Role of Human Resource Management for Enhancement of Knowledge Management in Bangladesh Army: A Study

different wartime and peacetime engagements both at home and abroad. This can be managed by a specific group of subject matter experts.

• Provision of Knowledge Connectivity: As far the connectivity on the knowledge platform is concern, Bangladesh Army should pursue to have separate knowledge platform in every training institutions to act as a knowledge repository and then bring all these training institutions into a single grid through connectivity for easy sharing of training resources. By phase, this grid then should be connected to various national universities like BUP, MIST etc. for cross fertilization of knowledge through information sharing. Besides, the libraries should be upgraded as e-libraries through facilitating access to global hubs of eBooks. Institutions like NDC and DSCSC should be connected to different think tank institutions of interest both domestic and global like BIISS, BEI, Policy, Research Institute, CPD, BIPSS, BIDS, and Stratfor.com. This will help to pursue connectivity of ideas for mutual development.

Conclusion

The 21st century is predominantly characterized by rapid pace of technological change which highlights the rising importance of having a knowledge advantage over adversaries. Decision-making and situational awareness are far more complex in military context than ever before. The new focus on knowledge and knowledge processes has generated the concept and practice of KM. Many researches posit that there exists a relation between HRM and KM and that a knowledge- oriented HR system may enhance all the KM processes. For an organization to be knowledge intensive, they advocated for the need to have synergy between HRM and KM. Besides, they also highlighted to adopt this knowledge-oriented HR practices together, as a system that will fosters efficient KM. Like the corporate outfits, HRM and KM in the military are corollary to each other

38 that helps members in the military to achieve and sustain competitive advantage over others. On that pretext, Bangladesh Army is attempting to transform her manpower from moderate knowledge –intensive to high knowledge intensive, aiming to immerse herself in higher value added activities to continual sustain the competitiveness with the rivalries. Besides, the army is also recognizing that its HRM is an extremely vital issue as she draws critical strength from its soldiers and seeking for development in different HR activities involving preparation of human resource forecasts, recruitment, screening of prospective employees, the study of training needs, the development of compensation systems, performance appraisals and reward and recognition. However, it was hypothesized that there are missing links between its HRM and KM which suggested this research. The results of this research have duly answered the hypothesis and found that although the broad targets of knowledge are being achieved quite satisfactorily, there is still a long way to go in order to synergize the HR system with KM requirements in Bangladesh Army. There are certain areas in HR practices which need to be reformed to enhance the overall KM system of officers. Having those reforms accomplished will not only add value to current HR practices, but also increase the productivity of individuals and organization to a greater height by ensuring optimal utilization and proficient management of knowledge.A major issue to note that the role of HR issues in KM initiatives involve extremely complex dynamics. So, no “quick fix” solutions can be found. Instead, careful reflection by hierarchy on the specific, actual needs concerning KM essentials along with deep awareness of the underlying motivations for such initiatives and a sensible assessment should be the right approach.

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39 Role of Human Resource Management for Enhancement of Knowledge Management in Bangladesh Army: A Study

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3. Barnard, Y. F. (2005). “Developing industrial knowledge management: Knowledge sharing over boundaries.” Paper presented at the International Conference on Advances in the internet: System and Interdisciplinary Research. 4. Bartol, K. and Srivastava, A.(2002). “Encouraging knowledge sharing: The role of organizational rewards.” Journal of Leadership and Organization Studies, vol. 9, no. 1, pp. 64-76 5. Blackler, F. (2000), “Knowledge management”, People Management, Vol. 21. 6. Bürkland.Sirle. (2009). “Managing the development of valuable intellectual capital: The role of management control.” ACTA WASAENSIA No 207. 7. Byrne & Bannister (2013). “Knowledge Management in Defence.” Defence Forces Review, Ireland. 8. Colonel N Sriramesh S M (2017) “Knowledge Management Organizations in Armed Forces: A Status Report on Select Armies of the World” International Journal of Scientific Research and Modern Education,Volume 2, Issue 1 9. Collison, C. andParcell, G. (2001). “Learning to Fly: Practical Lessons from one of the World’s Leading Knowledge Companies, London.” Capstone Publishing Limited. 10. Cyr, S., andChoo, C. W. (2010). “The individual and social dynamics of knowledge sharing: an exploratory study.” Journal of Documentation, 66(6), 824-846. 11. DeCenzo, D. A., & Robbins, S. P. (2013). “Human resource management.” Asia: Wiley.

40 12. EdvardssonIngiRunar( 2007) , “ HRM and Knowledge Management” University of Akureyri Iceland. 13. Evans Christina,(2003). “Managing for Knowledge; HR’s strategic role.” Butterworth-Heinemann, Burlington. 14. Flores. R E. (2012). “Measuring Knowledge-based development metrics.” Edward Elgar Publishing Limited, UK.

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21. Holsapple,C.,&Joshi,K.D.( 2000) “An Investigation of Factors that Influence the Management of Knowledge in Organizations.” Journal of Strategic Information Systems,(9), pp. 235-261 22. Huber, G.P. (1991), “Organizational learning: the contributing processes and the literatures”, Organization Science, Vol. 12 No.1, pp. 88-115.

41 Role of Human Resource Management for Enhancement of Knowledge Management in Bangladesh Army: A Study

23. Jashapara, A. (2011). “Knowledge management: An integrated approach.” England: Prentice Hall. 24. Lengnick-Hall, C. and Lengnick-Hall, M. (2006), “HR, ERP, and knowledge for competitive advantage”, Human ResourceManagement, Vol. 45 No. 2, pp. 179-94. 25. MacIntyre, Gauvin&Waruszynski,( 2003). “Knowledge Management in the Military Context.” Canadian Military Journal, p1-2 26. Malhotra, Y., &Galletta, D. (2003). “Role of commitment and motivations in knowledge management systems implementation: Theory, conceptualization, and measurement of antecedents of success.” Proceedings of the 36th Hawaii International Conference on System Sciences.

Author

Brigadier General Md Mizanur Rahman, ndc was born in Thakurgaon in December 1970. He was commissioned in the Corp of Infantry on 09 June 1992. He served in many Infantry Units and commanded one Infantry Regiment. Besides, he also served as Assistant Personal Secretary to the Chief of Army Staff and Colonel Staff in Army Headquarters. His instructional capacity includes serving as Instructor in the School of Infantry and Tactics and Bangladesh Military Academy. He was a contingent member in United Nations Mission in Kuwait (UNIKOM) and Military Observer in DR Congo (MONUSCO). Besides, he also holds a Masters in Business Administration (MBA) from Military Institute of Science and Technology (MIST) under the University of Dhaka.

42 USE OF MODERN COOLING TOWERS WITH NANOFLUIDS IN INDUSTRY SECTOR: AN APPROACH TO PROTECT RIVERINE AQUATIC LIFE ENVIRONMENT OF BANGLADESH

Brigadier General Md Habibur Rahman, ndc

Introduction

Cooled water is necessary for manufacturing processes, power generation, aquatic life environment, storage of nuclear waste and many other purposes. Generally, thermoelectric power plants boil water to create steam, which then spins turbines to generate electricity. The heat used to boil water comes from burning of a fuel, from nuclear reactions, or directly from the sun or geothermal heat sources. However, the steam released from the turbine must be cooled back into water before reusing to make the system efficient or draining to the any aquatic life environment. Usually, wet-recirculating systems are used in cooling tower to expose water to ambient air otherwise it will cause thermal pollution. Some of the water evaporates but rest is sent back to the condenser in a power plant. In this system, heat transfer process is very important since the heat comes from steam after spinning turbine must be removed otherwise the aquatic life environment will be threatened or the plant system will collapse due to overheating. Therefore, cooling tower is an essential equipment used to reduce the temperature of water by extracting heat from water and emitting it to the atmosphere (Kulkarni S.J, Goswami A.K 2015). Cooling tower is able to lower the water temperatures more than other devices that uses only air to reject heat, like the radiator in a car and is therefore more cost-effective and energy efficient system which plays an important role due to its wide applicability in many engineering applications.

43 Use of Modern Cooling Towers with Nanofluids in Industry Sector: An Approach to Protect Riverine Aquatic Life Environment of Bangladesh

Thermal Pollution and Aquatic Life Environment of Bangladesh

Alterations to natural temperature regimes of freshwater habitats by the uncontrolled cause thermal pollution. Thermal pollution is any deviation from the natural temperature in a habitat and can range from elevated temperatures associated with industrial cooling activities to discharges of cold water into streams below large impoundments. Alterations to normal water temperature regimes have myriad biological effects, including interfering with temperature cues for spawning fishes, facilitating establishment of exotic species, and altering growth and development of aquatic organisms (Langford, 1990). Further, aquatic organisms evolved in relatively thermally buffered environments, and thus they are generally more sensitive to temperature fluctuations than their terrestrial counter parts.Most forms of thermal pollution involve temperature increases, and while the effects of extreme temperature increases are obvious, relatively small changes can also be biologically significant. Temperature increases as little as 1 to 2°C can alter communities because they are lethal to some species and can affect growth and reproduction of others. Raising water temperatures just 2 to 3°C above the optimal for some aquatic insects can greatly reduce the number of eggs produced by females because more energy is used to support higher metabolic rates and less is available for egg production (Vannote and Sweeney, 1980; Firth and Fisher, 1992). Temperature tolerances among species of freshwater organisms are highly variable, but all have an optimal range and low and high limits within which they can survive. Increases in temperature cause an increase in growth rate up to a point. Above some threshold, damage occurs. Because temperature governs rates at all levels of biological organization changes in temperature associated with thermal pollution ultimately influence rates of ecosystem processes and functions such as nutrient cycling and decomposition. Due to thermal pollution as released into wetlands, trees can be killed by the bacteria. One of the key issues in thermal pollution is the replacement of cold water fishes with warm-water fishes. Power plants

44 and industrial factories are the major point source contributors to thermal pollution. In this case, cool water is withdrawn from streams, used for cooling of generators and other machinery, and then returned to the stream at elevated temperatures. Rapid changes in temperature associated with power plant operations can kill fishes by thermal shock (Ottinger et al., 1990). Mitigating the thermal effects of power plant effluent obviously has a significant financial cost. Impoundments that release water from the surface can result in higher stream temperatures during warm periods because water velocity is decreased and solar penetration enhanced in the impounded water. Along with the direct effects of warmer temperatures on aquatic life, the solubility of O2 in water decreases with increasing temperature, and thus O2 stress increases as temperatures rise. During cold periods when stream water temperatures are normally near freezing, hypolimnetic releases can artificially warm streams(Walter K. Dodds et al. 2010).

Ecological Effects

The effects of thermal pollution are diverse, but in short, thermal pollution damages water ecosystems and reduces animal populations. Plant species, algae, bacteria, and multi-celled animals all respond differently to significant temperature changes. Organisms that cannot adapt can die of various causes or can be forced out of the area. Reproductive problems can further reduce the diversity of life in the polluted area.

Warm Water

Elevated temperature typically decreases the level of dissolved oxygen of water, as gases are less soluble in hotter liquids. This can harm aquatic animals such as fish, amphibians and other aquatic organisms. Thermal pollution may also increase the metabolic rate of aquatic animals, as enzyme activity, resulting in these organisms consuming more food in

45 Use of Modern Cooling Towers with Nanofluids in Industry Sector: An Approach to Protect Riverine Aquatic Life Environment of Bangladesh a shorter time than if their environment were not changed (Goel, P.K. et al. 2006). An increased metabolic rate may result in fewer resources; the more adapted organisms moving in may have an advantage over organisms that are not used to the warmer temperature. As a result, food chains of the old and new environments may be compromised. Some fish species will avoid stream segments or coastal areas adjacent toa thermal discharge. Biodiversity can be decreased as a result. (Kennish, Michael J. et al.1992). High temperature limits oxygen dispersion into deeper waters, contributing to anaerobic conditions. This can lead to increased bacteria levels when there is ample food supply. Many aquatic species will fail to reproduce at elevated temperatures. (Goel, P.K. et al. 2006). Primary producers (e.g. plants, cyanobacteria) are affected by warm water because higher water temperature increases plant growth rates, resulting in a shorter lifespan and species overpopulation. This can cause an algae bloom which reduces oxygen levels.

Cold Water

Releases of unnaturally cold water from reservoirs can dramatically change the fish and macroinvertebrate fauna of rivers, and reduce river productivity. In Australia, where many rivers have warmer temperature regimes, native fish species have been eliminated, and macro invertebrate fauna have been drastically altered. This may be mitigated by designing the dam to release warmer surface waters instead of the colder water at the bottom of the reservoir. (Mollyo, Fran 15 September 2015).

Thermal Shock

When a power plant first opens or shuts down for repair or other causes, fish and other organisms adapted to particular temperature range can be killed by the abrupt change in water temperature, either an increase or decrease, known as “thermal shock” (Laws, Edward A et al. 2000)

46 Decreased Dissolved Oxygen

Warm water preserves less oxygen than cool water. If the oxygen level goes down animals that cannot move to another area may begin to die. In deeper bodies of water, the injection of warm water can keep oxygen from dispersing into deep water, which is potentially good for bacteria but dangerous for aquatic animals. The decreased oxygen can cause algae blooms that pose a threat to aquatic plants and animals. This algae bloom problem is probably the most common and best-known side effect of thermal pollution.

Figure 1: Now the ocean suffers from rising level of CO2. The underlying chemical process behind ocean acidification

Migration

Fish and amphibians may move away from the warm water to a more- suitable location, disrupting the ecosystem for animals that remain. Birds may also be forced to leave in search of areas with more food. Plants and certain animals will be stuck in the area, which can lead to huge losses. Migration away from the polluted area contributes to a dramatic loss of biodiversity at sites where thermal pollution happens.

47 Use of Modern Cooling Towers with Nanofluids in Industry Sector: An Approach to Protect Riverine Aquatic Life Environment of Bangladesh

Increased Toxins

Toxins in the water are more a side effect of dumping waste water than a direct effect of thermal pollution. Chemical pollution is an almost inevitable side effect of using water for cooling. Solvents, fuel oil, and dissolved heavy metals end up in the lake or river where the cooling water gets dumped. Nuclear power plants can also release slightly radioactive cooling water. The chemicals may have a range of toxic effects on plants and animals, from fatal poisoning to mutations and sterilization.

Ecological Impacts

The local aquatic ecosystem can be damaged by thermal pollution, especially if it is dramatic, as in copious amounts of warm water being dumped into a chilly pond or bay or river. “Thermal shock” can kill off insects, fish, and amphibians. This sudden loss of life causes further issues with the ecosystem. Key food sources are no longer adequate. A threatened or endangered local population may be wiped out or put under even more pressure. Coral reef bleaching has also been observed when a power plant or factory is dumped into coastal water. Coral bleaching happens when the coral organisms die.

Reproductive Effects

A significant temperature increase in the water can cause reproductive problems. Warmer water can reduce the fertility of some organisms. Other species may suffer birth defects or lay deformed eggs because of chemical changes in the body caused by warmer water. Defective eggs and birth defects hurt the overall reproductive fitness of the animal population and can reduce the population. Thermal pollution can change the biology of aquatic organisms in a variety of ways.

48 Causes of Thermal Pollution

Thermal pollution occurs when an industry removes water from a source ( e.g river ) uses the water for cooling purposes and then returns the heated water to its source. Power plants heat water to convert it into steam to drive the turbines, the steam is condensed into water after it leaves the turbines. This condensation is done by taking water from a body to absorb the heat. This heated water which is at least 150 celcius higher than the normal, is later discharged back into the water body. The major sources of thermal pollution are discharge of heated water or hot waste material into water bodies from:

• Nuclear power plant • Industrial effluents • Domestic sewage • Hydro-electric power • Coal fired power plants • Thermal shock • Deforestation • Soil erosion

Sources and Control of Thermal Pollution

Every year the temperature of river and sea water of Bangladesh is increasing very rapidly which will reach to a alarming state very soon for the unplanned and uncontrolled growth of power plants and other industries. cooling ponds, man-made bodies of water designed for cooling by evaporation, convection, and radiation

• cooling towers, which transfer waste heat to the atmosphere through evaporation and/or heat transfer

• cogeneration, a process where waste heat is recycled for domestic and/ or industrial heating purposes. EPA (August 1999).

49 Use of Modern Cooling Towers with Nanofluids in Industry Sector: An Approach to Protect Riverine Aquatic Life Environment of Bangladesh

Environment Flow Assessment The entire range of species in a river ecosystem has posed a problem for resource managers in attaining the optimal conditions for all species at a certain time. To overcome this problem, attention has shifted from a minimum flow approach to an approach that uses the “natural” regime of the river as a starting point. Environmental flow assessment (EFA) deals with the required river flow regime that can be achieved without causing any negative effects.

Sustainable Water Management Many factors, such as water quality, sediments, food supply and biotic interactions, are important determinants in aquatic ecosystems. However, an overarching variable is the river’s flow regime. The natural flow paradigm, in which the natural flow regime of a river is recognized as vital to sustaining ecosystems, has now been widely accepted. This recognition of flow as a key driver of aquatic ecosystems has led to the development of the environmental flows concept, which now serves to enhance informed, equitable and sustainable decision making in water management.[Google Scholar] studied the effects of river regulation on aquatic invertebrate fauna and identified lack of water in the upper river reaches. This situation, associated with organic pollution, variability in water temperature and oxygen availability, was found to be the main cause of environmental disturbance.

Purpose of Cooling Tower The purpose of a cooling tower model is to be able to predict the cooling tower performance. However not all models are suitable for an average user to utilize and determine energy use and possible saving measures. This thesis and chapter focusses on the existing models capability to meet the needs of a user to easily estimate cooling tower energy use and look at possible energy savings. Drawbacks of Thermodynamic Models In

50 the literature review it was observed that there were numerous models to predict cooling tower performance through thermodynamics and heat transfer principles. Before moving on to create a new model, a few of the drawbacks of such models will be discussed. Amongst the thermodynamic models found in literature, the simplest one was seen to be the Merkel method. Kloppers (Kloppers, J and Krogger D, 2004) also states that it is difficult to evaluate the surface area per unit volume of fill due to the complex nature of the two phase flow in fills. However it is not necessary to explicitly specify the surface area per unit volume or the mass transfer coefficient since the value of the Merkel number can be obtained by integrating the right hand side of the equation above. Further it is to be noted that the exact state of the air leaving the fill cannot be calculated and is assumed to be saturated with water vapor so that temperature of water leaving the fill may be calculated. Bourillot (Bourillot, C at el 1983) has stated that the Merkel method is simple to use and can correctly predict the cold water temperature when an appropriate value of coefficient is used but is insufficient for estimating the characteristics of warm air leaving the fill and for calculation of changes in the water flow rate due to evaporation. Using the equation above requires quite a few parameters that are not easily available to an average person and if we are looking at information on how air flow rate will affect the temperature of water leaving the tower (to determine 19 savings possible through VFD operation of the tower fan) it is impossible to proceed without having even more information.

Experimental Design Numerical investigation is to be conducted to examine the effect of with and without nanofluid on the developed cooling tower. A set of governing equations and the complementary boundary conditions are to be used to represent the physical problems mathematically. Furthermore, the work is also to be carried out to analyze natural convection heat transfer and fluid flow in a cooling tower filled with copper-water nanofluid at which the effect of various governing parameters including solid volume fraction,

51 Use of Modern Cooling Towers with Nanofluids in Industry Sector: An Approach to Protect Riverine Aquatic Life Environment of Bangladesh

Rayleigh number and dimensionless time will be investigated thoroughly. Subsequently, enhancing thermal conductivity of the fluid is one of the ways to increase heat transfer performance of fluids. Thus, suspending micro- or larger-sized solid particles in fluids are to be attempted in order to enhance the thermal conductivity of base fluids. However, the main problem caused by the high density and large size of the particles is how fast these particles could settle in fluids and there is no good way to prevent it from settling. Preparation of nanofluids is necessary since nanofluids are not just simple mixtures consisting of liquids and solids. In order to produce nanofluids, there are two main methods available namely, the two-step method and the one-step method. Hence, nanofluids are to be produced by suspending nanoparticles with average sizes below 100 nm into base fluids such as water, ethylene glycol (EG), oil, etc. Nanofluids are to be compared to conventional fluids and fluids containing micro- sized metallic particles to identify good properties by dispersing uniformly and suspending stably in the base fluids. Several experiments are to be conducted by changing the ratio of water flow rate and air mass flow to observe the behaviour of different characteristics, represented in graphical form. The performance prediction of cooling tower related with the performance curves by means of the simple method is to be made by a few design parameters as well as water flow rate, range, cold water temperature, wet bulb temperature, and so on. The efficiency obtained from the experiments is to be validated to show the good performance of the developed system with water and copper-water Nano fluid.

Methodology

Merkel developed a theory for cooling tower heat transfer process based on enthalpy difference as driving force. Each water particle is assumed to be surrounded by air film. The enthalpy difference between the film of air and surrounding air is driving force of heat transfer in cooling tower. The integrated form of Merkel equation is (Khairul M. A and Saidur R 2014)

52 Figure 2: Cooling Tower Process Heat Balance (Khairul M. A and Saidur R 2014)

53 Use of Modern Cooling Towers with Nanofluids in Industry Sector: An Approach to Protect Riverine Aquatic Life Environment of Bangladesh

This diagram is important to understand cooling process take place in cooling tower. C is the point of cold air in. So the enthalpy difference between point B and C (h-h’)is the driving force for heat transfer taking place. Air takes heat from water and reach along straight line up to D. And slope of straight line (L/G) which is the ratio of total mass flows of water and dry air in cooling tower.

The coordinates of figure indicates directly enthalpy and temperature of any point on the Water operating line. And on air operating line, temperature and enthalpy is found by projecting the point horizontally to saturation curve then vertically to saturation curve, then velocity of saturation curve.

(4)

When decreases, CD approaches towards BA.

The Maximum & minimum air flow rate will occur when water inlet temperature & air outlet wet bulb temperature are equal. There fore ( ) max is the slope of line that connects A with C in the figure.

Inlet Driving force = BC = (h’-h) inlet

Outlet Driving force = AD =(h’-h) outlet

So the driving force for cooling process in cooling tower is the vertical difference between the water operating line and air operating line ( Khairul M.Aand Saidur R 2014).

So tower characteristics,

54 (5)

Cooling Range & Cooling Tower Approach C ooling range &

Hot water (inlet)

Cold Water (outlet)

Wet Bulb Temperature C ooling T ower Approach

Cooling Range

Difference between the water inlet & outlet temperature is known as cooling range.

(6)

Cooling Tower Approach

The difference between water outlet temperature and entering air wet bulb temperature.

(7)

55 Use of Modern Cooling Towers with Nanofluids in Industry Sector: An Approach to Protect Riverine Aquatic Life Environment of Bangladesh

NTU of Transfer Unit (NTU)

NTU stands for number of transfer unit. It means cooling tower characteristics ( Khairul M.Aand Saidur R 2014)

NTU can be evaluated by following methods ( Khairul M.Aand Saidur R 2014)

Let us assume humidification is an adiabatic process.

Now based on mass transfer

Base of heat transfer,

(10)

On psychometric chart note the following: (Khairul M. A and Saidur R 2014)

Heat load

Heat load is the total load that is removed from the cooling water per unit time. Hence,

56 Heat load=heat lost to the atmosphere

This can be found as follows

Based on inlet and out cooling water temperature.

Based on heat gained by air.

(12) Assuming air flow rate is constant.

= Evaporation loss

Where,

= make up water

= latent heat of water

Rate of water loss and the make up

Cooling tower water loss is due to evaporation loss mainly. Besides there is drift loss, windage, blow down, leakage etc.

The water that is added to the circulating water system to replace the water lost is called make up water.

Rate of make-up water = rate of the loss

57 Use of Modern Cooling Towers with Nanofluids in Industry Sector: An Approach to Protect Riverine Aquatic Life Environment of Bangladesh

Experimental Set Up and Procedure

A proto type cooling tower has been made on the roof top of Mechnical Department of MIST. A drum has been considered as reservoir and hot water circulated with the support of pump to the top of cooling tower.

58 Hot water is being cooled in the cooling tower and cold water is being drained out to the reservoir agai

Figure 3: Developed Experimental Setup

Schematic Diagram

Schematic Diagram of Induced Draft Counter Flow Cooling Tower is shown as bellow:

Figure 4: Schematic Diagram of Induced Draft Counter Flow Cooling Tower

59 Use of Modern Cooling Towers with Nanofluids in Industry Sector: An Approach to Protect Riverine Aquatic Life Environment of Bangladesh

Water Circuit

Figure 5: Water Circuit

In this circuit a heat source is used to heat the water present in the reservoir. Here as a heat source gas burner and immersion rod is used. When the water being heated then the flow started. A gate valve is used to control the speed of the water. Just after gate valve a thermocouple is placed to measure the inlet hot water temperature of the water. A pump is used to circulate the flow of water and another gate valve is used to control the speed of the water. A flow meter is used to measure the flow rate of the water and a thermocouple is used to measure the inlet hot water temperature once again before it passes through cooling tower. During passes through cooling tower the temperature of the hot water is reduced. Then outlet temperature of cold water is measured through thermocouple just after the water passed through cooling tower. Again a pump is used to ensure the circulation of water through pipe and a gate valve is used to control the speed of the water. Then cold water temperature is measured once again and water returns to reservoir and cycle continues.

60 Air Circuit

Figure 6: Air Circuit

Air enters through the lower passage of the cooling tower, while entering through the passage there is a dry bulb sensor which gives us the value of humidity of air entering the passage. Continuous air goes through the fill of the cooling tower and it cools down while the induced fan dissipates the heat from the air. Heated air is then goes out through the upper portion of the cooling tower and into the atmosphere. With the help of another dry bulb sensor we get the value of humidity of the air going out in the atmosphere.

Water Properties Measurement

Figure 7: Water Properties Measurement Chart

Water enters through the inlet of cooling tower from a reservoir via a pump of 0.5 hp capacity. There is a water proof temperature sensor

61 Use of Modern Cooling Towers with Nanofluids in Industry Sector: An Approach to Protect Riverine Aquatic Life Environment of Bangladesh which gives us the reading of temperature. An arduino (which is an open source computer hardware and software company, project and user community that designs and manufactures single-board microcontrollers and microcontroller kits for building digital devices and interactive objects that can sense and control objects in the physical world) is used here. The water proof sensor which is connected with the arduino gives us the water properties of the inlet water and displays on the computer screen. Another water proof temperature sensor is attached with the outlet and that is connected with the arduino and gives us the water properties of the outlet water in the computer display.

Air Properties Measurement

Air Properties Measurement Chart Figure 8:

Air temp. humidity 2 Display on sensor, inlet Arduino Computer Screen 3

Air temp. humidity sensor, outlet

Air enters through the lower part of the cooling tower and through an air temperature humidity sensor (which is connected with an arduino) we get the air properties at the inlet in the computer display. Another air temperature humidity sensor is at the upper portion of the cooling tower connected with the arduino gives us the air properties at the outlet in the computer display.

62 Introduction of Nanofluid Energy concerns have come up as the most important problem for the world’s scientists and engineers. Thermal loads are increasing day by day and have wide variety of use in electronics, transportation, power plants, food industry, air conditioning, refrigeration, etc. The conventional heat transfer fluids, such as water, oil, ethylene glycol, propylene glycol are mostly used in industries. These fluids contain poor thermal properties. In order to increase heat transfer rates, the use of extended-surface thermal control technologies such as fins and micro channels, vibration of heated surface, injection or suction of fluid and applying electrical or magnetic fields has reached to the bottleneck. Therefore, new technologies with the potential to improve the thermo-physical properties of the conventional cooling fluids have been an area of great potential for researchers. The solids have better thermal properties than fluids. (Ahuja at el 1975) and Liu et al. (2999) carried experiments to enhance the thermophysical properties of fluids by adding micrometre- and millimetre-sized solid particles in the base liquids. However, real-world applications of these fluids are fewer due to the reasons, i.e. large-sized particles tend to quickly settle out of suspension and thereby, in passing through micro channels, cause clogging and a considerable rise in the pressure drop. Furthermore, the abrasive actions of these particles cause erosion of components and pipelines. To overcome these problems, nanosized particles dispersed in the base fluid known as nanofluids, were firstly introduced by Choi (1995) at the Argonne National Laboratory. These novel fluids indicated improved heat transfer properties such as higher thermal conductivity, long-standing stability and uniformity along with the negligible obstruction in flow channels due to very small sizes and large specific areas of the nanoparticles. The nanoparticles used to prepare the nanofluids are basically metals (e.g. Cu, Ni, Al), oxides (e.g. Al2O3, TiO2, CuO, SiO2, Fe2O3, Fe3O4, BaTiO3) and some other compounds (e.g. CNT, TNT, AlN, SiC, CaCO3, graphene) with a size of 1 to 100 nm. The great quantum of research on heat transfer enhancement shows the appreciable growth and the necessity of heat transfer enhancement technology in the field of nanofluids. This paper

63 Use of Modern Cooling Towers with Nanofluids in Industry Sector: An Approach to Protect Riverine Aquatic Life Environment of Bangladesh presents the comprehensive review of various experimental investigations in convective heat transfer with the use of nanofluids in laminar and turbulent flow regimes under constant wall temperature and constant heat flux boundary conditions. Further, a detailed review on the use of nanofluids in different types of heat exchangers has been presented. It is vital for reliable applications in engineering thermal systems.

Calculation

Cooling Tower Characteristics Analysis In this experiment we have determined tower characteristics at varying air and water flow rate ratio. The NTU or tower characteristics was determined by using equation (4). Enthalpy of saturated air at hot water temperature

64 was determined by using saturated air properties table. Enthalpy of air stream was calculated from psychometric chart. Using equation (1) cooling efficiency was determined.

Figure 9: Efficency vs NTU

In figure (9) we can explicitly see a direct relation between tower characteristics and tower efficiency. With tower characteristics increase the latent heat and sensible heat transfer is also increased so the efficiency is also increased

Figure 10: Efficiency vs L/G

From figure (10) as the ratio increase the tower efficiency decrease. This is because with increase hot water flow rate increase and with unabundant

65 Use of Modern Cooling Towers with Nanofluids in Industry Sector: An Approach to Protect Riverine Aquatic Life Environment of Bangladesh present air flow to cool it. In figure (9) and (10) error bars is their due to inherent error is anemometer in air speed reading and human error in taking dry bulb and wet bulb temperature from psychrometer.

Figure 11: Efficiency vs Flow Rate at Constant Inlet Temp. 38 0C

From the above figure we can see that with the decrease of flow rate efficiency increases.

Figure 12: Efficiency vs Flow Rate at different Inlet Temp.

In this figure we can see that the efficiency of the cooling tower at different inlet temperature with the decrease of water inlet temperature efficiency also decreases.

66 Comparison of Cooling Tower Performance with Cooling Fluid of Various Qualities

Figure 13: Range vs Flow Rate of Induced Draft

From the above figure it has been observed that range increases due to the addition of ink. The value in average is 9 0C in case of induced draft cooling tower whereas without ink it is 5 0C.

Figure 14: Efficiency vs Flow Rate of Induced Draft

From the above figure it has been observed that efficiency increases due to addition of ink. The values of Efficiency vary from 28.5 % to 39.15 % in case of induced draft cooling tower with water whereas with ink it is 42.55 % to 58.42 %.

67 Use of Modern Cooling Towers with Nanofluids in Industry Sector: An Approach to Protect Riverine Aquatic Life Environment of Bangladesh

Conclusion

The tower characteristics, efficiency, make up water and heat loss due to evaporation of natural and induced draft cooling with different quality of circulating fluids were evaluated. It was found that when L/G increases it was observed that both efficiency and cooling tower characteristics increase. So we can see with decrease of flow rate efficiency and cooling tower characteristics decreases. It was found that with the increase of humidity, cooling tower efficiency decrease. It was found that due to addition of toner with water the efficiency, range, evaporation heat loss increases. For induced draft efficiency and range increase by 8% & 4°c in average respectively and for natural draft range efficiency and range increase by 5% & 2° respectively. With the increase of percentage of toner in water it was observed that efficiency and range increase which has been shown graphically. A comprehensive review on forced convection heat transfer characteristics with different nanofluids based on experimental investigations with constant heat flux, constant wall temperature boundary conditions and in heat exchangers is presented in this review paper. Most of the experimental studies showed that nanofluids demonstrate an improved heat transfer coefficient compared to its base fluid. Further it increases significantly with increasing concentration of nanoparticles as wellas Reynolds number. The use of nanofluids in a broad range of applications is promising but there is lack of agreement between experimental results from different research groups. Hence, experimental studies are desired to understand the heat transfer characteristics of nanofluids and recognize innovative and unique applications for these fields.

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68 2. Hill, G.B., Pring, E., and Osborn, P.D., 1990, “Cooling Towers: Principles and Practice,” Butterworth-Heinemann.

3. Merkel, F., 1925, “Verdunstungskühlung,” Verein Deutscher Ingenieure Verlag.

4. Kloppers, J. C., and Kröger, D., 2005, “A Critical Investigation into the Heat and Mass Transfer Analysis of Counterflow Wet-Cooling Towers,” International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer, 48(3) pp. 765-777.

5. Baker, D. R., and Shryock, H. A., 1961, “A Comprehensive Approach to the Analysis of Cooling Tower Performance,” Journal of Heat Transfer, 83(3) pp. 339-349.

6. Benton, D.J., 1983, “A numerical simulation of heat transfer in evaporative cooling towers,” Tennessee Valley Authority, WR28-1- 900-110. 90

7. Majumdar, A., Singhal, A., and Spalding, D., 1983, “Numerical Modeling of Wet Cooling towers—Part 1: Mathematical and Physical Models,” Journal of Heat Transfer, 105(4) pp. 728-735.

8. Poppe, M., and Rögener, H., 1991, “Berechnung Von Rückkühlwerken,” VDI Wärmeatlas, Pp.Mi. [16] Kloppers, J., and Kröger, D., 2004, “Cooling Tower Performance: A Critical Evaluation of the Merkel Assumptions,” R&D Journal.

9. Al-Waked, R., and Behnia, M., 2006, “CFD Simulation of Wet Cooling Towers,” Applied Thermal Engineering, 26(4) pp. 382-395.

10. Hajidavalloo, E., Shakeri, R., and Mehrabian, M. A., 2010, “Thermal Performance of Cross Flow Cooling Towers in Variable Wet Bulb Temperature,” Energy Conversion and Management, 51(6) pp. 1298-1303.

11. Baltimore Air Coil Technical Resources, 2012, “Minimizing Energy Costs with Free Cooling,” Baltimore Air Coil.

69 Use of Modern Cooling Towers with Nanofluids in Industry Sector: An Approach to Protect Riverine Aquatic Life Environment of Bangladesh

12. Forrester, A. I., and Keane, A. J., 2009, “Recent Advances in Surrogate- Based Optimization,” Progress in Aerospace Sciences, 45(1) pp. 50-79. 13. Koziel, S., Ciaurri, D.E., and Leifsson, L., 2011, “Computational Optimization, Methods and Algorithms,”Springer, pp. 33-59. 14. Gershenson, C., 2003, “Artificial Neural Networks for Beginners,” ArXiv Preprint cs/0308031. 91 [24] Kramer, O., 2013, “Dimensionality Reduction with Unsupervised Nearest Neighbors,”Springer, pp. 18, Chap. 2.5. 15. Olson, D.L., and Delen, D., 2008, “Advanced Data Mining Techniques,”Springer Science & Business Media, pp. 141. 16. Zhu, X., 2007, “Knowledge Discovery and Data Mining: Challenges and Realities: Challenges and Realities,”Igi Global, pp. 249. 17. Jin, R., Chen, W., and Simpson, T. W., 2001, “Comparative Studies of Metamodelling Techniques Under Multiple Modelling Criteria,” Structural and Multidisciplinary Optimization, 23(1) pp. 1-13. 18. Walter K. Dodds, Matt R. Whiles, in Freshwater Ecology (Second Edition), 2010 19. Goel, P.K. (2006). Water Pollution - Causes, Effects and Control. New Delhi: New Age International. ISBN 978-81-224-1839-2. 20. Laws, Edward A. (2000). Aquatic Pollution: An Introductory Text. New York: John Wiley and Sons. ISBN 978-0-471-34875-7. 21. “A happier environment for fish”. Phys.org. Retrieved 15 September 2015. 22. EPA (August 1999). “Preliminary Data Summary of Urban Storm Water Best Management Practices.” Document No. EPA-821-R-99-012. p. 5-58. 23. Kulkarni S.J., Goswami A.K., “Studies and Experimentation on Cooling Towers: A Review”, International Research Journal of Engineering and Technology, Vol. 02, Issue: 05, 2015, pp. 279-282.

70 24. Khairul M.A., Alim M.A., Mahbubul I.M., Saidur R., Hepbasli A., Hossain A., “Heat Transfer Performance and Exergy Analyses of a Corrugated Plate Heat Exchanger Using Metal Oxide Nanofluids”, International Communication in Heat and Mass Transfer, Vol. 50, 2014, pp 8-14.

25. Khairul M.A., Saidur R., Rahman M.M., Alim M.A., Hossain A., Abdin Z. “Heat Transfer and Thermodynamic Analyses of Helically Coiled Heat Exchanger Using Different Type of Nanofluids”, International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer, Vol. 67, 2013, pp 398-403.

Author

Brigadier General Md Habibur Rahman, ndc is a course member of NDC 2018. He was born on 30 November 1968 at Thakurgaon district. He was commissioned in the Corps of Electrical and Mechanical Engineering on 22 June 1990. Besides his regimental appointment, he had the distinction of serving in command, staff and instructional appointments. He also served as head of ME, IPE Department in MIST and BMA. As instructor, he was a senior instructor in EMEC&S. He is a graduate from Chattogram University. He has obtained Master’s and Bachelor of Science in Engineering (Mechanical) from Bangladesh University of Engineering & Technology, Advance Engineering from India, Marine Engineering (Specialization) from , Dairy Plant Engineering from Italy. He has served in UN missions in Liberia and Ivory Coast.

71 BANGLADESH AS A GLOBAL FOOTWEAR SOURCING HUB BY 2030: STRATEGIC OPTIONS

Brigadier General Mirza Md Enamul Haque, ndc

Introduction

Bangladesh has made remarkable progress in raising incomes, reducing poverty and improving social indicators, and has been provisionally graduated from Least Developed Country (LDC) to a ‘Lower Middle- Income Country’. It has experienced average Gross Domestic Product (GDP) growth rate of over 6% in the past decade. The seventh five-year plan has forecast the average economic growth rate over the next five years at 7.4%. The country has been classified as one of “Next Eleven” emerging markets and one of the “Frontier Five” emerging economies in the world by Goldman Sachs and JP Morgan respectively. Middle-class people are rising rapidly and would be 25% of the total population by 2025. The huge demographic dividend has created the window of economic opportunity for Bangladesh.

Bangladesh has achieved annual export growth rate of 13.6 % over the last ten years - a testimony to its export competitiveness. A huge labor with enthusiasm, hardworking-ability and specifically with cheaper cost is suitable for any labor-intensive industry. Bangladesh Ready Made Garments (RMG) industry is the 2nd largest in the world and has been forecasted to export $50 billion by 2021. Other key sectors including leather and footwear, agricultural products, pharmaceuticals and Engineering products have been growing rapidly.

The economy has observed sustainable economic growth, exports have increased and foreign reserves have flourished over the decade in spite of the global economic crisis in 2008-09 and a series of natural disasters, to which Bangladesh is regularly susceptible. Bangladesh exports increased to

72 $36.66 billion, which is about 20% of GDP, whereas, in 2009, the figure was merely $17 billion.

Both limited products and export destinations are posing vulnerability in export earnings. For sustainable economic growth, higher level of export diversification is a pre-requisite. After RMG, leather and footwear sector is earning huge amounts of export revenue. Currently, Bangladesh produces and exports quality bovine (buffalo and cow), ovine (sheep) and caprine (goat) leathers, which have international reputation as fine-textured hides and skins. According to the Export Promotion Bureau (EPB), leather and footwear exports totaled $1.23 Billion in the last fiscal year (2016-17). The government has declared the leather industry as a thrust sector, with considerable growth, investment and export-earning potential.

Higher income, educational growth, aspiration of higher living is shifting the workers of China, India and Vietnam to sophisticated manufacturing. In Europe, ageing factor is becoming the main barrier for high labor intensive production. In such situation, with vast experience of RMG sector, production of footwear opens a new door for Bangladesh’s economy. The footwear sector would enable millions of employment and contribute to per capita income. The footwear manufacturers of the country already has set a target of $5 billion exports by 2021 for 50th year of independence of Bangladesh. Bangladesh is set to emerge as the next manufacturing hub for the global footwear. Cheap labor and local raw materials are prompting top manufacturers to relocate their factories to the country. Number of foreign investors, as well as buyers, have already shown interest in Bangladesh’s footwear sector.

GLOBAL FOOTWEAR MARKET

Everyone likes high-quality footwear. Consumers have increasing desire and need for footwear which is not only stylish but also comfortable, made by reliable makers. Statistically, in the Western world, each man and woman has 12 and 21 pairs of shoes. On the other hand, 300 million children

73 Bangladesh as a Global Footwear Sourcing Hub by 2030: Strategic Options have barefoot. Writer Danielle Steel owns 6 thousand, Imelda Marcos had 3.4 thousand and singer Celin Dion has 3 thousand pairs of shoes. The most expensive pair of shoes worth $3.5 million (Harry Winston’s ruby slippers), followed by $3 million (Rita Hayworth heel) and $2 million (Cinderella slippers). This scenario demands the understanding of future global footwear market trend, patterns and size for the business.

Global Footwear Market Trends

With the increase of middle income group, additional consumption in the market will rise. With the process of female empowerment, billions of female will enter the market seeking out new fashion and style. Online shopping, where customers have more access to product variation, quality, price and style is getting more popularity day by day. As such, study of global market trends are as following:

• Rise of Middle Class: Resulting Additional Consumption. The economic growth and increasing income will result in a growing middle class from poor. In 2009, there were 1.8 billion people considered as middle class. By 2030 that number is expected to almost triple and reach 4.8 billion, representing roughly 3 billion new consumers joining the middle class. This trend will result in huge additional consumption within the next few years.

• Ageing Factor: Developed Region with More Senior Citizens. Progresses in the field of health care such as new diagnosis and treatment methods, medicine and health policy etc have enabled people to live longer lives. Average global life expectancy age has increased to 70.8 from 20.3 of 1960. These price sensitive mature aged consumers will focus on comfort shoes without compromising lifestyle. Usability, reliability and long life cycle product characteristic will dominate market. New models and design of footwear for different health problems (diabetics, dementia and specific allergies) will be a requirement.

74 • Female Empowerment: Another Billion will enter into Economic Mainstream. Some studies point out that one billion women will enter the economic mainstream within the next decade. As women start to work outside the house, their economic independence is complemented by social, political and cultural empowerment, and they become more active decision makers. As more women start to work outside the house, there will be an increasing demand for women’s shoes. Women are more image conscious and aware of fashion and style, will demand style, fashion and better fitting products.

• New Globalization: Diversification Options. International migration is expected to grow even faster as a result of globalization. People will continue to migrate inside a country from rural to urban areas too. Currently, 51.5% of the world population is located in urban areas, and this will continue to grow. According to The World Bank, 60.3% of the world population will live in urban areas by 2030. This movement is usually associated with better economic conditions and more job opportunities. Environmental factors and climate change might play a part in this as well. This migrant population gets in touch with different realities and diverse cultures. They are more adaptable to new things and becomes more influenced by fashion phenomena, more willing to spend money on clothes, shoes, culture, giving more importance to image, brands being more sensitive to social issues.

Chart 1: Urban Population (% in total Population) Trends

Source: The World Bank, World Development Indicator

75 Bangladesh as a Global Footwear Sourcing Hub by 2030: Strategic Options

• Online: Smart People with Smart Business. Online allows access to invaluable information about client’s behavior, which can be used to develop marketing strategies and product development. From online perspective, future market growth will experience following dynamics:

▪▪ Online sales will have a different dynamics of business concept, in terms of markets, products and brands. ▪▪ Online business will raise delicate questions, requiring a specific approach to elements such as channel price differentiation, stock management, Omni channel integration etc. ▪▪ Brand loyalty management integrated with multiplatform will have common aim: to retain customers. ▪▪ Worldwide access for small businesses will have potentials to create a global network of new customers.

• Production Cost: Low Cost Production Area. With the inclusion of China in WTO in 2001, it became the most competitive country for production with its low wages and large available workforce. These strengths attracted investors from all over the world to China and hundreds of companies relocated their manufacturing units, or started to sub-contract locally. As production costs continue to increase in China the tendency to relocate to other countries with lower wages started. Mr Su Chaoying (president of Chinese footwear association) recognizes that this tendency will continue: “with the rise in overall cost and corresponding rise in footwear export price, the manufacturing of low value added shoes will be shifted to South Asian countries. Actually, some buyers who favor low price shoes have already placed their orders in countries like Vietnam, instead of China.”

Global Footwear Market Size

Worldwide footwear production stalled at 23 billion pairs for 2 years after climbing 15% between 2010 and 2014. According to APICCAPS, Asia’s share

76 of the world in 2016 was 86.7%, marginally lower than previous year. According to Transparency Market Research (TMR), in terms of revenue, global footwear market was valued at $ 208 billion in 2014, $ 215 billion in 2016 and is expected to reach $258 billion by 2023, $ 278 in 2025 and $ 306 billion in 2030.

In terms of revenue, North America is the largest regional market for footwear and accounted for more than 34%. The major reason is attributed to increasing focus on health and fitness activities, fashion consciousness and availability of wide variety of shoes at affordable prices. In terms of volume, Asia Pacific is the largest market for footwear and accounted for more than 40%. China is projected to be the most attractive regional market in Asia Pacific. The growth of the footwear market in China is mainly driven by rising population and increasing disposable income of consumers and changing lifestyle. Rapid development of the economy and rising media exposure are likely to propel the demand for footwear in Asia Pacific countries. Europe is projected to be another most attractive regional market for footwear. Health and fitness activities, fashion consciousness and availability of wide variety of shoes are the major contributing factors. Due to changing weather conditions in different seasons, there is a tendency among Russians to purchase several pairs of different types of shoes. The footwear market in South America is likely to witness moderate growth in the near future. Increasing athletic activities in the region is likely to develop the sportswear segment to a huge extent. Entrance of cost-effective footwear products from Asia has significantly benefited consumers having low income of Africa. Sourcing Countries of Global Market

China, the top most world footwear producer losing production growth since 2014. India, Vietnam, Indonesia, Turkey, Bangladesh and Brazil reinforcing their own share. In export share, though China continued the leading position with huge gap but lost $5.8 billion. Indonesia, Hong Kong and Spain too lost their ranking in 2016.

77 Bangladesh as a Global Footwear Sourcing Hub by 2030: Strategic Options

Table 1: Top 10 Countries of Footwear Production & Export (2016) Rank of Production Export Rank Country Export (Million Pairs) (Million Pairs) (Within Table) 1 China 13,700 9,874.9 1 2 India 2,065 130 6 3 Vietnam 1,242 1,104 2 4 Indonesia 1,012 240 3 5 Brazil 850 124.10 7 6 All EU Counties 540 214.90 4 7 Bangladesh 380.90 60 9 8 Turkey 320 179.6 5 9 Thailand 250 100 8 10 Mexico 245 27.50 10 Source: Country Report 2016, Vietnam Leather-Footwear & Handbag Association

Table 2: Leading Export Vis-à-vis Import 2016 (Value - Share) Export 2016 Import 2016 Country Rank Remarks ($ in Billion) ($ in Billion) China 1 47.20 3.06 Vietnam 2 13.47 0.73 Italy 3 10.70 6.11 EU* Germany 4 6.03 11.23 EU* Belgium 5 5.96 4.00 EU* Indonesia 6 4.63 0.48 Netherlands 7 3.51 4.30 EU* France 8 3.39 7.39 EU* Hong Kong 9 3.13 3.55 Spain 10 3.08 3.31 EU* India 11 2.74 0.53 Portugal 12 2.17 0.85 EU* UK 13 2.16 6.67

78 Table 2: Leading Export Vis-à-vis Import 2016 (Value - Share) Export 2016 Import 2016 Country Rank Remarks ($ in Billion) ($ in Billion) Romania 14 1.44 0.83 USA 15 1.36 28.08 Bangladesh 16 1.23 0.18 Source: Trade Map, International Trade Centre 2016

• China. The world leader in footwear production China, produce 6 out of 10 footwear in the world. In 2016, 4534 footwear enterprises achieved sales revenue of $113 billion, rising 4.87% compared with 2015. Footwear export down by 8.1% production share and 5.1% value share. Import of footwear had witnessed a continuous increase, totaled 1.1 billion pairs and $2.74 billion by value, respectively with a growth rate of 15.9% and 11.3%. The same rate was 32.4% and 20.1% respectively in 2015.

Chart 2: Footwear Export of China (2007-2016)

Source: Trade Map

China being very fast developing giant economy, is more concerned about high value added productions like electric and electronic equipment, computer, mobile etc. Young generation is more focused to comfortable life style and high growth economic activities. Due to ‘One Child Policy’ and aging factor very active working force are in negative growth. Foreseeing wages growth and negative labor structure business are shifting from labor intensified RMG and footwear to more value added mechanical productions. China has become major investor in Vietnam, Indonesia,

79 Bangladesh as a Global Footwear Sourcing Hub by 2030: Strategic Options

Cambodia and Malaysia in footwear sector and looking for the opportunity in Bangladesh and Myanmar.

• Vietnam. Vietnam’s footwear industry is fairly competitive mainly due to the country’s economic, political and social stability in addition to its comparatively cheaper and highly-skilled labor. Large tariff cuts, easier access to technology and lower input costs has made it the 2nd largest footwear exporter in the world, after China. Foreign investments generate 81% of export revenue.

• Italy. Italy is the leading shoe manufacturing country in EU, holds 11th place amongst world-wide footwear manufacturing countries in volume terms but 3rd in value. Italy has always been the leader for the manufacturers of luxury and high level shoes having high fashion content. Italian shoe is unique in combination of tradition, innovation and comfort. Italian footwear industries are known in USA for the three C’s; craftsmanship, creativity and comfort. The characteristics that distinguish Italian production in the footwear sector are: creative talent, innovation of traditional manufacturing methods, skilled labor, professional training schools, raw materials, accessories, technology and finally “Made in Italy” image. The chart (chart 3) showing the breakdown of product cost in order to identify the key internal mechanisms of operations management, labor and raw materials constitute the main contributors to production cost, respectively accounting for 46% and 28% of the total.

Chart 3: Breakdown of Footwear Production in Italy

Source: Assocal zaturifici

80 • Belgium. Belgium is the 5th largest exporter with 292 million pairs, and 9th largest importer, with 238 million pairs. This has resulted in an impressive $2.1 billion trade balance, in a country where footwear production is only 1 million pairs (2016). The picture testifies the re- export in value chain.

• Indonesia. Indonesia produces footwear for several global brands. Foreign investment in footwear industry particularly originates from China, South Korea and Taiwan. Indonesia is not engaged in a free trade agreement with the EU, import duties for Indonesian footwear shipments into the EU are 11% higher than that of Vietnam. Indonesia is dueling to engage in free trade deals with the EU and USA in order to make their shipments more competitive.

Bangladesh as a Global Footwear Sourcing Hub By 2030

Footwear industry of Bangladesh is one of the fastest growing in the world increasing export by almost 700% in the last decade. The country ranked 8th in terms of footwear production and 12th in terms of consumption in the world in 2016, with a production of 378 million pairs (1.6% of world share) consumption of 375 million pairs (World Footwear Yearbook 2017). Export ranked 22nd with value of $760 million and quantity of 48 million pairs in 2016-17. The import value of 93 million with world ranking of 85 in the same period. Chart 4 represents the summary of strengths, weakness, opportunities and threats (SWOT) of footwear sector of Bangladesh.

81 Bangladesh as a Global Footwear Sourcing Hub by 2030: Strategic Options

Chart 4: SWOT Analysis of Footwear Sector of Bangladesh Strengths Weaknesses • Competitive labor cost. • Lack of institutional capabilities • Similar value chain of RMG. in meeting the needs of the There are no of transferable industry. skills between these two sectors. • Insufficient design and Success of RMG could be development capability and transferred to footwear sector exposure to international as an example mainly. design trends. • Abundance of easily trainable • Inadequacy of R&D and workforce. testing labs. • Availability of raw material • Inadequate logistic and base, especially cow and goat infrastructural support. skin. • Longer lead time due to inefficiency of port handling and government office and corruption. • There is little direct marketing expertise. Opportunities Threats • Preferential market access to • Lack of environmental, social 38 countries including EU, and safety standards could Canada, Australia and Japan. hamper export. • Vast growing global market • Delay at customs, ports of and rising cost in competitor entry and exit resulting in countries. increased transaction cost. • Increase in purchasing power in • China is gradually exiting this domestic market. industry due to high cost and • Promoting EZs to attract and this widow of opportunity facilitate FDI. is likely available for next • Uprising micro and SMEs 3-4 years only. Countries like with focus on product Vietnam and India are likely to development/ material usages grab the opportunity. and productivity. Source: Prepared by Author

82 Some of the strengths, weakness, opportunities and threats are discussed under headings of current policy support, action to be taken as a global competitor and challenges of Bangladesh as global sourcing hub.

Current Policy Support for Footwear Sector

The trade policy of Bangladesh has helped the country’s performance in export market. Policy support in regards to footwear export are as following:

• Trade / Fiscal Incentives. All the export-oriented industries are exempted from import duties of raw materials, components, capital machinery either through bonded warehouse facility or through duty drawback. Footwear being priority sectors, firms exporting footwear would get 15% cash incentive on the ‘Free on Board’ (FOB) price. NBR provides Bonded Warehouse benefits to export-oriented industries for importing inputs/raw materials and packaging materials without paying any duty or taxes.

• Generalized System of Preference (GSP) Scheme. As LDC (officially yet to be upgraded as a developing country), Bangladesh qualifies for GSP benefits for most of the product categories (HS 01-97 except HS 93). Under GSP, export of footwear can avail zero import duties in 38 countries, including 28 EU countries.

• Export Policy. The latest government policy considered footwear and leather products amongst the highest priority sectors for the country. Key highlights of policy support to the sector are as under: ▪▪ Domestic market sales of up to 20% is allowed to export oriented business located outside the EPZs. ▪▪ Duty free import of all type of raw materials and machineries for export oriented industries. ▪▪ 90% loans against letters of credit and funds for export promotion. ▪▪ Export credit guarantee scheme.

83 Bangladesh as a Global Footwear Sourcing Hub by 2030: Strategic Options

Setting an Export Target for the Year 2030

Table 3 represents the export performance of all types of footwear including leather footwear (HS Code 6400). The historical average growth in last 6 years is 28%. Due to the shifting of tanneries from Hazaribug to Savar, leather sector including footwear sector is still struggling. The situation is likely to improve soon.

Table 3: Export Performance of Footwear Industry FY Export ($ in Mn) Growth (%) 2011-12 335.51 64.39 2012-13 419.32 24.98 2013-14 550.11 31.19 2014-15 673.27 22.39 2015-16 714.01 6.05 2016-17 787.00 9.26 Source: Data from EPB

Basing on traditional growth, it is expected that 27% growth will continue till 2021. By this time the industry is likely to have more mechanization and work force will acquire more skills. With the exposure to design, development, style and fashion more number of brand and value added products, it will contribute to the value growth. Meanwhile, every year 10 to12 large farms are joining the sector. Expected 25% growth will continue till 2030. Chart 5 represent the projection of footwear export till 2030.

84 Chart 5: Export Projection of Footwear Sector (Value in Million $)

Source: Projection Prepared by Author

From the above projection, footwear export target may be set as following:

• Phase I: $2 Billion export target by 2021 • Phase II: $5 Billion export target by 2025 • Phase III: $10 Billion export target by 2028 • Phase IV: $15 Billion export target by 2030

Objectives to be set and Actions to be taken as a Global Competitor

In order to ensure that the footwear industry remains competitive and compliant in the current global market, the primary objectives of the government and the industry should be:

▪▪ To increase the productivity of the manufacturers. ▪▪ To enhance marketing capability of the sector by focusing on new products and new markets. ▪▪ To improve human resources base and capability by creating / strengthening institutions and other means.

85 Bangladesh as a Global Footwear Sourcing Hub by 2030: Strategic Options

▪▪ To enhance all compliance standards of exporting firms. ▪▪ To improve business environment for increased foreign and domestic investment • Improving Productivity and Quality. Productivity and quality can be improved by practicing international best practices, investing in substantial innovations and transformation. With the present manufacturers, another 20%-30% productivity could be increased. • Technical Centre. A technical center is a crucial requirement and the center should perform a number of service offerings, including training, provision of productivity improvement methods and business advisory services. • Product Testing Facility Lab. Product testing, with respect to chemical parameters, is necessary to ensure that products abide by the necessary physical and chemical parameters. The sector needs an exclusive testing facility with international standard and certification. • Improving Design Capability. To improve the state of fashion and design, a fashion and design studio is a requirement. This studio can serve multiple purposes: as training center for local designers, workspace for international collaborations, reference library and venue for exhibitions, competitions and shows. • Ensuring Compliances. Modern global businesses are critically dependent on exporting companies anywhere in the world complying with prescribed safety and sustainability standards. Some of the specific areas where international companies and brands want higher levels of compliance include: ▪▪ Social compliance, including working and employment conditions, ILO conventions, child labor, forced labor and discrimination. ▪▪ Health and occupational safety compliance, including group insurance for workers, hygienic sanitation facility and first aid appliance.

86 ▪▪ Workplace safety compliance (like building, electric and fire safety), including provisions for basic fire equipment. ▪▪ Compliance with international standards related to use of chemicals. ▪▪ Environmental compliance, including environmental management systems (EMS), water and energy consumption, wastewater treatment, solid and hazardous waste management, and emissions to air.

• Lead Time. Bureaucracy, corruption, inefficiency of government office and port handling are main causes of longer lead time. Good governance, capacity building and use of IT could reduce the lead time.

• Improving Market Access. Business associations will have to play a role in identifying prominent international digital marketing avenues where their products are likely to see maximum traction. At present, most of the farms do not have international marketing team, often intermediaries bring orders for them. Manufacturers should have skilled international marketing team. ‘Made in Bangladesh’ branding should remain the core value of marketing strategy.

• Usiness Organization. For the development, the sector need a strong business organization like BGMEA. Existing LFMEAB may be reorganized and enhanced with capacity, capability and authority to monitor, coordinate and execute the following: ▪▪ Assist government in formulating business policies pertinent to the sector. ▪▪ Supervise human resource development institutions of the sector. ▪▪ Assist in developing technical center, testing lab and design studio. ▪▪ Conduct research and provide market intelligence. ▪▪ Provide services to the foreign buyers. ▪▪ Coordinate and conduct promotional activities at home and abroad.

87 Bangladesh as a Global Footwear Sourcing Hub by 2030: Strategic Options

‘Cluster Development’- A Concept

At present, 160 factories are either directly exporting or have exposure to export market. Out of them, 130 are large factories with better compliance, technology, production knowhow, foreign market access and bank support. On the other hand, 2500 footwear making SMEs are mostly catering for local market and lack financing, technological knowhow and compliance. Both the clusters of manufacturers are isolated, having no business relation. These SMEs could be made export ready. Integration of these SMEs in export supply chain could boost the export manifold.

It is obvious that SMEs cannot bring foreign orders, manufacture the right product and manage the business process by themselves to meet the export market requirements. On the other hand, there are big export oriented factories flooded with orders and close to the foreign brands with their capability and reputation. A handholding program for a several selected SMEs as their product supplier / subcontractor is a meaningful thought process. This will integrate SMEs in the supply chain and create the market linkage for them to participate in global value chain. SMEs will execute order or do a certain part of production operation under the business collaboration and guidance of the lead factory. In this way SMEs will gradually acquire skills and be able to improve and expand their business.

Leading factory X making a cluster program with SME A, B and C will support in terms of knowledge, skill and compliance. Factory X having access to international market (some times more than capacity), will take the order and sub contract to A, B and C with all support. They will execute the order or do a certain production operation under the guidance of X. The process will multiply production base and volume.

88 Chart 6: Cluster Development Model

Source: Prepared by the author

Government policy support is a predominant factor for such integration. As an example, at present, 100% export farms enjoy bond facility and raw material import duty free facility. Leading farm is to be allowed to shift the raw material to partner SMEs for production and share the export incentives. To verify feasibility of the concept, a detail study with pilot project should be conducted.

Challenges for Bangladesh as a Sourcing HUB

High and fluctuating bank interest rates, limited access to the bank loan, corruption, lengthy process of establishing factory, poor infrastructure and above all, sense of insecurity is refraining the new entrepreneurs to invest in such profitable business. ‘Global Competitiveness Index’ provided by IMF, World Economic Forum represent the poor ranking (99 out of 137) of Bangladesh in regards to corruption, inefficiency, lack of accountability, confidence in politicians and police. Country needs to do a lot in this sector.

Logistic and Infrastructural Support

According to Logistic Performance Index- 2016 of World Bank, Bangladesh ranked 87 out of 160 countries. The challenges in terms of logistic and infrastructural support are:

89 Bangladesh as a Global Footwear Sourcing Hub by 2030: Strategic Options

• Power Sector. Power System Master Plan (PSPM)-2010 has been revised as PMPS-2016 with plan period of 2041. Government is planning to increase its generation capacity beyond projected demand of 40,000 MW by 2030 in order to boost the fast growing economy.

• Port Facilities. With more capacity than Chittagong Port, the under construction sea port at Payra (in Potuakhali district) will be operational by 2023. Construction of deep sea port, terminal for liquefied natural gas (LNG) and coal for coal-fired power plants, along with communication network such as rail and roadways, are underway at Matarbari of Cox’s Bazar district.

• Banking Sector. NPL in the banking sector is 17% of total outstanding loans. Corruption and inefficiency are reasons for NPL of state-run banks. Such scenario of banks constrains entrepreneur’s financing.

• Road Network. Poor road condition on account of poor construction, lack of maintenance and lack of integration of different modes of transportation constraining the trade and commerce. The major transport corridor Dhaka-Chittagong highway is being upgraded to 6 lanes. Long-distance elevated expressways and tunnel under Karnofuli River are also under construction. The Padma Bridge is likely to improve the connectivity from capital to south-western region.

• Railway. Due to some operational problems, yard layout system at both the end of Dhaka and Chittagong and non-availability of rolling stocks, sufficient train frequency is yet to be materialized. For the improvement of container service, a number of container deport projects are being implemented.

Trade Policy and Incentives

The trade regime has improved much since 1990 and export bias trade regime is growing rapidly. Yet, the businesses face new tax, VAT and tariff rate every year which pose real difficulty for entrepreneurs. Every year

90 government tries to fix varying bank interest rates, thus hampering long term investment initiative. Government declared cash and other incentives which, also fluctuate year to year. In Bangladesh, businesses experience too much fluctuation of exchange rate.

Recommendations

With the huge potentials of labor intensive manufacturing industry, Bangladesh is going to be the global footwear sourcing hub by 2030. To achieve the desired growth, following are recommended for the sector development:

• An effective manufacturing and exporting association with authority to be established to coordinate, monitor and advise for the trade and development of the sector. The body should work with the government in formulating the trade and financial policy. They should also coordinate and work with international business community for technological advancement, value-added product development, marketing and diversification.

• World class technical centre, testing lab and design studio to be built for research and development, quality control and product promotion.

• G o v e r n m e n t s h o u l d p r o v i d e a d e q u a t e p o l i c y s u p p o r t f o r manufacturing and export growth of the sector.

• Concerned ministries to take initiative to improve trade logistic system including development of infrastructure, port facility, availability of electricity and finance.

• Compliances at all level must be ensured by all stakeholders.

• ‘Made in Bangladesh’ branding to be continued throughout.

91 Bangladesh as a Global Footwear Sourcing Hub by 2030: Strategic Options

Conclusion

Bangladesh has come a long way in becoming a developmental role model in the global arena. Its journey to becoming a developed country by 2041 has gained momentum. With right kind of political vision, leadership and stability, Bangladesh is very much set on course to a better future.

To be a developed country, Bangladesh must act like one. Besides high spirit and slogans, there is a need to work pragmatically in order to achieve a sustainable growth in economy - at both macro and micro levels. In terms of exports, there is a need to diversify. Its export earnings have been heavily dependent on RMG so far. Taking advantage of trainable and competitive labor force, Bangladesh has been sailing smoothly so far except for occasional economic turbulence and competition from other nations. There is a need to identify more and more export oriented manufacturing businesses. Engaging in footwear industry is one such promising sector that Bangladesh must grab.

Present global footwear market is estimated as $ 215 Billion and likely to grow $300 billion by 2030. With the rise of purchase power, online shopping, crave for fashion, athleticism, style, brand and smart value added footwear product consumption is likely to increase steadily. Women are more image conscious and aware of style, will demand style, fashion and value added products. Although China remains a business leader in global footwear, the cost of production is rising steadily, making it less competitive day by day. Other Western and European makers are confined to high-end market segment and already losing profit margin for the same high cost of production. This has opened up opportunity for Bangladesh, which is 8th largest producer.

In the production level, Bangladesh enjoys golden opportunity as it has rich heritage and experience of running RMG sector successfully for decades now. Country has abundance of easily trainable work force, access to good quality leather and several operational medium to large footwear

92 factories. Other than design and development, the RMG success story may be replicated for mass production of footwear. Like RMG sector, potential buyers need to supply design and selected high end raw materials. It may be mentioned that many renowned brands and retailers are showing their kin interest to source from Bangladesh already.

Present policy support to footwear sector is reasonable. Footwear being a priority sector, get 15% cash incentive on FOB value. However, footwear exporters have to pay a number of levies, taxes, and fees over and above custom duties. Market research shows that an export target of $ 15 billion is realistic and attainable by 2030. But this entails continuation of policy support by the government as well as business innovation by private sector.

RMG sector took time to organize and blossom as today. But there is no need to wait and take such a lengthy route since enabling factors for manufacturing industries in Bangladesh have seen sea change. To achieve a jumpstart, a concept of ‘cluster development’ at macro level has been proposed in this paper. This would allow some existing 2500 SMEs in footwear sector to better network and meet export oriented manufacturing targets at a mass scale. It is a private enterprise led by large footwear outlets, supported by government policy and regulatory support. The model so proposed, however, requires legislative, financial, structural and above all, a business model that ensures win-win situation for all. The concept is novel but worth a try.

Besides, a technical centre, world class testing lab with international certification and a design studio for footwear sector are crucial for compliance and long term growth. The training centre would assist local designers develop design skills in future. Productivity and quality can be improved by practicing international best practices, automations, innovations and skill development. Global businesses are critically dependent on safety and sustainability standards. Footwear sector should remain all time focused on compliance issues.

93 Bangladesh as a Global Footwear Sourcing Hub by 2030: Strategic Options

In export competitiveness, lead time is the paramount factor. Efficiency of custom office, import-export procedure, boarder service, quality transportation infrastructure and use of IT with corruption free regulatory environment could reduce considerable lead time. Efficient international marketing team should be capable of creating confidence about quality and reliability of products, capability and compliance levels of farms and promote ‘Made in Bangladesh’ branding. For the development, the sector needs a strong business organization like BGMEA.

References

1. Bangladesh - Footwear market expands fast as demand rises, APLF. (25 April 2017) [Online]. Available at:

2. Bangladesh Foreign Trade Institute, Sector-base Need Assessment of Business Promotion Council- Leather Sector. (2016). [Online]. Available at:

3. Bangladesh: The next global hub for leather and footwear industries (2015). The Financial Express.[Online]. Available at:

4. Berger, R. Trend Compendium 2030. (2011). [Online]. Available at:

5. BizVibe Blog, Footwear Industry in China Remains The Largest in the World. [Online]. Available at:

6. Business Trends 2014 Navigating the next wave of globalization. (2014). Deloitte University Press. [Online]. Available at:

94 www2.deloitte.com/global/en/pages/strategy/articles/business- trends-2014.html>

7. China Leather Industry Association, Development of China Footwear and Leather Industries, 2015. [Online]. Available at:

8. Consumer 2020 Reading the signs, Deloitte, 2011. [Online]. Available at:

9. Deal on higher productivity in leather sector. (May 10, 2016). The Daily Star. [Online]. Available at:

10. Derrig, Andrew et al., Sustainability Assessment of Nike Shoes, (2010). University of Vermont. [Online]. Available at:

11. Ernst & Young, Hitting the sweet spot - The growth of the middle class in emerging markets, (2013). [Online]. Available at:

12. Export Promotion Bureau of Bangladesh, Export Statistic Book 2015- 16. (2017). [Online]. Available at:

13. Footwear Consumer 2030: Incorporating global trends to foresight footwear market, A back ground study Commissioned by world footwear congress, (2013). [Online]. Available at:

14. Global Trends 2030: Alternative Worlds, National Intelligence Council, (December 2012). [Online]. Available at:

95 Bangladesh as a Global Footwear Sourcing Hub by 2030: Strategic Options

15. Growth, European Commission Portal. [Online]. Available at: 16. Kim, Aimee et al., The glittering power of cities for luxury growth, McKinsey & Company, (September 2014). [Online]. Available at: 17. Milon, M. I., Problem and Prospect of Footwear Industry in Bangladesh, (2016) [Online]. Available at: 18. Nguyen, Hanh, et al., Remaking the industrial economy, McKinsey Quarterly, (February 2014). [Online]. Available at: 19. Nur, S A. No plan yet to remove tannery waste [Online]. Available at: 20. Peoples Republic of Bangladesh. Ministry of Industries. Industrial Policy. (2016). [Online]. Available at: 21. Peoples Republic of Bangladesh. Ministry of Commerce. Export Policy (2015-18). [Online]. Available at: 22. Singh, P., Footwear market: Automation, consolidation emerge key to success, 8 September 2017. [Online]. Available at:

96 Author

Brigadier General Mirza Md Enamul Haque, ndc was commissioned on 26 June 1987 in the corps of infantry. He served in number of infantry units as company officer and staff. He commanded an Infantry Battalion and a Mechanize Infantry Brigade. As staff, he served at Grade 3 level at an Infantry Brigade Headquarters, Grade 2 Staff in Budget Directorate of the Army Headquarters, Grade 1 Staff at NCO Academy and as Assistant Adjutant General of Cadet Colleges in Army Headquarters. He was Instructor Class B at the Special Warfare Wing of School of Infantry and Tactics. He also served as Additional Project Director of Machine Readable Passport and Visa, Department of Immigration and Passport and Director, Bangladesh Machine Tools Factory. He was contingent member of United Nations Operations in Mozambique (ONUMOZ) and United Nations Iraq-Kuwait Observation Mission (UNIKOM).

97 EVOLVING RIVALRY IN THE BAY OF BENGAL STRATEGY OPTIONS FOR BANGLADESH

Commodore M Zakirul Islam, (E), ndc, psc, BN

Introduction

Bangladesh is one of those fortunate countries which are not land-locked and haveaccess to the sea. The sea provides for livelihood for the coastal population as well as facilitates easy and cost-effective means for trade and commerce. Shipping is the life blood of Bangladesh economy as more than 90% of our exports and imports are sea borne. Thus, Sea Lines of Communication (SLOC) is the lifeline for Bangladesh.

After the settlement of maritime disputeswith Myanmar and India respectively, Bangladesh obtained its absolute maritime territory of 118,813 sq-km, 200 nautical mile Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) and an additional area of continental shelf. This has indeed opened a new window of opportunities and a new era of Blue Economy has started in the country.

In recent years, clouds of contests and conflictsare appearing in the sky of the Bay. The main contributor to this scenario is the two major regional powers China and India. The USA has also appeared in the scene with an aim to pursue its global strategic interest. Any conflict in the Bay of Bengal (BoB) will seriously affect Bangladesh in terms of itstrade, commerce and offshore resource exploration. This paper thus analyses the evolving conflicting scenario in the BoB to examine its effect on Bangladesh and formulate some strategy and policy options.

Geography and Significance of BoB

The Bay of Bengal (BoB) is a large but relatively shallow embayment of the northeastern Indian Ocean (IO). It occupies an area of about 2,173,000

98 square km having a wide continental shelf in the north and northeastern side and a narrow shelf in the western side along the eastern coast of India, making it the largest bay in the world. It is bordered on the north by the deltaic regions of the Ganges, Brahmaputra and Meghna rivers, on the east Myanmar Peninsula and Nicobar ridges including Malay Peninsula, and on the west the Indian peninsula and Sri Lanka.

Figure 1: The Bay of Bengal Region

Source: https://www.researchgate.net/

The shipping route passing through the BoB is the shortest sea route between Persian Gulf suppliers and the Asian markets like China, Indonesia, Japan,

99 Evolving Rivalry in the Bay of Bengal: Strategy Options for Bangladesh

South Korea, and the Pacific Rim. The Malacca Strait is the main shipping channel linking major economies like India, China, Japan and South Korea with Middle East and Africa. Out of total eight oil trade chokepoints in the world, it is the second-largest after the Strait of Hormuz. Over 50,000 vessels pass through the strait per year, carrying about one-quarter of the world’s traded goods including oil. Thus, maintaining security of the strait is of paramount strategic importance for all the countries of the IO rim including China.

Figure 2: Crude Oil and Petroleum Transported through Malacca Strait

Source: US Energy Information Administration

The BoB and the adjoining sea are known as a less explored regions regarding minerals. In recent years there have been discoveries of natural gas in the offshore areas of Myanmar, Bangladesh and India. The Bay is also a fertile marine fishing ground of the region. As water discharges from the surrounding river catchments carry huge influx of sediments full of nutrients which has made the Bay a fertile ground for shrimps and fishes. Four fishing grounds have been identified so far in the bay (Figure 3)

100 Figure 3: Fishing Zones of Bay of Bengal.

Source: https://www.researchgate.net/

Bangladesh is heavily dependent on sea for her trade and commerce. Considering around 90% of her imports and exports are sea borne, SLOCs are the lifeline for Bangladesh. Moreover, the country has a coastline is of 734 km involving coastal and island communities of about 50 million people. A major part of these population live on fishing and related activities.However, only coastal fishing is done by Bangladeshi small trawlers up to 60 km towards the sea. Deep sea fishing is yet to be explored due to lack of technology and trawlers of necessary sizes. Notable that Bangladesh has recorded surplus fish production with an annual output of 4.134 million MT in 2016-17, though only 16% of those came from marine sources. This leaves us with enormous potentiality to develop offshore .

101 Evolving Rivalry in the Bay of Bengal: Strategy Options for Bangladesh

Figure 4: Fishery Production of Bangladesh (MT)

Source: Yearbook of Fisheries Statistics of Bangladesh 2016-17

Factors Contributing in Rising Competition in the BoB Economic and Political Factors

In last few decades, all BoB rim nations including Bangladesh have experienced rapid growth.India wants its natural influence in the Bay as the rising regional power. Though China doesn’t fall directly under BoB rim, a major part of Chinas’ imports and exports are through BoB. It is the second largest economy in the world, the largest consumer market, the biggest manufacturing nation and the principal importer of raw materials. China wants to protect its trade and flow of energy through the BoB as well as influence the BoB waters significantly to protect its strategic interests.

Energy Security Factors

‘Energy Security’ is one of the most significant factors for rising rivalry in the BoB. Today,energy consumption of Asia has already surpassed that of the North America.The two Asian giant China and India has become major consumers and placed among top 5 oil importers in the worldin 2018 (Figure 5):

102 Figure 5: Top Annual Net Oil Importers, 2018. Total Import Rank Country % of Global Imports (Billion US $) 1 China 239.2 20.2% 2 United States 163.1 13.8% 3 India 114.5 9.7% 4 Japan 80.6 6.8% 5 South Korea 80.4 6.8% 6 Netherlands 48.8 4.1% 7 Germany 45.1 3.8% 8 Spain 34.2 2.9% (Data Source: http://www.worldstopexports.com/crude-oil-imports- by-country/)

China’s oil import reliance exceeded 65.6 percent in 2016 and is forecast to rise to 80 percent by 2030. By 2020, Chinese consumption of crude oil is expected at 12 million bpd. China and India’sdependency on oil importsare expected to rise to 75% and 95% respectively of their total oil consumption by 2030. As a result, the importance of the BoB as an oil transit region will further increase, leading to increased military presence in the Bay.

China has already constructednatural gas and oil pipelines in 2014connecting Kyaukpyu Port of Myanmar with Yunnan Province of China. The 1100-kilometre long pipelines have annual capacity of 22 million tons of oil and 12 billion cubic meters of gas respectively. As around 80% of China’s energy imports are presently transported via Malacca Strait, these pipelines through Myanmar have an added strategic importance for Beijing as they will help China to reduce its dependence on the Strait of Malacca.

103 Evolving Rivalry in the Bay of Bengal: Strategy Options for Bangladesh

Figure 6: China’s Oil and Gas Pipeline Connecting BoB and Kunming

About 95 per cent of India’s trade by volume and 68 per cent of trade by value come through the Indian Ocean. India is also the fourth-largest importer of liquefied natural gas (LNG), with about 45 per cent coming by sea. A significant part of these are through BoB to serve the eastern and north eastern states of India. Thus, India will strive to ensure the security of the Bay’s SLOCs as being crucial for her economic growth.

Connectivity Factors

For land locked countries like Nepal and Bhutan, access to the BoB could have an enormous impact on their development and economic growth. Thus, several initiatives are underway to improve the connectivity.China is promoting the ambitious Belt and Road Initiative(BRI) - a network for connecting at least 80 countries of Asia, Europe and Africa along the ancient Silk Road routes. As a part of that, China is investing in several mega projects in Bangladesh, Myanmar and Sri Lanka, which are of concern for India. In response to the Chinese initiative, India is also promoting a fewsuch projects in the region. Through BBIN Motor Vehicle Agreement, India is pursuing a road network through Bangladesh, Bhutan, India and Nepal. BCIM-EC is another such initiative.

104 Figure 7: China’s Belt and Road Initiative (BRI)

Source: Online Journal ‘The Opinion’

Regional and Extra-regional Actors in the Bay India and the BoB

Since its independence until recent past India maintained alliance with mainly USSR/Russia as the strategic partner for security, development and geo-political issues. However, in a paradigm shift of foreign policy and strategyin 2002, India signed the General Security of Military Information Agreement (GSOMIA) with USA. This followed by the Logistics Exchange Memorandum of Agreement (LEMOA) in 2016 that give the militaries of both countries access to each other’s facilities for supplies and repairs. For both US and India, it is a strategic move to contain increasingly assertive China in the IO region.

India is also increasing its profile in multilateral Indian Ocean institutions and frameworks. It patronized establishment of Indian Ocean Rim Association (IORA) in 1997 which has 21 member states and 7 dialogue

105 Evolving Rivalry in the Bay of Bengal: Strategy Options for Bangladesh partners. The Indian Navy founded the Indian Ocean Naval Symposium (IONS) in 2008 to foster maritime cooperation and coordinated SAR operation. It also hostsyearly multinational naval exercises like MILAN. In 2013, India signed a trilateral maritime security accord with Sri Lanka and Maldives that appears likely to expand to a five-power grouping by including Mauritius and Seychelles.

China in the BoB Region

China has undergone a remarkable economic growth over the last few decades, averaging an annual growth of 16.8 percent from 1978 to 2010. To maintain this enormous development, China needs oil, which it doesn’t produce much. Thus, China’s strategic priorities are to find reliable oil supplies and unhindered SLOCs. Thus China is trying to increase its presence in BoB through growing cooperation with littoral nations.

For China, securing SLOCs has become one of the main objectives and a way to address the “Malacca Dilemma”, as the strait is close proximity to Indian military bases in Andaman and Nicober. The Chinese-built gas and oil pipeline from Kyaukpyu to Kunming is one such projectto reduce dependency on Malacca. Additionally, China is seeking port access agreements with littoral countries of the Bay. In doing so, it wants access to Chittagong sea port and proposed to build a deep-sea port at SonadiaIsland. Also, China accesses Myanmar’s sea ports and islands and recently it has taken over the operation of Hambantota port of Sri Lanka. All these are concern for India and contributed in the tensions in the bay.

The USA in the BoB Region

In recent years, US interests in the region have grown significantly because it recognizes the tremendous potential this region has due to its massive demography, the volume of trade, and its resource endowments. In addition, America’s shift in focus also have been triggered by China’s fast expansion in

106 the region. The Obama administration announced the ‘Asia Pivot’ policyand the ‘Rebalancing’ strategy. Declaring it as ‘Indo-Pacific’ region and re-arranging its Pacific Command as ‘Indo-Pacific Command’ by Trump administration is the subsequent step to further consolidate US foothold in the region.

To set limits on China’s expansion, the principal task of the US Navy would be to leverage the sea power of India in the IOR. It is in the US’ long-term economic interest to prevent the region from being dominated by any single state, thereby disturbing the balance of power in the region. Again, to achieve its geopolitical objectives, the US capitalizes on the India- China rivalry to its own advantage.

Sino-Indian Rivalry in the Bay

Historical mistrust between China and India has encouraged mutual suspicion regarding each other’s intentions. India and China both view the BoB as a crucial frontier in their competition over energy resources, shipping lanes, and cultural influence. Up until now, the strongest manifestation of Sino-Indian rivalry in the BoB was in Myanmar where they both connect through Myanmar to their economically weaker regions, namely India’s Northeast and China’s Yunnan province.

Another major aspect of the rivalry lies in the Belt and Road Initiative (BRI) that China pursuesbut India has refused to endorse it. China is seeking connectivity, agreements and access to facilities to ensure seamless flow of trade and energy. India also pursues to have cooperation and access facilities. Another challenge for China may be India’s military disposition in the Bay, as Beijing is worried about the Malacca dilemma.

The Importance of Myanmar

Myanmar possesses a great geo-strategic advantage in the region due to its location and abundance of mineral resources. For India, Myanmar is of great strategic importance - the country can become India’s link to

107 Evolving Rivalry in the Bay of Bengal: Strategy Options for Bangladesh

Southeast Asia as it is a part of ASEAN, vital for India’s “Act East” policy. India is heavily investing in trade and infrastructure there, for example the Kaladan project which would connect the Kolkata Port to Sittwe Port.

Figure 8: Kaladan Multi-modal Transport Project.

Source:https://www.google.com.bd/

Myanmar holds great strategic importance for China as well. The pipelines through Myanmar have the potential to help China reduce its heavy dependence on the Strait of Malacca. This has strategic implications against the backdrop of the United States’ rebalancing in Asia and the on- going maritime disputes in the South China Sea. Russia is another player engaging heavily in Myanmar. Japan is also actively involved in Myanmar mainly due to economic interests.

The Importance of Sri Lanka

Due to its geographical close proximity, historically Sri Lanka maintained strong ties with India. Sri Lanka is India’s largest trading partner in South Asia and India is Sri Lanka’s largest trading partner globally. The two neighbours also have defence cooperation mainly through training program.

Sri Lanka also shares robust ties with China, the latter being the largest source of Foreign Direct Investment (FDI). Projects such as the new Colombo Port Terminal, Hambantota Port, and a four-lane Expressway

108 among others are funded by China. In return, the country recently agreed to join China’s ambitious Maritime Silk Route project. For China, access to Hambantota is essential for its new strategic and connectivity aspirations.

‘The Quad Approach’ -Australia and Japan in the Scene

In recent years, there are some interesting developments in the regional geo- politics. As such increased military cooperation between India, Australia, Japan and USA is developing. Strategists termed it as the ‘Quad Approach’.

The IOR is important to Australia as it is economically significant as a crucial conduit for global trade, home to some fastest growing economies and contains large reserves of natural resources. India is coming increasingly closer to Japan with a strategic aim to offset China by forming alliance. In 2014, India invited the Japanese Navy to participate in the annual Malabar exercises with the U.S. Navy in the Pacific waters. India and Australia are skeptic of China’s assault on maritime security and freedom of navigation in the Indo-Pacific region. Japan is also assertive in the IOR mainly due to its dependency on the IO for trade and commerce.

Bangladesh on the Crossroads of Conflicts and Contests Preamble

Bangladesh and BoB is beginning to emerge as the center form where connectivity could spread both towards the west (India, Nepal, and Bhutan) and to East (ASEAN countries). This brings in the regional powers India and China in a power play scenario to ensure their political, economic and strategic interests.Competition between these two historical rivals is spreading across the ocean, from Myanmar to Sri Lanka, Maldives till Tanzania. Extra-regional powers like USA, Japan and Australia are also actively engaging in the region to protect their geo-strategic and economic interests.

109 Evolving Rivalry in the Bay of Bengal: Strategy Options for Bangladesh

As the stage is set for severe rivalry in the BoB, Bangladesh is caught in between a potential strategic competition and conflicts in the Bay. As a small and developing nation with limited resources and heavy dependence on the sea for the livelihood, trade and commerce, Bangladesh needs to be prudent to use its all possible leverages to stand firm in between the conflicting scenario and protect her national interests.

The Leverages of Bangladesh with India

The most important leverage that Bangladesh has with India is its historical, cultural and ethnical bondage. Also, Bangladesh is a huge market for India and a major part of this 160 million people’s market is served by Indian goods. As such, Bangladesh has the enormous bilateral trade deficit with India, importing goods of about $6 Billion and exporting only about $600 million worth of goods. This is a leverage Bangladesh can use to set terms with India at times of need.

Figure 9: Bangladesh Trade with India

(Source: The Bangladesh Chronicle; from: bangladeshchronicle. net/2016/08/trade-gap-with-india-drops-again-to-4-76b-in-fy16/

Connectivity is another factor for which India is depending on Bangladesh significantly in these days. India’s northeastern states can have easy

110 access to the BoB either through Bangladesh or Myanmar, and through Bangladesh it is the shortest route. Generally the Northeast India has to access the rest of India largely via the narrow corridor near Siliguri, greatly increasing travel times. To reach a port, traders needed to travel 1,650 km from Agartala to Kolkata, instead of travelling 515 kms to reach the same destination through Bangladesh, or travel only 200 km to access the nearby port of Chittagong. Several development projects are underway including container terminals, roads and railways to serve the Indian transit and connectivity needs. Thus India need close cooperation for transit and transshipment through Bangladesh.

Figure 10: General Route from Kolkata to Agartala and Probable Transit Routes.

(Source: The Economist and The Daily Star)

Bangladesh is a top source of remittance for India. In 2017, India earned remittance of US$ 5 billion from Bangladesh through official channel only. Adding to it the remittance through un-official channel like ‘Hundi’, Bangladesh became the 4th top remittance source for India in 2017. Bangladesh may use this issue as a leverage while setting terms with India.

111 Evolving Rivalry in the Bay of Bengal: Strategy Options for Bangladesh

Another issue can be used as leverage is that Bangladesh’s policy of ‘Zero Tolerance’ to any kind of insurgency activities on its soil. Due to this policy Bangladesh has strongly curbed Indian militants using Bangladeshi soil to operate in their north eastern states. Therefore, the security situation in the Indian northeastern states has dramatically improved. As such in recent time the insurgency related incidents have declined 85 per cent and there is 96 percent reduction in casualty of civilian and security personnel.

Bangladesh may also use the China card in setting terms with India like what being used by Sri Lanka and Maldives. As China is eager to use Bangladeshi ports and other facilities to operate in the BoB region, Bangladesh may use this leverage to bring India in favorable terms during settling bi-lateral issues.

The Leverages of Bangladesh with China

As for China, access to ports in Bangladesh can facilitate Beijing’s oversight of its SLOCs and be a key geographical location for its envisaged Maritime Silk Route. Bangladesh’s strategic location, physical proximity to India, and proximity to the Bay have considerable implications for Chinese regional geopolitics. China has also been pledging heavy investment in infrastructural projects in Bangladesh under BRI. It is due to this strategy, Bangladesh, owing to its geographic positioning in the BoB can have a greater attention by China.

Bangladesh is a huge market for Chinese goods as well. Over the past years China has gradually replaced India as Bangladesh’s most important import-sourcing country. The data of Bangladesh Bank shows that import from China was worth about US$ 9.8 billion and export to China was only US$ 808.14 million in FY 2015-16. The import volume is rising in a good pace and expected to rise further in coming years (Figure 11). Bangladesh should continue to foster trade with China and use this relation as a leverage while negotiating bi-lateral and international issues.

112 Figure 11: Bangladesh-Chana Trade 2009-2016. Bangladesh-China Trade ($ Mn) 9880 10000 8223 7550 8000 6440 6328 5918 6000

4000

1214 2000 746 791 808 179 320 402 458 0 2009-10 2010-112011-12 2012-13 2013-142014-15 2015-16 Import Export

(Data Source: Export Promotion Bureau (EPB) Bangladesh)

The Leverages of Bangladesh with other Actors

Like China, Japan has also been trying to make its way into the BoB through Bangladesh. Japan has been increasing its influence in the BoB littorals and showing greater interest in the region. Tokyo’s new strategy may have been adopted due to security environment in East Asia (the China factor), making the nation turn toward South Asia (Bangladesh and Myanmar).

Among other projects, the BoB Industrial Growth Belt (BIG-B) plan is a strategic initiative proposed by Japan, which aims to promote industrial agglomeration along the Dhaka- Chattagram-Cox’s Bazaar belt, and enhance economic ties stretching from the Pacific to the Indian Ocean. The initiative include constructing a deep-sea port on Matarbari Island, energy flow through developing a massive supply base of primary energy such as coal, LNG, oil and transportation.

The US is one of few countries with which Bangladesh has trade surplus. It is a significant market for Bangladeshi RMG. The US and Bangladesh

113 Evolving Rivalry in the Bay of Bengal: Strategy Options for Bangladesh established a bilateral security dialogue in April 2012, through which the US is helping Bangladesh Navy to develop Special Forces for counterterrorism and maritime interdictions. As a BoB littoral, US wants good defence ties with Bangladesh to promote security, curb terrorism and serve its strategic interests in the IO region. Bangladesh may use this relation to go ahead further and achieve favourable terms in bi-lateral and international issues.

Coordination with Regional Organisations

Utilizing regional cooperative organisations like SAARC could be a better leverage for small states like Bangladesh. However, unlike ASEAN, SAARC is yet to achieve satisfactory progress towards anactive regional alliance for prosperity and security. As such, all parties need to continue support and promote SAARC and SAFTA. Also Bangladesh need to keep close cooperation with ASEAN countries to achieve supports on various geo-political issues.

Bangladesh’s Foreign Policy Standings and its Outcome

The key essence of our foreign policy is ‘friendship to all, malice to none’. It is apparent that the conduct of foreign policy of Bangladesh appears to be a delicate balancing act between preservation of sovereignty and pressures from external powers. The recent handling of strategic issues like signing agreement for economic zones and deep sea port was a showcase for such policy. So far Bangladesh has reasonably utilized this non-alliance standings in various low profile international issues. But at times of serious conflicting scenario, how effective this policy will be is a matter to ponder. In modern days, economic relation plays a vital role in determining foreign policy and international relations.It is mentionable that still Bangladesh has greater volume of trade with both India, China and other international actors in comparison to that of Myanmar. It is a strong diplomatic leverage, which could generate better results in international affairs and foreign policy matters, if utilized to its fullest potential.

114 Djibouti is a good example of how advantageous geo-strategic location can be used by a small states to negotiate terms with bigger neighbours to make balance, protect national interests and promote developments. Recent events in Maldives and Sri Lanka can also be studiedto formulate lessons and rearticulate our foreign policy standings.

It is important to note that most of our military hardware are sourced from abroad. At times of crisis and urgent need, Bangladesh may not get enough and speedy response from those foreign sources. Now, time has arrived to invest significantly in military research and development as well as promote indigenous military hardware production.

Recommendations

Non-Alliance and Multilateralism is the Key Strategy. In view of above deliberations, followings are recommended:

• Bangladesh should continue to maintain non-alliance foreign policy and promote multilateralism in a potential conflicting scenario in the BoB. However, it is important that the country utilizes all possible leverages to have a firm standings in bi-lateral and multi-lateral forums to protect its national interests.

• Bangladesh should thus actively be engaged in regional cooperative forums like SAARC, BCIM, BBIN, BIMSTEC, ASEAN, IORA and IONS.

• Bangladesh should regularly and actively participate in the maritime activities and exercises of regional initiatives like, IONS and MILAN with an aim to have more interactions and ease tensions in the Bay.

• In case of a serious conflicting scenario in the BoB, if current policy fails to protect national interests, Bangladesh should be ready for such circumstances with a clear policy guidelines with possible Courses of Action.

115 Evolving Rivalry in the Bay of Bengal: Strategy Options for Bangladesh

• A high level national committee constituted with experts on security and international relations may be employed with Top Secret agenda for studying and formulating such guidelines and Courses of Actionsto be adopted at times of conflicts in the Bay. • Bangladesh should invest significantly in military research and development and promote indigenous military technology. • Further research may be undertaken to determine in details, the policy guidelines and Course of Actions for adopting at times of serious conflicts in the Bay of Bengal.

Conclusion

As the above study reveals that slowly and gradually the BoB is becoming a hot bed for potential contests and conflicts between regional and extra- regional powers. This is due to its strategic location, connectivity, massive sea borne trade through its SLOCs and Malacca Strait, potential endowments underneath and the strategic interests of world powers. India and China heavily depends on the SLOCs and Malacca Strait through BoB for their trades and energy flow. In addition to protect trade and energy flow, China wants to develop its landlocked southwestern regions, including Tibet and Yunnan by gaining access to the Bay. The USA has arrived in the scenario to offset China in the IO Region as a part of its rebalancing strategy. Other major player of Asia Pacific region like Japan and Australia are also in the scene to protect their flow of trade and ensureenergy security. Thereby tensions in the Bay are evolving mainly because of geo-economic factors, energy security factors and connectivity factors.

Bangladesh depends heavily on the Bay for the livelihood of its population as well as trade and energy security. Apart from the livelihood of coastal people, around 90 percent of the country’s exports and imports are sea borne. Also, after the maritime boundary delimitation, Bangladesh is all set to explore its offshore resources. Any conflict in the Bay will severely hamper Bangladesh regarding livelihood, trade, commerce and the exploration

116 of offshore living and non-living resources. However, the country has a few leverages to deal with its counterparts in a contesting scenario. But, these leverages can only be utilized in conjunction with appropriate policy and strategy. The current non-alliance foreign policy standing has been generating satisfactory results so far in peaceful environment. But recent events suggest that during any serious conflicting scenario, this policy standing may not produce satisfactory results. As such Bangladesh need to re-visit its policy and strategic stature through analyzing present situation, international order and policy followed by other small littorals like Djibouti, Sri Lanka and Maldives.

Though rivalry is increasing day by day, we can also assess that no single state will be able to dominate the region. Thus, it is obvious that multilateral cooperative engagement is a key to avoid tensions in the Bay. Therefore, all BoB nations should promote multilateral approach to allow countries to pursue their goals on equal terms. For that to occur, it is necessary that countries give emphasis on regional cooperative arrangements like SAARC, ASEAN, BIMSTEC, BBIN, IORA, IONS etc.

References

1. Commodore Mohammad Khurshed Alam, ‘Bangladesh’s Maritime Challenges in the 21st Century’, Pathak Shamabesh Bangladesh, 2004. 2. Sunil S. Amrith, ‘Crossing the Bay of Bengal’, Harvard University Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts, London, 2013. 3. K. M. Panikkar, ‘India and the Indian Ocean’, George Allen & Unwin Ltd, London, 1st Edition, 1945. 4. Edited by John Garofano and Andrea J Dew, ‘Deep Currents and Rising Tides- The Indian Ocean and International Security’, Cambridge University Press India Pvt. Ltd, 1st South Asian edition 2013. 5. Vidya Nadkarni, ‘Strategic Partnerships in Asia- Balancing without Alliances’, Routledge, Abingdon, Oxon, UK, 2010.

117 Evolving Rivalry in the Bay of Bengal: Strategy Options for Bangladesh

6. Edited by Vijay Sakhuja and Raghavendra Mishra, ‘Partnering Together for a Secure Maritime Future’, National Maritime Foundation India/ KW Publishers Pvt Ltd, 2016.

7. Atul Chandra Roy, ‘A History of Mughal Navy and Naval Warfares’, The World Press Private Ltd., Calcutta, first published October 1972.

8. James R. Holmes, Andrew C. Winner and Toshi Yoshihara, ‘Indian Naval Strategy in the Twenty-first Century’, Routledge, Abingdon, Oxon, UK, 2009.

9. Thomas M. Kane, ‘Chinese Grand Strategy and Maritime Power’, Frank Cass Publishers, London, 2002.

10. Kenneth N. Waltz, ‘Theory of International Politics’, McGraw-Hill, Inc. USA, 1979.

11. Joseph S. Nye Jr., ‘Soft Power: The Means to Success in World Politics’, KW Publishers Pvt Ltd, New Delhi, 2012.

12. Devare, S. T. (2008). A New Energy Frontier: The Bay of Bengal Region. Singapre: ISEAS Publishing.

13. Admiral Sunil Lanba, P. A. (2018, June 26). The Indian Ocean in 21st Century. NDC Lecture. Dhaka, Dhaka, Bangladesh: NDC Mirpur.

14. Ahmed, H. K. (2015). The Bay of Bengal: Next Theatre for Strategic Power Play in Asia. CIRR XXI Volume72, 199-239

15. Bangla Tribune. (2018, May 20). $5 billion remittances go to India annually. Retrieved From: http://en.banglatribune.com/national/ news/2949/5-billion-remittances-go-to-India-annually

16. Bangladesh Buero of Statistics (BBS). (2015). POPULATION MONOGRAPH OF BANGLADESH.

17. Banglapedia. (2003). Banglapedia National Encyclopedia of Bangladesh. Dhaka: Asiatic Society of Bangladesh.

118 18. Brewster, D. (2014). The Strategist. The Bay of Bengal: the Indo- Pacific’s New Zone of Competition, P.2. 19. Colombage, D. (2014, August 24). Sri Lanka’s surging cash reliance on China. Aljazeera Online, Retrieved from https://www.aljazeera.com 20. Department of Fisheries Bangladesh. (2017). Yearbook of Fisheries Statistics of Bangladesh 2016-17. Dhaka: Ministry of Fisheries and Livestock, Bangladesh. 21. HCSS. (2010). The Maritime Future of the Indian Ocean. The Hague Centre for Strategic Studies, Future Issue No.13.9.10, 9-47. 22. International Chamber of Shipping. (2018, August 10). Shipping and World Trade. Retrieved from ICS: http://www.ics-shipping.org 23. Manik, S. R. (2018, February 20). Blue Economy: A New Prospect for Bangladesh. The Daily Sun, p. 2. 24. Mishra, R. (2014). The US Rebalancing Strategy: Responses from Southeast Asia. Asian Strategic Review 2014, 149-173 25. Mustafizur Rahman, E. D. (2016, December 16). The Window of Opportuinity. Retrieved from Centre for Policy Dialogue: https://cpd. org.bd 26. Panda, A. (2018, February 06). A Political Crisis Deepens in the Maldives: The Geopolitical Stakes for India and Its Options. The Diplomat. 27. Pant, H. V. (2017, April 28). India, Japan, Australia, and the US: The Return of Asia’s ‘Quad’. The Diplomat: https://thediplomat.com/2017/04/ india-japan-australia-and-the-us-the-return-of-asias-quad/ 28. Rahman, S. (2016, June 12). Transit Fee Too Low. The Daily Star, p. 3. 29. Rear Admiral M Khurshed Alam, R. (2018, June 27). Lecture on ‘Maritime Resources in the Bay of Bengal’. NDC Mirpur, Dhaka, Bangladesh.

119 Evolving Rivalry in the Bay of Bengal: Strategy Options for Bangladesh

30. Sing, R. (2012). Strategic Significance of Maldives. Indian Defence Review.

31. The Daily Star. (2014, May 27). Japan pledges $5.9b. The Daily Star, Online, p. 2. Retrieved June 18, 2018, from https://www.thedailystar. net

32. The Economist. (2016, November 24). Where India’s and China’s energy consumption is heading. The Economist Online Edition, p. 1

33. The Financial Express. (2018, October 04). BD May Become 26th Biggest Economy in 2030, p. 8.

Author

Commodore M Zakirul Islam, (E), psc, BN, is a Course Member of NDC 2018. He was born in the district of Pabna, Bangladesh on 20 October 1968. He was commissioned in Bangladesh Navy in the Branch of Engineering in 1990. After graduation from Engineering University, he started his professional career as the Sqn Engineer. He served as Engineer Officer of various BN ships including Frigates. He also served as Officer- In-Charge in various workshops of BN Dockyard. He also served as Instructor at NBCD School and Engineering School. His appointment in mid and top level management include DGM in BN Dockyard, DGM in DEW Ltd Narayanganj, and GM (production) in Khulna Shipyard Ltd. As staff officer he served in various Naval Command including Navy Headquarters. He has obtained MDS Degree from DSCSC, National University and MBA from Open University, Bangladesh. He has served as MILOB in UN Mission in Ethiopia and Eritrea (UNMEE) and in Contingent Mission in UN Interim Forces in Lebanon (UNIFIL).

120 AN EFFECTIVE WAY TOWARDS LOCALIZING SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT GOALS (SDG) - TRANSLATING TWO SPECIFIC AREAS OF SDG INTO ACTION IN TWO UNIONS

Additional Secretary Dr. Shahnaz Arefin, ndc

Introduction

Bangladesh, after achieving success in Millennium Development Goals (MDGs), would now like to achieve the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) to further improve the overall scenario of Bangladesh to stand as the most promising country demonstrating remarkable economic growth, peace, prosperity, and well-being. Rapid economic growth coupled with a rising population is taking a huge toll on the environment, ecology, and natural resources in Bangladesh. To ensure the best possible opportunities for a productive and healthy life for the people, while maintaining the balance in nature, and ensuring sustainability for future generations, the country needs to have “human centered” sustainable development. To achieve SDGs globally, adequate focus has been given to localization of SDGs, especially to conceptualize, internalize, and demonstrate SDGs in action at the local government level. It is quite important that local governments understand, internalize the importance, and inter-link between different sustainable development goals to reach the planned goal. The role of citizen to be engaged with local government in localizing SDG is also simultaneously important. However, in Bangladesh, at the lowest local government level - Union Parishad (UP) localization of SDGs is questionable. There remains no clear institutional mechanism to localize SDGs into action at Union Parishad level. In this backdrop, it is now becoming more essential to have some mechanism for localization of SDGs specially at Union Parishad level.

121 An Effective Way Towards Localizing Sustainable Development Goals (SDG) - Translating Two Specific Areas of SDG into Action in Two Unions

Therefore, it is important to understand existing situation and develop appropriate mechanisms to ensure localization of SDGs at Union Parishad level to leverage maximum benefit for achieving SDGs. Localizing SDGs means linking local and regional governments’ agendas with the global goals, and empowering local governments. Localization brings change in the way development policies are designed, and works as a way to promote convergence and quality relation between local processes and national plans. There is a great need for localization of SDGs in Bangladesh, especially local governments, as Union Parishads must conceptualize, internalize, and have clarity on how to address SDGs from their level, and how to report back to the national system. According to the Article 59(2)(C) of the Constitution of Bangladesh, key responsibilities for social and economic development, including “the preparation and implementation of plans relating to public services and economic development” lie with local government. Moreover, the Local Government (UP) Act of 2009 strengthens local governments by incorporating global best practices for direct participation by active citizens in planning and social accountability. Therefore, it is an urgent need in Bangladesh to localize the SDGs. Through this localization, the UPs will be equipped to analyze their local situation, set priorities for each of the relevant SDGs.

Objective of Research

Out of 17 goals, this research proposal aims to identify two selected specific areas of SDG namely SDG 3 and SDG 6; on how it isbeing conceptualized at the lowest tier of the local government i.e., at the Union Parishad level; and how to further strengthen translating SDG into action, at least SDG 3 and SDG 6 in two selected Union Parishads. Objective 1: To carry out a research work to see how SDG 3 and SDG 6 are being conceptualized at the Union Parishad level, and how it can be further strengthened by creating effective awareness, and coordination in two selected Union Parishads.

122 Objective 2: Based on research findings, prepare a simple guidebook for Union Parishads on how to translate two specific areas of SDG into action effectively and efficiently.

Research Question

All of the SDGs have targets directly related to the responsibilities of local and regional governments. That’s why the achievement of the SDGs depends, more than ever, on the ability of local and regional governments. This research put questions on Goal-3 and Goal-6 Therefore, questions on relevant targets of the SDGs “3.1 by 2030, reduce the global maternal mortality ratio to less than 70 per 100,000 live births” -health related; “6.1 By 2030, achieve universal and equitable access to safe and affordable drinking water for all”, and “6.2 By 2030, achieve access to adequate and equitable sanitation and hygiene for all; end open defecation, paying special attention to the needs of women and girls, and those in vulnerable situations” - WASH related. Though an Inter-Ministerial Committee has been formed in Bangladesh, which is actively trying to coordinate the applications and results of SDG at the local level, Union Parishads are not yet visibly or effectively involved in translating SDGs into action. Secondly, until Union Parishads and other local government institutions (LGIs) are not adequately and effectively involved in translating SDGs into action, it will be difficult to achieve SDGs in reality.

Local Government Structure in Bangladesh

SDGs cover the years 2015-2030, which is being translated through existing 7th Five-Year Plan; to be further strengthened through two more Plans, i.e., 8th and 9th Five-Year Plans in Bangladesh.

On the other hand, Union Parishads are responsible for preparation of a comprehensive Union Plan, and inclusion of inter-ward development projects after identification and prioritization.

123 An Effective Way Towards Localizing Sustainable Development Goals (SDG) - Translating Two Specific Areas of SDG into Action in Two Unions

According to the Union Parishad Act, 2009, there is a provision for 13 Standing Committees (SCs) in the UP to support the Union Parishad. Union Parishad might be a possible platform at local level for localization of SDGs. Possible flow of information interrelation among ministries has been shown in Figure -1. SDGs allowed national governments to set and prioritize their own development targets considering their national circumstances. The Citizen’s Platform for SDGs, prioritized the SDG targets, and contextualized “leave no one behind” for Bangladesh. It ranked seven SDGs as the highest priority areas in Bangladesh. Out of these seven prioritized goals, this research considers only two goals - Goal 3: Good Health and Well-being; and Goal 6: Clean Water and Sanitation have been for applying to localization at Union Parishad level. Within these two goals, one target for Goal-3, and 2 targets for Goal-6 were identified and have been shown in Figure 1.

Figure 1: Rural Government Structure and possible flow of information.

Inter-Ministerial Committee on SDG, chaired by the Principal Secretary to the Prime Minister: Translating into Action through 57 Ministries

Other Ministries MoLGRD&C National Building Agencies Key Ministry forLocal Government

Heath, Education, Women & Children, Divisions Water & Sanitation Management

Zilas

Upazilas

City Union Parishads Pourashavas Corporations

Source: Drawn from self-conceptualization

124 In a democracy, the Constitution ensures legal recognition of local government through Parliament Acts incorporating relevant provisions (Khan, 1997: 11). The legal basis and responsibilities of local government in Bangladesh are incorporated in the Article 59 of the Constitution.

Figure 2: Boundaries for Research Work

Inter-Ministerial Committee Deals with 17 Goals and 169 targets

-Good Health & Well Be ing -Clean Water and Sanitation

Local Coordination at UP level —How is it being done? Source: Drawn from self-conceptualization A schematic diagram i.e., Figure-3 and table-1are highlighted to show at- a-glance the institutional set-up and governance arrangements of rural local governments in Bangladesh. There are no hierarchical supervisory relations among these local governments in Bangladesh, however, some functional linkages exist among them.

125 An Effective Way Towards Localizing Sustainable Development Goals (SDG) - Translating Two Specific Areas of SDG into Action in Two Unions

Figure: 3 Local Government Structure in Bangladesh

Ministry of Local Government, Rural Development, and

Local Government Division

Local Government Institutions with elected council

Union Parishad UpazilaParishad Pourashava/City ZilaParishad Cor. Union Parishads UpazilaParishads (491): ZilaParishad (64): (4,554): 1 Chairman and 2 Vice- Pourashava (327): 1 Mayor and 9-24 Elected 1 Chairman, 1 Chairman, 9 Chairmen including 1 reserved seat for Councilors and 3-8 Chief Executive members, and 3 women. Chairman of Women Councilors. Officer and 15 reserved seats for Members and 5 respective Union City Corporations women. Parishads and (11): 1 Mayor, 27-57 Woman Councilors Pourashavas’ Chairman Councilors and 9-19 (May 2018) (May 2018) as ex-officio members. Woman Councilors. Elected female members from 1/3 total numbers (May 2018) of respective UPs and Pourashava. (May 2018) Source: Self research

Union Parishad

In the context of the present study, the Union Parishad has been chosen as a unit of the local government institutions (LGIs) in Bangladesh because it is the oldest LGI established through an Act. It is run by the elected people’s representatives that have control over certain local affairs. It has also the power to impose taxes. The Union Parishad is headed by an elected people’s representative called Union Parishad Chairman. Union is divided into 9 wards. Each ward elects a member. On the other hand, each 3 wards create a separate and reserved constituency for women. The whole Union territory is a constituency for the post of UP chair. Therefore, UP is a Parishad consisting of a chairman and 12 elected representatives.

126 Table: 1: Number of Local Government Bodies in Bangladesh Local Administrative Number Government Average Population Size & Area Unit Body/Institution Avg. Population size - approx. 1.9 million District 64 District Parishad Avg. land area - approx. 2,305 sq. km. Avg. population size - approx. 0.25 million 491 UpazilaParishad Avg. land area - approx. 30 sq. km. Avg. population size - approx. 23.6 thousand Union 4,554 Union Parishad Avg. land area – approx. 32.2 sq. km. Avg. population size- appx. 45.9 thousand Pourashava/ 328/ (100,000) City Pourashava 11 Avg. land area - approx. 15.2 sq.km. (> 20 sq. Corporation km.) Source: Self-research

In accordance with the law, there are two staff members in a Union Pairshad: Secretary and Accounts Assistance-cum-computer operator in a Union Parishad.. Besides, Government places ten village polices variably in a Union Parishad. Figure-4 shows the formal arrangement of the UP.

Figure 4: Administrative Structure of Union Parishad

Source: Self research

On the other hand, the Block Supervisor (Directorate of Agriculture), Health Assistant, Family Planning Assistant, Family Welfare Worker, Ansar/VDP, and all other field staff of government departments working at Union level will be the official members of Union Parishad.

127 An Effective Way Towards Localizing Sustainable Development Goals (SDG) - Translating Two Specific Areas of SDG into Action in Two Unions

Under the Local Government (Union Parishads) Act, 2009, there are ward level Committees such as the Ward Committee (WC). The Union Parishad functions by establishing and effective functioning of UP Standing Committees under the Act.

Union Parishad (UP) is the only institution to ensure good governance, development planning, implementation, transparency, and accountability at the local level.

Localizing SDGs

Localizing the SDGs means more than just “landing” internationally agreed goals at the local level. It means making the aspirations of the SDGs become real for communities, households, and individuals, particularly to those who are at risk of falling behind (UN-Habitat and UNDP). An important condition for implementing the 2030 Agenda will be to incorporate the SDGs into the actions of all sections of Government - in other words adopting a “whole of Government” approach - while also bringing the various government institutions together to develop and implement integrated policies.

Goal 3: Ensure Healthy Lives and Promote Well-being for all at all ages.

Sustainable Development Goal (SDG)-3 aims to “ensure healthy lives and promote well-being for all at all ages”. It takes a comprehensive view of health and well-being by expanding its focus beyond a core set of diseases. SDG - 3 will allow countries to pursue a comprehensive program for improving health systems performance.

Many of the SDG-3 targets are dedicated to tackling pressing issues surrounding maternal health and child mortality rates, which continue to affect much of the Global South in particular. Present research shed light on target 3.1 “reduce the global maternal mortality ratio to less than 70

128 per 100,000 live births “by 2030. Local governments (LGs) can play an important role in identifying local needs and coordinating prevention and response activities. It can also contribute to the reduction of deaths caused by water, and infectious diseases if required measures are taken care of properly.

Goal-6: Ensure Availability and Sustainable Management of Water and Sanitation for All

Goal - 6 stands for access to safe water, sanitation, and sound management of freshwater ecosystems as they are essential to human health and to environmental sustainability and economic prosperity. According to the UN, clean water for drinking and domestic use has been a long-term challenge in developing countries mainly due to lack of sufficient material to make available water safe for domestic use, and partly due to the dry settings of some of these countries where fresh water sources are scarce.

SDG-6 comparatively presents a complex, interlinked, and demanding set of challenges. It talks about ensuring availability and sustainability, bringing in issues of hygiene, water quality, efficiency, management, ecosystems, and community and international involvement. Successful water management will serve as a foundation for the achievement of many of the 17 SDGs. Present research will shed light on targets 6.1 to achieve universal and equitable access to safe and affordable drinking water for all. and 6.2 to achieve access to adequate and equitable sanitation and hygiene for all, and end open defecation, paying special attention to the needs of women and girls, and those in vulnerable situations. Both are by 2030.

The provision of clean water and sanitation is essential to lowering infant, child, and maternal mortality. Water scarcity, poor water quality, and inadequate sanitation affect food security, nutrition, educational, and economic opportunities for poor families across the world.

129 An Effective Way Towards Localizing Sustainable Development Goals (SDG) - Translating Two Specific Areas of SDG into Action in Two Unions

Local authorities will have a critical role in implementing the SDGs and ensuring that no one is left behind. They deliver a wide range of public services that are at the heart of realizing the SDGs. They are also likelier to take integrated approaches (Smoke and Wagner, 2016).

The UN Committee of Experts on Public Administration recently recommended that local authorities adopt “Local Agendas 2030”, akin to the local agendas 21 that followed the 1992 Rio Conference. This would require “localizing” targets and indicators to sub-national levels.

The roadmap for achieving SDGs is now being considered by the Global Taskforce of Local and Regional Governments, UNDP, and UN Habitat, since the UN framed SDGs need to be localized for their successful achievements by 2030. In achieving the SDGs, one of the most troubling issues is that the participation of all classes of people needs to be ensured in this journey.

Localizing SDGs relates both to (i) how LGs can support the achievement of the 2030 Agenda through bottom-up action, and (ii) how the SDGs can provide a framework for local development policy. Providing local and regional governments with an enabling environment and resources to participate in the “localization” of the SDGs is a strategic priority to ensure the success of national efforts and the whole global agenda. Although primary accountability for the SDGs belong to nations, the SDGs explicitly call for action by local authorities. At least 12 of the 17 SDGs - all excepting 9,12, 13, 14, and 17 - require integrated strategies at the community level to overcome the interlinked challenges of poverty, ill-health, social ills, poor governance, and environmental destruction (Majumdar, 2018).

Localizing SDG in Bangladesh

Bangladesh’s Constitution wisely placed key responsibilities for social and economic development, including ‘the preparation and implementation of plans relating to public services and economic development at the level

130 closest to the people’ with the local government bodies, particularly the Union Parishad (UP), the body at the doorstep of the people (Constitution of the People’s Republic of Bangladesh, 1971, Article 59(2)(C)).

Though there is a great need for localization of SDGs in Bangladesh, yet, there have been a few attempts at localizing SDGs in Bangladesh, such as, focusing on participatory approach, and involving civil societies to assist UPs to focus on some areas of SDGs. However, no attempt has been made through any institutional arrangements on how to foster translating SDGs into action, and reflect it back to the national level. As the goals of SDG are interlinked, and therefore, it becomes even more complex, both at the national and local level, to understand it, and reflect that into action. The potential linkages between goals are highlighted below in Figure -5.

Figure 5: Interlinkages between goals

Source: UNDP website

It is obvious that all 17 goals are well interlinked, and one goal helps to leverage others.

131 An Effective Way Towards Localizing Sustainable Development Goals (SDG) - Translating Two Specific Areas of SDG into Action in Two Unions

Therefore, while caring out an in-depth dialogue with corresponding UP Standing Committees, it was explored that whether they have any idea about SDG and its targets, especially the targets that have been considered for research; and if they have some idea, then how are they amalgamating all field level information and data while implementing these, and reflecting to national level.

Field Analysis and Findings

The objective of this research was to identify how SDG-3 and SDG-6 were being conceptualized at the Union level of the local government of Bangladesh. To realize the objective, the researcher selected two Union Parishads, namely, Jahanabad Union of Mohanpur Upazila under Rajshahi District and Ranihati Union of Sadar Upazila under Chapai Nawabganj district. The idea was to try and pilot the hypothesis in two Unions for localizing SDGs in selected targets.

Jahanabad Union Parishad

Jahanabad Union is in Mohanpur Upazila under Rajshahi district. The area of this Union is 23.38 sq. km, and it comprises of 9 wards. It has 27 villages, comprising 10,753 households. The total population is 31,813 (males-16,535, and females-15,278). Most of the inhabitants of this Union are Muslims, rest are Hindus, but some tribal people also live there. There are five haats in this Union. People of this Union are engaged in agriculture; the produce being mainly rice, potato, betel leaf, and mango.

132 Figure 6: Map of Jahanabad Union

Source :Jahanabad Union Parishadauthority

People of this Union get health and family planning services from three community clinics, and one Union Family Welfare Center where 15 health professionals work.

Ranihati Union Parishad

Ranihati Union is in SadarUpazila under Chapai Nawabganj district. Pagla river passes through this Union. The area of this Union is 7.68 hectares, and comprises of nine wards. It has 14 villages, comprising 7,873 households. The total population is 36,213 (males-18,426, and females-17,787).

There are 3104 children aged between 0-5 years. Most of the inhabitants of this Union are Muslims, rest are Hindus. There is only one haat in this Union. People of this Union are engaged in agriculture; the produce being mainly rice, vegetables, and mango. People of this Union get health and family planning services from two community clinics, and one Union Family Welfare Center, where 12 health professionals provide services to the people. 84% households use hygienic latrine. Most use tap and tube well water.

133 An Effective Way Towards Localizing Sustainable Development Goals (SDG) - Translating Two Specific Areas of SDG into Action in Two Unions

Figure 7: Map of Ranihati Union

Source: Ranihati Union Parishadauthority

Analysis of Information

Related to pregnancy care under SDG Goal-3, the indicator selected was “Reduction of maternal mortality ratio”. From the response of Jahanabad and Ranihati Union Parishads, it was found that the maternal mortality is decreasing in both the Unions. It was also found that population growth rate in both the Unions are displaying a decline trends. In both the Unions, delivery usually take place at home, community clinic, Upazila health complex, and other places. Excluding Upazila figures as a whole, the number of births in all these places in both the Union has declined from 2015 to 2018. Figure-8 and Figure-9 shows the picture of delivery places, and number of deliveries from 2015 to 2018 in Ranihati and Jahanabad Union Parishads respectively. This situation was also supported by FGD.

It was found that, the achievements of reducing maternal mortality rate are quite remarkable inboth the Unions. It was found that, in Ranihati, maternal mortality was 552 in 100,000 (i.e., 5 in 905) in 2015, and 341 in

134 100,000 (2 in 585) in 2018. It means maternal mortality rate (MMR) was reducedalmost 38%. More efforts are required still to improve to reduce MMR to 70 per 100,000. In Jahanabad, it was mentioned that since 2015 onwards no maternal deaths occurred there, which is an outstanding performance though these data have not been validated, they will be validated during Review and Validation Workshop in July 2018. If we take the average of Ranihati and Jahanabad, then maternal mortality will be around 170 per 100,000; which is quite remarkable.

Figure 8: Place and Number of Delivery in Ranihati

Place and Number of Deliveryin Jahanabad 50 50 37 35 36 40 30 22 24 25 30 19 20 18 21 20 9 5 10 00 0 2015 2016 20172018

Community Clinic Home Upazila health complex Other place

Source: Drawn from self-conceptualization

Figure 9: Place and Number of Delivery in Jahanabad

Place and Number of Deliveryin Jahanabad 50 50 37 35 36 40 30 22 24 25 30 19 20 18 21 20 9 5 10 00 0 2015 2016 20172018

Community Clinic Home Upazila health complex Other place

Source : Ranihati Union Parishad Authority

135 An Effective Way Towards Localizing Sustainable Development Goals (SDG) - Translating Two Specific Areas of SDG into Action in Two Unions

While from FGD, it was found that neither community clinic representatives, nor UP Health Standing Committee members are aware about the goal and target related to SDG on maternal health; but they follow the directions of the DGHS local representatives, and are moving quite confidently towards achieving targets of SDG.

Of WASH services, safe water supply in Ranihati has been ensured through piped water supply; whereas in Jahanabad safe water supply has been ensured through hand pumps though both are arsenic prone areas. Figure-10 and Figure-11 shows the increasing trends of safe water supply both in Ranihati and Jahanabad Union.

Figure 10: Ranihati UnionRANIHATI Safe DrinkingUNION Water Facility SAFE DRINKING WATER FACILITY % 90 % 85 80 % 70

2015 2016 2017 2018 SAFE WATERFACILITY Source: Drawn from self-conceptualization JAHANABAD UNION SAFE DRINKING WATER FACILITY Figure 11: Jahanabad Union Safe Drinking Water Facility 59 55 47 40

2015 2016 2017 2018 S AFE WATER FAC ILITY Source: Drawn from self-conceptualization

In case of sanitation, Ranihati is better at 85% in terms of hygienic latrines progress than Jahanabad, which is at 65%. However, both can achieve the target much ahead of 2030. The comparative achievement of both the Union has been shown in Figure -12 and Figure-13.

136 JAHANABAD UNION Figure 12: RanihatiSA UnionNITAT SanitationION FAFacilityCILITY 65 63 60 50

2015 20162017 2018 SANITATION FACILITY

Source: Drawn from self-conceptualization JAHANABAD UNION Figure 13: JahanabadSA NIUnionTAT SanitationION FA FacilityCILITY 65 63 60 50

2015 20162017 2018 SANITATION FACILITY

Source: Drawn from self-conceptualization

Findings of the Research The progress of water supply and sanitation in both Unions is quite impressive, where Union Parishad, NGOs, and PKSF are active. It is quite interesting that where NGO fund is directly going to UP, and NGO works quite closely with UP - the data obtained on water supply and sanitation are same. In Ranihati, UP and DASCOH - both are giving same data for water supply coverage i.e., 90%, and sanitation coverage 85%; whereas, where NGO works closely with UP, but doesn’t fund through UPand NGO works parallel with UP - the data are different.

In Jahanabad, water supply coverage by UP shows 95%, whereas Shataphool says 98%; in sanitation UP says 95%, Shataphool says 98%, which means there are some gaps in NGO and UP data collection. In summary, no differences were observed between control Union Parishad, and two research Union Parishads related to WASH activities. Both water

137 An Effective Way Towards Localizing Sustainable Development Goals (SDG) - Translating Two Specific Areas of SDG into Action in Two Unions supply and sanitation situation as discussed above has been shown in Table 2 and Table 3.

Institutionally, these UP is working through its UP Water and Sanitation Standing Committee, whereas, many NGOs are working through UP Water and Sanitation Committee formed earlier by DPHE. This creates challenges to retrieve actual data from the field, and reflect it back to national level.

Table 2 : Water Supply situation in Ranihati, Jahanabad and Deluabari Ranihati Jahanabad Deluabari UP data Latrine UP data UP data Water NGO data Water data from Water Supply DASCOH Supply Shataphool Supply 90% 90% 95% 98% 89% Source: Drawn from self-conceptualization

Table 3 : Sanitation situation in Ranihati, Jahanabad and Deluabari Ranihati Jahanabad Jahanabad UP data NGO data UP data Latrine data from UP data latrine latrine Shataphool latrine DASCOH 85% 85% 70% 63% 67% Source: Drawn from self-conceptualization

Therefore, it is now important to decide which “committee” is responsible to collate data on WASH, and reflect it back to national level. In the absence of that, though progress in the field of water supply and sanitation is high, but, reporting on the same for SDG will be low. Existing information collection system that is done not in a collective manner has been shown in figure-14.

In this regard, it is quite important to highlight that though the access to drinking water supply is quite high, indicating that these two Unions that Bangladesh will be able to reach SDG, but the quality aspect is fully

138 neglected. Until it is proven that supplied water is safe for drinking, access alone will make no difference.

Therefore, it is quite essential to develop a mechanism for water quality surveillance, and testing of all drinking water points, if Bangladesh would like to achieve SDG.

Figure 14: Information flow of water supply band sanitation between local and Central government.

Source: Drawn from self-conceptualization

While comparing between control Union Parishad and two research Union Parishads related on safe motherhood and maternal health, it was clear that where support partners, i.e., NGOs exist, and either work independently, or work in close collaboration with community clinics, the activities, results, and documentation data are well organized; whereas, in case of control UP where no NGOs are actively involved in safe motherhood and maternal health, the services are poor, no results and data are preserved. Therefore, it is obvious that there is a need for NGOs or private clinics to work in rural areas to strengthen services related to safe motherhood and maternal health.

139 An Effective Way Towards Localizing Sustainable Development Goals (SDG) - Translating Two Specific Areas of SDG into Action in Two Unions

Figure 15: Health service situation in Local Government

Source: Drawn from self-conceptualization

The analysis reconfirmed that the Directorate of Health Services had created a well-defined institutional mechanism to reach the citizens at the doorstep to ensure better health. Each community clinic is covering around 20,000 people, and in general one Union has three community clinics. Each community clinic consists of three community support groups consisting of volunteers drawn from local citizens through which community clinics are trying to reach all households within their jurisdiction. The community clinic provides PNC, ANC, nutrition, regular checkup of pregnant mothers, and use as a referral point to refer the pregnant mother for delivery in Union Family and Welfare Centre. But in reality, many community clinics are being used for delivery. Simultaneously, Union Family and Welfare Centre also established satellite clinics in six wards where community clinics do not exist, and are trying to reach citizens through their staff. Similarly, many NGOs that work under Samridhi, try to reach households through their project’s paid volunteers, and the project has allocated a doctor to ensure safe delivery.

The services that are provided by NGOs, Community Clinics, and Union Family and Welfare Centre are not reflected in UP’s regular meeting, especially within the resolution. Community Clinics submit reports to

140 DGHS and CBHC directly through their online reporting system; whereas, NGOs submit their reports to PKSF; and/or other donors, which are not reflecting to DGHS.

Here, further work is needed to capture the success at the grassroots level, and report it back to SDG Inter-Ministerial Committee.

Conclusion

There is satisfactory progress on all three indicators (one in health, and two in WASH) that were selected in this research study, except hand washing. Citizen ignition, setting up of appropriate institutional mechanism, and disbursing funds to local government helps to improve these services further. However, the lack of progress in hand washing shows clearly that local government is improving services as per priority agenda of Government of Bangladesh; but they do not appreciate the correlation between their progress of services vis-a-vis achieving SDGs.

Local government has a vital role to play in the leave no one behind agenda, ensuring that the basic services are accessible for all marginalized and disadvantaged groups, including women, the poor, youth, and minority groups. Civil society is a key partner in both identifying poor and disadvantaged communities, and in ensuring equitable service delivery to them. It is important to strengthen existing and new mechanisms for localization of national targets across local communities such as local development planning processes, integrated planning processes, and consultative mechanisms such as ward committees and Parishad development committees.

It was found that until local governments are aware of the importance of following the indicators of SDGs; it will be quite difficult to measure the progress. Therefore, whether local government knows about SDGs or not - that’s not so important; but local government institutions need to collect information, and share data on specific indicators to help the national

141 An Effective Way Towards Localizing Sustainable Development Goals (SDG) - Translating Two Specific Areas of SDG into Action in Two Unions government to compile, review, validate, and share these data globally to claim their success. It was clearly observed that on many occasions Union Parishad representatives attend different meetings related to WASH and health. In reality, while UPs are organizing their own meeting, and/or Upazila coordination meetings, the outcomes, challenges, and solutions related to WASH and health were not included within their own UP or Upazila resolutions. Therefore, these are not properly reflected and institutionalized.

Therefore, the study reached a conclusion that it would be effective if UP plays the following roles: • Understanding on achieving SDG. • Conceptualizing SDG through a discussion process with UP representatives. • More engagement to ensure services (health, sanitation) through local government itself. • Capturing practices within UP resolutions, and reflected back to Upazila and upwards. • Coordinating with relevant stakeholders and linking the gaps

Based on research carried out, observations made, and findings assessed, it was felt that there is an acute need to identify local indicators, and develop the necessary data collection processes to enable local governments to measure local progress towards agreed targets, ensure disaggregated targeting, and monitoring of the most vulnerable to ensure universal and equitable basic service provision to all. Things are possible only by ensuring sufficient political will at the central government level for decentralization, and related constitutional protections/enabling legislation.

References

1. Bangladesh Progress Report 2015, Millennium Development Goals, GoB and UNDP, 2015

142 2. Brief Issue, Overview of institutional arrangements for implementing the 2030 Agenda at national level (Zero Draft), UNDESA, 2016 3. Boex, J., Gudgeon, P. & Shotton, R. (2002) Role of UNDP in Promoting Local Governance and Decentralization in Bangladesh, Report of the Initial SPPD Scoping Mission, May 29 − June 12, available at: http:// www.uncdf.org/english/local_development/uploads/ 4. Dahan, S. 2016. SDG 6 on water and sanitation is essential for sustainable development. Accessed March 2018. 5. Improving Services: The Role of Union Parishad Standing Committees, Unnayan Shamannay, SDLG, USAID, 2014 6. Islam, S. Aminul, Rahman Hossain Zillur , Local Governance and Community Capacities Search for new frontiers, The University Press Limited, 2002. 7. Mojumder, BodiulAlam; ProtomAlo ; 5th January, 2018. 8. Paul Smoke and Robert Wagner (2016): Sharing responsibilities and resources among levels of government: localizing the SDGs, New York, http://workspace.unpan.org/sites/Internet/Documents/ UNPAN95873.pdf. 9. Seven Five Year Plan, FY 2016 – FY 2020, Accelerating growth, empowering citizen, General Economics Division, Planning Commission, Government of Bangladesh, 2015. 10. Siddiqui, Kamal (ed), Local Government in Bangladesh. (Revised third edition), The University Press Limited, Dhaka, 2005. 11. Shataphool Bangladesh Facebook Page https://www.facebook.com/ shataphoolBangladesh/ 12. United Nations Statistics Division. SDG Indicators: Official list of SDG indicators. 2016. Available: http://unstats.un.org/sdgs/ indicators/indicators-list/. Accessed: 29 November 2016.

143 An Effective Way Towards Localizing Sustainable Development Goals (SDG) - Translating Two Specific Areas of SDG into Action in Two Unions

13. United Nations General Assembly. 2010. Resolution 64/292: The human right to water and sanitation. Accessed April 17, 2018.

14. United Nations Sustainable Development Knowledge Platform 2017. Sustainable Development Goal 6: Ensure availability and sustainable management of water and sanitation for all. Accessed March 2018.

15. What are the Sustainable Development Goals? UNDP, Website: http:// www.undp.org/content/undp/en/home/sustainable-development- goals.html

Author

Shahnaz Arefin studied Public Administration in Dhaka University and MPA in the university of Canbera, Australia. She optained her PhD from Jahangirnagar University, Dhaka in 2013. Dr. Shahnaz has been a career civil servant since 1992. She closely worked with the social safety net program, local governance, general administration to personnel and financial management of both elected and appointed of local government institutions. She was involved in working for a number of ministries, international NGOs like Helvetus, Action Aid Bangladesh, etc and had the opportunity to negotiate with different national and international development agencies on different policy issues. Currently, she is working in the Cabinet Division of the Government of Bangladesh as Additional Secretary.

She had a special experience in the rehabilitation of the refugees of Kosovo in Australia. She Attended a number of training in Disaster Management, Disaster Risk Management, Capacity Building for Gender Mainstreaming, Violence Against Women, The Rights of Child-Practical Approach, Green Jobs: Linking Environment, Climate Change, Environmental Law and Policy. Two of her articles have been published in the Journal of National Institute of Local Government, (NILG).

144 NEPAL-BANGLADESH RELATIONSHIP: PROSPECTS AND CHALLENGES FOR ECONOMIC COOPERATION

Brigadier General Homnath Dawadi, ndc

Introduction

Nepal and Bangladesh have been members of the Non-Alignment Movement (NAM), South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC), the Bay of Bengal Initiative for Multi-Sectoral Technical and Economic Cooperation (BIMSTEC), the Bangladesh, Bhutan, India and Nepal (BBIN) and South Asian Sub Regional Economic Cooperation (SASEC) and have enjoyed a bilateral relation since 8th April 1972. The pillars of this relationship are mostly based on cordiality, goodwill, mutual respect, mutual understanding and cooperation. The physical distance between two countries is approximately around 23 kilometers. They are separated by the Indian Territory known as Siliguri Corridor. The relationship between these countries is strong due to a shared culture, visits and interactions between government agencies and the mutual trust between people of both the countries. The countries are closer in terms of proximity but the economic relationship between both the countries are not as strong as expected. The government policy makers and private sector entrepreneurs of both countries largely believe that the enhanced economic relation between Nepal and Bangladesh may have considerable contribution in terms of economic development of both the countries.

The economic cooperation between two countries is presently narrow, and the trade of goods and services is limited, but the reality is that both the countries have enough potential to exploit each other’s resources for mutual benefit, the power sector, but also from the possibilities of trade of goods and services. The economic cooperation between Nepal and Bangladesh is

145 Nepal-Bangladesh Relationship: Prospects and Challenges for Economic Cooperation mostly affected by their national policies supporting trade and commerce, infrastructure development, regional agreements and geopolitical set-up. So, it is very important to diagram the various dimensions of the Nepal- Bangladesh relationship, and find the prospects and challenges for better economic cooperation, so that both the countries experience enhanced economic relation to support national economic development efforts, considering the increasing trends in present days. In this research paper, the researcher puts his efforts in identifying the various dynamics of the Nepal-Bangladesh relationship, and the probable role of external factors to facilitate trade and commerce. At the same time, the researcher analyzes the prospects and challenges of the Nepal-Bangladesh relationship for better economic cooperation.

Objectives of the Study and Hypothesis

The broad objective of this research paper is to study the present state of the Nepal- Bangladesh relationship and identify various prospects and challenges associated with it for the better economic cooperation. The specific objectives of this research paper are to examine present state of Nepal-Bangladesh relationship, to identify a major area of economic interest for better economic cooperation between Nepal and Bangladesh and to analyze major prospects and challenges for better economic cooperation between Nepal and Bangladesh.

Theoretical/Analytical Framework

The theoretical/analytical framework used in this research paper will give an overview on the sequential development of this paper. To logically and sequentially develop this research paper the researcher has followed the following theoretical/analytical framework.

The framework is conceptualized for analytical assessment of different perspective of Nepal-Bangladesh relationship in Figure 1. The bilateral

146 relationship between Nepal and Bangladesh stands at the solid foundation of historical and cultural linkage between people of both the countries since long time. The relationship is more strengthen by the mutual trust, respect and people to people contact.

The framework begins by first analyzing the relationship between Nepal and Bangladesh which is more strengthen by the mutual trust, respect and people to people contact. Next, the mutual personal cooperation between the countries is also looked at, because people in the countries share a lot of personal bonds. Now, the trade and transit is a major part of this co- operation, be it the trade of goods and services, or trade of other resources like hydroelectricity and ports. This is connected to how much of the trade is facilitated by the policies present, and what the major hindrances are to the conduct of such trades. Both countries also share a vast tourist population, so it is also important to take them into account. The prospects and challenges of these trades is then identified so that efficiency is given priority. Policies that present roadblocks to this agenda must be eliminated, and policies that show promise should be brought forward to accelerate the movement of goods and strengthen the present connectivity.

Figure 1: Theoretical/Analytical Framework

Historic/Cultural Relationship

Mutual trust, respect and Nepal –Bangladesh cooperation and people to people Relationship contact

Economic Relations and rolls of di erent organizations

Prospects and challenges Trade of goods and services including tourism Connectivity and Trade and transit services movement of goods

Taxation Power trade and hydropower policy/Protectionism sector

Economic development of both the countries

147 Nepal-Bangladesh Relationship: Prospects and Challenges for Economic Cooperation

Research Methodology

This research paper is qualitative in nature and is prepared by collecting relevant information/data from various secondary sources such as books, articles, news, on-line documents different article reviews and information. Efforts have also been made to include information collected through consultation with some key personalities of both the government and private interpreter and descriptive analytical method with adequate content analysis was used to address the core objective of this research paper.

Nepal-Bangladesh Relationship: A Historical Perspective

The People’s Republic of Bangladesh and the Federal Democratic Republic of Nepal are two sovereign and friendly countries that have been progressing since the founding of Bangladesh in 1971. The historical relations that the countries have enjoyed begins with the visit to Nepal of Atish Dipankar, a Buddhist scholar from Bikrampur (Bangladesh) in the 12th century. Since the history, the Bengal Delta was integrated into a network of long distance trade, cultural exchange and travel from Tibet and Nepal in the north before the battle of Plessey in 1757. But, it was stopped by the British colonial rule and not fully functional afterwards. Also, after the division of east and west Bengal, new taxation and land reform in 1905 and Hindu and Muslim division strategy of British had led to a growing relationship gaps between these two countries.

The Kingdom of Nepal became one of the first nations to recognize Bangladesh as a sovereign nation on January 16, 1972 and established a bilateral trade relation on 8th April 1972. Earlier, in 1963, Nepal and Pakistan had signed agreements to recognize each other in the “Most Favored Nation” status of importance for developing trade and cooperation. This was the first initiative taken by both governments to connect two countries since the British rule.

148 Even though relations had improved considerably after the signing of the agreements to develop trade, transit, and civil aviation after independence of Bangladesh in 1976, it was not followed up with considerable effort because of the political situation of both the countries at that time and inefficiency of bureaucracy in both the governments. The highlight of the problem was that the two nations are separated by the “Siliguri Corridor” - a small stretch of territory between southern Nepal and northern Bangladesh of physical distance of only 23 kilometers (third closest neighbor), which, however, belongs to India, and the friction and misunderstanding between the India-Nepal-Bangladesh relations and big brothers attitude particularly in the Indian bureaucracy , frequently has posed problems in developing this trade route.

Status of Bangladesh and Nepal

Nepal and Bangladesh have shared similar views on international communities such as the UN, NAM, SAARC, because of common interests, reflected by the fact that the frequency of visits at various levels in the field of trade, joint-industrial projects, science and technology exchange programs, cultural exchange visits etc. are common and build better relations within these communities. However, it has come into view that Nepal-Bangladesh must shift more focus in building relations regarding socio-economic activities to benefit each other. One key issue that Nepal faces - its land-locked geographic situation - has always asked for facilitation and generosity from its friendly neighbor, India. Bangladesh has free access to the sea, and therefore socio-economic relations must be built to solve this issue in particular so that Nepal has better access to sea trade routes and can create better bonds with both India and Bangladesh.

The transit facilities to erstwhile via Radhikapur in India, was not complied with until after the emergence of Bangladesh, even though Nepal had repeatedly requested for the required provisions to be made. Also, trade agreements signed in 1978 and 1996 between Nepal and India

149 Nepal-Bangladesh Relationship: Prospects and Challenges for Economic Cooperation as well as trade agreements signed in 1998 and 2010 between Bangladesh and India have tried to rationalize the problems inherent in Bangladesh- Nepali trade.

Recently, the bilateral relations between Nepal and Bangladesh have seen a slight increase. Increased numbers of air-flights, the Nepal-Bangladesh youth conference, Rope4 for the aim of “Mission Himalaya”, the trail run of a Bangladesh-India-Nepal bus service, agreement on receiving of 500 MW electricity from Nepal and numbers of trade fairs are the witnesses of strengthening bilateral relation. However, the commercial trade route that includes Kakarbhitta (Nepal), Siliguri (India) and Bangabandhu (Bangladesh) as the border points is still not fully functional, even though all these three nations are the members of the SAARC and BIMSTEC as well as BBIN.

A unique feature of South Asian politics is that the countries have not been able to establish well-made government treaties, however, the personal bond between members of these countries is particularly strong. Nepal and Bangladesh have porous borders with India due to strong people- to-people, cultural, and socio-economic bonds. In the end, the more responsibility lies on India to ensure the trilateral relation. However, Nepal- Bangladesh relations have always been in priority for both the countries.

Key Areas of Economic Cooperation

Nepal and Bangladesh can generate strong development synergy through effective cooperation in electricity, tourism, trade, transportation, investment and finance. Since Asia-Pacific is becoming the hub of global economic and strategic entrepreneurship, economic integration and acquisition of strategic resources - primarily energy - is raising powers in the region. South Asia has largely experienced recent rapid growth of world trade the past few years which has still not caught up to globalization. Conscious efforts are to be undertaken to deepen and broaden the existing intraregional economic relations. In this regard, exploitation of Nepal’s

150 hydroelectricity, tourism, and water resources and Bangladesh’s land, port facilities, and connectivity with other part of the region, will play the vibrant role to boost the economy of both the countries including India.

The 7th five years plan of the Bangladesh concentrates on international transport, infrastructure, tourism, and information technology with the exploitation of private investment of the country and abroad. At present, Nepal’s government initiatives focus on the establishment of connectivity between India and China specially to maintain access to the Bay of Bengal through road and rail. Similarly recent deal of Nepal with China for allowing the Chinese sea port for Nepal is the great hope for the better future. This endeavor has seen the future prosperity of economic cooperation between two countries. The objective is to significantly increase both labor productivity and sectorial productivity which will prepare the countries to compete in the global market, ultimately making long-term economic development easy.

Socio-economically, Nepal and Bangladesh share many characteristics and can learn from each other. Some shared issues and concerns include the rush to urbanization, information revolution, unemployment, low level of tax revenue, lack of infrastructure, quality and rang of education, skill manpower, and fight against corruption, perception on good governance, natural disaster and climate change. Now, Bangladesh is in the process of developing nation, which has resulted in economic transformation through social change and has significantly progressed life expectancy.

Key Areas for Economic Cooperation: Nepal and Bangladesh have plenty of common areas for economic cooperation. However, these areas have not been exploited, and are in dire need of diversification of traded products. Nepal is known to have a comparative advantage in products like handmade woolen carpets, Pashmina products, handicrafts, gold and silver jewelry, tourism, hydro-electricity, and agro-processing industries. Similarly, Bangladesh presently exports pharmaceuticals, ceramics, light engineering, leather goods, jute products, and ICT and sea foods.

151 Nepal-Bangladesh Relationship: Prospects and Challenges for Economic Cooperation

Bangladesh is also famous for Jamdanee saree, and chemical fertilizer, which are high demand area of Nepal. There are some key areas where Nepal and Bangladesh reap up further.

Agriculture Base Equipment and Products: Due to proximity of culture and same food habits, a lot of primary agricultural products can be exchanged in between Nepal and Bangladesh. It is important that a joint institutional mechanism be restored, as the current mechanism is inadequate to strengthen this sector

Animal Proteins: Bangladesh has achieved self-sufficiency in animal protein like fish and meat productions. Bangladesh can export animal protein product to other countries including Nepal.

Herbal and Herbal Products: A lot of medical herbs found in the wild are recognized in the international arena as cures to various diseases and deficiency. Bangladeshi tradition is also rooted in herbs and homeopathic medicines, all of which can be exported from Nepal.

Travel and Tourism Services: Nepal is also a gateway to Tibet for South Asia. Local and foreign investments in the tourism sector are soaring in Nepal, including many new foreign hotel chains, foreign restaurant chains, and resorts/guest houses, as well as accommodation, tourism services and skills development. Opportunities on hotel and tourism consulting services, sharing of tourists, hotel management and tourism technology applications, skills training and development and hospitality business have seen significantly.

Medical Tourism: Nepal and Bangladesh can work on joint venture for a medical city, because Nepal has a very good climatic condition for medical cities and varieties of treatments.

Information and Communication Technology: Nepal definitely can seek Bangladesh expertise in this sector if initiative is taken from both the governments.

152 Hydroelectricity: Nepal and Bangladesh can work together for power production and utilization of hydroelectricity to fulfil Bangladesh’s demand.

Climate Change Issues: There is a strong case for regional forestry action program for the entire Himalayan region starting from the mountain range in Nepal through Terai plains of Nepal and India and ending with the whole catchment area of Ganga and Brahmaputra. Implementation of this action plan may mitigate the bad effect of climate change into whole region.

Pharmaceutical Sector: Nepal can provide raw materials for these drug factories in Bangladesh and bring cheap refined drugs from Bangladesh

Educational Cooperation: Every year hundreds of Nepalese students come to Bangladesh to study medicine, nursing, dentistry, engineering and other courses. This can be made more planned and regulated.

Although there are lots of areas have identified and observed, Nepal and Bangladesh present economic cooperation is very narrow and negligible; however, both the countries have their own and combined potentialities to exploit and transfer. High growth is required to create enough employment, quality education, reduce inequality etc. It is only possible when country can exploit the economical key areas rightly within the country and abroad and create opportunities. But currently in both the countries, optimum key areas are neglected, so it needs to bring them into the right path.

Prospects and Challenges for Economic Cooperation between Nepal and Bangladesh

Trade of Goods and Services Nepal has emerged as a potential export destination for Bangladeshi products. According to Export Promotion Bureau of Bangladesh data, exports to Nepal stood at $47.4 million in FY2016-17, up by 165%, from the last fiscal year. If both the governments addressed major challenges mainly like reducing import duty, non-tariff

153 Nepal-Bangladesh Relationship: Prospects and Challenges for Economic Cooperation barriers and the shipment process, the export to Nepal will rise dramatically. In the meantime, there will be lots of product familiarization program required to operate in Nepal for branding Bangladeshi product.

Figure 2: Bangladesh and Nepal Trade over the Years

It is reality that Nepal’s import and export with Bangladesh totally dominated very few products relating to agriculture. This shows it is very essential to diversify the trade into other many prosperous areas. If the special look in the Figure 2 is given, Bangladesh had overcome the trade deficit with Nepal from 2013 and continuing it till date. This clearly indicated that the trade of goods and services are not exploited as much what level should be. For example, the business community reported that the export potential of the selected food items to Nepal can be triple of the actual volume presently.

Trade and Transit Services

Nepal has agreed on trade treaties with 17 countries and transit treaties with three countries, namely India, Bangladesh, and China because of its landlocked status. The trade treaty mainly provides reciprocal arrangement on primary and agricultural commodities, rule of origin criteria, additional preference to Supplemental Security Income (SSI) product, specified trade corridors and provision of Duty Refund Procedure (DRP). Similarly transit treaty provides lease condition for land and infrastructure, arrangement

154 of custom clearance and condition for ware house management. In this regards our level is to be improved accordingly.

Power and Hydropower Sector

Bangladesh is a nation that requires a lot of electricity in South Asia. Presently Bangladesh generates 88 percent of electricity by natural gas and due to the huge population but limited gas and coal resources, is not the solution for long term. Bangladesh also has no minerals except for large reserve of natural gas, and some interior coal at great deposits. So, Bangladesh has to invest Nepal’s hydro project without delay.

Taxation and other Arrangements

Nepal and Bangladesh have worked on the Double Taxation Avoidance Agreement (DTAA), a Free Trade Agreement (FTA) and the ratification to BBIN- MVA and benefits from these agreements can be taken by both the countries, but yet to be exploited as leveled.

The current trade barriers included a very large sensitive list under SAFTA which meant that those items included under the list cannot be traded duty- free. At present, SAFTA remains the only agreement under which Nepal and Bangladesh trade takes place, additionally, a bilateral FTA needs to be signed to ease the tariff barriers between two countries like with India. Among non-tariff barriers to trade, Sanitary and Phyto-Sanitary (SPS) and Technical Barrier to Trade (TBT) were the predominant ones and there is no agreement currently that covers adequately these issue areas, so the protocols need to be crafted carefully in this regards, taking care of trade and transit facilitation.

155 Nepal-Bangladesh Relationship: Prospects and Challenges for Economic Cooperation

India Factor

Nepal’s dependency on India has overshadowed significance of Bangladesh in terms of sea trade for Nepal. During the 1990’s, Nepal used Chittagong port to transport goods even though the Mongla port was even closer to Nepal, because it did not have enough infrastructure. Presently, India has had a keen interest in developing existing and new ports in Bangladesh and investing in hydropower of Nepal to boost development in its landlocked north-east and north India including Bihar and Utter Pradesh to support the ‘Act East Policy’. Now, both the countries are required to more proactive to balance the India Further initiations at high level institutions both in Nepal and Bangladesh while ensuring the support from India are needed.

China Factor

Present continuous growth and economic relation of China and India, economically, Nepal can be the gate way to South Asia for China, geographically, Nepal can be the bridge for China-India-Bangladesh economic relation who leads to enhance the tripartite relation between not only Bangladesh-India-China, but also can bring Pakistan into the economic umbrella to make prosperity into whole region. China is developing port facilities in Bangladesh and rail road infrastructure in Nepal and India’s ‘Act East policy’ basically to develop own north east region, cooperation with neighbor especially ground connectivity with Bangladesh and power supply from Nepal. In this regards, both the countries want to invest more money in Bangladesh and Nepal to take resources and do partnership in their own favor. Many smaller countries thought that Chinese presence is an opportunity, but the countries like Nepal and Bangladesh surrounded economically and socially with big neighbor India would not be the favorable for them in every aspects. It can be an asset for neighbors like Nepal and Bangladesh

156 if they are able to exploit the opportunity for mutually beneficial economic partnerships. As an attached neighbor of China, Nepal can take more advantages and can transfer to Bangladesh through sharing on the numbers of trades.

Primary goal of china’s South Asia policy is to steadily expand its economic influence in the region; checking India’s progress without diverting the normal course of Sino-India relation. In addition, economic nature of strategic location of Nepal and Bangladesh, connection with its two problematic Xinjiang and Tibet region and OBOR are the few factors which direct the Chinese policy towards Nepal and Bangladesh.

But including above mentioned fact China has special views towards Bangladesh and Nepal for expansion of economic periphery to trade with North and North East Indian states having population about 600 million. So, Nepal and Bangladesh are not only valuable for China but also similar importance for India for their own developments.

Prosperities and Challenges

Geographically, Nepal is crucial for security perspective of Beijing and meantime good hub for hydro power. The main interest of China in Bangladesh is to use its natural resources in her favor. However, for Nepal, present continuous economic growth and economic relation of China and India and lying between them, can “attract attrition” economically. In the meantime, now a days Nepal and Bangladesh both are the reliable partners of China relating to the economic activities and OBOR.

However, activities on youth conferences, trial bus service, frequent high level visits etc are the prosperity and sea trade through Bangladesh to Nepal, connectivity, supply of hydroelectricity etc are the challenges for prosperity. So, the inclusive equal participatory approach and without doubting and dominating each other is paramount important, however, China’s positive perception and good relation between India and China

157 Nepal-Bangladesh Relationship: Prospects and Challenges for Economic Cooperation will make conducive environment for Bangladesh and Nepal in this regard. It is important not only for Bangladesh and Nepal but also for India and China to join ventures for development of the whole region as well. However, China and India had been using Nepal and Bangladesh for their own interests since the long time but time has come to seek more economic benefits ourselves.

Way Forward India and China

Nepal can be the bridge for China-India economic relations and can lead to enhance the tripartite relation between not only Bangladesh-India-Nepal, but also bring Pakistan and India into the common economic umbrella to make prosperity in the whole SAARC region. In this regards, Nepal and Bangladesh should play the proactive roles rather reactive presently. Since the ancient history, SAARC people could freely move across the region for their trade, investment and exchange of culture. Our proximity and similarity in literature, social, cultural behavioral and ritual values distinctly prove the close bond. The restriction on such movement is hindering our regional and individual nation’s developments. If India is apprehensive of being encircled by China’s OBOR program, China is also suspicious about involvement of India in alternative quadrilateral forum with USA, Australia, and Japan for the interest of Indo pacific region. Chinese Dragon and Indian elephant must not fight but dance together, so that Nepal and Bangladesh can also join and entertain.

Economy

The parallel swift on economic growth and political development is needed for Bangladesh and Nepal for sustainable development. Because both the countries enjoyed major political change but could not match

158 with economic growth and did not satisfy the aspiration of the people. Any temporary success in the economic field without parallel political development may, in fact, frustrate sustainable long-term development.

So coordinated planning of energy development and supply and holistic approach on forest, land and water resources management is extremely essential. In this regards, the joint initiative and role of Bangladesh and Nepal is paramount important. In the meantime, the foreign corporate sector investors face difficulties on legal framework for setting up of power projects in Nepal mainly during license granting procedure including those from Bangladesh

The joint river commission is an appropriate tool if there is political understanding among Bangladesh, Bhutan, India and Nepal if possible China can be included for sustainable, trustworthy and fast progress.

The MoU between India and Bangladesh is essential to allow Nepal to use the railway routes between Biraul-Radhikapur and Rohangpur-Singabad. There is also a discrepancy of the gauge between these two railways that needs to be fixed. Presently only one route exists between Nepal and Bangladesh the Kakarbitta-Phulbari-Banglabandh land route. It has been operational since 1998 but there are many problems with the system, and it demands scientific execution; a procedure on the ground as well as good coordination and cooperation among the bureaucratic peoples of respected countries who are facing issues regarding hegemony.

Infrastructure and Trade

There needs to be an improvement in hard infrastructure as well as development of soft infrastructure if the current situation is to be improved. International Banks including Asian Infrastructure Investment Bank can be one of the potential avenues for raising the finance and capital in order to do this. Development of soft infrastructure between Nepal and Bangladesh can include more institutional and direct investment in each

159 Nepal-Bangladesh Relationship: Prospects and Challenges for Economic Cooperation other’s countries, enhanced trade in services, exchange of ICT, tourism and easing of visa procedures and tariff hurdles.

Recommendations Solution to SAARC Problem

Address the common problem of SAARC and develop energy trade and cooperation with establishing SAARC electric highway by harmonizing legal and regulatory frameworks and carry out complete studies and prepare comprehensive energy database. We also need to address the technical, financial, economic and institutional issues relevant to SAARC and search for opportunity for private sector.

Research

Any denial of conclusions from research on economics and trade must be dealt with accordingly. Such actions have led to a poor development of relations due to the bull-headed nature of politics, and scientific research has frequently been ignored for the sake of party or personal benefit.

Good Policies

Nepal and Bangladesh should concentrate to make viable and workable laws, rules and policies, compatible with national and international rules and regulation, which support to boost trade and investment including people’s free movements and protection of their investments.

Trade through Partnerships

Nepal and Bangladesh require to pursue a strategic trade scheme that will enable them to take advantage of emerging opportunities

160 through partnerships. It needs the trilateral investment mechanism to ensure the development of all the sectors. Both should have proactive partnership in sub- regional initiatives such as SAARC, BBIN-MVA and BIMISTEC.

Investment Friendly Environment

Nepal and Bangladesh should work to decrease the amount and layers of tariffs to make it convenient for trading partners. We should motivate entrepreneurs by expanding existing production capacity to stimulate growth in the economy. Bilateral agreements in the potential gray areas with complementary approach to exploit the neglected fields and tripartite agreements with India is needed.

Strengthen Ethos

Inadequate institutional capacity, trust deficit and traditional mindset have led to the weakening of Nepal-Bangladesh relations even though the countries have close bonds and share support of their people. So, it needs to reinstate without delay to fight for common agendas and strengthen the economic cooperation.

Indian Co-operation

Last but not least, no plan can be set forward without India coming forward and helping form policies and show interest in development. The physical land that separates Nepal and Bangladesh remains in Indian possession, making it crucial for India to show support for any sort of trade that is supposed to be developed between these countries. Our political will and level of diplomacy really needs to be high standard and all possible common forum should be put in the place when as required.

161 Nepal-Bangladesh Relationship: Prospects and Challenges for Economic Cooperation

Conclusion

A unique feature of South Asian politics is that the countries have not been able to establish well-made government treaties, however the personal bond between members of these countries is particularly strong. Nepal and Bangladesh have porous borders with India due to strong people-to- people, cultural, and socio-economic bonds. In the end, the responsibility also lies on India to ensure the trilateral investment proposal.

South Asia has a number of economic forum like SAARC, SASEC, BBIN, BIMSTEC, SAFTA etc, but growth of intra-regional trade has been negligible. In this context, Nepal and Bangladesh should concentrate their efforts and take initiative for preparing comprehensive strategy to enhance and stimulate intra-region cooperation and investment. Bangladesh and Nepal can play a coordinating and leading role for promoting more effective cooperation under SAARC for the potential areas of cooperation and collaboration of tourism, transport, energy, environment, and trade and investment.

The role of China and India for the economic prosperity of Nepal and Bangladesh is vital because the small economic policies and trade activities of these two countries have severely affected the economic prosperity of Nepal and Bangladesh. So, our leaders, planners, as well as bureaucrats should more cautious when balancing relations such that this economic co-operation can exploit India and China through lessons learned from the past.

There are a lots of productive economic key areas are seen in between Nepal and Bangladesh, but they are not exploited as well as they could be up to a required level. In this regards, all levels from the government, bureaucrats, businessmen, to personal relations need to be approached seriously, so that we can develop connectivity for movement of goods and services, ease trade and transit services, make simple taxation policy as level as possible, and ensure freedom of movement to find out the possible arrangements to strengthen the economic cooperation with the consideration of the geo-political location Nepal as well as Bangladesh.

162 References

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163 Nepal-Bangladesh Relationship: Prospects and Challenges for Economic Cooperation

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164 23. Uddin, Shanjida 2016, ‘Regional and Sub-regional connectivity Arrangements: Opportunity and Challenges for Bangladesh’, BIISS journal Vol 37 No. 2 April, PP 175-194.

Author

Brigadier General Homnath Dawadi is a Course Member of NDC 2018. He was born on 5th August 1966 in Gorkha, Nepal. He was commissioned in the Corps of Infantry on 21st July 1988. Besides his regimental appointments he served as Platoon Commander, Company Commander. As Staff officer, he served as G3 in various Brigades, Engineer Directorate, and Directorate General of National Security and Development and G4 in various Divisions as well as research officer in Research and Development in Army Headquarters. He was a distinguished instructor in Nepal Sainik War College. As Commander he raised a Battalion. He is a graduate from Tribhuban University, Kathmandu in arts. He attended number of military and civil courses at home and abroad.

Brigadier General Homnath Dawadi was awarded with several Medals for his distinguish service in the Army and UN. He has served in UN missions in United Nations Interim Force in Lebanon (UNIFIL) as a Platoon Commander, Military Observer in United Nations Mission on Eritrea and Ethiopia (UNMEE) and Staff Officer in United Nations Stabilization Mission in Haiti (MINUSTH). His hobby is playing sports. He enjoys of playing football, Tennis, Badminton etc.

165 INSECURITY AS AN IMPEDIMENT TO ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT IN NIGERIA

Colonel Umar Musa Aliyu, ndc, psc

Introduction

Nigeria is experiencing numerous insecurity issues that hinders economic development. This paper is focused on the Boko Haram terrorists’ activities being one of the most prevalent insecurity issues that impede sustainable economic development in Nigeria. Nigeria is Africa’s most populous country (about 182.2 million) and the 9th most populous country in the world according to World Bank Report 2017. The Report further highlighted Nigeria as the 6th largest producer and the 8th largest exporter of petroleum. The Report also stated Nigeria had Gross Domestic Production (GDP) of 405.1 billion USD and Gross National Income (GNI) of 1.068 trillion PPP dollars. Although the country is rich in natural resources, its economy does not yet meet the basic needs of the people. The 2017 United Nations Human Development Index ranks Nigeria 152 out of 188 countries, with a Human Development Index of 0.527 and Multidimensional Poverty Index (MPI) of 0.279. Such disparity of increasing poverty is indicative of a skewed distribution of Nigeria’s wealth. Nigeria possesses a stark dichotomy of wealth and poverty.

In spite of Nigeria’s vast oil wealth, the majority of Nigerians are poor with 71 percent of the population living on less than one dollar a day according to the World Bank Report 2017. Nigeria is currently experiencing a type of economic development that lacks trickle-down effect - a type of economic growth with no corresponding re-distribution or inclusive growth and with no fair sharing of economic resources and lacks economic opportunities to the underprivileged. The underprivileged constitute the larger population of the Nigerian society. The Gini Index 2017 for Nigeria is 43.

166 Nigeria is ranked number 3 on the Global Terrorism Index 2017. The broad objective of this study is to find a lasting panacea to the myriad of insecurity issues that constitute impediment to economic development in Nigeria. Since the inception of democratic system of governance in Nigeria in 1999, i.e. the last 2 decades have witnessed the proliferation of several types of contemporary insecurity issues. These includes post-elections violence, terrorism, corruption, decay in infrastructure development, rising wave of unemployment, rising problem of inequality, increasing population of illiterates, kidnappings, high profile assassinations, armed robbery, piracy, oil theft, oil pipelines vandalism, small arms proliferation, activities of armed groups, religious violence, elections fraud, cultism, cattle rustling, herders/farmers conflicts, communal conflicts, agitations for secession, nepotism, ethnicity etc. These insecurity issues have resulted in wanton destruction of lives and properties worth millions of dollars. In the same vein, the existence of these insecurity issues have instilled fear and threat to life in the public minds, thereby making it difficult for the public to feel free to pursue their daily livelihood activities such as farming, marketing, transportation business, teaching jobs, etc.

Insecurity and Scenarios of Boko Haram in Nigeria

Insecurity in the context of this paper refers to the existence of factors that constitute potential danger to human life, human safety or human injury, consequently implying the perpetual existence of a state of fear and uncertainties in the human mind, thus creating unfriendly environment for gainful economic/social activities and engagements. Similarly, impediment simply means factors that constitute barriers to the fair distribution of economic resources and economic opportunities. While Economic Development means those aspects of economic development process in a low income country like Nigeria. The principal factors of economic development includes agricultural mechanization, land reforms, entrepreneurship, trade/marketing, human capital, infrastructure development, technology, industrialization etc. In development

167 Insecurity as an Impediment to Economic Development in Nigeria economics, there are at least four types of reforms that facilitate economic development. These are structural reforms, policy reforms, institutional reforms and governance reforms. Therefore, “Insecurity as an Impediment to Economic Development in Nigeria”, in the context of this study simply means the existence of those factors that constitute potential obstacles to human existence, thereby constituting barriers to equitable distribution of economic resources or inclusive economic development in Nigeria.

The contemporary insecurity issues in Nigeria include the Niger Delta militancy, Boko Haram insurgency, agitation for secession by the MASSOB/ IPOB in the South East of Nigeria, Kidnappings, Armed Robbery, Cyber Crimes, Piracy, Cattle Rustling, Herders/Farmers Clashes, and Corruption as stated by T.Y. Buratai.( 2017). “Insecurity and its Implication for Socio- economic Development in Nigeria” by Olabanji, O. (2014), highlighted that Boko Haram terrorists’ activities constituted serious threat to lives and properties, hinders business activities and discourages local and foreign investors. Also, it stifles and retards Nigeria’s socio-economic development. Similarly, ‘Historical Evolution of Boko Haram in Nigeria: Causes and Solutions’ by S. S. Shuaibu and M.A. Salleh. (2015), revealed that “Boko Haram insurgency escalated to its present conditions simply because of the high rates of poverty in the region that led to illiteracy and unemployment. The study also revealed that misinterpretation of religion is another factor believed to be among the major causes.

In Nigeria, the case has been years of economic stagnation in a country blessed with great natural resources enough to cater for everyone, but for which some corrupt political elites preposterously accrued to themselves and their cronies the wealth of the nation. This was stated in “The Root Cause of Boko Haram in Nigeria” by T. Adetiloye. (2014).

The paper further stated that there are so many examples to garner from the history of Nigeria since independence on the elitist lifestyles of most Nigerian leaders from past until recently, when divine intervention brought President Muhammadu Buhari to power following an internationally

168 acclaimed free, fair and credible presidential elections in May 2015. On his successful swearing in, he went head on to wage total war against corruption, to cleanse the system and chart a positive direction to Nigeria’s growth, through his remarkable effort to lay a solid foundation for good governance in Nigeria. The gravities of the corrupt dealings of the past have brought the nation to its present horrific status quo where Boko Haram is now a big issue to chew.

The Boko Haram terrorists activities in the North have resulted in thousands of casualties, the displacement of more than one million people, the destruction of hundreds of schools, mosques, churches and government establishments and have ravaged the economy of the region. In fact, the group’s appalling operations made it one of the deadliest terrorist organization worldwide in 2015. The dynamics, sophistication and boldness of the sect’s actions have raised fundamental questions about national security and governance. In March 2015, the faction, through its leader Abubakar Shekau pledged allegiance to the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant (ISIL). The leader further declared that territories under its control belong to the Islamic State and will be governed under orthodox Islamic Sharia law. Several probable factors such as economic deprivation and want, poverty, illiteracy, inequality and corruption are among the principal factors propelling Boko Haram’s violent rampage across northern Nigeria.

In a study on “Terrorism Financing: The Socio-Economic and Political Implications of Boko Haram Insurgency in Lake Chad Basin” by A.L. Enobi, S.F. Johnson-Rokosu. (2016), it was stated that the sector came to prominence in 2009 following the death of its leader, Mohammed Yusuf in police custody. Aside from the police act and Mohammed Yusuf’s death, poverty, unemployment, lack of development, high level of illiteracy, unkept electoral promises are identified as other reasons for the rise of Boko Haram insurgency. The study shows that lack of government support for armed forces and low moral; lack of government political will to fight the insurgency; political interest all contributed to the rise of

169 Insecurity as an Impediment to Economic Development in Nigeria terrorist activities in the Lake Chad region. The increases in Boko Haram activities in recent time in the region have negatively impacted on the socio political/economic activities and these were due partly to increase in terrorist financing. The study suggests therefore that government ability in Lake Chad basin to cut the sources of terrorist finance will significantly affect Boko Haram activities and attacks. Several factors could have contributed to the proliferation of these insecurity issues. Since the return to democracy in 1999, Nigeria’s democratic transition did not appear to be consolidating on good governance except for the exemplary functional and quality leadership exhibited by President Muhammadu Buhari. The earlier political leaderships from 1999 to 2014 were characterized by massive corruption, lack of transparency, lack of accountability, absence of the rule of law, and the lack of genuine demonstration of good leadership capacity. Indeed, good leadership capacity is expected to provide good governance, basic social services such as human security, fundamental human rights, infrastructures development, education, employment, functional health services etc.

Part of the solution to Nigeria’s multifaceted insecurity issues is to strive for credible democracy that provides good governance and functional leadership. However, in a democracy, the first step towards good governance is the states’ ability to conduct of free, fair and credible elections. This is highly desirable in a pluralistic, multi- ethnic and multi-cultural society like Nigeria, in which people in their various socio-cultural groupings are very sensitive to participation and representation. According to Danbazzau, A. (2014), “The key to tackling Nigeria’s insecurity issues rests on finding the right leadership that would demonstrate good governance; that would tackle corruption as a matter of priority; and that would be transparent and accountable. The type of leadership that would recognize the need to ensure inclusive and participatory governance as a reflection of the multi-religious and multi-ethnic composition of the Nigerian society; that would strengthen the key institutions of governance, especially those within the criminal justice system; that would improve the socio-economic well-being of 170 her citizens, especially in education, health, employment, food, and shelter; that would reinvigorate Nigeria’s foreign policy focus; that would emphasize unity even in cultural diversity to ensure stability; that would find solutions to the current insurgency, militancy, cross-borders trafficking in arms, drugs and humans, maritime insecurity in the Gulf of Guinea, and violent crimes; that would develop Nigeria’s critical infrastructures in transportation, water systems, and energy; that would develop the non-oil sector, especially agriculture and solid minerals; that would tackle environmental issues, especially desertification and erosion; and that would give assurance and confidence to every citizen that his or her fundamental rights are guaranteed and protected.”

The Boko Haram insurgency terrorist group was founded by late Mohammed Yusuf in Maiduguri town, in the northern eastern state of Borno in Nigeria. The group was later led by Abubakar Shekau since 2009. The terrorist group started as small resistance groups composed of young men that began to congregate as Islamist groups that opposed the Nigerian government.

Figure: 1. Militant Group of Boko Haram.

Source: https://www.google.com/search?q=photograph boko+haram [Accessed 10 April 2018]

The militant group of the Boko Haram terrorists are equipped with assorted assault weapons. The sources of these combat supplies and the financing of the Boko Haram terrorist group still remain unknown. However, the group is suspected to some external support from other terrorist groups.

171 Insecurity as an Impediment to Economic Development in Nigeria

The mode of attacks of the Boko Haram terrorists ranges from the use of mass armed gunmen to attack a defined target, the use of suicide bombers, the use of vehicle-borne improvised explosive devices (VBIEDs), planted IEDs, mass abductions/kidnappings and the use of crude, handmade weapons to wreak havoc across communities in the North East of Nigeria. In the early stages of the Boko Haram, the terrorist group carried out attacks on both churches and mosques, in order to exacerbate sectarian cleavages between Christians and Muslims. Also the Boko Haram carried out attacks on military locations, police locations, government buildings, schools, security installations, markets, transport vehicles and financial institutions, in order to undermine the government.

Figure 2: Abducted school girls and scene of Boko Haram attack

Source: https://www.google.com/search?q=photograph+of+boko+ha ram [Accessed 2 April 2018]

The Boko Haram terrorists devastation in Nigeria had tremendous negative impact on virtually all aspects of human life and endearvours especially the economic developmentin the country. Nigeria ranks number 3, all after Iraq and Afghanistan, amongst the world’s most devasted countries by terrorism activities as shown on the Global Terrorism Index 2017.

Nigerian Government Efforts at Combating Boko Haram Terrorism

The Boko Haram terrorist group started as a local religious sect in 2009, with the initial name of ‘Jama’atu Ahlis Sunna Lidda’awatiwal-Jihad’. The group metamorphosed into ‘Boko Haram’; which literarily means

172 ‘’Western education is a sin and forbidden.’’ The Federal Government of Nigeria took decisive action to curb the activities of the terrorist group which resulted in the arrest and death of its founder, Mohammed Yusuf. The death of the founder saw the emergence of the violent and erratic Abubakar Shekau in July 2009, as the new leader of the Boko Haram group. In line with the provisions of Section 217(c) of the 1999 Constitution of the Federal Republic of Nigeria (as Amended); the President tasked the Armed Forces of Nigeria to come to the aid of the civil authority. Consequently, the Nigerian military deployed its men and equipment on 14 May 2013 to undertake internal security operations in order to contain the volatile security situation caused by the Boko Haram terrorist.

Following the successful election and subsequent inauguration of President Muhammadu Buhari as President of Nigeria in May 2015, the situation of Boko Haram attacks was curbed in a short period of time. The President appointed the new Chief of Army Staff (COAS) of the Nigerian Army, and tasked him to flush out the Boko Haram terrorists. With the appointment of new Chief of Army Staff, the erstwhile Operation Zaman Lafiya was transmuted to Operation LAFIYA DOLE on 16 Jul 2015, by the new COAS, Lt Gen Tukur Yusufu Buratai, in order to infuse a renewed vigor and to rejuvenate the counter insurgency effort in the North East of Nigeria which subsequently led to the creation of 7 and 8 Divisions of the Nigerian Army with headquarters in Maiduguri and Monguno respectively, to curtail the spate of killings and destructions by the Boko Haram terrorists. Since the inception of Operation LAFIYA DOLE, 3, 7 and 8 Divisions of the Nigerian Army made commendable efforts to recapture all the lost territories that had fallen into the hands of the Boko Haram Terrorists (BHTs) between 2009 to April 2015.

Air operations were also conducted by Headquarters Nigerian Air Force (NAF) in support of the Nigerian Army Divisional offensive operations. Accordingly, to meet with the dynamic changing nature of the operation in the North East of Nigeria, the Army Headquarters created the Theatre Command Headquarters for Operation LAFIYA DOLE in Maiduguri

173 Insecurity as an Impediment to Economic Development in Nigeria on 16 Aug 2015. The Theatre Command North East was mandated to coordinate and oversee the operations of 3, 7 and 8 Task Force Division of the Nigerian Army, which were committed in the counterinsurgency (COIN) operation. Also, 3 Logistics Bases were created and an Air Operations Support Command under Operation LAFIYA DOLE. These strategic initiatives of the Army Headquarters sustained the momentum of the counterinsurgency operations, in order to finally bring the overall mission to the desired End State. Presently, all recaptured locations i.e. the 17 local government areas that were earlier captured by the Boko Haram, are being consolidated upon, while the Nigerian Army troops are still pushing ahead to clear the remnants of the Boko Haram terrorists.

Similarly, the Nigerian federal governments’ political, diplomatic and economic initiatives towards curbing the Boko Haram insurgency was very remarkable as the dividends are very apparent. The political and diplomatic initiatives of the Nigerian government resulted in the establishment of the Multinational Joint Task Force (MNJTF) comprising troops from the Lake Chad Basin Commission member countries comprising Nigeria, Cameroun, Chad and Niger republic. The MNJTF is headquartered in Ndjamena the capital city of Chad republic, and conducts COIN operations in neighbouring countries. Also the economic initiatives include the introduction of the Bank Verification Numbers (BVN) which helps to track financial transactions in banking operations in Nigeria. This action is checkmating banking transactions there by monitoring illicit funds transfer and bringing defaulters to justice.

The efforts of the Nigerian Army Headquarters under its new Command were particularly very remarkable. The achievements in terms of the fight against the Boko Haram terrorist can better be appreciated especially looking at the frequency of attacks and the capture of Nigerian territories by the Boko Haram terrorists, between the periods 2009 to April 2015. The new Command of the Nigeria Army exhibited sterling leadership qualities to positively influence the general performance of Nigerian Army troops committed in Operation LAFIYA DOLE, thus leading to

174 the recapture of all lost territories. Similarly, the efforts of the Air and Maritime components, as supporting forces in Operation LAFIYA DOLE were also commendable. Additionally, the support of the association of hunters/vigilantes popularly known as the civilian Joint Task Force (JTF) was very remarkable.

The Great Icons fighting against Boko Haram terrorism in Nigeria include the President and Commander in Chief of the Nigerian Armed Forces, President Muhammadu Buhari, the Vice President, Professor Yemi Osibanjo, the Minister of Defence, Mansur Ali and many more.

The new strategy employed by the Army Headquarters culminated in the recapture of all territories, which were hitherto lost to Boko Haram terrorists. These include Mallam Fatori, Damasak, Kareto, Munguno, Baga, Marte, Gamboru Ngala, Dikwa, Mafa, Bama, Bitta, Pulka, Gwoza, Limankara and Madagali local government area in October 2016, which was the last territory occupied by Boko Haram Terrorists. By January 2017 a large percentage of the much talked about Sambisa Forest has been captured, while about 300,000 hostages and displaced people have been rescued. Furthermore, over 1,009 Boko Haram Terrorists have surrendered voluntarily while 1,140 others have been captured.

Findings of the Study

The findings are as follows:

• The causes of Boko Haram terrorism in Nigeria are illiteracy, poverty, unemployment, external influence, religious extremism, ethnicity and political affiliation.

• The Sources of funding of Boko Haram terrorists activities in Nigeria are external interest, political opposition, religious groups and other interest group.

175 Insecurity as an Impediment to Economic Development in Nigeria

• The Interest of the Supporters of Boko Haram Terrorists activities are economic interest, destabilization of the government, creation of another state and disintegration of Nigeria. • The factors responsible for the motivation of the members of Boko Haram terrorists group are financial incentive, looting galore following the capture of a location, religious brain washing/extremism, creation of Islamic state and others. • The measures to cut-off the funding/logistics supplies to the Boko Haram Terrorists include the provision of mass deployment of additional intelligence operators to conduct covert operations in the neighbouring Francophone countries to identify possible logistics bases of the terrorists and possible helicopter re-supply movements to the Boko Haram terrorists. Additionally, the monitoring of banking operation will facilitate the cutting off funding to the Boko Haram terrorists. Similarly, the additional deployment of electronic surveillance on banking transactions using ICT innovations will facilitate the tracking of funds meant for the Boko Haram terrorists. Re-certification of vehicle dealers especially Toyota Hilux vehicles and other commonly used vehicles by the terrorists will serve as a check on the possibility of vehicle procurement by the sponsors of the Boko Haram terrorist group. Furthermore, the additional deployment of aerial surveillance at the international borders between Nigeria and the Francophone neighbouring countries will assist to identify all possible helicopter movements/re-supplies by external supporters to the Boko Haram terrorist group. The conduct of additional robust terrain analysis of the international borders between Nigeria and her Francophone neighbours in order to establish all the international border mobility corridors into Nigeria through which combat logistics is supplied to the Boko Haram terrorists is highly desirable. Similarly, the additional establishment of permanent Military Strong Points along all the identified international mobility corridors into Nigeria and within the counterinsurgency theatre of operations in Nigeria will curb

176 combat logistics re-supply and movements/coordination between the terrorist elements.

The additional closer surveillance of the activities of all fuel stations within the counterinsurgency theatre of operations and along the international borders is essential towards curbing fuel re-supply to the Boko Haram terrorists. Also, the conduct of additional robust CIMIC operations within the counterinsurgency theatre of operations to win the “Hearts and Minds” of the local population will facilitate the achievement of the Military Mission. Furthermore, the establishment of additional Air Defence Units throughout the length and breadth of the international borders with the neighbouring francophone countries will facilitate the detection and subsequent defeat of any possible helicopter re-supply to the Boko Haram terrorists. Also, the additional surveillance of local merchants of common food items such as rice, bakeries, Kilishi (seasoned dry meat) sellers, pure water sachet factories, hospitals, pharmaceutical stores etc., will assist to capture the supporters of the Boko Haram terrorists.

The sustenance of Joint operations with the neighbouring francophone forces is highly desirable to facilitate the defeat of the Boko Haram terrorists. Similarly, the sustenance of engagements with the traditional rulers/local chiefs/ward heads to solicit for their cooperation towards providing useful and timely information on the Boko Haram terrorists is essential to the defeat of the Boko Haram terrorists. Also, the sustenance of engagements with the local trade unions such Transporters Unions/ Market Leaders/Mechanics Unions/Local Pharmaceutical Stores etc., and to solicit for their sustained cooperation towards providing useful and timely information will facilitate intelligence gathering on the Boko Haram terrorists. Furthermore, the sustenance and realistic development of infrastructures such as roads/schools/hospitals etc to communities affected/located within the counterinsurgency theatre of operations will make the local population to have a sense of belonging, and thus gives them hope for a better future there by galvanising the

177 Insecurity as an Impediment to Economic Development in Nigeria

local population support towards the achievement of the military mission. Also, the provision of sustained mass literacy programs to the local populations affected and within the communities in the theatre of operations will enhance the literacy level of the local population, thereby discouraging the local population from joining or being recruited into the Boko Haram terrorist group. The provision of additional mass provision of entrepreneur skills to the local population will reduce the poverty levels of the local population; which will assist in preventing them from being recruited to join the Boko Haram terrorist group. Also, the construction of Tall Gates to be manned by Military Strong Points based on robust terrain analysis at approximately 50km intervals along all the highways within the counterinsurgency theatre of operations will assist to servile logistics movement in support of the terrorists and other crime entrepreneurs, thereby facilitating the defeat of the criminals. Furthermore, the provision of additional logistics to the counterinsurgency operations will facilitate the final defeat of the Boko Haram terrorists.

Recommendations

To achieve a meaningful mitigation of the insecurity issues in Nigeria and particularly the Boko Haram insurgency, there should be concurrent corresponding initiatives, measures and responses in the neighboring LCBC countries. These initiatives and measures can be categorized into political, military, economic and diplomatic initiatives as follows: • Political Initiatives and Measures. The government of Nigeria should take following steps for meaningful mitigation of the insecurity issues: ▪▪ Urgently implement massive literacy program and self-employment oriented entrepreneur training skills, to the Boko Haram affected areas in their corresponding countries to reduce poverty, unemployment, and illiteracy.

178 ▪▪ Workout robust strategy to urgently engage credible religious leaders of high integrity in a massive nationwide sensitization and de- radicalization campaign. ▪▪ Deploy the appropriate government institution to urgently tackle the external interests, political opposition and religious groups as the source of funding/sponsoring of Boko Haram terrorism in Nigeria. ▪▪ Deploy reputable experts of integrity to carry out periodic impromptu vetting of vehicle dealers, to serve a check for possible vehicle procurements by the sponsors of the Boko Haram terrorist group in Nigeria. ▪▪ Sustain the Multinational Joint/Combined operations to facilitate the defeat of the Boko Haram terrorists in within the sub-region. ▪▪ Deploy the appropriate security experts of integrity to profile, vet and monitor the local food stuff merchants of common food items such as rice, bakeries, kilishi (seasoned dry meat) sellers, pure water sachet factories, hospitals, pharmaceutical stores etc. to capture collaborators of the criminals/miscreants and bring them to justice. ▪▪ Ensure that all identified/arrested collaborators and supporters of the Boko Haram terrorists are made to face justice. ▪▪ Ensure that all government offices, institutions, agencies and establishments in the various recaptured territories resume work in earnest and to strictly adhere to the routine government work hours, for the locals to feel the presence of government and a sense of belonging. ▪▪ Embark on realistic and sustainable development of infrastructures in the affected communities within the counterinsurgency theatre of operations to pacify the local population to have a sense of belonging and gives them hope for a better future. ▪▪ Embark on the construction of Tall Gates to be manned by Military Strong Points based on robust terrain analysis, at approximately 50km intervals along all the highways within the counterinsurgency theatre of operations, to servile combat logistics re-supply in support of the terrorists and other crime entrepreneurs.

179 Insecurity as an Impediment to Economic Development in Nigeria

▪▪ Strive to grow a credible democracy that provides quality leadership.

• Military Initiatives and Measures. The Nigerian Army should take following steps:

▪▪ Upscale to dominate the territory by creating additional 774 Special Composite Recce Battalions (SCR Bn), with one Unit in each of the 774 local government areas of the federation, in order to proactively discharge its core constitutional responsibility and the protection of lives and properties of the civilian population.

▪▪ Sustain the supply of additional equipment to the NA counterinsurgency operations, in order to facilitate the final defeat of the Boko Haram terrorists.

▪▪ Employ the use of force-multipliers such as drones/ICT equipment to facilitate speedy and wider reconnaissance in the theatre for immediate follow up action by the troops.

▪▪ Heighten its speed of reaction and sustain close air support to the ground troops committed in Operation LAFIYA DOLE.

▪▪ Establish Army Aviation Units to provide for urgent and immediate air support requirements, thereby allowing for strategic employment of the NAF assets in combat.

▪▪ Deploy additional intelligence operators within the Operation LAFIYA DOLE theatre and across the borders to conduct covert operations to identify possible logistics bases of the terrorists, and possible combat logistics re-supply by helicopter and other means to the Boko Haram terrorist group in Nigeria.

▪▪ Carry out additional robust terrain analysis of its international borders to establish all the border mobility corridors into Nigeria, through which combat logistics is likely to be supplied to the Boko Haram terrorists.

180 ▪▪ Establish additional permanent Military Strong Points along all the identified mobility corridors within the counterinsurgency theatre of operations to curb combat logistics re-supplies to the Boko Haram terrorists.

▪▪ Deploy additional intelligence operators with specific task to vet, profile and monitor the activities of all fuel stations and petrol vendors within the counterinsurgency theatre of operations and along the international borders.

▪▪ Upscale the CIMIC operations within the counterinsurgency theatre of operations to win the “Hearts and Minds” of the local population towards the facilitation of the achievement of the Military Mission.

▪▪ Establish additional Air Defence Units throughout the length and breadth of her international borders, in order to facilitate the detection and subsequent defeat of any possible combat logistics air re-supply to the Boko Haram terrorists.

▪▪ Task its CIMIC component to sustain routine engagements with the local trade unions ions, Market Leaders, Mechanics Unions etc., in order to solicit for their cooperation towards providing useful and timely information on the Boko Haram terrorists group.

▪▪ Task its CIMIC component to sustain routine engagements with the traditional rulers/local chiefs to solicit for their cooperation towards providing useful and timely information that will facilitate the defeat of the Boko Haram terrorists.

• Economic Initiatives and Measures ▪▪ The government of Nigeria should deploy experts to tackle the economic interests of both the internal and external supporters of the Boko Haram terrorists. ▪▪ Deploy experts to track and monitor the banking operations to facilitate the cutting off funding to the Boko Haram terrorists.

181 Insecurity as an Impediment to Economic Development in Nigeria

• Diplomatic Initiatives and Measures

The governments of the member countries of the Lake Chad Basin Commission and the Benin republic should set up a high powered standing committee of reputable and seasoned experts in conflict resolution, comprising members of impeccable characters and proven track record of selfless service, outstanding patriotism and integrity to engage in robust negotiations with the leadership of the Boko Haram for a peaceful resolution of the conflict.

Conclusion

Nigeria is experiencing numerous insecurity issues that impede economic development in the country. However, this particular study dwelled on the Boko Haram terrorists’ activities, being one of the most prevalent insecurity issues that impede economic development in Nigeria.

The implementation of the recommendations outlined below will substantially facilitate the final defeat of the Boko Haram terrorist group in Nigeria. The Nigerian population will be able to resume their farming activities, schools, market activities, transportation businesses, and other business activities. The Nigerian population will once more gradually be able to resume their normal economic activities for a sustained economic development in Nigeria. That is to say that Nigeria will have healthy and highly desirable for ideal economic development with a corresponding trickle-down effect.

References

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182 2. Benjamin, O., Ajah, B., Nwokeoma, N and Okpan, S. (2017). Socio- Economic Implication of Kidnapping and Hostage Taking in Southern Nigeria.Journal of Law and Judicial System. Volume 1, Issue 1, PP 51- 59.

3. Christopher, O., Aghasagbon, J.O.(2016). The Social-Economic Impediments to Kidnapping Eradication in Southern Nigeria. An International Journal of Arts and Humanities (IJAH).Vol. 5(4), S/N 19, : 202-213. ISSN: 2225-8590 (Print) ISSN 2227-5452 [Accessed 15 March 2018].

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6. Danbazzau Abdulrahaman, 2014. Nigeria and Her Security Challenges, HIR, Havard International at hir.havard.edu/article/?a=5711. Accessed 20 April 2018.

7. Daniel, M. (2014), Nigerian Economy Overtakes South Africa’s on Rebased GDP. https://www.bloomberg.com. [Accessed 3 March 2018].

8. Folashade, B. O. (2015). Violence and Insecurity in Nigeria: The Bane of National Development. European Scientific Journal ISSN: Edition vol. 7, No.26 ISSN: 1857 - 7881 (Print) e - ISSN 1857- 7431.

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11. Kofi Annan, (2010). Africa’s Green Revolution Forum: Initiating a Quantum Leap Forward.

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14. Lieutenant General Tukur Yusufu Buratai,(2017). A lecture on insecurity issues in Nigeria presented by the Chief of Army Staff, at the Guild of Corporate Online Publishers First Annual Conference, held at the Renaissance Hotel on 10 August 2017, Ikeja, Lagos.. [Accessed 15 April 2018].

15. Mekaila, M. (2017). A research project titled “Why Violence? Why Terrorism? Lessons from Nigeria’s Boko Haram”, Department of Political Science, Texas Christian University,.

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17. Olabanji, O. (2014). Insecurity and Socio-Economic Development in Nigeria.Journal of Sustainable Development Studies. ISSN 2201-4268, Volume 5, Number 1, 40-63.

18. Osakede, K., Ijimakinwa, S., Adesanya, T., Ojo, A., Ojikutu, O. and Abubakar, A. (2015). Corruption in the Nigeria Public Sector: An Impediment to Good Governance and Sustainable Development. Journal Review of Public Administration and Management.ISSN 2315-7844.

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184 20. World Bank Annual Report (2017). The World Bank Group. Accelerate Economic Growth. Build Human Capital. Foster Resilience. End Extreme Poverty. Boost Shared Prosperity. pubdocs.worldbank.org/ en/908481507403754670. [Accessed 13 March 2018].

Author

Colonel Umar Musa Aliyu was born on 30 November 1968 in Adamawa State, Nigeria. He had his B.Sc. (Hons) Degree in Geology from the University of Maiduguri, Nigeria in 1986. He undertook Masters Degree in International Affairs and Diplomacy (MIAD) at the Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria in Nigeria in 2006; and also a Masters Degree in Conflict Peace and Security (MCPS) at the Kofi Annan International Peacekeeping Training Centre (KAIPTC) in Accra, Ghana in 2012. He was commissioned into the Nigerian Army Armoured Corps on 22 September 1990. He has had over 27 years of meritorious and colourful service to the Nigerian Army, with numerous Medals to his credit. During his military career, he undertook several military courses both at home and abroad. Similarly, he has participated in several military operations both at home and abroad. He has served in several military units and formations and has also held several appointments including Command, Staff and Instructor appointments. His hobbies include reading, research, travelling, counseling and service to humanity for the promotion of global peace, security, prosperity and development.

185 ACHIEVING UNORTHODOX DETERRENCE ABILITY BY BANGLADESH ARMY

Lieutenant Colonel Abul Hasnat Mohammad Mahmud Azam, afwc, psc, Arty

Introduction

According to PricewaterhouseCoopers (PwC), Bangladesh has the potential to become the world’s 23rd largest economy by 2050, overtaking countries such as Netherlands, Australia, Spain, Thailand and Malaysia. PwC also predicted that Bangladesh would be the 28th largest economy by 2030, up from 31st in 2016. Because of its rapid and steady growth, World Economic Forum considered Bangladesh as the next ‘Asian Tiger’. However, there are security implications of economic development as economic rise does not come alone and it brings security threats to the country along with it. Bangladesh being a potential economic power needs to have a robust military with credible deterrence so that its rise cannot be hindered by any impending threat. Present military posture of Bangladesh is essentially defensive which, in all probability, does not ensure enough credible deterrence ability for a rising economy like Bangladesh. A nation with strong economy needs a credible military not solely because it would fight, but mainly because it would deter. Present defensive postures of Bangladesh Armed Forces in general and Bangladesh Army in particular pose some kind of deterrence by denial that does not really promise to exact much enough prices from the enemy. Bangladesh desperately needs to have a credible Army that not only would deter by denial but also by punishment-punitive deterrence.

Though in most of the cases military power of states has been directly proportional to their economic development, yet geostrategic and economic realities do not suggest Bangladesh to get involved in any type of arms racein this regard. So next logical questions are: (1) how to deter

186 and how to make peace with potential adversaries? (2) how to deter an economically and/or militarily superior adversary without getting involved in an arms race? However, with the emergence of today’s complex security environment, the very definition and application of deterrence have undergone a considerable change. Deterrence as defined after World War II and era of Cold War has undergone a massive change in 21st century. Recent outcomes of some asymmetric conflicts suggest that supremacy in military capability and economic power are not the only determinants of deterrence. Therefore, though geostrategic and economic realities do not suggest Bangladesh to boost its military arsenal to attain conventional deterrence ability, yet there might be window of opportunities open for Bangladesh Armyto deter its adversaries without resorting to arms race. Thus, it demands a research to see if deterrence can be attained through unorthodox ways and means, or not. Keeping the many historical perspectives of winning big wars by small nations as basic premise, this paper tries to find out the possibility and viability of unorthodox deterrence options in present context.

Viability of ‘Unorthodox Deterrence’

Basics of Deterrence. Deterrence is achieved when a potential attacker decides to abstain from a planned offensive because of the fear of undesirable punishment or denial of victory. Usually, in traditional deterrence relationship, calculations of national power especially military, economic, and diplomatic power are main factors of determining the degrees of deterrence effectiveness. During the cold war era, deterrence thinking used to mean mainly the nuclear deterrence only. However, after the Cold War, this idea started to experience some kind of changes. In 21st century, with the rise of post-Westphalian world order, aversion to suffering high casualties by western superpowers, introduction of asymmetric warfare, globalization and many other related factors, the scholars started to struggle to adjust the theories and vocabularies of deterrence, which was very different from the context in which deterrence theory, and policy had been developed earlier.

187 Achieving Unorthodox Deterrence Ability by Bangladesh Army

Defining ‘Unorthodox Deterrence’. Simply put, this is a kind of deterrence where weak actor deters the strong one. Deterrent theories, policies, and force structures developed in the Cold War nuclear context might not always hold good in today’s complex security environment. Every nation, be it powerful or weak, big or small has its own critical weaknesses/vulnerabilities. Correct determination of those weaknesses and/or vulnerabilities and then attacking those to neutralize/annihilate/ destroy would hurt them the most. Though without enjoying superior military capability and adequate economic back up it is very difficult to attack the critical vulnerabilities of threat nation, yet history is abundant with examples where underdog or weak won over the strong by applying unorthodox approach. When this capability of unorthodox approach is made credible enough and communicated well to the adversaries, it will strike terror into their hearts. Thus, in case of unorthodox deterrence, a new dimension of deterrence theory emerges where (unlike conventional/ nuclear deterrence) weak nation becomes the deterrer.

Asymmetric War Phenomenon - Weak Deterring the Strong. Post World War II era saw string of asymmetric conflicts where weaker nations did not allow strong actors to coerce them with violence or the threat of violence. This seemingly paradoxical phenomenon has a host of reasons like rise of nationalism and indirect strategy (like guerrilla warfare) that made it possible for weak actors to defeat their stronger adversaries. Thus, the costs of coercing weak actors have risen since World War II, yet the benefits have declined. With perceived benefits in decline and costs high or increasing and with weak actors more apt to defend themselves, combat power of strong actor becomes irrelevant. Weak actors will therefore find it easier to deter strong actors from intervening in their affairs even when the disparity in material power isvery large. Even the diminishing trend of coercing/killing power of stronger nation has been observed in last two centuries. Following the end of the Napoleonic Wars in Europe, in the next two hundred years of conflict whenever strong actors fought wars against weak actors, strong actors won a clear majority of such wars. In an average, the overall success rate of strong powers was 71.5 percent. Yet when these two centuries are 188 divided into four fifty- year sub-periods, a surprising model emerges: weak powers have been winning more over time. In the first of the four periods (1816–49), strong powers won nearly 90 percent of the time. In the most recent period (1950–2000), weak powers wona majority of such asymmetric wars. Power, as commonly understood, has not correlated with expected outcomes. In sum, conduct and result of war after WW II, cold war era and especially after September 11 saw dramatic changes which suggest that weaker nation or actor are now more capable of winning wars.

Chart 1: Compelx Deterrence Strategy in the Global Age, Unconventional deterrence” by Toftlvanarreguin5 .gm Strong Actor Weak Actor

88.2 79.5 65.1 48.8 51.2 34.9 20.5 11.8

1800 - 1849 1850 - 1899 1900 - 1949 1950 - 2000 Source: “Complex Deterrence Strategy in the Global Age, Unconventional Deterrence” by ToftIvanarreguín.

From 1950s to early years of this millennium, small or asymmetric wars waged against weak actors resulted in very different kind of outcomes where world’s superpowers had difficulties in realizing their aims and, thus, ending the war. The Peninsular War, the Algerian war of 1954-62, the Vietnam War of 1964-73, the Afghanistan War of 1979-89, the Lebanon war of 1982-83, the Chechnya War of 1994-96, Second Iraq War of 2003, Operation Enduring Freedom in Afghanistan, War in Syria etc bear the testimony to that statement. For the vulnerability like aversion to suffering high casualties, US also had to withdraw in Vietnam. Superpowers failure to win asymmetric war in such a way proves that weak actor is no more that underdog – providing a scope of a new kind of unorthodox deterrence. ‘Body Bag Effect’ has been shaping up the public opinion in an increased

189 Achieving Unorthodox Deterrence Ability by Bangladesh Army manner. In present context, unconventional deterrence supposed to work and will become more prominent overtime because the stronger actor’s power to destroy, coerce and deter will be outweighed by its increasing casualty sensitiveness.

Credibility of Unorthodox Deterrence. Asymmetric and fourth generation warfare are coming to the forefront of modern day conflicts. Domination of future wars by these types of low intensity conflict means a kind of demise of conventional warfare. Again, demise of conventional warfare means irrelevancy of military might of superior force in front of the inferior ones. Thus, in present day context, military might is not enough to attain political objectives. Following are the areas that would make unorthodox deterrence credible and viable:

• Strong actor’s increasing tendency of a version to suffering high casualties in war is a critical vulnerability. By exploiting this critical vulnerability, weak actor would be able to coerce the strong for maintaining status quo.

• The weak state would be able to deter the strong state by showing a distinctive posture that strong actor would be denied of acquiring its political objectives till the end of the conflict.

• Imbued with the spirit of nationalism and a strong belief that self- sacrifice in war is the most heroic action, military forces and citizens of weaker nations might get defeated in many battles but would never let the strong nation to win the war. On the other hand, it is a well- established fact that (in present day context) citizens from most of the strong nations while being motivated by fear of violent death would place emphasis on values such as self-preservation. With this type of motivation, they will be more subjected to deterrence by the weak.

190 Lessons Learnt from Lebanon War 2006 and Vietnam War

Lebanon War 2006 and Vietnam War bear the testimony to the fact that adoption of noble and unorthodox strategy might ensure victory for the weak actor and thus, might be useful in deterring the strong actor. Though the contexts of these wars are somewhat different from those of Bangladesh and might seem little off topic, yet the strategy and philosophy of war fighting of Vietnam and Lebanon would provide useful insights for Bangladesh.

Lebanon War 2006. In this war, primitive and cheaply made Katyushas made the devastating air power and modern state of the art aircrafts of Israel irrelevant. Hezbollah indeed produced a vast amount of strategic thinking both on the strategic values of its missiles and on the practice of psychological warfare. For instance, metaphor used by Hassan Nasrallah, back in 2000 by portraying Israel as “a spider’s web” due to its aversion for protracted conflict explains the strategy of Hezbollah. There is explicit linkage in the Hezbollah literature between this idea of Israel being a spider’s web and its rocket strategy. Specifically the arsenal plays a role, which transcends mere warfighting purpose; it is part of a mental bargain with Israel. In other words, it is a tool of deterrence. Hezbollah’s supposed success furthered a growing notion that a strong high-end asymmetric warfare defense could make a country a poison pill for foreign intervention.

Vietnam War: Deterrence by Denying Political Objective. US won numbers of battles in the Vietnam War but in the end had to withdraw without realizing its political aims. US did not win the war and made another example of big nation losing small war. The Vietminh never fought on the enemy’s terms, i.e., in large-scale engagements. The American forces could seldom make their overwhelming firepower to be effective against the Vietcong. By dispersing in jungles and using extensive tunnel systems, the North Vietnamese Army (NVA) and Vietcong guerrillas made the US large-unit, search-and-destroy missions chiefly futile. Thus the Vietcong and NVA retained initiative and forced the US and South Vietnamese

191 Achieving Unorthodox Deterrence Ability by Bangladesh Army troops to fight on the guerrillas’ terms. Air strikes against the Vietcong were also not much decisive. It was estimated that for each Vietcong to be killed US had to “cost” hundreds of bombs and artillery shells. By 1967, the U.S. had dropped morebombs on Vietnam than the Allies dropped during WWII. High Vietcong body counts led many to believe the U.S. was winning the war. However, Vietcong and North Vietnamese allies could protract the war against a superior enemy by making USA’s military superiority irrelevant to a great degree. Thus, USA was precluded from achieving a quick and decisive victory because of gradual erosion of political capability to persist in war. Guerrilla warfare strategy was proved to be potent enough to protract the warand in turn, could wear down the US political will.

So, the takeaways of these two wars can be summarized as follows:

• Hezbollah could correctly identify that Israel’s extreme sensitivity to the lives of its citizens and aversion to suffering casualties of soldiers are its critical vulnerabilities and they exploited those.

• Rocket arsenal like shorter-range Katyusha was a proper example of asymmetric response that offered Hezbollah the ability to hold Israel’s northern territory at constant risk. In one sense, it offered even more deterrence to Israel than Intercontinental Ballistic Missile (ICBM) because ICBMs could be tracked and knocked down but Katyusha enjoyed virtual impunity.

• Vietnam War is a classic example where underdog won not by winning battles but by denying the strong their political objectives. • In case of Hezbollah, it was deterrence by punishment (rocket campaign) and for Vietnam it was deterrence by denial (denying the political objectives). It proves the argument that the weak can be capable of deterring the strong both by punishment and denial.

192 • Above mentioned two wars contend that the balance of military power is not always the overriding determinant in deterrence. Rather unconventional warfare strategy might allow the weak to achieve Unorthodox Deterrence ability. By adopting a strategy that makes the aggressor’s military superiority irrelevant to a certain degree, an inferior opponent may hold deterrence despite having overwhelming imbalance in military capabilities.

Making Unorthodox Deterrence Achievable for Bangladesh Army

Bringing Aggressiveness in Defeat Mechanism. To achieve effective and credible deterrence ability from the outset, land force should not wait like a bystander when enemy missiles and air force would show their power by bombing the logistic bases, cities, command and control centers etc. At this point of time, Bangladesh army’s retaliation should be guided by the principles of deterrence by punishment. The deterrence would make sense if Bangladesh Army can have the ability to retaliate right from the beginning of hostility. Hezbollah Chief Sheikh Hassan Nasrallah’s televised offer (al- Manar TV) to Israel in August 2006 should be mentioned here where he asked for firing Hezbollah rockets in exchange for an end to Israeli air strikes in Lebanon. In case of Bangladesh, it has to be also borne in mind that if enemy’s combat air operations are allowed to continue unabated, it would attempt to dictate the trajectory of all unfolding events of the battle. It will then try to paralyze morale of ground troops by applying ‘Shock and Awe’ tactics like the way US air force did in Gulf War. Thereby, to achieve a credible deterrence, land force of Bangladesh should be capable enough to deliver operational fire deep into the enemy’s territory as a retaliation to any threat air or missile offensive. Adversary must be in fear that there will be punitive retaliation of all of their actions. Only deterrence by denial will not work and it has to be deterrence by punishment. In sum, deterrence by punishment should be central to the defeat mechanism of Bangladesh army.

193 Achieving Unorthodox Deterrence Ability by Bangladesh Army

Operational Fire Capability as Deterrence. Rockets/missiles have been a potential source of coercive leverage for many countries irrespective of their strong or weak status. These have been the symbols of deterrence and instruments of rhetoric by head of the nation states ranging from Chinese leader Xi Jinping to North Korean leader Kim Jong-un to Hezbollah leader Hassan Nasrallah. All these suggest that possessing rockets and missiles would make Bangladesh Army a credible deterrent force. Populations of big and powerful nations are increasingly becoming casualty sensitive and more susceptible towards body bag effect. Bangladesh Army would be able to exploit this critical vulnerability of big nations by using the rockets and missiles. It would be a classic example of deterrence by punishment. Moreover, as it was seen in case of Hezbollah, stockpile of rockets has to be adequate in numberto make the deterrence credible. The deduction is that attaining required degree of deterrence ability would require Bangladesh Army to have enough stockpiles of rockets and missiles. Army’s arsenal should not only be comprised of medium range tactical missiles but there should be small, man-portable and unguided surface- to-surface artillery rockets. Possessing adequate number of short-range rocket and medium range missiles by Bangladesh Army (like the Hezbollah in Lebanon war 2006) would give it an edge and, thus would enhance its deterrence capability.

Guerrilla Strategy as Deterrence. Not allowing superior enemy to realize their political aim is the key here. In order to do that inferior force will protract the war by adopting guerrilla strategy. When a weak actor uses an indirect and unpredictable defense strategy, the leadership of the stronger state finds its killing power irrelevant because the costs of war would exceed the benefits. Besides Vietnam, same were the cases in Indo china, Algeria and Afghanistan where the weaker party were able to deny the stronger side its political objectives, and forced the stronger side to give up eventually. Perhaps Bangladesh Army is one of the exceptional conventional forces, which officially embraced ‘blending of conventional and unconventional warfare’ doctrine as its battlefield imperatives. Basing on this tenet of army operation, it develops its other doctrinal literature. 194 This strategy, if executed properly, would be instrumental in denying the stronger adversary its political aim. Because, when conventional warfare is blended with unconventional warfare and high-end asymmetric tactics, it would become a very unpredictable strategy that would enable a weak military to challenge a stronger one. This would be the deterrence by denial. Historical examples prove that the forces, doctrines, and technologies of big power, which are appropriate for high intensity conventional combat, tend to be counter productive when used in unconventional conflicts. Moreover, asymmetric wars in Vietnam, Afghanistan, Algeria, Syria and many more showed that firepower-centric militaries that had engaged guerrillas generally stimulated more resistance from guerrillas than they could eliminate them. Central to Bangladesh army’s doctrine of resorting to Total People’s War is the idea that scope of waging and sustaining war will be enlarged and taken beyond the confines of conventional dogma. This is the strategy of protracting the war and not allowing big power to realize political objective. This might deter the big adversary by denying its objective to be achieved.

Cyber Attack as Deterrence. Cyberspace is becoming as rich a domain of warfare as land, sea or air. The uniqueness of cyberspace is that it has no boundaries. Ubiquitous access makes the defence against it extremely difficult. Anybody can exploit the opportunity to attack a system from anywhere in the world. It has brought a new window of opportunity for the weaker nation or actor in the realm of warfare of 21st century. Because, the playing field is almost level in this case. It does not require mammoth sized or highly sophisticated military hardware; rather it needs talent and brain. Good opportunity for weak nation is that talent and brain are not exclusive preserve of big and developed nations only. With adequate sponsorship from state, any weak actor would be able to reap benefit out of the fleeting opportunities. Gradually the modern world will be more and more interconnected with internet. With technologies like Internet of Things (IOT), Machine to Machine (M2M) etc, they will thus be more vulnerable to cyber-attack. Ranging from domestic utility like electrical grids, e-commerce or systems that facilitate financial transactions, 195 Achieving Unorthodox Deterrence Ability by Bangladesh Army transportation system, water and gas supply to national assets like Global Positioning System, nuclear power plant etc – all will be susceptible to cyber-attack. Bangladesh Army should also be able to enter into the domain of cyber warfare. This is a great fleeting opportunity that must be exploitedby Bangladesh Armed Forces and army can play a vital role in this case. It is logical to assume that a potent force with strong cyber-attack capability would be instrumental in deterring any adversary. In 21st century, this might be a perfect domain, where Bangladesh Army will be able to achieve unorthodox deterrence.

Conclusion

As the Roman proverb goes, Si Vis Pacem, Para bellum: If one wants peace, prepare for war - from that perspective Bangladesh must be prepared for any future war. Moreover, economic growth of Bangladesh will have its own different security implications. However, though Bangladesh being a potential economic power needs to have a credible military so that its rise cannot be hindered by any impending threat, yet it must not fall into Thucydides trap. So in one hand Bangladesh Army needs to have credible deterrence and on the other hand resorting to huge military built up with offensive posture right now is again also not suggested. Thus, considering this reality, a new kind of deterrence is to be figured out so that Bangladesh can deter its adversaries without resorting to arms race.

The idea of ‘Unorthodox Deterrence’ is a largely unexplored area in the domain of deterrence theory. Though there have been many works done on asymmetric warfare and irregular warfare, thought on this different kind of deterrence were much unknown. It is no denying the fact that the deterrence framework itself has become much complex in the new international security environment that has emerged since the end of the cold war. Aversions to suffering high casualty in the battlefield and casualty sensitiveness have now become the critical weaknesses/vulnerabilities of strong nations, which are exploitable by weak actors. In present day context,

196 citizens from most of the strong nations while being motivated by fear of violent death would place emphasis on values such as self-preservation. With this type of motivation, they will be deterred by the weak more easily. Thus, it can be deduced that the weak actors will be able to deter the stronger ones by applying unorthodox approach. When this capability of unorthodox approach is made credible enough and communicated well to the adversary, it will strike terror into the heart of them. Thus in case of unorthodox deterrence a new dimension of deterrence theory emerges where (unlike conventional/nuclear deterrence) weak nation becomes the deterrer.

The Peninsular War, the Algerian war of 1954-62, the Vietnam War of 1964-73, the Afghanistan War of 1979-89, the Lebanon war of 1982-83, the Chechnya War of 1994-96, Second Iraq War of 2003, Operation Enduring Freedom in Afghanistan – all these contend that combat power does not always ensure victory in war. Thus, the balance of military power will not always be the overriding determinant in deterrence. Rather unconventional warfare strategy might allow the weak to achieve Unorthodox Deterrence ability. If the weak can deny the political objectives of the strong (Vietnam War) or can punish the strong to a certain extent (Lebanon War 2006) by adopting a different type of strategy, it would be reasonable to suggest that the threat of adopting that type of warfare/strategy can also be used as a deterrent.

Cyberspace is going to be the battlefield of 21st century. It has become the fifth domain of warfare, after land, sea, air and space. Given the increasing ubiquitous presence of Internet, future warfare will be dominated by cyber centric attacks. Thereby, this will be another achievable domain of unorthodox deterrence in future. Possessing a potent cyber force would enhance the deterrence ability of Bangladesh Armed Forces in future.

Recommendations

To achieve unorthodox deterrence ability by Bangladesh army, this paper recommends following options:

197 Achieving Unorthodox Deterrence Ability by Bangladesh Army

• Bangladesh army should have standoff firepower with the means of rockets/missiles so that increasing coercive pain can be inflicted on adversary. Induction of short and medium range SSM and rockets as operational fire platforms by Bangladesh Army would increase the deterrence ability.

• Employment strategy of SSM and rockets should be included as retaliation against adversary’s air/missile threat. Adversary’s air/missile offensive should be responded immediately right from the onset of hostility.

• Body bag effect, casualty sensitivity and aversion to suffering high casualties are likely to be thecritical vulnerabilities of a rational state actor in 21st century. Exploiting these vulnerabilities should be factored in, in the planning criterion of deterrence strategy of Bangladesh army.

• Hybrid warfare strategy with high-end asymmetric strategy ranging from guerrilla tactics to cyber warfare should be adopted in the defence strategy of Bangladesh army.

• ‘Blending of conventional and unconventional warfare’ and ‘switching over to Total People’s War’- these two strategies should be institutionalized, practiced, exercised and well communicated to the potential adversaries.

References

1. Bangladesh Army, GSTP 0032, Operations of War, Volume one.

2. BBC Report by Frank Gardner ‘Hezbollah missile threat assessed’ retrieved from http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/5242566. stm on 3 May 2018.

3. Beckley, Michael, ‘Economic Development and Military Effectiveness’,TheJournal of Strategic Studies, New York, USA. 2010.

198 4. Beckett, I. F. W. ‘Modern Insurgencies and Counter-Insurgencies. Guerrillas and Their Opponents since 1750’. New York: Routledge. 2001.

5. Bell, J. B., ‘Dragonwars: Armed Struggle and the Conventions of Modern War’. New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Publishers, 1999.

6. Ben Goddard, ‘Cold Warriors Say no nukes’ retrieved at http://thehill. com/opinion/columnists/ben-goddard/78391-cold-warriors-say-no- nukes on 10 September 2018.

7. Boot, M., ‘The Savage Wars of Peace: Small Wars and the Rise of American Power’. New York: Basic Books, 2002

8. Branislav L. Slantchev, ‘Introduction to International RelationsLecture 8: Deterrence and Compellence’.2005.

9. Carmit,Valensi and Yoram, Schweitzer, ‘Hezbollah’s Concept of Deterrence vis-à-vis Israel according to Nasrallah: From the Second Lebanon War to the Present’.

10. Colin S. Gray, ‘National Security Dilemmas’, Vij Books, New Delhi. 2009.

11. Donald M. Goldstein, Katherine V. Dillon and J. Michael Wenger,‘The Vietnam War’, Brasset’s, Inc, USA. 1997.

12. E. Sridharan, ‘The India Pakistan Nuclear Relationship’, Routledge Taylor & Francis Group. 2007.

13. Freedman, L. Deterrence. Cambridge: Polity Press. 2004.

14. Glenn H. Snyder, Deterrence and Defense: Toward a Theory of National Security Princeton University Press.1961.

15. Huth, P. K., ‘Extended Deterrence and Prevention of War. New Haven’: Yale University Press,1988.

199 Achieving Unorthodox Deterrence Ability by Bangladesh Army

16. Ivanarreguín, Toft, Complex Deterrence Strategy in the Global Age, Unconventional DeterrenceThe University of Chicago Press, Chicago, 2009.

17. Jean-Loup,Samaan, 2014, From War to Deterrence: Israel Hezbollah Conflict Since 2006, Strategic Studies and U.S. Army War College Press

18. Jeremy, Stocker, ‘Deterrence in the 21st Century’, Joint Services Command and Staff College (JSCSC), Shrivenham.

19. Justin,Wintle, ‘The Viet Num Wars’, St Martin’s Press, New York. 1991.

20. Kumar, Arvind, ‘Theories of Deterrence and Nuclear Deterrence in the Subcontinent’ The India Pakistan Nuclear Relationship, Routledge Taylor & Francis Group.

21. Marvin Kalb and Carol Saivetz, ‘The Israeli -Hezbollah War in 2006: The Media as a Weapon in Asymmetrical Conflict’, Shorenstein Center on the Press, Politics and Public Policy at Harvard’s Kennedy School of Government.

22. Matt M. Matthews,‘We were Caught Unprepared: The 2006 Hezbollah Israeli War’.

23. U.S. Army Combined Arms Center Combat Studies Institute Press Fort Leavenworth, Kansas.

24. McGregor, Andrew, Hezbollah’s Rocket Strategy, Terrorism Monitor Volume: 4 Issue: 16, 2006.

25. Mindaugas, Rekasius, ‘Unconventional Deterrence Strategy’, Naval Postgraduate School, California, USA.2005.

26. Morgan, P. Deterrence Now. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 2003.

27. Rekasius, Mindaugas, Unconventional Deterrence Strategy, Naval Postgraduate School Monterey, CA. 2005

200 28. Schelling, T., The strategy of conflict. Cambridge, MA: Oxford University Press, 1960. 29. Stein,J. Gross, The Complex Deterrence, Chapter III, Rational Deterrence against “Irrational” Adversaries? The University of Chicago Press, 2009 30. Tertrais Bruno,‘The Causes of Peace: the Role of Deterrence’, Fondation pour la Recherche Stratégique, Paris.2018. 31. Thomas C. Schelling, The Strategy of Conflict, Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.1960. 32. Thucydides, History of the Peloponnesian War, Book IV 33. T. V. Paul, Patrick M. Morgan & James J .Wirtz, ‘Complex Deterrence’, The University of Chicago Press, 2009. 34. Vego, Milan, Joint Operational Warfare, U.S. Naval War College, 2009.

Author

Lieutenant Colonel Abul Hasnat Mohammad Mahmud Azam, psc, Artillery was commissioned with 38 BMA Long Course on 11 June 1998. He is a graduate of Defence Services Command and Staff College, Mirpur. He received his Master’s Degree on Military Studies from Bangladesh University of Professionals, Dhaka and Executive Masters in Business Administration from BRAC University, Dhaka. He attended number of courses at home and abroad. He served at various artillery units in different capacities. His staff appointments include Staff Captain at Infantry Brigade Headquarters, General Staff Officer -2 (Operation and Training) at Infantry Division Headquarters and Deputy Assistant Military Secretary at Military Secretary’s Branch, Army Headquarters. He also served as contingent member in United Nations Mission in Liberia (UNMIL) and as Military Observer in United Nations Mission in Congo (MONUSCO). He also commanded a Medium Regiment Artillery.

201 COMPETENCY OF BANGLADESH ARMY IN CHANGING SCENARIO OF PEACEKEEPING OPERATION (PKO): REQUIREMENT IN TRAINING AND EQUIPMENT

Lieutenant Colonel Shahzad Pervez Mohiuddin, afwc, psc, Signals

Introduction

Contemporary United Nations (UN) Peacekeeping Operations (PKO) have evolved formally from only monitoring cease-fires between the conflicting parties to a great range of tasks, such as enforcing peace and helping rebuild states. Current security environment in PKO is full of potential threats, adversaries, and actors with divergent motivations who pose the asymmetric threat on the UN peacekeeping efforts and peacekeepers, as well. This require an evenmore robust UN peacekeeping capability in the 21st century. It is evident that in many peacekeeping operations, the UN emblem has become a target, not a shield. Peacekeepers increasingly facing direct threats from the armed groups and targeted by asymmetric attacks. The recent incidents in Mali, South Sudan, Central African Republic and DR Congo are some of the examples. As there is no chance to seek consent of the TAGs nor possible to remain impartial between legitimate governments and terrorists, the existing modus operandi is demanding worthy reforms.

Bangladesh Army is one of the largest troops contributing countries in the world to UN UNPSO. At this moment, a total of 7079 personnel are deployed in 09 UN missions around the world. Achievements of Bangladesh Army in UNPSO have been possible due to the professionalism, sincerity and sacrifices of Bangladeshi peacekeepers since 1988, when the Bangladeshi peacekeepers joined UN missions in Iraq and Namibia. Although Bangladesh (BD) Peacekeepers’ performance in PKO under recent changes had been

202 appreciated so far, but the same at operational and tactical level had drawn criticism. The incidents of Guiglo (Cote d’Ivoire), Congo and recently in Mali raised questions and criticism about the competency of BD forces in PKO. These criticisms will certainly blur the achievements and successes that were specially achieved in Sierra Leone, where Bangla is acknowledged as the second official language in the recognition of Bangladeshi peacekeepers’ contribution to bring back peace to the country. Factors such as inadequate leadership qualities in crisis situation, generalized skill at weapon handling, over stretched and ambitious deployment plan in some cases, limited exposure to robust training, combat experience, inadequate training against IED, and lack of proper equipment identified as the contributing factor for the criticism. Thus, an exclusive remodeling of peacekeeping training and induction of proper equipment inventory would probably be inevitable in order to maintain a respectable status and standard on the face of present peacekeeping challenges.

This paper will take an endeavor to recommend measures to make the BD peacekeepers more robust, by which BD Army can be adequately prepared to undertake the challenges of present PKO environment.

Changing Scenario of Peacekeeping Missions and Performance of BD Peacekeepers in the New Scenario

Peacekeeping missions today need to be prepared to address a range of increasingly complex and diverse threats. This is essential to ensuring the safety and security of mission personnel and effective implementation of the mission mandates. Peacekeepers are being deployed into hostile environments where there is no peace to keep and peacekeepers are the direct target of armed groups, spoilers and terrorists. They are not about reporting lines between two warring states. They are about dealing with the whole state, maneuvering mentally with the state as well as maneuvering physically throughout the whole area of the state.

203 Competency of Bangladesh Army in Changing Scenario of Peacekeeping Operation (PKO): Requirement in Training and Equipment

At least 51 UN and associated personnel were killed in the line of duty during the course of 2015, according to the UN Staff Union’s Standing Committee for the Security and Independence of the International Civil Service. The report further said, among those killed were 27 peacekeepers … in deliberate attacks using improvised explosive devices, rocket and artillery fire, mortar rounds, landmines, grenades, suicide attacks, targeted assassinations and armed ambushes. According to same report, in 2014, at least 61 UN personnel were killed, in 2013, at least 58 were killed in deliberate attacks and in 2012, and at least 37 UN personnel were killed. For the second year in a row, the greatest loss of life in 2015 was recorded in Mali, where at least 25 personnel, including 11 peacekeepers and 14 civilians and associated personnel, were killed in ambushes, improvised explosive device detonations or when their vehicles hit landmines. The fatalities that took place in UN mission is shown from different perspective in Figure 1 and Figure 2.

Figure 1: Number of Fatalities by Malicious Action in UN Mission in Last 20 Years

Source: Prepared by Researcher based on information collected from UN sites

204 Figure 2: State of Fatalities of Top Four Mission in Recent Years State of Fatalities by Mission

120 104 100 73 80 60 33 40 32 20 0 MINUSCAMINUSMA MONUSCOUNAMID

ate of Fatalities by… Source: Prepared by Researcher based on information collected from UN sites

According to Schetter and Galtieri, Peacekeeping missions have changed dramatically in terms of goals, budgets and numbers throughout the last decades. Peacekeeping shifted from ‘securing states’ to ‘securing people’ carried out by a multidimensional approach. Today’s peacekeeping missions are characterized by ‘Robust Peacekeeping’, ‘Traditional to Multi-dimensional’, ‘Asymmetric Threat’, ‘Complex Attack’, ‘High rate of Fatalities’, ‘Transnational Organized Crime’, ‘Influenced by International Terrorism’, ‘Targeting Blue Helmet’, ‘Lack of confidence and trust amongst Signatories’, ‘Confusion Regarding Parallel Forces’, ‘Remote and Austere Environment’ etc. Robust peacekeeping comprises the tactical show or use of force to change behavior, and create conditions for a political process. Most of the current UN missions are under Chapter VII which is basically peace in enforcement and UN peacekeepers are authorized to use appropriate force. Once the peacekeepers utilize these tools for implementation of mission mandate, the affected party automatically goes against UN and targets the peacekeepers. Today’s peacekeepers also undertake a wide variety of complex tasks, from helping to build sustainable institutions of governance, to human rights monitoring, to security sector reform, to the disarmament, demobilization and reintegration (DDR) of former combatants. The armed groups pursue their criminal objectives via asymmetrical and terrorist operations. They regularly target United Nations

205 Competency of Bangladesh Army in Changing Scenario of Peacekeeping Operation (PKO): Requirement in Training and Equipment personnel and civilians. Transnational organized crime and international terrorism added new dimension to the conflict environment where these groups fight aggressively and employ guerilla and terrorist tactics, including rockets, IED suicide bombs. Several current peacekeeping operations are mandated to advance national reconciliation and dialogue in the absence of a peace agreement or even clear identification of the parties to the conflict for which the impartiality of the peacekeepers are subject to question. Extreme weather and wide dispersed deployment pose threat to sustainability for the contingents. UN in their report “Improving Security of United Nations Peacekeepers: We need to change the way we are doing business” identified that United Nations and T/PCCs fail to change in the following areas: Leadership, operational behavior, Use of Force, Defensive Posture, Principles of peacekeeping, Selection of TCCs/PCCs, PDT, Equipment, Intelligence, Technology, Medical, Bases, Mission footprints, Administration, Impunity etcetera. In the above mentioned changing scenario it is time to evaluate the performance of BD peacekeepers. As globally appreciated, BD peacekeepers performance so far in the UN missions is full of successes. However, handling the critical situations that arise on few occasions raise the question of its capability to handle these changing scenario. If we compare the number of fatalities of BD peacekeepers with other top TCCs we find that, BD has one of the highest fatalities among top TCCs.

Figure 3: Comparative State of Fatalities of Bangladesh in PKO with Other Top TCCs Comparison of Fatalities among Top TCCs

200 164 146 150 138 150 122 100 76 80 55 50 41 37 50 0 Fatalities

Etiopia Rwanda Bangladesh India Nepal Pakistan Egypt Ghana Indonasia Tanzania Senegal

Source: Prepared by the author from UN Fatalities Fact Sheet

206 In a research (carried out by the author), the respondents have identified numbers of weaknesses of BD peacekeepers and rated them according to grave in nature. It was found that ‘Operational behavior and Mindset’ is the major drawbacks whereas ‘Trigger Shyness’, Operational Adaptation’, ‘Inactivity/ Slow Response’ and ‘Inadequate Equipment’ are other major weaknesses of BD peacekeepers. However, ‘Understanding the Mandate’, ‘Appropriate and Adaptive Leadership’ and ‘Inadequate Pre-deployment Training’ are also major grey areas. They also identified ‘Less training on APC, MPV etcetera’ and ‘Inexperience in Asymmetric Warfare’ are also in the list.

Figure 4: Weaknesses of the Present BD Peacekeepers/Contingents to Meet the newWeak Challengesnesses of the Pr esenof tPKO BD Peacekeepers/Contingents to Meet the new Challenges of PKO 7.00 6.53 6.32 6.12 6.07 5.83 6.00 5.50 5.24 5.18 5.00 5.00 4.00 4.00

3.00 Rating of Response Lack of Operational Adaptation Operational Behavior and Mindset Appropriate and Adaptive Leadership Understanding the Mandate Inadequate Pre-Deployment Training Trigger Shyness Inactivity/ Slow Response Inadequate Equipment Less Experience in Assymetric Warfare Less Training on APC, MPV etc

Source: Prepared by Researcher based on information collected from Survey

Future Requirement for Peacekeepers in the Changing Scenario

The High-level Panel rightly recognized in its report that, “where asymmetric threats are present in the operating environment, United Nations missions must be provided with the necessary capabilities and training. In addition, an appropriate concept of operations and rules of engagement are required to protect themselves and deliver their mandates, including through preventive and pre-emptive postures and willingness to use force tactically to protect civilians and United Nations personnel”.

207 Competency of Bangladesh Army in Changing Scenario of Peacekeeping Operation (PKO): Requirement in Training and Equipment

The complexities of today’s operations require coordinated and cross- cutting action to enhance the equipping and training of peacekeepers, including UN police. Notwithstanding that troop and police contributing countries remain responsible for the delivery of training, member states, regional organizations, and the UN secretariat bring a collective wealth of knowledge and experience that is unparalleled to that of any single effort. The UN recognizes the value of training and support for mission leadership, in-mission scenario-based training and leadership partnering initiatives. It also acknowledges that a number of large-scale UN peacekeeping operations are taking place in franco phone environments.

Given the dynamic nature of peacekeeping and the unique challenges that peacekeeping personnel face on an everyday basis, DPKO emphasizes that there is a need to ensure that they are adequately equipped with the knowledge, skills, and attitudes required to perform their duties. In General Assembly resolution A/RES/49/37 (1995), Member States recognized their responsibility for the training of uniformed personnel for UN peacekeeping operations and requested the Secretary-General to develop training materials and establish a range of measures to assist Member States in this regard. With the restructuring of DPKO and establishment of DFS in 2007, the Integrated Training Service (ITS) in DPET was created as the responsibility center for peacekeeping training.

ITS has set priorities for the training of peacekeepers in their Global Peacekeeping Training Needs Assessment, Final Report 2012-2013. They have categorized the requirement as common for all peacekeepers and individual requirements for civilian, military, senior manager and other activists. The priorities relevant to all peacekeeping personnel are given atFigure5:

208 Figure 5: Training Priorities Relevant to all Peacekeepers

Source: GPTNA, Final Report - 2012-2013

The performance and skill gaps identified through interviews and surveys and the recommendations of Commanders, Officers and Member States, ITS recommends to focus on the priorities for military personnel given at Figure 6:

Figure 6: Training Priorities Relevant to Uniformed Peacekeepers

Source: GPTNA, Final Report 2012-2013

209 Competency of Bangladesh Army in Changing Scenario of Peacekeeping Operation (PKO): Requirement in Training and Equipment

UN has also mission specific additional measures and, in consultation with troop contributing countries, to identify options, including seeking the support of Member States, to enhance the safety and security especially for mission under chapter VII to execute effectively its mandate in a complex security environment that includes asymmetric threats. The areas that UN presently emphasizing on are: ‘Knowledge on the ‘Use of Force’’, ‘Improve Intelligence Capability’, ‘Counter IED Training’, ‘Secured MSR’, ‘Effective CASEVAC and MEDEVAC System’, ‘Safety and Security of UN Personnel’, and ‘Riot Control Capability’. UN also has a comprehensive list of equipment that it prefers the contingents to possess. According to the ‘UN Peacekeeping Uniformed Capability Requirements Paper’ published on 23 July 2015, UN DPKO has proposed for some equipment for the member states to enhance the effectiveness and respond to the changing scenario. The proposed equipment are as follows:

• GPS tracking system and tactical UAV.

• Individual suits of advanced operational, communications and personal protective equipment and night-operation enablers, including night-vision devices (goggles, scopes, cameras and sensors).

• Comprehensive sensor suites (radars, cameras, infrared and other sensors) with command post fusion centers for UN camps and installations, including radar alert systems against mortar and rocket threats. • Mobile Thermal Imaging Systems (MTIS). Modern Intelligence, Surveillance and Reconnaissance (ISR) suites and units. Enablers like the drones, unattended ground sensors, night vision devices and the other state of the art surveillance equipment are Force Multipliers. • Emergency alert systems linked to rapid and expert medical response. Advanced life support capability within the mission area and via medical evacuation (MEDEVAC). • Mine protected vehicles. Advanced IED detection systems, including ground-penetrating radar; hand-held explosive composition detection devices.

210 • Intelligence, surveillance and reconnaissance (ISR) platforms (mobile, fixed, tethered, aircraft and UAVs) for route surveillance; electronic countermeasures and other alert systems linked to dedicated intelligence resources during convoy movement (as required by the actual threat).

Analysis of Present State of BD Army in the Context of Training and Authorization of Equipment

Bangladesh Army puts special emphasis in preparing its peacekeepers for future deployment in UN mission areas. Changes have been brought to PDT to meet the future challenges. Contingents mainly undergo institutional mission-specific training at Bangladesh Institute of Peace Support Operations and Training (BIPSOT) and also unit level training in respective concentration area. It is felt by the contingents that the PDT is not adequate for the contingents due to only 4 weeks training for trainer, inadequate training for special task and equipment by enabler units i.e. Networking, Communication Equipment, fork lifter, freezer etcetera and inadequate practical training on ROE. Moreover, late joining of contingent members gravely affects PDT both in BIPSOT and in unit. The contingents face difficulties in selecting suitable candidates for the training in BIPSOT. Contingent commanders felt that, more supervision by BIPSOT on unit level PDT can achieve the objective of training. Language course run by BIPSOT is not fully mission oriented. The block and detail syllabus of the contingents show that there is no training on Counter IED/ IED survival skill in PDT. There is no topic related to STM in PDT syllabus. Therefore, the specialized units i.e. Signal unit, Special Force Unit, Supply and Transport Unit etcetera are not trained along the UN requirement. Bangladesh army do not have most of the equipment that UN suggested. Bangladesh Army is yet to have advanced GPS tracking system and tactical UAV in order to have upper hand on information-led operations. Individual suites of advanced operational, communications and personal protective

211 Competency of Bangladesh Army in Changing Scenario of Peacekeeping Operation (PKO): Requirement in Training and Equipment equipment are not also available with the peacekeepers. The urgent need of Mine-protected vehicles and advanced IED detection systems are also not available. However, BD contingents are already in a process to be equipped with latest force protection gadgets like Mine-Resistant Ambush Protected Vehicles to withstand bomb and terrorist attacks during peacekeeping. Proposed Training and Authorization of Equipment to Meet the Challenges The training for peacekeeping operations need to be put into prescribed framework and should have a continuous process. The framework should include comprehensive syllabus for PDT, in-mission and unit training, and post-mission training evaluation. The member state must be of the same mind-set to support such activities.

The PDT needs to include STM to prepare the special units. The training on knowledge about use of force can be imparted by training on scenario based exercise. Some specialized training are also required for peacekeepers. Those are: Language Proficiency training, Emergency Response Training, Counter Terrorism and Counter IED Training, Command and Leadership training etcetera. Some of these training can be included in unit training.

Intelligence capability can be built through Mission Intelligence Cell which will have a common database shared with unit and BIPSOT. Mission specific training can impart more knowledge on mission mandate. Fire and move to be practiced regularly to avoid trigger shyness and have proper training on ROE and Robust peacekeeping.

Recommendations

• BIPSOT should include Specialized Training Manual for the enablers /specialized unit during their pre-deployment training so that the specialized units are trained and prepared according to their role to perform during the mission at mission area.

212 • BD army should take endeavor to make the BD contingents modern by authorizing additional technical equipment for their survival as well as to increase their operational performances. A board of officers can be formed to assess the new equipment and modern vehicle required for different types of units, thereafter, take an endeavor to purchasethose.

Conclusion

The peacekeepers are not only deployed in hostile environment but they are also the target of armed groups. They are operating in more complex environment that feature asymmetric and unconventional threats. Peacekeepers undertake variety of tasks from rebuilding the government to DDR. The organized transnational criminals are present in the scenario and involved in drug and human trafficking, kidnapping etcetera. Mistrust amongst the signatories makes the task of peacekeepers more difficult. The present of parallel force and their action against rebel remaining within UN premises makes the blue helmet target of rebels.

Bangladesh peacekeepers have long history of success in peacekeeping. However, setback in Rwanda, abandoning Guiglo camp, ambush in DR Congo prove that BD peacekeepers lack operational adaptation, lack of appropriate leadership and support of neighboring units, deficient operational readiness due to inadequate Pre-deployment Training (PDT), trigger shyness, lack of concept of robust peacekeeping, lack of knowledge on ROE are the main reasons.

The HIPPO recognizes the need for specific equipment, intelligence, logistics, capabilities and special military preparation to face new challenges. DPKO emphasizes that there is a need to ensure that the UN personnel are adequately equipped with knowledge, skill and attitude to perform their duties. The UN in their different reports emphasized that the peacekeepers should have the knowledge on ‘Use of Force’, improved intelligence capability, counter IED training, effective CASEVAC and MEDEVAC system, riot control capability etcetera. The UN also has a

213 Competency of Bangladesh Army in Changing Scenario of Peacekeeping Operation (PKO): Requirement in Training and Equipment long list of required equipment i.e. UAV, night vision devices, personal protective equipment, alert system, modern ISR, IED detection system etcetera. UN urges for more enabler units in the mission area.

Although BD Army put lot of emphasis on the training of peacekeepers but still there are scopes to improve. There are few shortcomings in the conduct of training for the peacekeepers. The new areas that UN is emphasizing are not included in the PDT. For example: Counter Terrorism, Counter IED, Robust Peacekeeping training and STM. Due to the late join of the contingent members in the unit, all the members do not have comprehensive PDT. The list of lack of equipment is also long. BD Army do not have advanced personnel protection equipment, mine protected vehicles, IED detection system, UAV for intelligence and perimeter surveillance for security.

The training for peacekeeping operations need to be put into prescribed framework and should have a continuous process. The PDT needs to include STM to prepare the special units. The training on knowledge about use of force can be imparted by training on scenario based exercise. Some specialized training are also required for peacekeepers. Those are: Language Proficiency Training, Emergency Response Training, Counter Terrorism and Counter IED Training, Command and Leadership Training etcetera. Some of these training can be included in unit training.

References

1. Kuele , G., & Cepik, M. (2017). Intelligence Support to MONUSCO: Challenges to Peacekeeping and Security. The International Journal of Intelligence, Security, and Public Affairs, 19(1), 44-68. Retrieved from http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/23800992.2017.1289751

2. Ladsous, H. (2014). New Challenges and Priorities for UN Peacekeeping. The Brookings Institution.

214 3. Paris, R. (2008). Post-conflict Peacebuilding. In T. G. Weiss, & S. Daws (Eds.), The Oxford handbook on the United Nations (pp. 404-426). Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.

4. Schetter, C., & Galtieri, F. (2015). Peacekeeping at the crossroads. Current challenges for the United Nations. DIE. Retrieved from http://www.fiw.uni-bonn.de/digital-society/projects-and-events/ conrad_schetter_peacekeeping 5. Secretary-General. (2014, June 11). Secretary-General’s Remarks at Security Council Open Debate on Trends in United Nations Peacekeeping. New York: United Nations. Retrieved May 2018, from https://www.un.org/sg/en/content/sg/statement/2014-06-11/ secretary-generals-remarks-security-council-open-debate-trends 6. Sharland, L. (2015, April). research project of the International Peace Institute. Counter-Ied Technology in UN Peacekeeping: Expanding Capability and Mitigating Risks. Australia: Australian Strategic Policy Institute. 7. Singh, Lieutenant General Ajit . (2018, February 27). Challenges to UN Peacekeeping. Key Note Speaker in Strategic Level Seminar. Dhaka, Bangladesh: BIPSOT. 8. United Nations. (2016, Jnuary 21). Press Release. At Least 51 United Nations Personnel Killed in Deliberate Attacks against Peacekeeping Operations in 2015. New York: United Nations. Retrieved March 9, 2018, from https://www.un.org/press/en/2016/org1624.doc.htm 9. United Nations. (2018). United Nations Peacekeeping Resourse Hub. Retrieved from United Nations: https://research.un.org/en/ peacekeeping-community/training 10. United Nations. (December 2017). Improving Security of United Nations Peacekeepers: We need to change the way we are doing business. New York: UN.

215 Competency of Bangladesh Army in Changing Scenario of Peacekeeping Operation (PKO): Requirement in Training and Equipment

11. United Nations. (September 2018). Summary of Contributions to UN Peacekeeping by Country, Mission and Post. United Nations Peacekeeping. United Nations. Retrieved from https://peacekeeping. un.org/sites/default/files/3_country_and_mission_0.pdf

Author

Lieutenant Colonel Shahzad Pervez Mohiuddin, psc Signals was born on December 04, 1976 at Dhaka, Bangladesh. He was commissioned from Bangladesh Military Academy on December 13, 1996 in the Corps of Signals. His duties and appointments include staffs and company commander at Signal Battalions. He served as instructor in Signal Training Center & School. He was Inspector at Inspectorate of Electronics and Instrument. He also served as Director, Inclusion and Support Services at Proyash, Dhaka. Under blue helmet, he served twice at United Mission in Ivory Coast (UNOCI) both as contingent member and Force Headquarter staff respectively. He is graduate from Defence Services Command & Staff College. He is also a graduate from Department of Electrical Electronics and Communication Engineering at Military Institute of Science and Technology. He is also pursuing his MSc at Bangladesh University of Science and Technology.

216 TOWARDS CAPACITY DEVELOPMENT FOR A RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT ORGANIZATION IN BANGLADESH AIR FORCE

Group Captain Md Asif Iqbal, afwc, psc

Introduction

Since the ancient time science and technology have fascinated mankind. Behind these endeavors were the years of hard work, dedication & more importantly scientific research. Research in particular has always been the foundation stone of almost each and every invention. All nations consider military strength to be one of her key elements of national power. Current nature of war is marked by rapid and significant changes in concept, doctrine and technologies. A nation needs to keep pace with the changes and advancement to attain her defence capability. Bangladesh should no way exception to that. She needs to harness the advancement and up-gradation of technologies. Bangladesh (BD) is surrounded by India and Myanmar from three sides. As per defence capability, India is far advanced than Bangladesh and Myanmar is rapidly advancing in defence capability. More so, the present geo political situation of Myanmar and Rohingya crisis has put the Bangladesh-Myanmar relation in a dilemma. Thus to remain at par and keep balance of power, Bangladesh needs to modernized her defence forces. As a developing country falling into ‘Thucydides Trap’ will not be a wise option, rather to have its own Research and Development (R&D) organization for the modernization of defence will be suitable option.

Bangladesh Air Force (BAF) being a key element of Bangladesh defence needs to keep pace with the changing scenario. The air technologies, weapons and equipment are very expensive and complex in nature. Indigenous R&D can be the key factor for modernizing BAF. Presently, R&D sector is less focused in BAF due various constraints. The R&D initiatives are not well organized and insignificant.

217 Towards Capacity Development for a Research and Development Organization in Bangladesh Air Force

On the other hand, Bangladesh Army has Army Training and Doctrine Command (ARTDOC) to carry out organized R&D which is contributing to the service and to our economy. So, for the better contribution to the up-gradation and modernization, BAF needs a R&D organization.

Key Concept and Reviewing of Existing R&D Practices in BAF Key Concept

R&D Policy. R&D policy of a country focuses on amount and type of investment, regulation, direct and indirect financial assistance, provision of information and so on. Once government approves a particular category of R&D support, it must be implemented through strategic planning. Basing on the planning, necessary budget allocation is done and economic impact assessment studies are regularly conducted to determine the effectiveness of various projects within these programmes. Finally the results should be fed back to the managers and to the economic policy process for appropriate adjustments. The above mentioned R&D policy cycle is shown in the bellow figure:

Figure 1: R&D Policy Cycle

Economic Strategic Policy Planning Rationale

Economic Budget Impact Approval Assessment

Existing R&D Practices. The R&D practice signifies the current procedure or process followed for obtaining R&D objective in BAF.

218 Practices include organizational set-up, staff employment for R&D and the process & procedures of R&D. It also means the budget allocation and manpower posting for R&D. These are mostly tangible and concrete elements of R&D.

Glorious History of R&D of BAF

‘Kilo Flight’ was formed during the Liberation War 1971 which had a glorious history to undertake R&D work. History says Indian authorities and IAF donated one DC-3 Dakota, one Twin Otter plane and one Alouette III helicopter for the newborn BAF. BAF technical personnel modified those aircraft and helicopter for strafing, rocketing & bombing. The above mentioned R&D effort had an overreaching implication. As an outcome of the R&D effort with tiny assets, BAF skilled and braved pilots undertook strategic operation to create strategic effect and made a unique example in the history of air power.

After the Liberation War, BAF could not hold the rhythm of R&D activities. BAF kept herself busy with re-organization and re-establishment program. Despite the fact, in different cases the necessity was felt to undertake R&D project. Few of the remarkable steps are described below:

• Repair of engine to make MiG-29 aircraft fly worthy to uphold BAF/ National image.

• Making C-130 aircraft ser No 0754 fly worthy which remained grounded for 11 Years.

• Making 03 Mi-171sh helicopters serviceable in Mali which were severely damaged due to hostile mortar attack.

• Conversion of Precision Guided Munitions from General Purpose Bomb.

• Overhaul plants of Basic Trainer, Helicopter and F-7 series aircraft.

219 Towards Capacity Development for a Research and Development Organization in Bangladesh Air Force

• Over the time, BAF emerged as a professional force. To develop further, R&D policy was formulated and circulated by Air HQ in 2007 for followings:

▪▪ To strife for self-reliant BAF. ▪▪ To utilize indigenous technology. ▪▪ Enhance operational readiness. ▪▪ Increase operational and maintenance capability. ▪▪ To ensure cost effective maintenance and safe foreigncurrency. ▪▪ To establish technological integration & dual-use technology. ▪▪ To keep pace with advancement of technology. ▪▪ To gain long term war sustenance.

Due to above move, the scope and range of BAF R&D activities were increased than before. But, the progression rate was hindered due to various limitations. It may be mentioned that ‘Evolutionary Research’ offers the source for break through innovations. But to make it practicable, it needs huge financial involvement and sophisticated technology. BAF R&D plan should intend at ‘Application Research’. R&D standing committee is formed at Air HQ to act as approving authority for all R&D projects. Committee is chaired by ACAS (O&T), presently ACAS (P). Besides, there is a R&D execution committee headed by Officer Commanding, Flying Wing or Operational Wing of a base as President. Other members will be as selected by Air Officer Commanding or Base Commander of that respective base.

R&D Activities

Cost Benefit Analysis. In FY 2006-17, total fund allotted for the purpose of R&D was only BDT 5,20,00,000.00 (Tk five crore and twenty lac only). The investment was so little but achievement in terms of cost benefit analysis was enormous. Against total procurement cost of BDT 78,10,00,000.00 (Tk seventy eight crore and 10 lac only) foreign currency which was saved is equivalent to 72,90,00,000.00 (Tk seventy two crore ninety lac only). The graph of above statistical analysis is shown below:

220 Figure 2: Cost Benefit Analysis 2006-07 – 2017-18

Source: Developed by author Scope of R&D Activities. Initially, R&D activities were limited to modification of ground support equipment, trolleys and general engineering in nature. In addition Non Directional Beacon (NDB), Remote Control System for aircraft arresting barrier, Personal Computer Based Voice Recording System, Noise Jammer (EW), Auto Junction Line Tester etc were the examples of R&D activities. But such project could not meet the user expectation in terms of performance despite cost effectiveness. Bangabandhu Aeronautical Complex (BAC), 214 MRO (F-7 series fighter ac overhauling plant), 216 MRO (Mi-series helicopter overhauling plant) and 207 MRO (electronics component repair and overhauling plant are capable to overhaul basic trainer PT-6 ac, Bell-212, 206 & Mi series helicopter and F-7 series fighter aircraft, but no remarkable progress has been observed in the field of R&D.

Reverse Engineering (RE). RE encompasses any activity that is done to determine how a product works and to learn the ideas and technology that were used in developing that product. Prospect of goal oriented R&D projects involving tailoring or modification of existing technology is enormous. BAF is yet to take significant move on RE.

Auspicious Move. Undertaking R&D project on UAV was a long cherished dream for BAF. After long 10 years of work, it has come

221 Towards Capacity Development for a Research and Development Organization in Bangladesh Air Force to a shape. The said UAV is now equipped with sophisticated and complex electronics like GPS guided autopilot, live video transmission equipment, ground control station and various other features. In addition to R&D project on UAV, undertaking R&D project to convert general purpose bomb to PGM in collaboration with Chinese specialist is another remarkable steps to enhance the capability of BAF.

Issues and Challenges of the Existing R&D Practices

Towards the capacity development of R&D in BAF, it is imperative to examine the issues and challenges of the present practices for further mitigation. Issues and challenges in the existing R&D practices of BAF which requires due attentions are as follows:

• Budget Constraint. Budget allocation for R&D activities for BAF is seriously lacking. In 2006-07, approximately BDT 15 lac was allotted for R&D. The highest budget was in FY 2017-18 and that was BDT 1 crore. This budget allocation is meagre for an air force to carry out R&D. The budget allotment trend is shown below:

Figure 3: Budget Allotment of BAF for R&D since FY 2006-2018

Source: Developed by author

For better understanding statistics of Defence R&D budget allocations in terms of % of GDP of Myanmar, India and Pakistan are shown below:

222 Figure 4: Defence R&D Budget of Myanmar (% of GDP

Source: Developed by author

Figure 5: Defence R&D Budget of India (% of GDP)

Source: Develop by author

Figure 6: Defence R&D Budget of Pakistan (% of GDP)

Source: Developed by author

• Inadequate R&D Infrastructure and Facilities. To carry out R&D with hardware and software of air power, demands adequate infrastructure and facilities, like heavy industrial base, aircraft manufacturing plant, missile and weapon manufacturing plant, numerous number of research laboratory facilities including metallurgical laboratory.

• Non-availability of Established R&D Organisation. There is no established R&D directorate at Air HQ level in BAF for planning, executing, monitoring and development of R&D activities.

223 Towards Capacity Development for a Research and Development Organization in Bangladesh Air Force

BAF needs to go far way in regards to development and innovation of platforms and modern technology.

• Lack of Appropriate Man-Management to Ensure Sustained R&D Activities. Frequent posting and deployment of officer and technical personnel to different place who were involved with the project is one of the biggest barriers to continue R&D work.

• Lack of Expertise. To undertake R&D, dedicated researcher is needed with high degree of specialization & higher education and significant number of scientists. But, such expertise is definitely missing for the case of BAF.

• Lack of Doctrine to Rationalize R&D. Any modern air force must constantly strive to up-date its defense doctrine in relation to time, technological advancement and capability of adversary. A nation possesses old day’s doctrine, is likely to be at the mercy of a progressive adversary during war. But, BAF is yet to create such doctrine to boost R&D.

• Lack of Commercial Industrial Base. Now-a-days Armed Forces of the world are fulfilling most of its technological needs from commercial industrial bases rather than depending exclusively on defense industries. The Armed Forces of the countries like USA, Sweden, France, Germany and UK have joined hands with their own commercial industrial bases. But, such facilities and circumstances are yet to prevail for country like Bangladesh in general and for BAF in particular.

224 The summary of the challenges of existing R&D practice are given below:

Figure 7: Summary of Challenges of Existing R&D Practices

Functional Limitations Other Limitations - Budget constraint. - Lack of guidance, - Inadequate R&D supervision & infrastructure. coordination. - Lack of appropriate man- - Inadequate R&D facilities. management. - Non availability of R&D - Lack of skilled manpower. organization. - Frequent posting. - Lack of commercial - Lack of Doctrine. industrial bases. - Lack of civil corporation. - Resource constraint. - Lack of long term planning & direction.

Case Studies R&D at ARTDOC

ARTDOC formulates and disseminates concepts and doctrines of warfare in the fields of strategy, operational art, tactics, logistic, training and human resource development (HRD). The major limitations that the organization is facing are the limitation on the budget and less focus on R&D by the leaderships. However these can be mitigated by allotment of additional budget and mind set towards the R&D. Aspects which facilitates R&D are discussed below:

• Army Headquarters conduct various evaluation and research project related to training and manpower development through ARTDOC. • Headquarters ARTDOC also conduct various research work on own initiative. • The prevailing culture of the organization is very R&D friendly.

225 Towards Capacity Development for a Research and Development Organization in Bangladesh Air Force

• The Headquarters are sufficiently staffed with qualified officers to undertake various research works.

R&D in India

India’s quest for self-reliance through R&D got significantly boosted during 1990s. Hindustan Aeronautical Limited (HAL) could manufacture Tejas Light Combat Aircraft by undertaking R&D projects. Overall significant progress have been achieved on missile defence, software development, electronics component but success along with cost effectiveness and getting market to export in respect of aircraft industry is yet to be achieved and still remain doubtful. Defence Research and Development Organization (DRDO). DRDO was established in 1958 which is the core of R&D in Indian Armed Forces. At present, DRDO is a compound of 52 laboratories and is running by more than 7,000 scientists and about 23,000 other scientific, technical and supporting personnel. DRDO also provides ample spinoff benefits to the society at large. Software Development Institute (SDI). The Indian Air Force took step by establishing a dedicated SDI to integrate new weapons and systems into the Fight aircraft. SDI has saved foreign exchange to the tune of Rs 500 cores within five years. In addition SDI is also undertaking development of Mission Planning System, Air Defence Simulator, Electronic Warfare (EW) systems etc.

R&D in Pakistan

Pakistan also established her R&D long time back. Pakistan R&D is functioning in collaboration of civil and military part as given below:

• Pakistan Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (PCSIR). The PCSIR is a government-owned research organization responsible to conduct R&D work on problems that are being faced by the industrial sector in order to take up some measures for the application and utilization of research results.

226 • Defence Science & Technology Organization (DESTO). The DESTO pursues R&D on development of weapons systems over a variety of disciplines, including aerodynamics, propulsion & propellants, and avionics.

• Pakistan Aeronautical Center (PAC), Kamra. PAC offers specific types and general engineering services. General Engineering Services include calibrations, heat & surface treatments, non-destructive inspections, high and low end parts manufacturing, composite & rubber parts manufacturing. It has the potential of overhauling most of her combat aircraft and their engines. It can also rebuild/renovate/ repair damaged ones and manufacture selected parts and other key user’s items. Recently aviation city has been established at PAC which would house various hi-tech and state of the art academic, research and development institutes.

R&D in Myanmar

Very limited information about R&D activities of Myanmar Air Force is available in different internet source. From the budgetary analysis in R&D, it may be presumed that Myanmar is taking effort in much higher scale in R&D than the defence sector of Bangladesh. Myanmar Air Force has the capability to overhaul and assemble PT-6 trainer aircraft, assemble STOL CH-701 light aircraft. In Myanmar, the aviation technology was based on the experience of maintenance and overhaul of aircrafts & helicopters from Myanmar Air Force since 1941 and Myanmar Airways since 1948. They have put significant effort for design and construction of the gliders, powered glider and hovercraft. Myanmar Aerospace Engineering University was established in February 2002. Few programme are discussed below:

• Space Technology Research Activities. Satellite Communications Engineering Research Laboratory was established with the objectives to carry out research works on the fields of space based technologies. Rocket Technology, UAV and Satellite Communications, Design and Construction Research group are working in such laboratory.

227 Towards Capacity Development for a Research and Development Organization in Bangladesh Air Force

• Clandestine Chemical Weapon Programme. The possibility of Myanmar having a clandestine chemical weapon program was reiterated by US Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) in 1988 and 1992.

Key Findings from Case Studies

From the above study of R&D activities of home and neighboring countries it is realized that BAF has to go long way to boost R&D activities to overcome challenges of R&D activities, infrastructure, grow expertise and budget allocation. By increasing the capability of ‘General engineering Service’, BAF R&D organization at BAC can get the same output like PAC Kamra. In EW Department especially, imported program are susceptible to being compromised during a crisis as the adversary can have access to their vital statistics from the manufacturing states. Indigenously designed and very well safeguarded software program are the only solution. On the other hand, BAF should put a long term plan for trainer aircraft manufacturing plant and design &development of weapon system like missile, rocket and bomb to suit requirement to reduce dependency on other countries. Besides, as a long term plan it is required to give emphasis on Space Research and Integrated Guided Missile Development Program.

Rationale of a R&D Organization for BAF

Bangladesh has become a developing country from least developed country. It is the high time to develop an R&D organization if BAF intend to attain self-sufficiency in terms of military equipment and platforms. BAF should devise long and short terms plan where R&D will create a huge impact.

Short Term Plan

Civil-Military Joint Venture. Integration of resources will help to maximize the R&D capability and use of Dual-use Technologies. PAD. BAF can use phased out aircrafts as dummy targets. Decoys of SAM launchers, artillery guns, AD radars, may be produced locally and

228 be placed at the outskirts of airfield areas. Besides, different innovative tactical deception methods may be developed through R&D within the local resources for deception. Reconnaissance. R&D may be carried out on fighter aircraft to develop indigenous aerial reconnaissance capability. UAV and Drone. Successful R&D projects on UAV and Drone will play an instrumental role. EW. BAF currently has limited EW capability. Therefore, special focus needs to be given to enhance EW capability through proper R&D. Weapon System. Conventional weapon through R&D should be modified to smart weapon for effective use. In this regard remarkable progress through R&D project has already been done. BAF is to make effort to develop interoperability of using similar type of munitions in different fighter aircraft. Indigenous Engineering. Indigenous engineering will allow to have flexibility in own capacity building and self-reliance. Reverse engineering could be first of its kind. Self-reliance in the field of maintenance would not only save lots of foreign currency but is likely to open the prospect of earning by carrying out complete overhauling of aircrafts/helicopters of sister services and friendly counties forces. BAF Training System. In advance level it is felt that, Combat Commanders Course is to be developed and introduced. Some R&D projects on evaluating entire BAF training system and subsequent career progression profile are to be under taken for developing better HRD in future. Skilled Human Resources for R&D. BUET, BIT, DU have qualified professors and laboratories. These universities can carry out some kind of R&D work which may be funded by BAF. There are highly qualified NRBs who are residing in different countries. Besides, every year a good number of expert personnel also get retired from defence services and other institutions. Their expertise can be utilized on contract basis. Steps may be taken to enhance cooperation and collaborations between civil and military research faculties.

229 Towards Capacity Development for a Research and Development Organization in Bangladesh Air Force

Long Term Plan

Development through Innovation. BAF may endeavor for technology transfer and joint collaboration with friendly countries. Manufacturing of Trainer Aircraft. The primary trainer aircraft manufacturing project may be undertaken at BAC in collaboration with foreign/partner companies. R&D on Missile Technology. Many of the developing countries have made remarkable progress on indigenously built missile technology. There is ample scope for development of missile technology in the form of air to air missile, SAM and cruise missile. In future BD needs to consider carrying out R&D on Space Research and Integrated Guided Missile Development Program. Software Development Institute (SDI). The integration of a new weapon system is a complex process primarily involving software work. While the weapons themselves are expensive, their integration to a platform is even more expensive. Considering these factors, BAF should take steps to establish a dedicated SDI. Electronics Limited. BAF can carry out R&D on EW, IFF, RWR, Radar Technology and avionics equipment by establishing Electronics Limited.

Recommended Framework Towards R&D Organization for BAF Recommended Framework

The proposed structure may be implemented in two phases. Phase 1 is suggested under short term plan and Phase 2 is suggested under long term plan. The frame work is also designed to facilitate maximum utilization of already established organizations like BAC, MIST, and different MROs and with additional proposal of Air University. Proposed organogram has been initially influenced by the R&D structure of Pakistan. However, in future with the establishment of R&D organization of other sister services, the Indian model DRDO can be established and also may opt

230 for Space Research and Integrated Guided Missile Development Program. The Functional Organogram of BAF R&D organization is given below:

Figure 8: Functional Organogram of BAF R&D organization

231 Towards Capacity Development for a Research and Development Organization in Bangladesh Air Force

Focal Aspects of R&D Organization

R&D Directorate at Air HQ. A separate directorate needed to be established at Air HQ under ACAS (P). The function of this directorate will be planning, execution, monitoring and development of R&D activities in BAF. The directorate should be headed by Director R&D. The directorate will be staffed by Chief Research Fellow (CRF) and Deputy Directors of different specializations such as Aerospace Cell, Avionics and Communications, Armament and Weapon System, Mechanical Transport and Ground Support Equipment, Doctrine, Training & Research and IT & Software development cells. The organogram of R&D Directorate is given below:

Figure 9: Organogram of R&D Directorate

R&D at BAC. A directorate has already been proposed under BAC and is on the process of establishment. All the MROs are structured directly under BAC and therefore, BAC will coordinate and control all R&D efforts in all the MROs. The proposed Organogram of BAC is given in Figure 10:

232 Figure 10: Organogram of BAC

Civil-Military Cooperation. Under MOD or BUP, some joint projects may be developed in collaborations with other public and private organization or university and industry. The proposed Air University will also be involved vastly in the theoretical research sector once established.

Aerospace/Avionics/Armament/IT Cell. These cells will be initially responsible to control and coordinate the design and testing of various equipment/component. Once successful, the equipment/components may be manufactured industrially. Apart from manufacturing of different spares of engineering range, effort should be given to develop and design for viability and application of different armament range weapon, avionics component including development of electronics circuit, programming, simulator design, up-gradation of UAV and drone projects.

Doctrine, Training and Research Cell This cell will be designed to look after and carry out research on planning and policy, operational effectiveness of different squadrons and BAF as a whole. Other tasks entrusted on this cell may be to coordinate research and evaluate the training methodology and also on the doctrine and theoretical research in collaboration with researchers from NDC, DSCSC, etc.

233 Towards Capacity Development for a Research and Development Organization in Bangladesh Air Force

R&D Wings at Base/Unit Level. R&D Wing may be established in every bases and units, which will be responsible for all R&D tasks assigned to the base. Functional capacity and capability of the General Engineering Workshops may be enhanced as well as separate workshops for avionics and munitions may be established under proposed R&D wing of the respective bases.

Aviation City. Like PAC, Kamra establishment of an Aviation City has been proposed which will be the hub of all research works undertaken in the field of aviation or related to it throughout the country. The proposed organogram of Aviation City is given below:

Figure 11: Organogram of Aviation City

Conclusion

BAF has a glorious history of R&D which had an overreaching implication during our liberation war 1971. After the liberation war, BAF could not hold the rhythm of R&D activities. Under economic back drop, BAF kept herself busy with re-organization and re-establishment program. To strife for self-reliant BAF R&D policy was circulated in 2007 and R&D activities got the momentum in BAF. Under contemporary strategic environment, development of self-reliant air force and utilization of indigenous resource has become prime option for BAF. By undertaking R&D projects huge amount of foreign currency was saved. But, except few cases weight of effort was not significant. R&D activities were limited to general engineering in nature. Though by now BAC, 214 MRO (U), 216

234 MRO (U) and 207 MRO (U) were established but, only few projects were concerned with development and innovative in nature. Besides, there is also limited progress in Reverse Engineering.

Despite above fact, undertaking R&D projects on UAV and conversion of dump bomb to PGM has opened a new hope. But, such hopes are being hampered due to various limitations and challenges like budget constraint, lack of expertise and facilities, doctrine and organization. To encourage R&D activities, BAF has nominated Directorate of Plans, but there is no established R&D directorate at Air HQs.From the study of R&D activities of neighboring countries, it is realized that BAF has to go long way to boost R&D activities to overcome challenges of R&D activities, infrastructure, grow expertise andbudget allocation. By increasing the capability of ‘General engineering Service’, BAF R&D organization at BAC can get the same output like PAC Kamra. Like Pakistan, R&D organization of BAF in coordination with other civil and military industrial base could pursue R&D on weapon, aerodynamics, propulsion, and avionics as well as dual use technology.

It’s a dream for BAF to have the capability of manufacturing primary trainer aircraft. Besides, as a long term plan design &development of weapon system like missile, rocket and bomb to suit the requirement to reduce dependency should also be considered. For further progress in future it is required to give emphasis on Space Research & Integrated Guided Missile Development Program.For the capacity development in R&D of BAF, a framework of a R&D organization has been recommended under two phases, i.e. short term and long term. The proposed structure is designed to facilitate maximum utilization of already established organizations and MROs with additional proposal of Air University and Aviation City. A dedicated R&D Directorate will coordinate all the R&D activities of BAF. The proposed framework has been initially influenced by the R&D structure of Pakistan. However, in future with the establishment of R&D organization of other sister services, the Indian model of DRDO can be established.

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References

1. PendseK S (June 1995).‘India’s Defence Planning in the Nineties’. Trishul, India, Vol. 4, No. 1 2. Bhuiyan, Captain Shaif Uddin (2014). ‘Modernizing BAF: Striking Balance between Capability Building and Resources’,. Group Research Paper, National Defence College Bangladesh, Mirpur Cantonment, Dhaka 3. ‘Citizen Charter, Department of Defence Research and Development (DRDO)’ (2015). Government of India 4. Faroque, Lieutenant Colonel Siddiquee (2013). ‘Functional Restructuring of Research and Development Organization for Tri-Service-Bangladesh Perspective’. National Defence College Bangladesh, Mirpur Cantonment, Dhaka 5. Hasnain, Squadron Leader M Moinul (2006). ‘A Need to Establish Research & Development (R&D) Program in BAF to Strengthen the Path of Resilience’. Defence Services Command and Staff College, Bangladesh, Mirpur Cantonment, Dhaka 6. Imdadul, Wing Commander Kazi (2009). ‘Enhancing The Research & Development Capabilities of BAF for Self Reliance’.Defence Services Command and Staff College, Bangladesh, Mirpur Cantonment, Dhaka 7. Imrul, Lt Col Mabud (2016). ‘Need for A Joint Research & Development Organization Towards Advancement of Bangladesh Armed Forces’. National Defence College Bangladesh, Mirpur Cantonment, Dhaka 8. Nasirullah, Squadron Leader KH (2013). ‘Prospects of establishing research and development organization in BAF’. Defence Services Command and Staff College, Bangladesh, Mirpur Cantonment, Dhaka 9. Pasha, Lieutenant Colonel Sheikh Habib Uddin (2007).‘Research and Development (R&D) in Bangladesh Armed Forces- An Evaluation’. National Defence College Bangladesh, Mirpur Cantonment, Dhaka

236 10. Rahman, Squadron Leader Sayeedur (2009), ‘Research and development in BAF: Problems and prospect for future’. Defence Services Command and Staff College, Bangladesh, Mirpur Cantonment, Dhaka 11. Sazzadur, Squadron Leader Rahim (2000). ‘Requirement of research and development in Bangladesh Air Force’.Defence Services Command and Staff College, Bangladesh, Mirpur Cantonment, Dhaka 12. Sohel, Lieutenant Colonel Ahmed (2003). ‘Research and Development in Bangladesh Armed Forces’. National Defence College Bangladesh, Mirpur Cantonment, Dhaka 13. Virendar, Major (2014). ‘Defence research and development organization–Recommendations for greater effectiveness’. Defence Service Staff College, India, Willington 14. An Interview with Air Vice Marshal Sanaul Haq, Assistant Chief of Air Staff (Planning) on 08 April 2018 15. An Interview with Air Commodore Muhammad Belal, Director, Directorate of Planning, Air HQ, BAF on 07 May 2018 16. An Interview with Group Captain M Muied Hossain (presently Air Commodore), Deputy Director, Directorate of Planning, Air HQ, BAF on 07 May 2018 17. An Interview with Group Captain Md Siddiqur Rahman, Director, Directorate of Supply Air HQ, BAF on 07 May 2018 18. An Interview (telephonic) with Wing Commander Md Maksudul Alam, Officer Commanding 210 MRO(U) BAF on 14 May 2018 19. An Interview with Wing Commander Md Saiful Islam, OIC, AES BAF BBD on 15 May 2018 20. An Interview with Air Commodore Monjur Kabir Bhuiyan, Director General (Planning), Bangabandhu Aeronautical Complex, BAF on 13 June 2018

237 Towards Capacity Development for a Research and Development Organization in Bangladesh Air Force

21. An Interview with Group Captain Sharif Mostafa, Director General (Flying), Bangabandhu Aeronautical Complex, BAF on 13 June 2018

22. An Interview with Group Captain Mridha Md Ekramuzzaman, Director General (Aero), Bangabandhu Aeronautical Complex, BAF on 13 June 2018

23. An Interview (telephonic) with Brigadier General Abu Naser, Chief Evaluator, ARTDOC, on 18 August 2018

24. An Interview with Air Commodore Md Shahjahan, Officer Commanding 214 MRO(U), BAF on 30 July 2018

25. An Interview with Air Commodore Sade Uddin Ahmed, Officer Commanding 216 MRO(U), BAF on 3 July May 2018

26. An Interview with Wing Commander Muhammad Akter Jamil, Officer Commanding 205 MRO(U) BAF on 31 July 2018

27. An Interview with Group Captain Mostafa Muhammad Siddiq, Course Member, Armed Forces War Course 2018 on 13 August 2018

28. An Interview with Air Vice Marshal Kamrul Ehsan, Assistant Chief of Air Staff (Maintenance) on 12 September 2018

29. An Interview with Air Commodore Walia, Course Member (India), NDC 2018 on 26 October 2018

30. An Interview (telephonic) with Brigadier General Sayed Imran, Course Member (Pakistan), NDC 2018 on 27 October 2018

238 Author

Group Captain Md Asif Iqbal, afwc, psc was commissioned on May 1994 in GD (P) branch of Bangladesh Air Force. He held various command, staff and instructional appointments at verious Squadrons and Headquarters. Besides, he was also an flying and academic instructor in different flying and training institution of Bangladesh Air Force. He is a graduate of Defence Services Command and Staff College, Mirpur and Malaysian Armed Forces Staff College, Malaysia. He Participated in United Nations Peace Keeping Operation as a Staff Officer in Division Headquarters in United Nations Mission in Democratic Republic of Congo and as Detachment Commander in United Nations Mission in Mali.

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