An Assessrnent of the Available Information on Environmental Impacts of Chernical Pesticides Used in the CARICOM States of the Caribbean Region
By: Danielle Vienneau
Submitted in partial fulfillrnent of the requirernents for the degree of Master of Environmental Studies at Dalhousie University Halifax, Nova Scotia July 18, 1997
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3.0 Country Information and Model Island Characteristics ...... 39 3.1 Introduction ...... 39 3.2 Summary of the CARICOM Countries ...... 39 3.2.1 Climate ...... 39 3.2.2 Country Sire and Land Use ...... 40 3.3.2 Agricultural Production ...... 40 3.3.4 Irrigation ...... 45 3.3.5 Pesticide Use ...... 46 3.3.6Topography ...... 48 3. 4Barbados ...... 49 3.4.1 Location ...... 49 3.4.2Economy ...... 49 3.4.3Topography ...... 49 3.4.4 Geology, Soils and Vegetation ...... 50 3.4.5 Land Use and Agriculture ...... 51 3.5Jamaica ...... 51 3.5.1 Location ...... 51 3.5.2Economy ...... 52 3.5.3Topography ...... 52 3.5.4 Geology, Soils and Vegetation ...... 52 3.5.5 Land Use and Agriculture ...... 53 3.6St.Lucia ...... 53 3.6.1 Location ...... 53 3.6.2 Economy ...... 54 3.6.3Topography ...... 54 3.6.4 Geology, Soils, and Vegetation ...... 54 3.6.5 Land use and Agriculture ...... 55 3.7TrinidadandTobago ...... 56 3.7.1 Location ...... 56 3.7.2Economy ...... 56 3.7.3Topography ...... 56 3.7.4 Land Use and Agriculture ...... 57 3.8 Cornparison and Conclusion ...... 57
4.0 Literature Review of Pesticide Impacts in the CARICOM ...... 62 4.1 Introduction ...... 62 4.2 Water and Sediment ...... 62 4.3Soil ...... 66 4.4Air ...... -...... 67 4.5Biota ...... 67 4.5.1 Aquatic Organisms ...... 67 4.5.2 lnsects ...... 71 4.5.3 Plants ...... 72 4.5.4 Wildlife ...... 73 4.5.5 Humans ...... 74 4.6 Laboratory Studies ...... 75 4.7 Knowledge. Attitudes. Practices and Beliefs ...... 76 4.8 Conclusion ...... 81
5.0 Model lsland analysis of the transport, fate and effects of pesticides in the Caribbean ...... 85 5.1 Introduction ...... 85 5.2 Definition of Models ...... 85 5.2.1 Predictive or Mathematical Models ...... 86 5.2.2 The Model Island as a Representation ...... 86 5.3 Criteria for Understanding Environmental Impacts ...... 88 5.3.1 Transport (Soil) ...... 88 5.3.2 Transport (Water) ...... 89 5.3.3 Transport (Air) ...... 89 4.3.4 Transport (Biota) ...... 89 5.3.5 Fate (Soil) ...... 90 5.3.6 Fate (Water) ...... 90 5.3.7 Fate (Air) ...... 90 5.3.8 Fate (Biota) ...... 91 5.3.9 Effects ...... 91 5.4 The Model Island Analysis- Available Data ...... 92 5.4.1 Transport (Soil) ...... 92 5.4.2 Transport (Water) ...... 92 5.4.3 Transport (Air) ...... 92 5.4.4 Transport (Biota) ...... 93 5.4.5 Fate (Soil) ...... 94 5.4.6 Fate (Water) ...... 94 5.4.7 Fate (Biota) ...... 95 5.4.8 Effects (Soil) ...... 96 5.4.9 Effects (Water) ...... 96 5.4.1 0 Effects (Biota) ...... 96 5.5 Conclusions of Model Analysis ...... 98
6.0 Discussion and Conclusions ...... 100 6.1 Introduction ...... 100 6.2 The Literature Search Process ...... 100 6.3 Pesticides of Concern in the Caribbean ...... 101 6.4 Summary of Findings ...... 111 6.4.1 Question One ...... 112 6.4.2 Question Two ...... 114 6.4.3 Question Three ...... 116 6.5 Knowledge, Attitudes, Practices and Beliefs ...... 117 6.6 Public Awareness Campaigns ...... 118 6.7Conclusion ...... 119 7.0Recommendations ...... 120 7.1 The Literature Search ...... 120 7.2 Pesticides of Concern in the Caribbean ...... 120 7.3 Summary of Findings ...... 121 7.4 Knowledge. Attitudes. Practices and Beliefs ...... 122
Appendix 1: Information on selected pesticides of concern ...... 123
Appendix 2: Information Sources ...... 143
Appendix 3: Letter of Introduction ...... 151
Appendix 4: Website Information ...... 154
Appendix 5: List of pesticides imported into various CARICOM Islands in19951996 ...... 157
Appendix 6: List of Active lngredients Found in the Caribbean ...... 188
Appendix 7: Concentrations (ppb) of pesticides and PCBs in water aroundSt.Lucia ...... 197
Appendix 8: Pesticide concentrations (ugkg dry matter) in sediment samples in Jamaica ...... 198
Appendix 9: Pesticide concentrations (ppb) in surface water samples in Jamaica ...... 199
Appendix 10: Pesticide concentration (ppb) in g roundwater sam ples in Jamaica ...... 200
Appendix 11: Concentrations (ppb) of alpha.. betaendosulfan and endosulfan sulfate in waters and sediment of several Jamaican Rivers . . 201
Appendix 12: Mean concentration of organochlorine residues in water and sediment in the Hope watershed. Jamaica 1989-1991 ...... 202
Appendix 13: Summary of data on insecticide residues in water and sediment in Kingston Harbour July- August 1992 ...... 204
Appendix 14: Residues by location and cornmodity in Jamaica. 1985 ...... 205
Appendix 15: Average atrazine concentrations (ug/L) found in the Bell and Hampton Catchments from December 1988 to June 1991 ...... 206
vii
List of Tables
Table 1 List of pesticides and target pests ...... 11
Table 2 List of CD ROM databases searched at Dalhousie University andNSAC...... 29
Table 3 List of information sources in St . Lucia...... 33
Table 4 List of information sources in Trinidad ...... 34
Table 5 List of information sources in Barbados...... 35
Table 6 1994 Land use (1 000 ha) information for the CARICOM Islands ..... 41
Table 7 List of crops produced in the CARICOM...... 43
Table 8 Production (tonnes) of the top 5 crops in the CARICOM Islands in1996...... 44
Table 9 Amount (1 000 ha) of agricultural land in the CARICOM islands under imgation 1990-1994 ...... 45
Table 10 Estimated pesticide-use level of the CARICOM Islands...... 48
Table 11 Comparison and classification of the CARICOM Islands based on characteristics of the model island...... 61
Table 12 Summary of pesticides studied in the CARICOM...... 82
Table 13 Summary of how pesticides used in the CARICOM were identifiedasawncern...... 102
Table 14 Summary of toxicity and persistence information for the pesticidesofconcem...... 110 List of Figures
Figure 1 Map of the Caribbean Islands...... 5
Figure 2 Map of the Eastern Caribbean Islands...... 6 A comprehensive literature search on the transport, fate and effects of pesticides on the CARICOM Islands of the Caribbean Region was conducted to provide information for pesticide public-awareness campaigns. The investigation involved a preliminary CD ROM search in Nova Scotia, Canada and visits to different organisations, Government Ministries, and libraries in St. Lucia, Trinidad and Barbados in the Caribbean region. Since the studies that were found had been conducted on various environmental media and compartments of the CARICOM Islands, the information was analysed using a representative or Model Island approach. The Model Island analysis was used to combine data from islands sharing similar characteristics to detemine the extent of the current knowledge on the transport, fate and effects of pesticides on water, soil, air and biota. The majority of scientific studies available examined organochlorine pesticide residues in aquatic organisms, ocean and river water, and sediments. After assessing the current information regarding environmental impacts in the CARICOM, gaps in the information were identified. This study concludes that the information published to date is incurnplete in descrîbing the ecological implications of pesticides on a Caribbean island. However, useful information for future pesticides awareness campaigns was identified. Several recommendations are made, including suggestions as to further research topics that would add to the current knowledge on the transport, fate and effects of pesticides in the Caribbean. List of Abbreviations
BWA Barbados Water Authority (Barbados) CANARI Caribbean Natural Resources lnstitute (St. Lucia) CARDl Caribbean Agricultural Research and Development lnstitute (St. Lucia, Trinidad and Barbados) CAREC Caribbean Epidemiology Centre (Trinidad) CARICOM Caribbean Community Antigua and Barbuda Barbados Belize Dominica Grenada Guyana Jamaica Montserrat Saint Lucia Saint KittsINevis Saint Vincent & Grenadines Trinidad & Tobago CARlRl Caribbean Industrial Research lnstitute (Trinidad) CCA Caribbean Conservation Association (Barbados) CDB Caribbean Development Bank (Barbados) CEHl Caribbean Environmental Health lnstitute (St. Lucia) CERMES Centre for Resources Management and Environmental Studies (UWI, Barbados) ClDA Canadian International Development Agency CZMU Coastal Zone Management Unit (8arbados) ECA Employers' Consultative Association (Trinidad) ED Environment Division (Ministry of Health, Barbados) EED Environmental Engineering Division (Ministry of Health, Barbados) EPA Environmental Protection Agency (United States) FA0 Food and Agricultural Organization (United Nations Regional Office in Barbados) FAD Food and Dnigs Division of Ministry of Health (Trinidad) GAL Govemment Analytical Laboratory (Ministry of Health, Barbados) I1CA Inter-American Institute for Cooperation on Agriculture (St. Lucia) IL0 lnternational Labour Organisation (United Nations Regional Office in Trinidad) IMA lnstitute of Marine Affain (Trinidad) IRF Island Resource Foundation MAREMP Marine Resource and Environmental Management Program (UWI, Barbados) MOA Ministry of Agriculture
xii MOH Ministry of HeaHh NRMU Natural Resources and Management Unit (Organisation of Eastern Caribbean States, St. Lucia) NSAC Nova Scotia Agricultural College (Nova Scotia, Canada) OECS Organization of Eastern Caribbean States Anguilla Antigua and Barbuda British Virgin Islands Dominica Grenada Montserrat Saint Lucia Saint KittsINevis Saint Vincent and Grenadines Pan Amencan Health Organization (United Nations Sub Regional Office in Barbados) PAN Pesticide Action Network PCB(s) Polychlorinated byphenol(s) RR Resistance ratio SLBGA St. Lucia Banana Grower's Association (St. Lucia) UN United Nations UND? United Nations Development Programme (Barbados) USAID United States Agency of International Aid UWI University of the West lndies (Jamaica, Barbados, Trinidad) WHO World Health Organization WlSDECO Windward Islands Banana Development Export Company (St. Lucia)
xiii Acknowledgments
This project was conducted as a component of the Canadian International Developrnent Agency (CIDA) funded project entitled "Institutional Development for the Management of Industrial Chemicals and Wastes," being jointly conducted by Dalhousie University and the Caribbean Environmental Health Institute in St. Lucia. Special thanks are in order to the staff of CEHl for al1 their help while I was working from their office. Mr. V. Sweeney, Dr. F. Ward and Mr. H. Gopaul were very important in helping to get this project underway.
While in the Caribbean, many people took the time to show me around as well as contribute to rny project. In St. Lucia I would like to acknowledge Mr. L. Magloire frorn the Ministry of Labour for showing me some of the island, Ms. Edwards from NRMU for getting me to BVI, rny friends S. Scott, S. Simmons and T. Thorpe for filling my weekend with fun activities, and T. Gordon and Mr. M. Gordon for keeping me connected to the Caribbean while writing in Canada.
In Trinidad, I would like to thank Mr. T. Aloti for taking me to and from the airport and allowing me to stay with him. I would also like to sincerely thank Dr. C. Paul, Dr. R. Doon, Mr. C. Kalloo and Dr. A. Siung-Chang for showing me the island!
Thank you to the Environment Division of the Ministry of Health in Barbados for allowing me to work out of their office, and special thanks to Ms. W. Walker- Drakes for coordinating my time in Barbados and getting me at the airport.
Most importantly, I would like to thank my parents, proof-reader K. Kidd and my cornmittee members Dr. G. Stratton, Dr. S. Asiedu, and especially my supervisor Professor R. C8té for al1 their guidance and support.
xiv 1.O Introduction
1.1 Introduction Humans have been competing with other species since the dawn of time and with pests since the culturing of plants and the domestication of animals. The label "pest' has been assigned to weeds, insects, rodents, and any other organisms that interfere with the human lifestyle (defined in section 1.5). Organisms that interfere with agricultural production, as well as disease carriers, are subject to various pest control techniques. At present, chernical pesticides are the principal way to control a wide variety of pests.
Sheets and Pimentel (1979) stated that the greatest production achievement of the agricultural industry was probably the creation of the chemical pesticide because it dramatically increased agricultural output in the 1940s. As described by Bohmont (1990) the use of agricultural chemicals dates back to the ancient Romans who were known to burn sulfur to eradicate insects. They also used sait to control weeds. In the 9th century, the Chinese employed mixtures of arsenic and water to kill insects, and in 1865 Paris Green, an arsenic and copper mixture, was found to kill the Colorado potato beetle. It was discovered that oil and saM kills certain weeds, while copper and mercury were found to control some plant diseases (McEwen and Stephenson 1979). As mentioned in Bohmont (1990), the first synthetic pesticides, insecticides and herbicides, were created in the early 1900s. McEwen and Stephenson (1979) stated that the advancement of pesticides was not quick, and by 1939 only 30 pesticides were registered in the United States and approved for use. It was not until the discovery of the insecticidal properties of DDT in the same year that the pesticide industry really flourished (Ware 1983).
Today we have herbicides, insecticides, rodenticides, nematocides, avicides, fungicides . . . the list of pesticides goes on, and many of these chemicals bring about human and ecosystem health concems. Since their function is to reduce pest numben to tolerable levels, pesticides are poisonous. Along with being toxic to the target organisms, pesticides affect non-target organisms and hurnans; an issue that has raised public health concern around the world.
Although pesticides can be a danger in the developed world, they are more of a concern in developing countries that often lack legislation and control over chemical pesticides. One of the problems of pesticide use in the developing world is the continued use of products that have been banned or severely restricted in their country of origin. Developed countries continue to export pesticides to the developing countries even when they have been deemed unsafe for use at home (Weir and Schapiro 1981). This practice occurs because the recipient nations do not have adequate regulations or legislation to protect human health and the environment. Some of the chemicals that fall into this category include persistent and toxic pesticides like DDT, aldnn, dieldrin, and those that are acutely toxic, like paraquat (Davidson 1990).
The users of pesticides in developing countries do not adequately understand the hazards of the pesticides they are using and lack training in proper handling techniques. This makes pesticide poisoning a major public health concern. As a result, the majority of the pesticide poisonings around the world occur in developing countries. As mentioned by Dinham (1993) pesticides are responsible for approximately 20 000 deaths and three million cases of acute poisoning annually throughout the world, mostly affecting agricultural workers and rnembers of rural communities. McConnell and Hruska (1993) stated that 99% of the poisonings occur in the Third World, although these countries account for only 25% of the total world pesticide consurnption.
The use and misuse of pesticides in agriculture and public health in the Caribbean Region is thought to be a serious environmental and health problem. As mentioned by Grossman (1992a) both largr, and small scale agriculture in the Caribbean is highly dependant on pesticide use. For example, Magloire (1989) indicated that in the Windward Islands where banana is the primary export crop, pesticide applications are increasing yearly in order to meet the demand of the European Market for high quality, blemish-free fruit.
Little is understood about the impacts of pesticides on the Caribbean island environment, in particular their transport, eventual fate and possible effects. These questions are raised because pesticides are extensively tested in temperate climates where they are produced, but rarely in tropical climates and even less so in tropical island ecosysterns. Geissbuhler et al. (1983 in Singh 1991b) stated that because agroecosystems in tropical and sub-tropical regions are different from those in temperate zones, the study of pesticide chemodynamics under different climate conditions is important in undentanding the effects of pesticides on the biosphere.
Some of the major pesticide concerns for the Caribbean region include their degradation and behaviour in the soil; pesticide movement via erosion, runoff or drift into surface and ocean waters (potentially damaging coral reefs); leaching of pesticides into groundwater; and the potential contamination of non-target organisms including livestock and humans.
In the Caribbean, isolated studies have been undertaken in university laboratories and by national and regional institutions since the early 1980s. This thesis will assess and attempt to consolidate the available documentation on pesticide impacts to determine (1) the cuvent level of knowledge of the transport, eventual fate and effects of pesticides in the Caribbean Region, and (2) whether this information can support educational campaigns regarding the hazards of pesticides. 1.2 Thesis Statement The aim of this investigation is to address the following questions: What information is presently documented about the transport, fate and effects of chemical pesticides in the CARICOM States of the Caribbean? What critical gaps in the information about chernical pesticide transport, fate and effects in the CARICOM exist? is there enough information to understand the ecological implications of chemical pesticides on a CARICOM Island and to support related educational campaigns?
This project is a component of a joint Dalhousie University and Caribbean Environmental Health lnstitute (CEHI) project funded by the Canadian International Oeveloprnent Agency (CIDA) entitled ' Institutional Development for the Management of Industrial Chernicals and Wastes." It should be noted that the scope of this investigation is limited to chemical pesticides and only discusses the Caribbean Islands which are CARICOM Member States as defined in the following section.
1.3 Definitions for the Caribbean 1.3.1 Caribbean and West lndies The Caribbean can be defined as the countries and islands which lie in, or border, the Caribbean sea. The West Indies, more specifically, comprise the three main island chains that separate the Caribbean Sea from the Atlantic Ocean. They extend from southern Florida to the coast of Venezuela. The three island chains are: the Bahama Islands in the north; the Greater Antilles (Cuba, Hispaniola, Jamaica, and Puerto Rico) in the centre; and the Lesser Antilles (Leeward and Windward Islands, Barbados, Trinidad, Tobago, and the Netherlands Antilles) which are to the south. The total land area of the West lndies is about 235 700 km2, with an approximate population (1990) of 34 million ("West Indiesnin Encarta97). A map of the Caribbean is represented in Figure 1. I.LuiIiiuls ;---- mu- GULF UMU
MEXICO ATLANTIC OCBAN
CARIBBEAN SBA
Figure 1 Map of the Caribbean Islands (Humann and DeLoach 1995).
1.3.2 CARICOM There are 12 countries belonging to the Caribbean Community or CARICOM, including: Antigua and Barbuda, Barbados, Belize, Dominica, Grenada, Guyana, Jamaica, Montserrat, St. KittslNevis, St. Lucia, St. Vincent and the Grenadines, and Trinidad and Tobago. Belize, located in northeast Central America, and Guyana in South America are the only two CARICOM Member States which are not islands. The official language of the CARICOM is English.
The CARICOM was forrned by the Treaty of Chagaramus in Trinidad in 1973 and is the umbrella treaty which supplements the Caribbean Free Trade Treaty signed in Antigua in 1966. Under the CARICOM Treaty, the provision is made for countries of the Caribbean to enter into functional cooperation agreements in various areas (Gordon 1997, personal communication). 1.3.3 OECS The CARICOM can be further divided into the OECS (the Organization of Eastern Caribbean States), which is represented by the following seven islands: Antigua and Barbuda, Dominica, Grenada, Montserrat, St. KittslNevis, St. Lucia, and St. Vincent and the Grenadines. As described by the World Bank (in Website #3), two additional islands included in the OECS but not the CARICOM are Anguilla and the British Virgin Islands. Since the focus is the CARICOM islands, Anguilla and the British Virgin Islands will not be discussed further.
"'3.Croix
THE EASTERN CARIBBEAN
Figure 2 Map of the Eastern Caribbean (Barlow 1993) A map of the Eastern Caribbean, showing the distinction between the Leeward and Windward islands, is shown in Figure 2. The two island groups indicate where the American and Caribbean tectonic plates meet (Barlow 1993).
According to the World Bank (in Website #3) the population of the OECS islands is quite small, with a total of just half million. In the past most of these islands relied on preferential Vade arrangements and had econornies based on the export of a monoculture, focussing on a single crop, such as bananas. However, in recent years the tourism sector has been rapidly expanding, and is now generally the mainstay of the economy for many of the OECS islands.
1.4 Purpose of the study There are several reasons why it was important to collect and consolidate the information on pesticide impacts in the CARICOM. The first and foremost is for the protection of the island ecosystems.
Many of the islands of the CARICOM, as described in Chapter 3, have economies that are reliant on tourism. For the industry to flourish, the often fragile pristine island environments must be protected. However, at the same time agriculture remains a very important economic activity for the islands. Since most of the islands are small in size, their environments do not have a great capacity to buffer large quantities of contamination which could occur from the use of agrochemicals. Contamination of the drinking water supply could, for example, lead to disastrous consequences for the inhabitants of the islands especially if the supply is a small resewe. Preservation of a healthy ecosystem is not only important for the health of the residents but essential for the health of the tourism industry, in order to bring in foreign exchange eamings, and thus to sustain employment.
A second important reason for this study is to cal1 attention to the continued misuse of pesticides in developing countries, which is also suspected in the Caribbean region. Examples, as presented by QLF (1995), of pesticide misuse problems in developing countries that have been cited in the literature include: not wsanng protective gear or clothing during application because it can be uncomfortable in tropical climates; inaccurate pesticide dosages applied due to lack of understanding or care in preparing mixtures; improper disposal or use of spent pesticide containers; improper pesticide storage at home; applications being made under inappropriate environmental conditions; washing of spray equiprnent in strearns.
To remedy pesticide misuse problerns, educational programs such as pesticide awareness campaigns can be useful. The major reason for undertaking this project was to aid in the facilitation of future pesticide awareness campaigns being conducted throughout the Caribbean region. To date the campaigns have had to rely on scientific information from elsewhere, rather than information specific to the region. Two exarnples of public awareness campaigns are the activities recently undertaken by the OECSlNRMU in 1995 and the Stone Team in Jarnaica in 1994-1995 (OECSINRMU 1995; Stone Team 1995).
C&t6 and Singh (1989) recognised that many worken in the region do realise there are hazards associated with pesticide use, but perhaps still do not fully comprehend them. Therefore, the continued education of local pesticide users via public awareness campaigns is important. However, one interesting conclusion from the OECS pesticide awareness carnpaign in 1995 was that there was a lack of scientific data about the effects of pesticides on public health and the environment. As a result, they found that the messages portrayed in the campaign had to be generalised and were often too general to be effective. It was their conclusion that for an effective message to reach the public, the examples used in future campaigns would have to be localised and based on real situations (OECSINRMU 1995). To date, no one has attempted to gather al1 the information on pesticide impacts in the Caribbean, which is the first step in providing the organisers of future public awareness carnpaigns with the information they desire and require. This was also the conclusion of a workshop organised by CEHl in St. Lucia in 1996 (CM 1997, personal communication).
Once the current information is collected, it must be made accessible to the public, and to those conducting future public awareness campaigns. A complementary purpose of this project was to contribute to CEHl's library, providing them with the information, so that it could be made available to the public. Finally, this study will form the basis from which researchers can determine the areas where more information is required to gain a better understanding of the total impacts of pesticide use in the CARICOM.
1.5 Pests, Pesticides and Agrochemicals The term "pest" is entirely a human-oriented concept. Very simply Flint and van den Bosch (1981 in Gips 1987) considered a pest:
"an organism that reduces the availability, quality or value of some human resources. This resource may be a plant or animal grown for food, fibre or pleasure... (or) a penon's health, well-being or peace of mind."
Whether or not an organism is considered a pest will change frorn situation to situation, and is based on the individual human's particular needs (Gips 1987). What one person calls a pest, for example a stinging bee, may be beneficial to another person such as the famer who relies on the bee for pollinating hislher crops. It should be noted that other organisms besides insects can also be pests as described by the more detailed definition in the draft legislation on "Pesticides and Toxic Chernicals Control." A pest is considered: "any insect, bird, rodent, fish, mollusc, nematode, fungus, weed, algae, micro-organism or virus, and any other kind of plant or animal life that is injurious, troublesome or undesirable to any crop, stored produce, food, feed, wood, clothes, textiles or other fabncs and any other inanimate objects, or which are objectionable from the point of view of public health or hygiene, and includes any ectoparasites of man and ectoparasites and endoparasites of animals, except that by regulations any pest may be specifically exempted or excluded (OECS Legal Unit 1994)."
Once a pest is defined, the definition of a "pesticide" can be simply stated as a substance or chemical with the ability to kill an insect, plant, disease or animal pest (Gips 1987). Table 1 shows the different types of pesticides and the organisms that they control (Ware 1983). The definition of a "pesticiden, according to the OECS draft legislation is:
"any substance which by itself, or in combination with other substances, is proposed, represented or used for destroying or controlling, repelling, mitigating plant or animal life which are considered pests but does not include any antiseptic, disinfectant, drug or preservative (OECS Legal Unit 1994)."
A final tem to define, in the context of this thesis, is what is meant by agrochemicals. Very simply, agrochemicals comprise any chernicals added to an agro-ecosystem to aid in agricultural production. In the following definition, as presented by Hammerton and Reid (1985), pesticides, fertilizers, and growth regulators are considered agrochemicals. They are defined as:
uany substance or mixture of substances, of natural or synthetic origin, used alone or in mixtures, to stimulate or regulate the growth of, or to control the pests of, agricultural, horticultural or plantation crops, and of domesticated livestock (Hammerton and Reid 1985)."
Although al1 agrochemicals could potentially affect the island ecosystems of the Caribbean, only chemical pesticides were considered in this study. Table 1 List of pesticides and target pests (adapted from Ware 1983) Type of Pesticide Target Pests acaricide mites, ticks, spiders II algicide 1 algae 1 birds -- II bactericide 1 bacteria II fungicide 1 fungus 1 herbicide 1 herbicide insecticide 1 insecticide II larvicide 1 lawae (usually mosquito) II moll uscide 1 rnolluscs (snails and slugs) II nematocide 1 nematodes
II pediculicide II piscicide 1 fish (1 predicide 1 predators (usually coyotes) Ihdenticide 1 rodents II silvicide 1 trees and bnish II slimicide 1 slimes II termiticide 1 termites
1.6 Classes of Pesticides In this section, more detailed information will be provided on the major pesticides used in the Caribbean region. As described by Olkowski et al. (1991), there are four basic ways in which pesticides can be classified: Target pest: classified according to the pest species which they control. For example, unwanted plants are controlled by herbicides (Table 1). lt should be noted that many pesticides actually have a broad toxicity over several types of organisms even though they are classified in a particular category. Some herbicides, for example can have toxic effects on insects and microbes as well as plants; Formulation: the mixture of "active ingredientsnwith "other ingredients". The "active ingredient" is defined as the chemical having the pesticidal properties, and the 'other ingredientsnin a formulation are used to modify the properties of the active ingredient. Ware (1983) defined formulation as the processing of an active ingredient to irnprove its properties of storage, handling, application, effectiveness, or safety. There are different types of formulations including: baits, dusts, fumigants, granules, sprays, and oils. Different types of sprays, for example, include: emulsifiable concentrates, wettable powders, water-m iscible liquids, water-soluble powders, and flowable or sprayable suspensions (Ware 1983). Chemical category: such as, organic, inorganic, organophosphate insecticides, or trîazine herbicides; or by Function: including attractant, repellent, growth regulator, poison, or sterilant.
In the following section, the mode of action will be described for some of the basic types of pesticides extensively used in the Caribbean. The mode of action of a pesticide refers to the physiological mechanism by which it affects the pest (Olkowski et alL1991).
The toxicity of a pesticide is, in essence, how poisonous it is. The most common measure of toxicity is the LD,, which is the lethal dose, measured in milligrams of product in an organism per kilogram of weig ht (mgkg), required to kill50% of the test organisms. The general interpretation of the LD, is that a value less than 10 mgkg means the chemical is extremely toxic, while values greater than 5 000 mgkg mean the chemical can be considered relatively safe (Panos lnstitute 1992). Another measure of toxicity is the LC,, or lethal concentration. The concentration refers to the amount of pesticide vapor or dust in a given volume of air, or the amount diluted in a water source, that will kill a certain proportion (in this case 50%) of the test organisms. The unit of measure of the LC,, is micrograms per liter of air, water mixture or solution (uglL) (Olkowski & & 1991). Specific details on pesticides selected as a concern in the CARfCOM are presented in Appendix 1. Also in this appendix are the World Health Organization (WHO) and Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) toxictty classifications which can be used to indicate how toxic or dangerous a patticular chernical is.
1.6.1 Herbicides Herbicides are pesticides which are designed to control plant species or weeds. Ware (1983) stated that they are a more effective and ecomonical method of weed control compared to cultivation, hoeing and hand pulling. As described in McEwen and Stephenson (1979), in order for them to be phytotoxic, a herbicide must inhibit a vital process in the plant to a degree where the plant dies or is unable to continue growing. The basic mechanism by which herbicides exert their toxic effects is by taking advantage of a specific metabolic pathway in the target plant. Examples of pathways which can be affected, as described by lgbedioh (1991), include photosynthesis, plant hormone action, regulaiion of cell division, or the synthesis of amino acids.
There are several ways in which to classify herbicides, as described by Ware (1983). One method is based on the selectivity of the pesticides. Herbicides are considered selective when they kill weeds without advenely affecting the crop and nonselective when they are designed to control al1 vegetation. They can also be classified according to whether they act on contact or are first absorbed and translocated through a plant before exerting their effect on a target system. A third way herbicides can be classified is according to when they are applied with regard to the plant development. A pre-planting herbicide is applied to the soi1 before the crop is planted, a pre-emergence one is applied to the soi1 before the crop or weed emerges from the soil, and a post-emergence herbicide is applied after the crop or weed emerges.
Paraquat is an important herbicide to mention because it is extremely toxic to mammals via al1 routes of exposure and there is no effective antidote for severe poisoning, as stated by the Panos Institute (1992). Due to its acute toxicity, paraquat is often consumed in suicide attempts. Studies, such as one in Southem Mexico by Tinoco et alk(1 993) have shown that the most common reason for the ingestion of paraquat is, in fact, to commit suicide. However, accidental ingestion and poisoning is also possible as indicated by Wesseling et âL (1 993). According to this study almost half of the patients hospitalized in Costa Rica due to paraquat toxicity were exposed unintentionally, and only 25% were due to suicide attempts. Tinoco et alL(1993) stated that paraquat was rarely kept in its original packaging, and that several people kept it in soft drink containers making the accidental consumption of the pesticide a distinct possibility. Weir and Schapiro (1981) also mentioned this danger, stating that when Gramoxone, a particular paraquat formulation, is kept in pop bottles it looks suspiciously like a cola.
1.6.2 Fungicides Fungicides are pesticides which are used to kill or control the development of fungi or its propagate. Ware (1983) mentioned that controlling fungi with pesticides cm be difficult because fungi live in close association with a host plant. McEwen and Stephenson (1979) described how fungi infect plants by sending haustoria or mycelia into and throughout the plant cells. Once in the host plant cells, the fungi either rob the plant of some essential nutrients or produce a substance which is toxic to the host plant. Therefore, as mentioned by Ware (1983) the key to fungicide use is to find a chernical that will control the fungi without haming the crop. For many fungicides to be effective they are applied to a crop before there is any evidence of the disease (Ware 1983). Evans (1968) described the types of fungicides as: protectants are fungicides that protect whole or parts of plants from infection by fungi by inhibiting the development of mycelium at the site of infection, eradicants are fungicides that will inhibit the growth of a pathogen after the infection has occurred, and disinfectant fungicides are those that kill or inactivate a fungi on or within plants and in the immediate environment of the host.
Several types of general-purpose fungicides used in agriculture include: inorganic copper and sulfur; metallic complexes of cadmium, chromium, and zinc; and organic compounds (Ware 1983).
1.6.3 Insecticides lnsecticides are the group of pesticides which are designed to control insect pests by disrupting a vital system or action within an insect. In order for an insecticide to be effective, two requirements must be met, as described by McEwen and Stephenson (1979). First, there must be a site within the insect that is sensitive and can be targeted by the chemical, and secondly there must be a way in which the chemical can reach the target site in the insect's body.
Insecticides can be classifïed in terms of how the chemical gains entry into the insect. An Insecticide that must be ingested is considered a "stomach poison," and a 'furniganr is an insecticide in gaseous fonwhich enten the insect via the respiratory system (McEwen and Stephenson 1979). Moses (1989) said that as gases, fumigants are among the rnost highly toxic agrochemicals to animais because they can rapidly enter the body cavity. Ware (1983) described fumigants as small, volatile organic molecules which are in gaseous forrn at temperatures above 5'C. They are generally heavier than air, highly penetrating and contain chlorine, bromine or fluorine. Furnigants, which are narcotics, have a physical mode of action.
Another method of classifying insecticides is by their chernical composition. The main groups are the organochlorines, organophosphates, carbarnates, and botanicals. DDT, dieldrin, endosulfan, chlordane, lindane, and heptachlor are examples of organochlorines or chlorinated hydrocarbons. The organochlorines are a group of compounds containing one or more chlorine molecules (Freed and Davies 1980) and their primary mode of action is to interfere with axonal transmission of nerve impulses, thereby interfering with the function of the nervous system (Rae 1996).
The main environmental concern with organochlorine pesticides, because of their very stable nature, is that they have a great tendency to penist in the environment (Rae 1996). Due to their persistence, the use of some organochlorines such as DDT and dieldrin have been restricted in many developed countries, but continue to be exported to the Third World as described by Weir and Schapiro (1981). Alam (1985) mentioned that another concern with the use of organochlorines is that they are spread as wind blown dusts or in water for very long distances. Simonich and Hites (1995) studied the global distribution of organochlorines. They reported residues not only in developing countries where these pesticides were still in use, but also in industrialised countries where many of the pesticides had been restricted. Organochlorines have been found in many different media, including animal tissues, around the world (Wade et all, 1988 and O'Connor 1991 and 1992 in Glynn 1995). Alam (1985) mentioned that DDT has been detected in nearly al1 of the riven and oceans around the world, even in those areas as remote as the Arctic and Antarctic.
Years after exposure, organochlorines can still be found in the bodies of humans and animals. Forget (1991) postulated the reason for this persistence is that the insecticides in this class are relatively neutral and highly soluble in fats. Once in the body, organochlorines tend to bioaccumulate because of their hydrophobic nature, rnaking them partition into the lipid stores of tissues (Rybitski et all, 1995). Bioaccumulation, along with the long range transport of organochlorines, explains why residues can be detected in humans al1 around the world, even many years after the pesticides are no longer in use. Although, as described by Jensen (1983 in Forget 1991), the highest levels of persistent organochlorines in human milk are still found in many developing countries where the pesticides continue to be used.
As mentioned by Ware (1983), organochlorines have been virtually replaced with organophosphate insecticides which are characterised as having a phosphorus molecule as their active nucleus. The insecticidal properties of these insecticides were first observed during World War II, and they are related to nerve gases. Examples of organophosphates include: acephate, diarinon, parathion, malathion. Alam (1985) stated that the major reason organophosphates are becoming more popular is because of their shorter environmental penistence and tendency to biodegrade in the soil. Contrary to the organochlorines, organophosphates do not accumulate in the tissues of animals and humans. However, some organophosphates (including: dichlowos, mevinphos, methyl parathion) are highly toxic to animals and humans due to their mode of action.
The mode of action of organophosphates is similar to another group of insecticides called the carbarnates. Both types of insecticides are potent cholinesterase inhibitors (Forget 1991 ). Ware (1 983) described how organophosphates and carbamates exert their toxic effects on insects. Simply, these insecticides act on the nervous system by inhibiting the acetylcholinesteiase enzyme at nerve synapses which causes the accumulation acetylcholine. When acetylcholine accumulates it interferes with the neuromuscular junction causing rapid twitching of the voluntary muscles which can eventually lead to paralysis.
Forget (1991) described that carbarnates are generally not as toxic as the organophosphates. Aldicarb is the only carbamate that is classified as extremely toxic (la) under the WHO system,although others are considered highly hazardous (1 b). Examples of several other carbamate insecticides are: carbaryl, carbofuran, methomyl, oxamyl, and propoxur (Ware 1983).
A final group of chemical pesticides, considered botanicals, include those which are derived from specific plant species. Ware (1983) stated that the five basic plant derived insecticides are pyrethrum, rotenone, sabadilla, ryania, and nicotine, and that only pyrethrum is still significantly used today due to its rapid knockdown properties.
Synthetic pyrethroids, including alleth rin, cypemethrin, cyfiuthrin, tetramethfin, and resmethrin act as contact poisons that rapidly penetrate into the nervous system. Most pyrethroids are relatively non-toxic to birds, but highly toxic to aquatic organisms including fish. The first generation pyrethroids, such as allethrin, are usually less toxic than the natural pyrethrins. However, the more recent ones, known as second and third generation pyrethroids, have greater insecticidal activity and tend to be more toxic to mammals (Anonymous 1988).
Other categories of pesticides used by the CARICOM islands include acaricides, rodenticides, molluscides, and nematocides.
1.7 Chernical Pesticide Life Cycle The life cycle of a chemical, as defined by Environment Canada (1997)) includes al1 the activities which go into making, using and disposing of a particular chemical. This general definition can be adopted to describe the life cycle of a chemical pesticide.
The life cycle management concept for pesticides has also been discussed in the Caribbean by several authon including Cdté and Singh (1989), C6t8 (1989) and Magloire (1989). They describe the "life cyclen of a pesticide to be the stages the pesticide travels through from the time it is imported to an area, to its use, and to the ultimate disposal of the containers and left-over product. As adapted from Côte (1989), the steps of the "pesticide life cycle" for an island in the CARICOM which does not manufacture pesticides would be as follows: ldentify the pest problem. Make a decision to import pesticides. Marine transport of the pesticide in International waters. Marine transport of the pesticide in territorial waters. Offloading of pesticides at port facilities. Storage of the pesticides at port facilities. Trans-shipment of the pesticides by land to other warehouses around the island. Storage of the pesticides at these warehouses around the island. Mixing and use of pesticides by farmers or public health officers. Disposal of pesticide wastes (unused pesticide, contaminated water, cleaning of application equipment) and containers. Possible export of the agricultural commodity.
The misuse or mishandling of pesticides during any stage of the pesticide life cycle can have adverse effects on non-target species in the various environmental compartments or sinks. As defined by Freed (1980) the environmental cornpartments are the lithosphere (soil), hydrosphere (water), atmosphere (air), and biosphere or biota (beneficial insects, plants, humans, and wildlife). Some of the possible impacts of pesticides on these components will be further discussed in ternis of the "pesticide life cycle" in the following section.
1.8 Transport, Fats and Effects of Pesticides When dealing with a pesticide in the ecosystem, there are three major concerns: transport and distribution throughout the ecosystern; its fate in the environment, including persistence and degradation; and its effects on target and non-target organisrns (Freed 1980). The discussion of the transport, fate and effects of pesticides in the environment can be complex, and the following is only intended as a general overview.
1.8.1 Transport and Distribution As mentioned by Freed (1980), pesticides and their degradation products are frequently found outside of the intended treatment areas due to pesticide drift and transport. Two factors discussed by Freed and Haque (1975) which result in the transport and distribution of pesticides throughout an ecosystem are the physio-chemical properties of the pesticide, and the environmental transport processes. The major media in which pesticides are transported are wind, water and biota, and the availability of a pesticide to be transported via one of these media can be modified by the adsorption, leaching, vaporization and bioaccurnulation of the pesticide (Freed 1980).
Freed (1980) describes two ways in which air transport can occur. The first is via the evaporation of the carrier ingredients during the application of a pesticide. The carrier evaporates leaving small particles of pesticide suspended in the air. Another possibility is that the pesticide may evaporate from the droplet or from the surface. Freed (1980) also stated that mass air rnovement is probably an important way in which low levels of pesticides are transported to areas which are distant from the site of application. As much as 80% of a pesticide can be lost via dispersal or transport processes (Rae 1996). The transport of pesticides by water can result from soi1 erosion (pesticides bound to the soi1 particles), leaching (downward movement of pesticides with water in the soil), runoff (pesticide residue is carried into water bodies as the water flows there), or direct application to waterways. The main factor that determines the leaching or runoff of a pesticide is its solubility. When the solubility is high, there is a greater tendency for the pesticide to be found in the leachate or runoff. However, if a pesticide has a greater adsorption but low solubility, it can still find its way to a water body attached to eroding soi1 particles (Freed 1980).
There are several ways in which biota can be responsible for the transport of pesticides. One way is that migrating organisrns, for example birds, fish, andlor mammals, may be contaminated with the pesticide. If the migrating organism is in the food chain of another, it, along with the pesticide residues, may be consumed. This could lead to the pesticide residue being found in several new organisms further from the source of application. The final, and probably most signifiant, means of biotic transport of pesticides, as mentioned by Freed (1980), is via the human. One example is the international trade of chemial pesticides and foods containing pesticide residues.
1.8.2 Fate, Persistence and Degradation The fate of a pesticide can be referred to as the final sink or resting place of the pesticide in the environment atter it is applied. The ultimate fate of a pesticide, however, would be its degradation or breakdown into byproducts. Rae (1996) mentioned that studies were conducted to show that a very small amount of an applied pesticide actually reaches the target pest. Therefore, the remaining portion of the pesticide or byproducts will end up in one or more of the environmental comparûnents mentioned above. Depending on a pesticide's penistence and ability for transport, the final sink could be hundreds or thousands of kilometers away from the site where it was applied (Alam 1985). The following, organised in ternis of the environmental compartments, is a list adapted from Hammerton and Reid (1985) which presents some of the possible fates of pesticides in the ecosystem after they are applied:
soi1 adsorbed or absorbed to soi1 particles such as clay and organic matter; adsorbed particles can move with eroding soils, get taken up by earthworms if they are lipophilic, or be chemically degraded; water dissolved in water; suspended in water columns; air volatilization; evaporation from surfaces; fallout with rain or dust; biota taken up by biota directly or when consuming food with residues; this can result in bioconcentration - the tendency of an organism to have a greater amount of chemical than its surrounding environment (Stokes 1985); degradation photodecomposition by ultra violet light; degradation in water, sediment or soil; and chemical or microbial transformations including the chemical processes of hydrolysis, photolysis, oxidation, and metabolism by plants and animals (Seiber 1987).
The ultimate fate of a pesticide would be its breakdown or degradation by chemical or microbial action. The penistence of a pesticide can be described in ternis of half-lives and is a measure of how long the original active ingredient of 23
the pesticide remains in the environment before it is degraded. As stated earlier in this chapter, the organochlorine pesticides are known for their penistence. There are many factors described by Singh (1990), Miller ~t ala1,(1985), Rainey & (1987), and Carvalho and Hance (1993), including those listed below, which can influence the persistence of a pesticide: Soil factors, including pH, moisture content, type and proportion of clay and organic matter, levels of pesticide already in soil, biological activity, bulk density, aeration, and soi1 temperature; Climatic factors, such as temperature, wind, precipitation, ultra-violet radiation, and moisture; Chernical factors, including nature of the pesticide, the pesticide formulation, vapor pressure, solubility in water, polarity; Plant factors, including morphology, nature of the cuticle, and rate of growth; Rate of chemical or microbial degradation; Agronomic practices, such as the rate and mode of application, use of other agrochemicals, and irrigation; and Degree of adsorption to soil, sediment, plants and animals.
1.8.3 Effects The effects of a pesticide refers to what the chemical does to the eventual environmental compartments, andior organisms in those cornpartments. The effects of a pesticide on an organisrn can either be direct or indirect. As described by McEwen and Stephenson (1979) pesticides can alter the numben, physiology, pathology, reproduction or behavior of organisms. When a change in one organism affects another, the effect is indirect.
Carson (1962) in Silent Spring, for example, was the first to raise alann about the ecological effects of the insecticide DDT in a public way. In the late 1950s people noted that there were fewer birds in the spting, especially Amencan robins. The connection was made between the implementation of DDT spraying for Dutch elm disease and a reduction in the robin population. The effects of the DOT were mainly noticeable on the reproductive system of the birds. DDT prevented some adult birds from successfully mating resulting from the death of the mate; prevented the birds from laying eggs; or, if eggs were successfully laid, the birds could not make them hatch.
1.8.4 Behavior of Pesticides in Tropical Climates Little is known about the behavior of pesticides in the island ecosystems in the CARICOM. In tropical areas, the increased temperatures are thought to decrease pesticide persistence and increase the rate of degradation. However. pesticides in warmer climates rnay exhibit an increased mobility (Hammerton and Reid 1985). Althoug h the pesticides should degrade quickly, they have greater mobility meaning that the contamination of the ecosystem could be more widespread because the pesticide is less likely to remain where it was applied. This may happen in islands such as those in the Caribbean. The following chapters will attempt to summarise the information on the effects of pesticides on these island ecosystems. 2.0 Methods
2.1 Introduction There is a lack of coordinated and organised scientific information on the impacts of pesticides on the environment and human health in the Caribbean (OECSJNRMU 1995). To evaluate what is currently known about these impacts literature searches were conducted in Nova Scotia, St. Lucia, Trinidad, and Barbados. Searches were initiated via CD ROM and were carried out in Canada at Dalhousie University in Nova Scotia, the Nova Scotia Agricultural College (NSAC), and in the Caribbean at the University of the West lndies (UWI) in Trinidad. The major search for information, however, was conducted in the Caribbean where the libraries and documentation centres of key agricultural organizations and Government departments were visited. Discussions were held with individuals in these organizations and departments who were knowledgeable of the materials in their documentation centre, and those involved in agricultural research. No formal interviews were conducted.
2.2 Potential Information Sources No comprehensive documentation is available on the transport, fate and effects of pesticides in the Caribbean, and as a result the rnethods chosen for the literature search was a "shot gun" approach. The purpose of this approach was to contact as broad a range of potential information sources as possible to try to answer the first question of the thesis statement: "what is presently documented about the transport, fate and effects of pesticides in the CARICOM islands of the Caribbean?"
The primary information sources were the organizations and Government departments involved in agriculture and ag ricultural research in the CARICOM. The organizations contacted were selected based on information provided by the senior personnel involved in the "Institutional Development for the Management of Industrial Chemicals and Wastesn project at Dalhousie University and CEHI. It was decided collectively that the organizations listed in Appendix 2 under "List of Potential Information Sourcesnwere those who may have relevant information, Iibraries or documentation centres. The 'List of Actual Information Sources" in the same appendix is a list of those people or organizations from which information was obtained.
For several reasons the islands of St. Lucia, Trinidad and Barbados were selected as those in which to base the information search. These three islands are different in terms of their topography but they are al1 relatively heavy pesticide users, growing plantation crops as their main commodity. Topography is an important characteristic of the island ecosystern which would influence pesticide distribution and their impacts, and these three islands are different in this regard. St. Lucia is categorised as a mountainous island, Barbados is considered Rat with a coralline geology, white Trinidad is somewhere in between with a hilly landscape (Chapter 3). Assuming there were studies conducted on pesticide use in these countries, the information from each would potentially cover the whole range of island topographies found in the CARICOM.
St. Lucia, Trinidad, Barbados, and Jamaica are the major agricultural producers in the CARICOM. They are also the islands where many of the government and non-govemment agricultural and environmental organizations are located. lncluded in this list, for example, is the Caribbean Environmental HeaMh lnstitute (CEHI), the University of the West lndies (UWI), the Inter-American lnstitute for Cooperation on Ag riculture (1 ICA), the Caribbean Agricultural Research and Development lnstitute (CARDI), the Caribbean Epidemiology Centre (CAREC), the Food and Agricultural Organization (FAO), and the Caribbean Conservation Association (CCA).
The only island which I was unable to visit was Jamaica, also an important island to this investigation because it is the largest in the CARICOM and is extensively involved in agriculture. As well, Jamaica is probably where the greatest number of pesticide impact studies have been conducted in the region. Unfortunately, funding was not available to include Jamaica in the travel itinerary. However, the island was not ignored, and in fact many of the organisations in Jamaica had offices in St. Lucia, Trinidad or Barbados which I visited instead. Where materials from the key penons and organizations in Jamaica were required, they were obtained by other means such as mail or Eniail.
Two letters of introduction to the project, contained in Appendix 3, were composed with the aid of Mr. V. Sweeney, the Executive Director of CEHI. One letter was directed to the organizations in St. Lucia, Trinidad and Barbados, islands which would be visited, requesting a meeting. These letters were followed up by phone calls to make arrangements for meetings or visits to the specific documentation centres and libranes. The second type of letter was sent to relevant organizations in other islands which would not be visited, requesting that any relevant information be forwarded to CEHI.
2.3 Limitations The main limitation for this thesis was language. The scope was the CARICOM, which are al1 English speaking countnes. Relevant studies may have been conducted in other Caribbean islands, however, could not be used if in Spanish or French. Information from other tropical countries outside the Caribbean was also ignored where the language was not English.
2.4 Summary of the Literature Search 2.4.1 Nova Scotia, Canada Prier to traveling to the Caribbean, a preliminary literature search was conducted using the CD ROM databases available at Dalhousie University and NSAC in Nova Scotia, Canada. Books and reports at universities around Nova Scotia were examined. At NSAC, bibliographies of the Food and Agricultural Organization (FAO) index and the AGDEX Information System were also reviewed for relevant information. The materials of interest were collected and brought to St. Lucia where they were added to CEHl's library.
Upon retuming from the Caribbean, the search for information was continued via the infamation sources available in Nova Scotia. Additional CD ROM and library searches were conducted to locate recent or additional general information. It should be noted, however, that the searches were only intended to supplement the information which was found in the Caribbean. For this reason, an extensive search of other sources besides CD ROM databases was not conducted* Table 2 shows a list of the CD ROM databases that were used when conducting the searches throughout the investigation.
The following is a list of the key words used in the CD ROM searches: Caribbean and agriculture pesticides and transport Caribbean and banana pesticides and effects banana and pesticide pesticides cradle to grave pesticides and tropics St. Lucia and pesticide pesticides and tropical Caribbean and pesticide fate, tropics and pesticides St. Lucia and agriculture transport, tropics and pesticides pesticide and history effects, tropics and pesticides pesticide and world pesticide life cycle pesticide and developing pesticide and human exposure countries pesticides and fate pesticide and occupational health Dalhousie University NSAC Life Science Collection Bibliography of Agriculture Index (by Cam bridge Scientific Abstracts) (by Agricultural Online Access & National Agficultural Library) Environmental Abstracts Agricola (by Reed Technology & Information Services Inc.) Medline Express CAB lndex (by National Cibrary of Meâicine) (by CAB International) Science Citation Index Food Science and Technology Abstracts (by lnstitute for Scientific Information) (FSTA) (by International Food and Information Service)
- Bioethics Line Current Research Information (by Kennedy lnstitute of Ethics & National Systemllnventory of Canadian Agri-food Library of Medicine) Research (CRIS/ICAR) (by US Department of Agriculture and Canadian Agricultural Research Council) Sociofile Proquest (by Sociofile, Sociological Abstracts Inc.) Academic lndex (by Information Access Company)
International Pharrnaceutical Abstracts (PA) (by American Society of Health-system Pharrnacists) Psyclit Journal Articles (by American Psychological Association)
- GeoRef (by American Geological Institute)
The lnternet was also used to look for information pertaining to pesticides in general and in the Caribbean. Searches included key words such as: pesticide, North American Pesticide Action Network, chernical companies such as DuPont and Monsanto, and the Island Resources Foundation (IRF). A Iist of the websites which were visited is located in Appendix 4, and those sites that had information useful to this thesis are cited as appropriate in the Bibliography.
Another acüvity undertaken to aquire information was to join an E-mail bulletin board called "Caribb-Studyn via "[email protected]." A request for information was sent to the rnembers of the bulletin board, and five responses which provided new information were received.
2.4.2 St Lucia, West Indies While in the Caribbean, from June 17 to Septernber 15 of 1996,l was based in St. Lucia at CEHI. The following is a list of the organizations in St. Lucia which were approached for information or permission to review their documentation: Caribbean Environmental Health Institute (CEHI) Natural Resources Management Unit of the Organization of Eastern Caribbean States (NRMUIOECS) Department of Labour Windward Islands Banana Development and Export Company (WIBDECO) Inter-American lnstitute for Coaperation on Agriculture (KA) St. Lucia Pesticide Control Board and the Ministry of Agriculture (MOA), Crop Protection Unit Caribbean Agricultural Research and Development lnstitute (CARDI) Ministry of Planning and Environment Organization of Eastern Caribbean States (OECS) Sir Arthur Lewis Community College library Caribbean Industrial Research lnstitute (CANARI) Ministry of Health (MOH)
2.4.3 Trinidad, West lndies In August 1996, 1 went to Trinidad to gather information from the following organizations: Caribbean Agricultural Research and Development institute (CARDI) Caribbean lndustrial Research lnstitute (CARIRI) Department of Chemistry (UWI) Department of Crop Science (UWI) UWI library searched the Agris, Agricola, CAB and TROPAG CD ROMs searched the library holdings Food and Drug Division of the Ministry of Health (FAD) Food and Agricultural Organization (FAO) Ministry of Heaith (MOH) International Labour Organization (110) Caribbean Epidemiology Centre (CAREC) Ern ployers' Consultative Association (ECA) telephone conversation with Grant Industrials Institute of Marine Affairs (IMA)
2.4.4 Barbados, West lndies Also in August 1996, 1 traveled to Barbados to gather information from the following organizations: Environment Division of the Ministry of Health (ED) Department of Labour Food and Agricultural Organization (FAO) telephone conversation, no one knowledgeable in the subject area was available United Nations Development Program (UNDP) telephone conversation, no one knowledgeable in the subject area was available Caribbean Development Bank (CDB) Ministry of Agriculture (MOA) Governrnent Analytical Laboratory from the Ministry of Health (GAL) Coastal Zone Management Unit (CZMU) Bellairs Research lnstitute of McGill University, Canada Caribbean Agricultural Research and Development lnstitute (CARDI) Center for Resources Management and Environmental Studiesl Marine Resources and Environmental Management Program (CERMESIMAREMP) Pan Amencan Health Organization (PAHO) telephone conversation, no one knowledgeable in the subject area was available Barbados Water Authority (BWA) UWI Library search of thesis and library holdings Ministry of Health (MOH) Environmental Engineering Division of the Ministry of Health (EED) Caribbean Conservation Association (CCA)
2.4.5 Summary of Organisations Visited The following tables (Table 3-5) list the organizations and contacts with whom discussions were held for each of the islands visited. In sorne cases a resource person or librarian was the only person contacted and helshe only aided in a search of the documentation centre. Where the contact person only allowed access to the documentation centre and did not provide any comrne~tson the pesticides in the Caribbean, helshe is written in italics. Also presented in the tables is whether a document centre was available at the organization and if it was visled. Under the column "document centre," a "yes" means that I was able to visit it, and a hyphen means that I was infomed that the document centre did not have relevant information or a document centre was not available. The final column in the tables, titled "received informationnindicates whether or not information was obtained from the organization, either from the contact's personal resources or from the document centre. Table 3,4 and 5 provide a summary for St. Lucia, Trinidad and Barbados, respectively. Table 3 List of information sources in St. Lucia II Organisation Discussion wiüi Received
Mr. V. Sweeney Mr. H. Gopaul Dr. F. Ward
Department of Mr. L. Magloire 11 Labour Dr. E. Reid yes (although damaged) II ICA 1 Mr. E. Ambrose 1 - Pesticide Control 1 Mr. G. Mathurin II Board (MOA) Mr. O. Demarque (phone only) 1 - Ministry of Planning Corbin (phone Il and Environment
Sir Arthur Lewis libranan Yes no Community College CANARI librarian (phone only) no 1 ------MOH 1 Phone only 1 - no Table 4 List of information sources in Trinidad Organisation Discussion with Document centre Dr. Parasram Dr. C. Paul CARlRl 1 Mr. Rarnnasibsingh 1 - UWI Dept of Dr. Seaforth UWI library Chem istry Dr. 1. Chang Yen UWI Dept of Crop could not contact Dr. - Science R Brathwaithe UWI Library 1 librarian 1 Yes FAD (MOH) 1 Mr. Kalloo 1 -
MOH 1 Dr. R. Doon 1 Yes ILO 1 Mn. Aquine
ECA Ms. Besson & I scientific officer IMA 1 Iibmfan yes ves Table 5 List of information sources in Barbados Organisation Discussion with Document Received centre Information
Department of Mr. Oxley (phone - no Labour only) L FA0 phone only Yes no II UNDP 1 phone only 1 - 1 no Mr. L James (phone yes I only)
1 Ms. B. Wood 1 - 1 Mr. L. Brewster 1 -
II CERMESl MAREMP 1 Mr. R. Baitson 1 Y= II PAHO 1 phone only 1 - Dr. Mwansa (phone - I only)
CCA 1 librerian yes y es
2.4.6 Tortola, British Virgin Island I was able to attend the first annual meeting of the Coordinating Group of the Organization of Eastern Caribbean States Pesticide Control Boards in Tortola, British Virgin Islands from June 25-27, 1996 as the representative from CEHI. At the meeting, I talked to the representatives about the project and requested that any information they had on the inventory of pesticides used in their country or on impacts of pesticides in their respective country be sent to CEHI. 2.5 Evaluation of Data Two types of data were collected for this study. The first consisted of pesticide inventory lists for 1996 or 1995, where available, for the CARICOM islands. This information is organised and compiled in Appendix 5, with Barbados being the only CARICOM island which was not represented due to the lack of current information. The charts were filled out as completely as possible, however gaps remain where the information was not available in the original documentation. Several pesticide manuals were used to try to identify the active ingredient of the pesticides, because the active ingredient is the chernical of interest and how the pesticides are commonly described. Throughout the discussion, pesticides will be referred to in ternis of their active ingredient.
The purpose of the inventory was to gain an understanding of the range of pesticides and quantities used by the different CARICOM islands being examined in this study. Unfortunately, the total quantity of a particular pesticide used by an island was often not provided in the original documentation, and a true sense of the quantities of pesticides used in the region was not obtained. Appendix 6, however, does show the range of active ingredients used throug hout the region and consists of approximately 300 different active ingrad ients. Appendix 1 provides information such as the toxicity and environmental fate of several pesticides which were identified as a concern in the CARICOM based on the following criteria: 1. a pesticide that is banned, withdrawn, severely restricted or not approved by Governments as listed by the United Nations (UN 1991); 2. a "dirty dozen" pesticide (as detenined by the Pesticide Action Network of North American in Website # 2, Gips 1987); 3. mentioned as a concem in the Caribbean pesticide literature; or 4. used extensively in the region (found on more than five islands). The pesticides listed in Appendix 3 include: aldicarb endosulfan atrazine ethoprophos benomyl lindane (gamma HCH) carbaryl paraquat carbofuran pentachlorophenol chlordane malathion dieldrin tridemorph dimethoate diuron
Some of these pesticides have been examined in the scientific studies that were conducted in the Caribbean region. These studies, relating to the transport, fate and effects of pesticides, conducted in the various CARICOM islands are outlined in a literature review (Chapter 4). Chapter 4 comprises the second and most important fom of data obtained for this thesis which is used to answer the fint two questions of the thesis statement: What is presently documented about the transport, fate and effects of pesticides in the CARICOM islands of the Caribbean? What critical gaps in the information about pesticide transport, fate and effects in the CARICOM islands exist?
Since the information provided in the literature review cornes from different islands, Chapter 5 attempts to consolidate the information in a model island analysis to provide a more complete picture of what happens to pesticides in the CARICOM. In order to establish the characteristics of the model island, the CARICOM islands are first compared (Chapter 3). The set of characteristics fitting the greatest number of islands is then used to describe the model island. Therefore, the information from the islands sharing similar characteristics is wmbined to demonstrate whether there is enough information on pesticides in the reg ion to understand their ecolog ical implications. This answers the third question of the thesis statement. 3.0 Country Information and Model Island Characteristics
3.1 Introduction The purpose of this chapter is to provide an introduction to the characteristics of the various CARICOM islands. The information presented here only provides a brief summary of the countries in terms of their climate, size, land use, major agricultural crops, irrigation, pesticide use and topography. However, more detailed information is presented on Barbados, Jamaica, St. Lucia, and Trinidad, the islands for which most of the environmental impact studies were collected. The chapter concludes with a brief cornparison and classification of the CARlCOM islands. The characteristics which are representative of the greatest number of islands then become the characteristics describing the model island used in the analysis in Chapter 5. It should be noted that the classification is only based on a small amount of qualitative literature and is not complete.
As previously defined, the CARICOM also includes the rnainland countries of Guyana and Belize. However, for the purpose of this investigation, Guyana and Belize will be ignored because they are not islands.
3.2 Summary of the CARICOM Countries This section is a summary of the important information pertaining to this project for al1 of the CARICOM countries. The information is mainly presented in chart form so that the similarities and differences behrveen the countries can be easily identified.
3.2.1 Climate As described in the "West Indiesnsection of Encarta97, the general climate of the West Indies, and therefore the CARlCOM islands, is tropical. Barlow (1993) stated that the tropical climate of the Eastern Caribbean is relatively consistent, with little difference in daylight hours or temperature throughout the year. Notable of the climate of the West lndies is the distinguishable wet and dry season. The dry season generally occurs from November to May while the wet season, when humcanes are prorninent, is from June to October.
3.2.2 Country Size and Land Use The information presented in Table 6 is a representation of the land use of the CARICOM islands as adapted from the FA0 database in Website # 4, and UN (1993). The table shows Jamaica with the largest land mass (1 083 000 ha) followed by Trinidad and Tobago (513 000 ha). The remaining islands can be considered small, and range in size from Montserrat (10 000 ha) to Dominica (75 000 ha). All of the islands participate in agriculture to some degree, with the amount of land used for agriculture ranging from 24% in Dominica to 45% in Barbados.
The land area that each island uses for agricultural production (percent agricultural land) can be used to classify the islands into two groups. In the first group, made up of Antigua and Barbuda, Dominica and Trinidad and Tobago, less than 30% of the land is used for agricultural purposes. For the second group, including: Barbados, Grenada, Jamaica, Montserrat, St. KittsINevis, St. Lucia and St. Vincent, agriculture accounts for 30- 50% of the land use activities on the island (Table 6).
3.3.2 Agricultural Production Table 7, adapted from the FA0 (in Website # 4), lists the various crops which are produced in the CARICOM. Table 8 presents details, also adapted from the FA0 (Website # 4), on the production, in tonnes, of the top five crops for each of the islands. It should be noted that according to the classification of crops used by the FAO, melons are included in the vegetable category rather than fruit. Table 6 1994 Land use (1 000 ha) information for the CARICOM Islands (adapted from FA0 database in Website # 4, ind UN (1993)). Country Land Area % Agriculture % Arable Land % Meadow & % Forest & % Other (~1000ha) Land & permanent Pasture Wood lands crops Antigua & Barbuda 44 27 38 9 11 62 Barbados 43 45 40 5 11 44 . Dominica 75 24 21 3 67 9 Grenada 34 38 35 3 9 53 I Jamaica 1 083 44 20 24 17 9 Montserrat 10 30 20 IO 40 30 St. Kitts & Nevis 36 42 39 3 30 28 St. Lucia 61 35 30 5 13 52 St. Vincent & 39 33 28 5 36 31 Grenadines
-- Trinidad & Tobago 513 26 24 2 46 28 In Tables 7 and 8, some crops are grouped into one of the following three categories: vegetables and melons (veg). fruit excluding melons (fruit), or roots and tuber crops (root). These three groups, however, do not cover the entire range of crops produced in the CARICOM. In Table 7 the additional crops are presented in the column entitled "othef.
In Table 8, where the production is given for one of the three groups, the numerical value shown under the category narne represents the total production for that category, rather than for a single crop. The letters in brackets correspond to the crop(s), as listed in the key (for example: b = bananas), which has the highest production contributing to the total. Where the crop in Table 8 is not in a category, no latter is presented in brackets and the value shown below the crop name represents its total production.
The CARICOM islands can be divided into two groups based on their major agricultural comrnodity. According to Table 8 the major crop grown in Barbados, Jamaica, St. KittslNevis, and Trinidad and Tobago is sugarcane. For the remaining islands, fruit is the most important agricultural commodity in tens of production. In these islands, the major fruit is usually banana. 43
Table 7 List of crops produced in the CARICOM (adapted from FA0 database in Website # 4 Fruit excluding 8 Tubem Other melons (veg) melon (fruit) 1) beans apples 1 cereais II cabbage avocados 1 coane grain cantaloupes/ bananas sweet potato coma beans Il melons I I grapefruit1 pomelo taro (cocoyam) coconut lernonsl limes yams cotton 11 chilliesi peppen mango 1 yautia (cocoyarn) 1 green coffee oranges 1 1 groundnuts
II green corn I 1 oii crops pineapple pulses (dry beansJpeas) plantain rice plums I pumpkin/ squash tangerines/ mandarin sugar cane II oranges I II spinach Table 8 Production (tonnes) of the top 5 crops in the CARICOM islands in 1996 Jadapted from the FA0 database in Website # 4) 1 Production in Tonnm of the Top 5 Ctops
Antigua & fruit (nt) veg (me,e) root (s) grain cereal Barbuda 1 7280 1 255 45 45 I 1 Barùados 1 sugarcane veg (be, 1) rwt (s) fruit (b) grain/ cereal 534 900 1 16988 1 8660 2 820 2 000 I 1 Dorninica 1 fruit (b. pl) 1 mot (t) sugarcane 67 400 25 250 4 500 1
Jamaica sugarcane fruit (b, c) coconut I 2 623 915 1 420 124 345 580 715 000 grain cereal 30 30 1 St. KiW sugarcane coconut 1 mit root (s) Nevis 203 740 1 1700 1 500 1 144 1 St. Lucia 1 fruit (b) coconut oil crops 170 023 1 18000 IO410 2 340 St. Vincent fruit (b) 1 sycay -.ut root (s) Grenadines 1 60520 1 23 000 14 050 1 Trinidad 8 1 sugarcane fruit (c) coconut cereal Tobago 1 326 000 1 75193 1 20 O00 11 670 Key: b = banana me = melon be = bean O = onion C = citms p = potato ca = cabbage pl = plantain CS = cassava s = sweet potato ct = carrot sq = squash CU = cucumber t =taro e = eggplant to = tomato I = lettuce y =yam m = mango pu = pumpkin 3.3.4 Irrigation In the CARICOM, very little imgation is used for agricultural production. According to an FA0 database on the Intemet (Website # 4), the islands of Antigua and Barbuda, Dominica, Grenada, Montserrat, and St. KittslNevis did not employ irrigation between 1990 and 1994. The remaining countries used irrigation during that period, but only to a srnall degree. It should also be noted that the level of irrigation in the countries has been constant throughout the period. Of those countries using irrigation, the percentage of agricultural lands irrigated ranges from 5.3% in Barbados to 16.5% in Trinidad and Tobago. More detailed information on irrigation in the CARICOM islands is provided in Table 9.
Table 9 Arnount (1 000 ha) of agricultural land in the CARICOM islands under irrigation 1990-1994 (adapted from FA0 database in Website # 4) Country 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 % Agrlcultural land inigated in 1994 Antigua & O O O O O O Barbuda Barbados 1 1 1 1 1 5.3 Dominica O O O O O O l Grenada O O O O O O --- Jamaica 33 33 35 33 33 6.9 Montserrat O O O O O O St KittsINevis O O O O O O SL Lucia 2 2 2 2 2 9.5 St. Vincent & 1 1 1 1 1 7.6 Grenadines Trinidad & 22 22 22 22 22 16.5 Tobago 3.3.5 Pesticide Use Information on the types of pesticides imported into most of the CARICOM is provided in Appendix 5 and 6. Appendix 5, "List of pesticides imported into various CARICOM Islands in 1995-1996," shows al1 the pesticides used in the particular countries listed by common name and their active ingredients. The common name of a pesticide is the trade name or band name of the particular formulation. The generic name is the name which refers to the chemical compound or active ingredient in the particular formulation.
In the original documentation, the actual amount of a particular active ingredient used or imported was often not provided. Therefore, the only indication of how extensive pesticide use is for an island is to look at the range of pesticides used. Appendix 6, "List of Active lngredients Found in the Caribbean," summan'ses al1 the active ingredients which are found in the countries represented in Appendix 5. A total of approximately 300 active ingredients are used throughout the CARICOM for different purposes.
The only CARICOM island for which cuvent statistics on pesticide imports or use was not available was Barbados. Wood (1990) and Alleyne (1986) stated that between 1968 and 1988, there was an increase of 298.5% in the amount of pesticides irnported into Barbados, the largest increases being herbicides and insecticides. At the time of the investigation, Alleyne (1986) noted that more than 200 different pesticides were allowed into Barbados with the permission of the Pesticide Control Board. As well, Miller et alL(1985) stated that the use of agricuitural chemicals, especially insecticides and fungicides, was widespread in the island. The 1990 investigation by Wood was a survey to detemine the pesticide practices of selected farmers in Barbados, resulting in the identification of those most commonly used. The pesticides identified were the same as some used by other CARICOM islands, and therefore are already represented in the active ingredient list in Appendix 6. The CARlCOM islands can be very generally classified based on their pesticide- use level. Islands which are heavily reliant on pesticides cmbe considered to have a high pesticide use level relative to the rest of the CARICOM islands. Since quantitative information on the actual quantities of pesticides used was not available, this classification was made using two information sources: the information presented in Appendix 5 on the number of active ingredients, and data on the 1994 imports (in US dollars) as adapted from the FA0 database in Website # 4.
The ten islands were ranked (Table 10) from lowest to highest based on the approximate number of different active ingredients they use and the value of the pesticides they imported. For the purpose of this thesis, islands ranking in the top half (a value of 6 or greater) for both criteria were considered to have a high pesticide-use level relative to the remaining islands. The results of the classification are presented in Table 10, providing only an estimation of pesticide use in the CARICOM.
As shown in Table 10, the islands which have a high pesticide-use level are: Barbados, Jamaica, St. Lucia, and Trinidad and Tobago. The exact pesticide- use level of the remaining islands (for example moderate or low) could not be deterrnined based on the information used. Table 10 Estimated pesticide-use level of the CARICOM Islands (adapted from FA0 database in Website # 41 -- Island 1 Approximrte # 1 Rank 1 1994 Importa in 1 Rank 1 Estirnaad of Active $1000 (US) Pesticide-use Ingredients Level Antigua & Barbuda 1 l3 Barbados 200 10 4 100 7 High Dominica 74 5 1 500 5 Grenada 1 155 19 1 700 13 1 Jamaica 1 85 16 1 7 700 Il0 IHigh Montserrat 1 28 12 190 11 1 St. KiWNevis 1 43 ( 3 1 650 12 1 St. Lucia 141 7 4 500 8 High St Vincent & 50 4 2 500 6 Grenadines Trinidad & 150 8 7 368 9 High Tobago
3.3.6 Topography The CIA FactBook, adapted in Website # 1, described the three basic types of topography of the CARICOM islands as fiat, moderately hilly, or mountainous. Both Barbados and Antigua and Barbuda are considered relatively Rat islands. Also notable, and unique to these islands, is their coralline geology which is further discussed in section 3.4.4 with reference to Barbados. Although Tobago is mountainous and volcanic in ongin, the much larger island of Trinidad is flatter and classified as moderate hilly. The remaining CARICOM islands (Dominica, Grenada, Jamaica, Montserrat, St. KittslNevis, St. Lucia and St. Vincent and the Grenadines) are volcanic in origin and considered mountainous. 3.4 Barbados 3.4.1 Location Barbados is the most easterly island of the West lndies located at 13"N and 59"W. It lies about 257 km east of its closest neighboun, St. Vincent and St. Lucia, and is one of the Lesser Antilles. Barbados, however, is not included in the Windward Islands chain because it is surrounded and isolated by great oceanic depressions from 1500 to 2300 metres (Bauman 1982). Barbados is 34 km long and, at its widest point is 23 km. The island has a total area of 431 km2 ("Barbados" in Encartagil), or 43 000 ha (Table 6).
3.4.2 Economy The economy of Barbados has historically been dependent on the export of sugar cane, refined sugar, molasses, and rum ('Barbados" in Encarta97). The annual harvest in the early 1990s for sugar cane, the major crop, was about 600 000 tonnes. In recent years, however, efforts have been made by the government to diversify the economy to reduce the dependence on the production of sugar cane. Economic activities which have been on the rise include manufaduring and tourism (CIA FactBook in Website # 1). As a result of this drive, since the late 1960s, the tourism sector has been bringing in more foreign revenue than sugar products.
3.4.3 Topography In contrast to the other islands of the Lesser Antilles, Barbados has a relatively Rat profile (CIA Facteook in Website # 1). Although the land is basically low, there are a few topographical inclines as described in Bauman (1982). For example, the terrain rises gently to an interior hig hland region with altitudes ranging from 180 to 240 metres above sea level, with a maximum height of 340 metres at Mt. Hillaby in the Scotland District. 3.4.4 Geology, Soils and Vegetation With respect to geology, the EED (1991) and Bauman (1982) stated that the majority of Barbados (85%) is composed of coralline limestone that varies in thickness from 24 to 100 metres. Under the coral cap is an impervious stratum of ocean formation that is basically made of clays and sandstone. The remaining 15% of the island, called the Scotland District, is characterised by outcrops of the oceanic fomatior! at the surface (Bauman 1982).
The soi1 and limestone of the island are relatively permeable to water. As a result, Bauman (1982) described that surface water gradually sinks into the coral, fiowing downward until it reaches the impermeable clay stratum, foming a groundwater reserve. Barbados has had a long history of groundwater development, and is almost totally dependent on groundwater for its public water supply (EED 1991).
Bauman (1982) described nine soils of the coralline areas of Barbados based on their age and the extent of weathering. In general, the soils comprise coral limestone and volcanic ash, and are basically al1 medium clays. The soils in the higher areas of the island have a relatively poor capacity for holding water, but as the elevation decreases, the water holding capacity increases. The higher elevations of the coralline areas generally receive greater quantities of precipitation and support lush natural vegetation. In contrast, the lower elevations receive less rain but can still support vegetation due to the high water holding capacity of the soils.
The sail in the Scotland District differs from the soi1 in the rest of Barbados because it is derived from the underlying parent rock or alluvium washed from higher rocks. Bauman (1982) described them as generally low in volcanic ash content and as clays, sand, silts, loams, or a van'ation of these. 3.4.5 Land Use and Agriculture As shown in Table 6, about 45% the land area in Barbados is used for agricultural production (UN 1993). Sugarcane production was introduced to Barbados more than 300 years ago, and the island has a long history of cane cuitivation on large plantations as mentioned by Jeffen and Banfield (1985). Presently sugarcane remains the major crop grown in Barbados. However, as stated by EED (1991,1989) it is not as important as it once was due to changes in the sugar market. Recent diversification efforts have lead to the production of other crops on the island (FA0 database in Website # 4), including beans, lettuce, sweet potatoes, bananas, grains and cereals (Table 7).
The EED (1991, 1989) described that there were few requirements for pest management on the sugarcane plantations, and pesticides were rarely used in the past. However in the early 1940s when the diversification efforts were initiated, plantations were required to convert at least 35% of their production to non-sugar crops to food shortages of the island. This single event resulted in the presence of unfamiliar pests, which in turn led to a dramatic increase in pest control activities, including the use of pesticides which remain important to the present agricultural production. The pesticide use in Barbados was already described in section 3.3.5 as being high (Table 10).
3.5 Jamaica 3.5.1 Location Jamaica is the only CARICOM island which is a part of the Greater Antilles chain. Jamaica is located about 145 km south of Cuba and 160 km west of Haiti (Government of Jamaica 1987). It is the third largest island in the Caribbean, and the largest in the CARICOM with a land area of 10 830 km2 (CIA FactBook in Website # l), or 1 083 000 ha (Table 6). At its maximum width and length, Jamaica measures approximately 236 km long and 82 km wide (Government of Jamaica 1987). 52 3.5.2 Economy The Government of Jamaica (1987) mentioned that the agricultural sector has historically provided employment for the largest proportion of workers in Jamaica. Although the economy is still largely dependent on agriculture, in the last several decades the economy has been divenified with other industries, such as bauxite mining, manufacturing and tourism, gaining in importance.
3.5.3 Topography The topography of Jamaica mainly comprises a highland interior ninning the length of the island, surrounded by Rat coastal plains. Jamaica can be considered relatively mountainous, with more than half of the island at an elevation greater than 1610 km above sea level (Government of Jamaica 1987).
The topographical features of Jamaica, as described in the Govemment of Jamaica (1987) include steep mountains, hig hly karsted land, high plateaus, rolling hills, and the coastal plain areas with large interior valleys. There is volcanic activity on the island, with lava cones in the Blue Mountains and hot springs on the south and east coasts.
3.5.4 Geology, Soils and Vegetation About hivo thirds of Jamaica, comprising the central and western parts, is wvered by limestone while the rernaining third consists of igneous and metamorphic rocks, shales, and alluvium (Govemment of Jamaica 1987).
The soils of the upland plateau (making up approximately 64% of the soils in Jamaica) are alkaline and generally more fertile than the highland soils. The Government of Jamaica (1987) mentioned two main soi1 types in this area: terra rosa or red limestone from residual bauxite soils, and rendzina or black marl soils. The alluvial soils on the coastal plain in southern Jamaica are composed of loam, sand, and gravel. This is the soif on Jamaica that is most productive for agricultural activity, and plantation crops such as sugar cane and bananas are grown in this area (Government of Jamaica 1987).
The Government of Jamaica (1987) stated that the soils of the highlands are mainly derived from shales, conglomerates and volcanics. The soils in this area are highly porous, subject to heavy leaching, and have low nutrient content and a low pH. These soils can be susceptible to erosion, and therefore are best suited under forest cover. In some areas of the highlands where erosion is not as great a problem, subsistence farming does take place. Mixed cropping systems of cacaos, root crops and bananas are often the crops grown in these locations.
3.5.5 Land Use and Agriculture Approximately 44% of Jamaica's land is used for agricultural production (Table 6). The three main types of agricultural land use in the island include: plantation crops grown largely for export, mixed farming for food crops sold domestically and exported, and pasture for beef and dairy cattle (Government of Jamaica 1987).
The top five crops in Jamaica, in ternis of production, are ranked in Table 7. In 1996, sugar cane was the major commodity followed by fruit (mainly bananas and citrus), root crops (primarily yam), vegetables (including carrots and tomatoes), and coconuts (FA0 database in Website # 4). Jamaica is also classified as a CARICOM country with a high pesticide-use level (Table 10).
3.6 St Lucia 3.6.1 Location St. Lucia is located at 14"N, between Martinique and St. Vincent in the Lesser Antilles chain (CCA and IRF 1991). According to the CIA FactBook (in 54
Website # 1), the land area of the island is 610 km2 or 61 000 ha (Table 6).
3.6.2 Economy St. Lucia's economy is largely dependent on agricultural activities with bananas being the most important export ctop. Alaiough agriculture remains the mainstay of the economy, the manufacturing and tourism sectors have recently been expanding ("Saint Lucianin Encarta97). The economy of St. Lucia is dependent on banana production. The expansion of the economy is important because banana production can be sensitive to periodic drought and tropical storm damage (CIA FactBook in Website # 4).
3.6.3 Topography The topography of St. Lucia is considered mountainous containing many streams and fertile valleys ("Saint Lucia" in Encartagi). The CCA and IRF (1991) describe the south central rnountain cluster rising at Mount Girnie to a peak elevation of 950 metres above sea level. This range extcds to the northeast and southeast in an axial ridge about 24 km long. On both sides of the ridge, the heavily wooded areas descend and give way to the coast. In the northern, central and eastern parts of St. Lucia the mountains are rounded with age, making the land suitable for agriculture.
St. Lucia is of volcanic origin, and the area of Soufribre on the west side of the island is characterised by a volcanic crater with hot sulfur springs ("Saint Lucian in Encartagi). The most recent eruption, as mentioned by the CCA and IRF (1991), was about 50 000 yean ago.
3.6.4 Geology, Soils, and Vegetation The CCA and IRF (1991) described St. Lucia as almost entirely volcanic with its oldest rocks consisting of hyolle, andesite and basalt, dating back 50 million years. The geology of the island has been extensively studied, and it has been detemined that a wide variety of soi1 types have emerged from the relatively small range of parent materials found on the island.
The soils in the wetter interior of St. Lucia tend to be acidic, heavily leached, and deficient in nutrients. In the dryer regions of the island, lattice clays are common along most of the coast. The soils which are the best and thickest are those that are the alluvial deposits in the main river valleys as rnentioned by the CCA and IRF (1991).
The vegetation of St. Lucia is lush, and can be divided into four categories including: primary rain forest in the interior of the island; secondary rain forest which surrounds the primary; dry scrub woodland on the dopes frorn the mountains to coast; and the coastal littoral woodlandl dry scrub (CCA and IRF 1991).
3.6.5 Land use and Agriculture The land use of St. Lucia (Table 6) indicates that agricultural production takes place on 35% of the land. The CCA and IRF (1991) stated that historically sugar cane was an important crop for St. Lucia. However, with the decline in the industry in the late 1950s the fertile valleys were converted to banana production. By about 1965, bananas contributed to 90% of St. Lucia's total exports rnaking the island the first to be dependent on a rnonocrop of bananas. To date, bananas and coconuts remain the most important crops to St. Lucia (Table 7).
It is noted in Table 10 that St. Lucia has a heavy pesticide-use level relative to the other CARICOM islands. The reason for this usage wuld be that the agrÏcultural production is mainly banana, often as a monoculture, making the crop very susceptible to pests. 3.7 Trinidad and Tobago 3.7.1 Location Trinidad and Tobago are the southemmost of the Caribbean islands situated off the coast of Venezuela. Trinidad is separated from the South American coast by the Gulf of Pana, and Tobago is 32 km northeast of Trinidad. The total area of Trinidad and Tobago is 51 30 km2, Trinidad being the larger of the two islands at 4828 km2 ("Trinidad and Tobago" in Encarta97).
3.7.2 Economy The CIA FactBook (in Website # 1) and "Trinidad and Tobagon (in Encarta97) described the economy of Trinidad and Tobago as primarily dependent on petroleum-based activities. The economy provides the citizens with a high per capita income compared to the Latin American average, even though living standards are lower than during the petroleum boom during 1973 to 1982. Problems of unemployment, large foreign debt payments, and fluctuations in world oil prices have made the economy less stable in the late 1980s and 1990s. On a more positive note, recent efforts to diversify exports made 1994 the first year of significant growth since the decline.
Other economic activities occurring in Trinidad and Tobago include manufacturing, tourism and agriculture. Agriculture employs only about 10% percent of the labour force, and commercially the most important crop remains sugarcane ("Trinidad and Tobagon in Encarta97).
3.7.3 Topography The topography of Trinidad is generally Rat with hilly areas. There are three ranges of hills which cross Tnnidad approximately from east to west. The highest point in Trinidad is El Cerro del Aripo at an elevation of 940 metres above sea level. The coast line of the island is characterised by a rocky northern side, steep southem coast, and an eastem coast exposed to heavy surf (Trinidad and Tobago, the smaller island, is volcanic in origin and is actually a single mountain mass. The peak elevation of Tobago is about 550 metres above sea level at its summit ("Trinidad and Tobagon in Encarta97).
3.7.4 Land Use and Agriculture According to the FA0 database (in Website # 4) and Table 6, agricultural activities take place on only 26% of the land in Trinidad and Tobago. (Esack 1994) stated that agriculture can be divided into two sectors. The first is the public sector companies including the major one called Caroni [1975] Limited. Caroni [1975] Limited is the latgest state enterprise, and is also the Company who manufactures al1 the sugar produced in Trinidad. The second sector in agriculture includes approximately 3 000 private farm holdings which mainly grow sugar, rice, cocoa, coffee, citrus, and tropical fruits.
According to Esack (1994) agriculture accounts for about 80% of the pesticides which are imported to Trinidad and Tobago. A wide range of pesticides is used in Trinidad, as outlined in Appendix 5, and Trinidad is classified as having a heavy pesticide-use level (Table 10).
3.8 Cornparison and Conclusion A cornparison of the islands in the CARICOM is an important task to detenine what the characteristics of a typical island in the region might be. The characteristics of a typical island will become the characteristics of the model island in the analysis in Chapter 5. It should be noted again that this classification is based on limited information and only provides a general idea of what the islands are like and how they are similar or different.
From the discussion it can be concludeci that the islands are similar in many regards. Seven basic categories of characteristics were discussed, including: climate, island size, percent of land used for agricultural production, types of crops produced, level of irrigation, pesticide use-level, and the topography. The particular characteristic for each of these categories chosen to represent the model island will be the characteristic which is most common between the ten islands. Therefore, a simple index can be used to indicate how similar the islands are to the model island.
All islands have the same type of climate, and exactly half of the islands do and do not employ any irrigation. Therefore, these two categories will not factor into the index. To simplify the index, for each category there are only two types of responses. These are either positive or negative. A positive response would indicate that the island has the same characteristic as the model island (the most common characteristic for the category) and is awarded one point. A negative response means that the island has a different characteristic than the model island and is awarded no point. This process will be described for each category.
The fint category is the actual land area of the island. As shown in Table 6, eight of ten islands are smaller than 75 000 ha. Since this is the most common characteristic, these islands receive one point and Jamaica and Trinidad, which are larger by a wide margin receive no point.
The percent of agricultural land on each of the islands is the second category with the information also presented in Table 6. Two different island groups emerge from this information, those which have greater than 30% of their land dedicated to agriculture and those with less than 30%. Seven out of ten islands are in the former group, and therefore receive one point. Antigua and Barbuda, Dominica and Trinidad and Tobago are different from the model island and receive no points. The third category (based on information presented in Table 8) is the agricultural crop with the highest production. For al1 the islands, only three different crops (mango, banana, and sugarcane) are in listed in the first column. Since banana and sugarcane are produced in the greatest quantaies, by 4 and 5 islands, respectively, and they are both plantation crops, the characteristic used to describe the model island will be whether an island grows plantation crops as its primary agricultural crop. Therefore, nine of the islands are positive and receive a point, while only Antigua and Barbuda are negative because their major crop is mango.
The fourth category is the pesticide-use level of the different islands (Table 10). Only four islands have a high pesticide-use level (Barbados, Jarnaica, St. Lucia and Trinidad and Tobago). Since more islands do not have a high level, that becomes the positive response. Antigua and Barbuda, Dominica, Grenada, Montserrat, St. KittslNevis, and St. Vincent and the Grenadines receive one point.
The final category is the topography of the island. Three types of topography were described: low, moderate hilly, and mountainous. As previously mentioned, the characteristic matching the most islands will be considered the characteristic of the model island. Therefore, since seven of the islands are mountainous, the model island will be mountainous. The remaining three islands are either low or rnoderately hilly and include Antigua and Barbuda, Barbados and Trinidad. These three islands are negative and do not receive a point. The results of the index are presented in Table 11.
The total index value is determined by adding the scores for each island, dividing by the highest possible score (5 points) and multiplying by 100 to get a percent. The highest score an island can receive for an index value is 100%. This would indicate that the particular island is 100% compatible with the model island based on the criteria discussed in this chapter.
As a result, the information presented in Chapter 5 on the model island analysis will be: 100% applicable to Grenada, Montserrat, St. KittsINevis, and St. Vincent and the Grenadines; 80% applicable to Dominica, and St. Lucia; 60% applicable to Barbados and Jamaica; 40% applicable to Antigua and Barbuda; and only 20% applicable to Trinidad and Tobago.
In summary, the characteristics of the model island include: a tropical climate; a land size of 75 000 ha or less; 30% or more of the land being used for agricultural production; the major crop is a plantation crop, either banana or sugarcane; a low to moderate pesticide-use level (not high); and a mountainous topography. Table i1 Corn larison and cl; ssification of t ie CARICOM islands based on :haracteristics of the mode1 i ActuaI Land % Agri Land C~P Pesticide-use T~PW~P~YIndex - Size production Level Value Antigua â 1 Il Barbuda
II Montserrat II St. KittdNevis
St. Vincent & II Grenadines Trin tdad 1L 11 Tobago 4.0 Literature Review of Pesticide Impacts in the CARICOM
4.1 Introduction The purpose of this chapter is to summaflse the scientific literature on the environmental impacts of pesticides in the CARICOM islands in order to identify any gaps, and thus answer the first ON0 thesis staternent questions. The information is organised by environmental cornpartment: soil, water, air, and biota (flora and fauna). A final section discusses social studies which were conducted about the knowledge, attitudes, practices and beliefs (KAPB) of pesticide users in the Caribbean. KAPB information is important because it can be used to evaluate the need for, and effectiveness of, public awareness campaigns.
Please note that al1 tables of data related to the information in this chapter are found in Appendix 7 to 25.
4.2 Water and Sediment Studies of pesticide residues in water and sediment have been conducted for several of the islands in the region including St. Lucia, Trinidad, Jamaica, Dominica and Barbados. The studies in Barbados have concentrated on ground water analysis, while the other three have looked at coastal waters. The pesticides which are most often studied have been the organochlorines which continue to be detected, although now used to a lesser degree, due to their persistence.
In 1984, an investigation looked at the concentrations of selected pesticides and polychlorinated byphenols (PCBs) in some coastal waters of St. Lucia. The data are summarîsed from Shim (1985) and Rarnsammy et alL(1 985) (both in CARDllUWllUNESCO l986), repoited in Appendix 7. The highest concentration detected was 250 ppb of the polychlorinated byphenol aiochlor in Castries Harbour water. For organochlorine residues, the highest concentrations were of pp'DDT for al1 three water bodies ranging from 29.2 ppb in Vigie Choc to 61.2 ppb in Castries Horbour. A more recent study of pesticide and PCB residues in St. Lucian coastal waters and sediment was conducted by Singh and Ward (1992). The study collected samples from 17 coastal sites around the island between 1986-1989. At several sites, lindane (5-40 ng/L), dieldrin (4 nglL) and DDT and its derivatives (4-20 ng/L) were detected while al1 other residues monitored were below the detection limit.
Several studies were conducted in f rinidad in the 1970s on pesticide residues in water. Sampath (1982 in Esack 1994) found no residues of organochlorines or PCBs in the Caroni River, Blue River or the Gulf of Paria in 1979. However, a study in 1976 of the Caroni River Basin by WASA showed insignificant levels of pesticides in water samples (Barrow 1990). Also in 1979, samples of water frorn off San Frenando in the Gulf of Paria were analysed both by a Canadian laboratory and the FAD laboratory in Trinidad. The Canadian laboratory detected high levels of DDT while the enalysis by the FAD laboratory did not find significant levels (Barrow 1990). This discrepancy could have been due to different analytical techniques or improved instrumentation used in Canada. A more recent study conducted by Moore et al' (1985 in Barrow 199O), reported significant levels of the carbarnate carbaryl and heavy metals in water samples from the Caroni River.
Several extensive investigations have been conducted in Jamaica, mainly looking at the residues of organochlorines in water and sediment of rivers. The Centre for Nuclear Sciences (1994) studied the residues of nine organophosphates and 10 organochlorines in Jamaican surface water, sediments, and groundwater in 1994. Many of the residues in the samples were below the detection lirnits, but for those that were detectable the results are in Appendix 8, 9 and 10. Although the pesticides dieldrin, endrin, DDT, DDE, BCH and heptachlor had not been used in Jamaica since 1983, their residues were still detectable in certain samples. The highest concentration found in a sediment sample was of the organophosphate chlorpyrifos at a level of 135.2 ppb taken from Rio Minho at the Alley site. The organochlorine alpha endosulfan was the highest residue level detected in surface water (0.354 ppb in Rio Minho at the Chapelton site) and ground water (0.42 ppb at Bellefield Hampden) as shown in Appendix 9 and 10, respectively.
One study by Williams and Chow (1993) on the toxicity of endosulfan to Gambusia puncticulata Poey (mangrove guppy) in Jamaica looked at endosulfan residues in waters around Jamaica. The acceptable limit of endosulfan in water, as set by the United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), is 0.49 ppb. However, analysis of several Jamaican riven from August to December in 1990 (when endosulfan is applied) showed that the highest concentrations of endosulfan (0.95 ppb alpha endosulfan in Mamme River; 0.95 ppb beta endosulfan in Salt River; and 0.72 ppb of endosulfan sulfate in Hope River) exceeded the safe limit (Appendix 11).
Mansingh conducted a series of studies on organochlorine residues in water and sediment in Jamaica from 1982 to 1992 as described in Mansingh et al. (1 997) and Mansingh and Wilson (1995). Mansingh et alL(1997) monitored pesticides in water and sediment of the Hope River watershed, Jamaica, on a monthly basis for three years. The percentage of residues detected in al1 samples for 1989, 1990 and 1991, was 29-57%, 40-60%, and 945% respectively for endosulfan, 14-29%, 0-IO%, and 0.9% respectively for dieldrin, and 0-14%, 0% and 9-46% respectively for the organophosphate diazinon (Appendix 12).
Mansingh and Wilson (1995) did a similar study in July and August, 1992. Water and sediment samples were collected regularly from Kingston Harbour, Jamaica. They found that approximately 41 % of water and 62% of sediment samples had residues above the detection limit. The pesticides which were found in the highest concentrations in the water samples were: beta endosulfan (7.86 uglL), pp'DDT (7.02 uglL), and dieldrin (1.88 ug/L). For the sediment samples, the highest three residue concentrations were: aldrin (9.18 uglL), HCB (1.O1 uglL) and alpha endosulfan (0.52 ug/L) (Appendix 13).
Mansingh (1987) also outlined the concentrations of several pesticide residues (endosulfan, dieldrin, dacthal and DDT) found in different commodities, including water and sediment, around Jamaica in 1985 (Appendix 14). No traces of dacthal were found in water or sediment and DDT was only detected in sediment sample from the Rio Cobre (2.2- 67.4 ppb). Residues of endosulfan and dieldrin were found in varying amounts in water and sediment of the Rio Cobre, Black River, Diver's River, Yallahs River, and the Salt River.
A Hunicane Hugo disaster rehabilitation project was funded by the United Stated Agency for International Development (USAID) program to help Dominica recover econornically from the destruction of the hurricane by providing the country with fertilizers. USAID decided to monitor the effects of the fertilizers they supplied, and at the same time they monitored several popular pesticides used in banana production. As a part of this project, Ross and Mann (1990) and Rainey et alL(1 987) investigated the impact of several banana fungicides (benomyl, thiophanate rnethyl, thiabendazole, and tridemorph) on the environment in Dominica. No pesticide residues in IWO samples of potable water, surface water, and river sedirnents were found to be above the minimum detection level, although detection levels Vary depending on the equipment used.
The most extensive ground water surveys in the region have been conducted in Barbados. Chilton (1991) described the water quality monitoring program in Belle and Hampton Catchment that took place from 1987-1991. The pesticides selected for monitoring were those considered a threat to the ground water supply via leaching and included the herbicides atraUne and ametryn and the organophosphates dimethoate and d iazinon. As shown by the results (Appendix 15), atrazine was detected in all of the wells that were sampled. Ametryn was found at low concentrations in several samples from the Hampton catchment. Diazinon and dimethoate were not detected in any samples from either catchment.
4.3 Soil Virtually no studies on the fate, transport and effects of pesticides on the soils of the Caribbean were found. In the project on the impacts of banana fungicides on various aspects of the Dominican environment, Rainey et alL(1 987) included an analysis of several soi1 samples. Soil samples were taken from nine different sites, however the number of samples per site was not mentioned. The result of the total investigation indicated that no residues were detected in any of the samples. However, nothing was specifically mentioned about the soi1 residues, including how the analysis was made.
A paper by Singh (1 990) also mentioned pesticides in the soils of the Caribbean. The paper stated that the persistence of dieldrin and endosulfan on plants and soils, maintained under the conditions of the Caribbean, is much shorter than compared to temperate climates. The half-life of the pesticides was determined to be three to six months compared to about three yean in temperate conditions. Due to the lack of details, it could not be deterrnined from the paper whether or not the investigation was conducted in the laboratory or the field, or how extensive the study was.
As introduced in section 4.2, Mansingh (1987) outlined the concentrations of several pesticide residues in Jamaican commodities in 1985 (Appendix 14). This study found soi1 pesticide residue levels ranging from 6.5400 ppb of endosulfan, 92-1224 ppb of dieldrin and 30-188 ppb of dacthal in various soils around the island.
4.4 Air No studies could be found on analysis of pesticide levels in the air of the Caribbean region. However, concern has been ex~ressedabout the possibility of pesticides being transported from Africa to the Caribbean via dust particles carried by the trade winds (C&t6 1997, personal communication).
4.5 Biota 4.5.1 Aquatic Organbms Several studies on pesticide residues in aquatic organisms have been conducted since 1980. Two theses were completed on this subject at UWI in Trinidad, Deonarine (1980) and Sampath (1982) as summarised by Esack (1994) and Siung-Chang (1990). In 1977, Deonarine exarnined biomagnification of the PCB arochlor 1254, and the organochlorines pp'DDT, OP'DDD,oplDDE, and dieldrin in the Caroni Swamp. Deonarine looked at residues in detritus and algae and found detrftus to contain 0.038 ppb dieldrin, and 11.5 and 0.039 ppb of total DDT, while algal samples were found to contain 0,01 and 1.4 ppb of heptachlor epoxide, 0.02 ppb of dieldrin, and 0.3-0.5 ppb of DDT residues. All measures were in terms of ppb wet weig ht.
By examining the residues in fish and crustacea that consume detritus and algae, Deonarine (1980 in Siung-Chang 1990) concluded that there was evidence of food chain concentration in herbivorous and omnivorous organisms. Residues were detected in Anus sp. (catfish), Luvanus griseus (redfish), Mytela guayanensis (musse 1) , Ara tus misonii (mangrove crab) , and Tiiapia mossambica (tilapia), as summarised in Appendix 16. Arochlor 1254 was found to be at the highest levels in al1 species, while the highest amount of dieldrin (5 ppb) was detected in the mangrove crab (Deonarine 1980 in Esack 1994). The 1979 study by Sampath (1982 in Esack 1994) showed results similar to the findings of Deonarine. Sampath examined the residues of organochlorines and PCBs in M. guyanennsis and other aquatic organisms collected from the Caroni River, Blue River and Gulf of Paria. Although no residues were detected in the water, some were found in fish and shrimp, while the highest levels were detected in the rnussels. The results suggest that aquatic organisms are bioaccumulating the pesticides. The results of the residue analysis in the mussel tissues are shown in Appendix 17. The highest concentrations, for exarnple 104.86 ppb wet weight pp'DDT, were found in mussels from the mouth of the Caroni River, and al1 levels were found to be below the LD, value for mussels.
Also presented are some results from a 1973-1974 Caroni River basin study by Donawa (1976 in Esack 1994). Low levels of residues of the organochlorines dieldrin, DDT and lindane were detected in the fish T. mossambica (tilapia) and Centropomus sp. (brochet) (Appendix 18). However, since the details on this study were not provided, it cannot be determined from Esack (1 994) how comprehensive the investigation was.
As previously mentioned, Rainey ataL (1987) and Ross and Mann (1990) studied the impacts of banana pesticides on various aspects of the Dominican environment. Both studies used very small sample sized and did not detect residues in any of the aquatic life. Although these studies are in agreement that the rehabilitation project was not impacting the quatic life in Dominica, a more detailed study with a larger sample size conducted over several years is required.
Pesticide residues in several marine organisnis were analysed around St. Lucia by Ramsammy && (1985 in CARDIIUWIIUNESCO 1986), Singh and Ward (1992) and by Gaskin et alL(1 974). Ramsammy et al. looked at residues in Mugi1 curema (mullet), Brachidontes exustus (mussel) and Crassostrea hizophorae (Caribbean oyster) in the Castries Harbour compared to values found in the Gulf Coast, United States and the United Kingdom. The highest residue concentrations found were of the organochlorines chlordane (0.160 pprn) and pp'DDE (0.164 pprn) detected in oysten (Appendix 19). The concentrations detected in mullet and oysten were low compared to other places, but no comparable data were available for the species of mussels found in Castries Harbour. A more recent study of residues in St. Lucia marine biota (mullet, oyster and mussel) was conducted by Singh and Ward (1992). The highest residue concentration was of the organochlorine chlordane in the lipid fraction of mullet (7 3.34 ngfg), fiat tree oyster (Isognomon alîus) (67.05 nglg) and Caribbean oyster (13.35 nglg). Heptachlor and heptachlor epoxide were not detected in either fraction of the mullet sample, and were not detenined for any other organism (Appendix 20).
Gaskin et alL(1 974) detenined the concentrations of organochlorine pesticides and PCB residues in whales and dolphins in waters adjacent to St. Lucia. Samples of blubber, muscle, liver, and kidney were collected from five short- finned pilot whales (Globicephala macmhynchal) and two long-snouted dolphins (Stenella longimsf~s)).Measurable quantities of PCBs, total DDT and dieldrin were detected in ail sampled tissues. PCB residue levels ranged from 0.03 pprn in muscle to 5.00 pprn in the blubber. Total DDT ranged from 0.01 pprn in muscle to 7.38 pprn in the blubber, and dieldrin was detected only in trace amounts in the muscle, liver and kidney but in the blubber frorn 0.001 to 0.05 ppm (Gaskin et ah 1974). As expected, the concentrations of organochlorines and PCBs were highest in the blubber of dolphins because these chernicals are lipophilic and accumulate in fat molecules (Forget 1991).
Several fish kills around the Caribbean Region have been mentioned by different authors. Dominica, Barbados, Jamaica and St. Lucia have al1 experienced kills where pesticides have been the suspected cause. Several cases in the 19809, as mentioned by Lawrence (1985) and Eudovique and Calixte (1985), occurred in St. Lucia. Most were attributed to either toxic plants in the water, or accidental and intentional spills of pesticides such as Gramoxone (paraquat). For several of the incidences, samples were sent to CEHl for analysis. However, of those cases discussed by Eudovique and Calixte (1985), none of the fish kills were proven to be due to pesticides. Rainey et & (1987) mentioned one substantial fish kill in the northeast of Dominica which was thought to have resulted from washing a truck that had been carrying nematocides. The author did not state whether analyses were conducted to determine the exact cause of the fish deaths. Two other cases, thought to be caused by pesticide runoff frorn agricultural production, occurred in Barbados and Jamaica.
In Barbados, large numbers of freshwater fish were reported to have suddenly started dying in the Graeme Hall swamp. Preliminary analyses mentioned by Alleyne (1986), however, showed that there were no detectable levels of pesticides. Aiken and Jupp (1985) wrote about the 1985 incident in Jamaica which, at the time, was the largest fish kill in the St. Thomas area. The only fish species affected by the incident was Harengula jaguana Poey (pinchers). The dead fish were first detected in January and the episode did not end until the third week in May. On March 26 at the Southem Bull Bay beach, approximately 25-30 fish/m2were counted dead on the shoreline. Partially due to the size of the fish kill, the investigation was relatively extensive. Prelirninary results indicated the presence of organochlorine pesticides in the body fat of the analysed pinchers. Although the results could not conclusively prove that pesticides were the cause of the fish deaths, they were suspected as a possibility.
In study by Mansingh and Wilson (1995), mentioned in section 4.2, pesticide residues were studied in several aquatic organisms as well as water and sediment. The organophosphate diazinon was detected in one benthic fish and oyster species. Alpha endosulfan and aldrin were also found in the oyster species (Appendix 2 1). Mansingh (1987) described the concentrations of residues of the organochlorines endosulfan, dieldrin and DDT and the herbicide chlorthaldimethyl (dacthal formulation) in Jamaican commodities in 1985. Shrirnp and herring are included in this list (Appendix 14).
As mentioned in section 4.2, a study on the toxicity of the Thiodan EC35 formulation of endosulfan, a cornmon pesticide in coffee production, to the hardy Gambusia puncticulata Poey (mangrove guppy) in Jamaica was conducted by Williams and Chow (1993) in 1990. The 24 hour LC, of the Thiodan EC35 formulation to the mangrove guppy was found to be 0.051 ppb, a concentration far lower than the EPA acceptable tirnit (0.49 ppb) and the maximum concentrations (0.72- 0.95 ppb) detected in some areas.
4.5.2 lnsects No investigations have been conducted on the impact of pesticides on beneficial insects. The only studies on insects and pesticides in the Caribbean have been to document pest resistance to insecticides. One such study was recently conducted, from 1992-1995, by Rawlins and Ou Hing Wan (1995). Thirty-four strains of Aedes aegypti, the vector for dengue in the Caribbean, were collected to determine their susceptibility, in ternis of a resistance ratio (RR), to some organophosphate insecticides. The RR was an indication of how resistant a particular insect strain is to an insecticide compared to a known insecticide- susceptible Trinidad strain. The higher the value, the more resistant the strain was found to be. Most strains showed an elevated resistance to temephos with RRs ranging from 1.4 to a high of 12.1 (a Tortola, BVI strain) with only 20.6% of the strains remaining susceptible to temephos. Resistance of malathion was less intense than temephos with 32.3% of the strains still being susceptible to malathion. RRs ranged from 1.O (susceptible strain) to a high of 7.3 (an Aruba strain). The resistance of A. aegyptito fenthion was found to be significant, and those strains that were highly resistant to temephos also tended to be resistant to fenthion. The RRs ranged from 1.O to 14.6 (a Bahamas strain) and only 16% of the strains were still susceptible. The RR for fenitrothion ranged from 0.9 to a high of 4.0 (a Trinidad strain) and 34.5% of the strains were still susceptible. The RR for chlorpyrifos ranged from 1.2 to a high of 8.7 (a St. Lucia strain) with 54% of the strains remaining susceptible to the pesticide.
4.5.3 Plants Pesticide residue studies have been taking place in the Caribbean region since at least the 1970s. Alleyne (1986) summarised the results of a small study in Barbados that took place from 1972-1 975. During this period, vegetable samples were collected from St. Michael, St. George, St. Philip and Christ Church, Barbados. The results show that organochlorine residues were found in most samples, and some levels were above those accepted by the FA0 and WHO recommendations for residues in food (Appendix 22).
In Trinidad, pesticide residues in foods were analysed from 1975 to 1985, first by the Commonwealth Caribbean Pesticide Control Unit, and also by CARDI. Barrow (1990) stated that during this period no significant levels of pesticides residues were reported. A summary of these results, as adapted from Ali (1985) are show in Appendix 23. Barrow and Esack (1991) conducted a more recent experiment in Trinidad from December 1985 to February 1986. Ten tomatoes, each from different plants, were taken from 10 different famers for residue analysis. Of al1 the samples, only one tomato had an unacceptably high level of one pesticide. The carbamate insecticide residue recorded was five ppm of the Padan formulation of cartap, a level much higher than 0.5 ppm which is the acceptable limit for human consumption. This residue level was attributed to the fact that the plant was sprayed three days prior to harvest and the particular farmer exceeded label rates. As previously mentioned, pesticide residues on food have also been determined in Jamaica in the past. The results are shown in Appendix 14. and give the levels of endosulfan, dieldrin, dacthal and DDT in cucumber, carrot, green pepper, egg plant, orange and onion. The highest residue that was recorded was 300 ppb in onions (Mansingh 1987).
4.5.4 Wildlife The only hostudies which were found on the impacts of pesticides on wildlife in the Caribbean were by Ross and Mann (1990) and Rainey et alk(1987). These studies, as mentioned in the section 4.2, dealt with the impact of pesticides on different aspects of the Dominican environment. Ross and Mann (1990) found no dead birds in areas of pesticide use, and analysed one snake, one lizard and some crickets. The study by Rainey et alk(1987) examined a broader range and greater number of wildlife species. Nine species of birds and bats were exarnined for residues, with a total sample size of 43 animals taken from seven sites. One frog and one guano were also analysed. In both investigations, no direct impacts of pesticides on wildlife were found. However, Rainey st alt (1987) concluded, based on available information, that the primary impact of pesticides üsed in banana production was the reduction in wild life habitat due to forest clearing.
The only other reference to pesticide impacts on terrestrial animals was by Reid (1987) who mentioned a suivey in Agromed News and Views: Volume 1, Number 1. The survey revealed that from 1977 to 1981 there were 836 cases of Iivestock poisoning by pesticides in Jamaica. Of this total, it was reported that 52% were by insecticides, 17% by the herbicide paraquat, 12% due to the rodenticide warfarin, 13% by carbarnates, and six percent by hydrocarbons. Details of how the pesticide exposures occurred was not provided in Reid (1987). 4.5.5 Humans In Barbados records of human pesticide poisoning cases referred to the Queen Elizabeth or St. Joseph Hospitals between 1980 and 1985 were summarised in Alleyne (1986). The results (Appendix 24) are presented in tenns of pesticide type and indicate whether the poisoning was accidental or intentional, and if it caused death. As shown by the data, in many cases the specific pesticide responsible for the injury was not detennined. The greatest number of poisonings that were treated in hospital was 27 in 1984.
As stated by Rae (1996), infants and children are more susceptible to pesticide toxicity than adults because of their habits: outdoor playing, hand-to-mouth behaviours, higher breathing rates and differences in clothing. Reid (1987) provided some information on pesticide poisonings of children in Jamaica in the 1980s. For example, from 1981-1 982, 10 poisoning cases were reported at Bustamante Children's Hospital with two deaths. She also mentioned that four out of five children died after paraquat (gramoxone formulation) was wrongly used to treat head lice. In another study, the records of six hospitals in Jamaica indicated 21 poisonings in 1980, 16 in 1881, and 15 in 1982. Of these cases, 14 were due to organophosphates, five due to paraquat, six due to rat poison, several to chlorînated hydrocarbons, and 12 to unknown pesticides. Alamingly, 94% of the people affected were children, and the remainder were famiers.
Coleman && (1990) discussed a 1989 case study where three female workers from a single coffee plantation in Jamaica suffered carbofuran toxicity after applying the pesticide by hand without wearing protective gear. Carbofuran is a carbamate insecticide. The Health Department's investigation recomrnended that the plantation management provide protective gear for their employees, and that a program be implemented to educate plantation worken on the use of the protective gear and the signs of pesticide poisoning. Davies and Lee (1986) and Reid (1987) presented results of a 1981 study on organochlorine residues in the blood of the general population of Trinidad and Jamaica. An occupationally-exposed population in Trinidad was also examined (Appendix 25). It was found that 82-100% of each population tested contained residues of DDT, 049% had residues of lindane and 5-83% were contaminated with dieldrin. In Trinidad, the occupationally exposed population had DDT levels ranging from 16.0-72.0 ppb, while the general population had levels of 5.4 to 236.1 ppb (Davies and Lee 1986). Other populations investigated included the general population of Bahamas, migrants of Haiti, and the general United States population. The levels of DDT in Trinidad and Jamaica populations are comparable to the other countries. However, the levels of lindane and dieldrin residues were higher in Trinidad and Jarnaica compared to the other countries where levels were 0-1 % lindane and 5-1 1% dieldrin (Reid 1987).
A study by Downes (1994) in Barbados looked at cholinesterase levels in pesticide users. Generally the cholinesterase levels in people exposed to organophosphate and carbarnate pesticides will be depressed (section 1.6.3). This study ranked the plasma cholinesterase levels, from lowest to highest as: private farm workew government workerse control group. The other apparent trend was that the cholinesterase levels tended to decrease significantly as the number of cholinesterase inhibiting pesticides used increased.
4.6 Labontory Studies Singh et alL(1 991 a) conducted a comprehensive laboratory study on the degradation of three organochlorine insecticides (dieldrin, alpha-endosulfan, and beta-endosulfan) commonly used pesticides in Jamaica. They studied the volatilization, hydrolysis and photolysis of the pesticides under laboratory conditions that simulated those of tropical agroecosystems. The volatility of the pesticides from a glass surface at 30°C was in the order of alpha endosulfan > dieldrin > beta endosulfan, and al1 reactions showed first order kinetics. The estimated loss of dieldrin and endosulfan was estimated using their flux values as determined by the solvent trap method. The values were 0.25 and 0.43 ugfcrn for dieldrin and endosulfan, respectively. Therefore, the rate of pesticide loss due to volatilization would be 25 and 43 glhalday for a dose of 1.O kg ailha. First order kinetics were also found for the hydrolytic degradation experirnents. For endosulfan, hydrolysis was pH dependent, and described in ternis of half-lives, decreased with decreasing pH as foilows: pH 9.5 (t%= 0.04 days) > pH 7.0 (t%= 25 days) > pH 4.5 (t%= BO days). The hydrolysis of dieldrin was not pH dependent and had a half life of 95 days. Photolytic degradation also followed fint order kinetics. Half-life degradation was in the order of dieldrin (2.5 h) < beta endosulfan (3.5 h) c alpha endosulfan (20 h) in hexane and dieldrin (1.7 hj c beta endosulfan (33 h) c alpha endosulfan (48 h) in aqueous solution. This result indicated that endosulfan, in both isomers, is more inert to UV radiation in an aqueous solution than in hexane and that the acüvity of dieldrin was similar in both media. In al1 cases, however, the half-life was relatively short.
Only one study by Hassell(1984 in Alleyne 1986), looked at pesticide evaporation from surfaces maintained at 24 to 26°C. The experiment was not described, but was a vapour pressure study on the carbarnate insecticides carbaryl (Sevin) and propoxur (Baygon), and the fungicide benomyl (Benlate) which were the most commonly used pesticides in Barbados at the time. The results showed that the rate of evaporation for these pesticides was very high indicating that they would not remain on the plants or soi1 for very long at temperatures common in the Caribbean.
4.7 Knowledge, Attitudes, Practices and Beliefs Several investigations, known as Knowledge, Attitudes, Practices and Beliefs (KAPB) studies have been conducted throughout the Caribbean. These studies consist of questionnaires designed to evaluate what people, both the public and pesticide users, know and believe about pesticides. An older study by Alleyne (1986) conducted in Barbados surveyed 100 people made up of housewives/ husbands, manual workers, senior secondary school students and persons involved with selling or applying pesticides. The results of the study showed that everyone was familiar with pesticides and was aware that hazards were associated with them. However, the questions, as presented in the paper, appeared leading and may have swayed the responses. For exarnple, when asked "Are you aware that there are hazards associated with using pesticides?" it is not surprising that 100% of the people responded "yes." For more useful information, in evaluating the knowledge of the respondents, the question should have been followed up with another asking for an example of a hazard.
Wood (1990) also conducted a small KAPB study in Barbados to determine pesticide usage patterns by farmen. It was determined pesticides are widely used in Barbados, and for each plantation surveyed more than one pesticide was used. Many of the plantations did store pesticides in designated locked rooms, however, if a spill occurred, the pesticide would not be contained in the room. It was also unusual to find workers wearing protective clothing while mixing pesticides. When asked if they thought that it was necessary to monitor food for pesticide residues, 69% of the farmers said "yesn.
The main KAPB study conducted in St. Lucia was summarised in McDougall & (1993). This survey was of 130 pesticide users divided into hivo groups. One hundred and ten were agricultural workers and the remaining 20 were vector control operators. In ternis of education, only 12% of the respondents had education higher than the primary school level. Ail vector control operators stored pesticides at their workplace, and most were locked. Most farmers kept their pesticides at the farm, but of the 26 who reported keeping them at home, only half said that the pesticides were locked up. When asked about the hazards of pesticides, most respondents had heard of pesticide poisoning and agreed that pesticides were poisonous. However, many worken overestimated their knowledge of how pesticides gain entry to the body. When asked if they ever felt ill after being exposed to pesticides, 36 of 125 respondents (29%) said yes. Only 28 of 70 respondents (40%) said that they would not tell anyone or seek medical attention if they were feeling il1 after using pesticides. Most workers who answered also knew that pesticides had been used in suicide attempts. In ternis of safety, 65 of 125 respondents (53%) said they had training in the proper use of pesticides. The sources of education and information which were mentioned, from most common to least, included technical agent, supervisor, MOH, PAHO or WHO representative, other farmers, SLBGA farmers and school. Fifty-four of 124 respondents (43%) admitted that they could not understand the pesticide labels; but of the 65 who said they understood the labels, only 28% said they always followed the instructions. More than half (82 of 127, or 65%) of the respondents said that they never wore protective clothing when using pesticides, and only 20% said they sometimes did. When asked about personal hygiene after using pesticides, 89 of 121 (73%) said that they washed and changed their clothing. With respect to the disposal of empty pesticide containers, 58 of the 102 respondents stated that they just discarded the containers when empty either by throwing them away, burying or burning them, or reused them for spraying, domestic purposes or storing gasoline. Only one respondent said they returned containers to the supplier (McDougall et all, 1993).
As a component of a study, Barrow et all, (1993) questioned 59 farrners around Trinidad in 1992 about their pesticide practices. Most fanners reported having read the instructions on pesticide labels, and would seek help to understand the directions where necessary. It was determined that most farmen applied mixtures of pesticides to their crops as standard practice. In terms of measunng dosages, most farmers use a graduated cap or spoon and many admitted to increasing the dosage if they were not happy with the results. It was also determined that the tirne allowed before reentry into a treated field was not set. The times ranged from one day to one month depending on the famer, crop and the weather. Famen also mentioned that they did not overuse pesticides due to the fact that the chernicals are expensive. Some also said that they used less toxic mixtures as harvest time approached.
A cornprehensive Island-wide KAPB study surveying 1O01 people was conducted in Jamaica in 1994 by the Stone Team (1994). They observed the following: that respirators were rarely used during pesticide applications; fanners consider hiding pesticides out of the reach of children as "locked away"; that farmers Say they follow rnixing directions, but tend to modify the mixtures more than they admit; and that small-scale fannen Wear ordinary clothing when using pesticides. The following results were found from the questionnaires. It was detennined that approximately 73% of the respondents only had education to the primary level. The most common pesticide was the Gramoxone formulation of the herbicide paraquat, which was used by 54% of the farmers, and it was the herbicide of choice 79% of the time. Various respondents also rnentioned that they knew of cases where Gramoxone was used in suicide attempts. Respondents said that they obtain pesticide from farm stores 90% of the time, and that 51% choose a particular product because of its effectiveness. Farmers reported purchasing pesticides in various containers, including: the original container (64.4%), or labeled or unlabeled paper bags, bottles or tins. For the storage of pesticides, it was found that 61% of the farmers locked pesticides away. However, those who stored pesticides at or near the home rarely locked them. For disposal of extra pesticide in a container, it was determined that 55.2% of the farmers got rid of it by respraying a crop; and once empty 12.1% reused the ernpty containers for storing other pesticides, food, water, or fuel. For mixing pesticides, most fanners (67.4%) followed the instructions on the labels to a certain degree. However, when handling pesticides, most farmers (72%) wore ordinary clothing, and 54.8% admitted to rarely wearing protective clothing. Reasons mentioned for not wearing protedive gear included the cost, habit, or because farmers don? think the protection is necessary. It was found that most farmers tended to apply pesticides at the first sign of pest infestation, and 72% of the famers did the spraying themselves. In ternis of washing spray equiprnent after applying pesticides, 7.8% of the famers said they performed this task in the rivers while most washed their equipment in the field. Some respondents (19.7%) stated that they have felt diîTerent after handling pesticides, and 11.7% said they were poisoned in the past due to pesticides. When asked their opinion on what health effects pesticides could cause, the answen ranged from impotence to itching to cancer and death. Most respondents knew that they should not eat (90.4%), drink (73.6%) or smoke (81.O%) when handling pesticides. Çinally, it was detennined that the majority of famers get their information on pesticides from other famiers (33.2%), salesmen (1 5.6%) or extension staff (12.7%) (Stone Team 1994).
Grossman ( 1992b) described a KAPB study that was done in a St. Vincent village in 1988 to 1989. The investigation was different from the previously mentioned studies because it consisted of observations over a 12 month period as well as interviews with 37 of the 52 fam households in the village. Like the other surveyed islands, the most widely-used pesticide in the village was paraquat (Gramoxone formulation). The famers were aware that pesticides are poisons, and demonstrated their knowledge of this fact. For example, famers did not plant bananas uphill from food crops for fear of contaminating the food. Although the famiers did not fully understand the hazards of pesticides, some of their beliefs were interesting. For example, they thought that pesticides should only be applied by older people because children are more susceptible to their effects. As well, pregnant women refused to handle pesticides. The villagen also thought that a bad smelling pesticide was more dangerous than a pleasant smelling one. The general conclusion of the study was that although Vincentian farmers do misuse pesticides, the problems there are not as severe as other Third World Countries. However, examples of pesticide rnisuse were noted. For example, protective clothing was rarely wom during pesticide handling, empty containers were disposed of incorrectly, and pesticides were sornetimes used for the wrong crop or purpose.
4.8 Conclusion The pesticides which were rnentioned in this chapter, indicating that various environmental impacts of these pesticides in different CARICOM islands were examined, are summarised in Table 12. The chart is organised by the type of pesticide to provide an indication of the most commonly studied group. Frorn the chart, it can be seen that the most commonly studied pesticides in the region have been the organochlorines and organophosphates with 12 of each being examined in the various environmental compartments.
The organochlorines have been more widely studied than organophosphates, with several of them including DDT, dieldrin and endosulfan being studied and detected in ma ny of the environmental corn partments. The organop hosphaies, on the other hand have not been studied as extensively in ewsystems.
The column in the chart on the status of the pesticide refers to whether or not the pesticide is currently being used in the region (based on information from Appendix 5). Several conclusions can be made in reference to the pesticides which are apparently no longer in use, such as DDT or heptachlor epoxide, including: they are süll being used in various islands, although not documente& they are very persistent and their residues continue to be detected even though they have not been used for several years; or they are being used outside the CARICOM and are transported by air and water currents into the region where they are deposited and detected. Table 12 Summar of ú es tic ides studied in the CARICOM Pesticide (active Media studied in Current status esticide ingredient) of pesticide organochlorine DDT aquatic organisms not used water &/or sediment plants humans II organochlorine DDD aquatic organisms not used organochlorine DDE aquatic organisms not used water &/or sediment plants --.-. .. - . . organochlorine dieldrin aquatic organisms used water Wor sediment soi1 plants humans la boratory heptachlor epoxide aquatic organisms not used organochlorine water &or sediment plants organochlorine lindane aquatic organisms used water Wor sediment hurnans II organochlodne chlordane aquatic organisms used organochlorine endosulfan aquatic organisms used water &/or sediment soil plants la boratory II organochlorine endrin water &/or sediment not used plants organochlorine aldrin water &/or sediment not used II - plants organochlorine water &/or sediment not used II plant II organochlorine toxaphene plants not used water 8Jor sediment used plants laboratory used fMd2Continue( Type of pesticide Pesticide (active Media studied in Current statu8 ingredient) of pesticide carbofuran humans used propoxur used chlorpyrifos water &/or sediment used plants insects ethoprophos water &/or sediment used diazinon water &/or sediment used 1 organophosphate profenofos water &/or sediment used 11 organophosphate dimethoate water &/or sediment used II organophosphate temephos insects used - - II organophosphate fenthion insects used organophosphate fenitrothion plants used II insects 11 organophosphate methyl parathion plants not used 11 organophosphate orthene plants not used 11 organophosphate parathion plants not used II organophosphate tamaron plants not used -- II pyrethroid decis plants not used 11 pyrethroid arsenic cpd plants not used herbicide aquatic organisms not used soi 1 plants herbicide paraquat humans used water used II herbicide ametryn water used I fungicide benomyl aquatic organisms used water &/or sediment soi1
wildlife l able 12 Continued Type of pesticide Pesticide (active Media studied in Current statu8 ingredient) of pesticide fungicide thiophanate methyl water #or sediment
wildlife fungicide thia bendazole aquatic organisms used water &.or sediment soi1 wildlife fungicide tridemorph aquatic organisms water &/or sediment
The pesticides which have been studied, compared to those which are thought to be a concern in the Caribbean Region will be further discussed in Chapter 6.
In conclusion, the information provided in this chapter summarises what was studied in the past on the environmental impacts of pesticides in the Caribbean. The concentration of information is clearly on the subjects of pesticide residues of organochlorines, especially in water. Virtually no information is available on the impacts of pesticides on soil, air, beneficial insects, or native plants and wildlife. The information which is available, however, will be fitted into a rnodel island analysis in the following chapter to clearly show what is known and what remains to be studied. 5.0 Analysis of the transport, fate and effects of pesticides in the CARICOM using a Model Island Approach
5.1 Introduction The data presented in the previous chapter come from studies conducted in various CARICOM islands. Therefore, it is difficult to assess the range of knowledge on pesticide impacts in the CARICOM unless the infomation is combined. This chapter will setve this purpose by using a representative or mode1 island approach to demonstrate where the information is adequate or lacking in terms of information on the transport, fate and effects of pesticides in the CARICOM*
In the first section of this chapter, a brief description of models is provided. This will be followed by a summary of the characteristics of the model island. Third, the critefia for a comprehensive understanding of the environmental impacts of pesticides in the model island will be outlined. This will be organised in terms of the transport, fate and effects of pesticides in each environmental cornpartment (soil, water, air, biota). The final section will present the infomation in Chapter 4 as it fits the rnodel island. This section will also identify the infomation on the transport, fate and effects of pesticides in the CARICOM which is lacking.
5.2 Definition of Models According to the Concise Oxford Dictionary of Current English (Allen 1990) there are seven meanings of the word "model." Two definitions, which are relevant here, are: 'a simplified (often mathematical) description of a system, etc. to assist calculations and predictions (Allen 1990)," and "a representation in three dimensions of an existing person or thing or of a proposed structure, often on a smaller scale (Allen 1990)."
5.2.1 Predictive or Mathematical Models In the context of this study, the first definition refers to mathematical based models used to predict the transport, fate and effects of pesticides in an ecosystem. As stated by Lassiter et alL(1978), 'models are mathematical based descriptions of rate processes of chemical transformations and equilibria, both written as functions of environmental factors."
Seiber (1987) said that an important task facing science today is predicting how a chemical behaves in the environment. There is concern about the processes such as food chain accumulation, contamination of water sources, persistence in the soi1 and water, and movement of chemicals to sensitive environments via the various transport mechanisms. Knowing how a chemical behaves in the environment is important in determining its potential for coming in contact with susceptible non-target species (Howard et alk1978) or environments. Developing models to predict the behavior of chemicals, and chemical pesticides, in the environment enables manufacturers and regulators to make better decisions.
It should be noted that the purpose of this study was not to develop or use a pesticide fate model to determine the transport, fate and effects of specific pesticides in the CARICOM. Rather it was designed to collect and assess the information base on which future pesticide awareness campaigns might be developed and evaluate where the gaps in the information were.
5.2.2 The Model Island as a Representation The second meaning, in section 5.2, refers to a representation used for demonstration purposes. The analysis consists of selecting the data from the literature review (Chapter 4) gathered on CARlCOM islands in order to construct a model or representative island. Due to constraints it would be impossible for each individual CARlCOM island to conduct the range of studies to assess the environmental impacts of pesticides in their country. Since many of the islands share similar characteristics, it might be assumed that a study done on one island would be applicable to the other islands which are sirnilar to it. Therefore, this model island analysis combines al1 the data on transport, fate and effects of pesticides obtained from studies conducted on islands sharing sirnilar characteristics in order to obtain a general picture of transport, fate and effects of pesticides.
The first step in the model island analysis is to determine what a typical island in the CARlCOM would be like. The characteristics of a typical island are then used to describe the model island. This process is outlined in section 3.8, and the model island is described as: having a tropical climate with a wet season or hurricane season from June to October and a dry season from November to May; having a total land size of 75 000 ha or less; having 30% or more of the land used for agricultural production; with the major crop is a plantation crop, either banana or sugarcane; in which the island has a low to moderate pesticide-use level (not high); and where the topagraphy is mountainous.
Several islands were 100% compatible with the model island, including: Grenada, Montserrat, St. KisINevis, and Si. Vincent and the Grenadines. Islands which differed in only one characteristic are considered 80% compatible and include Dominica and St. Lucia. Barbados and Jamaica were 60% compatible to the model island, having three out of five similar characteristics. Antigua and Barbuda was 40% compatible while Trinidad and Tobago only had one similar characteristic with the model island making it 20% compatible (Table 11).
In the model island analysis, only the information in studies conducted in islands which are compatible to a degree of 60% or higher will be used to detemine the environmental impacts of pesticides in the model island. Therefore, studies from Antigua and Barbuda as well as Ttinidad and Tobago are not relevant to the model island.
Although some studies are eliminated in the model island analysis, it does not mean that they are not good or useful studies. They still contribute to the body of knowledge on the environmental impacts of pesticides, however they are specific to an island rather than having a broader scope such as being applicable to the CARICOM islands. In particular, the studies which are eliminated are those conducted in Trinidad. The studies conducted in Trinidad are mainly on residues in water, sediment and aquatic organisrns in the Caroni area and Gulf of Paria which, as mentioned by Esack (1994) is a major coastal fishery for the island.
5.3 Criteria for Understanding Environmental Impacts Specific pesticide fate or effects models were not used in this assessment. Rather, the transport, fate and effects of pesticides in the island environment were examined generally to sumrnarise what is known about the environmental impacts of pesticides in the CARICOM islands. The analysis will be further organised in ternis of the environmental compartments, thereby demonstrating the current knowledge of the transport, fate and effects in the soil, water, air, and biota.
5.3.1 Transport (Soil) Pesticides can contaminate soi1 not only via intentional input but also by unintentional applications. Transportation to non-target soils by wind in the fon of drift, by water as atmospheric fallout from rain, by humans from an accidental spill, or unin!entional application can occur. Pesticides can also be transported through the soi1 via water, or with soils via the process of erosion.
5.3.2 Transport (Water) Pesticides can be transported in surface and subsurface waters and the oceans. As in the soi1 compartment, pesticides can be introduced to water intentionally or unintentionally by several means. Intentional applications include the control of weeds, algal blooms, insects, or predaceous fish species. Unintentional water exposure to pesticides can occur via direct applications to water ways, or via atmospheric fallout of rain and dusts, pesticide drift, erosion of soi1 with bound residues, industrial effluents, or sewage (McEwen and Stephenson 1979). As mentioned by QLF (1995), another possible mechanism of water contamination is via washing spray equipment in riven and streams. It should also be noted that water can be the medium by which pesticides are transported to other environmental compartments.
5.3.3 Transport (Air) As stated by McEwen and Stephenson (1979), there are several ways in which pesticides can enter the atmosphere, including: drift or volatilization during application; volatilization from treated surfaces; volatilization after secondary deposit; escape from plants which manufacture and formulate pesticides; or via dust during dust storms. Pesticides may also bounce from the soi1 surface during application to enter the air. Once in the atmosphere, pesticides can be transported or distributed, either long or short range, via the wind. This cm result in the contamination of other environmental compartments, or the species in them, near or far away from the site of application.
4.3.4 Transport (Biota) There are two ways in which biota (plants, insects, wildlife, domestic animals, 90 and humans) can be contaminated with pesticides: direct (intentional or accidental) application, or indirect application. Indirect applications would occur when pesticides are transported from an area of application to a non-target populated area. As previously mentioned, these mechanisms can include drift, atmospheric fallout and erosion (McEwen and Stephenson 1979). The biota themselves can transport pesticides as they migrate from an area where pesticides are applied to another area. It rnay then be eaten by another organism higher up the food chain. The resuit can be the contamination of a different species, not located in the area of pesticide application.
5.3.5 Fate (Soil) There are several factors which influence the fate of a particular pesticide in the soil. As described in McEwen and Stephenson (1979) the fates or sinks include: adsorption and absorption to clay and organic matter; leaching with the downward percolation of water; volatilkation to the atmosphere; uptake by soi1 organisms or plants; movement with runoff water or eroded soil; microbial degradation; chemical degradation; and photolysis.
5.3.6 Fate (Water) Once in water, there are basically two final sinks for pesticides: they rnay be taken up by aquatic organisms, or adhere to sediments or suspended particles.
5.3.7 Fate (Air) Pesticides can remain in the air (adsorbed to water or dust particles) or be moved to other environmental compartments via atmospheric fallout as mentioned by McEwen and Stephenson (1979). Where pesticide concentrations are in the ambient air, they can becorne a risk if inhaled. The greatest risk of exposure via this mechanism would be in the field, where pesticide concentrations are high immediately after application.
5.3.8 Fate (Biota) There are two main routes in which pesticides enter biota. These are either direct contact via absorption, ingestion, or inhalation, or by eating a contaminated food source. Once in the body of one organism, a pesticide can end up in another via the food chain. In this case the biota becomes the transport mechanism, rather than the sink because the pesticide is passed on.
5.3.9 Effects The effects of pesticides can be described as their effects on the organisms in each of the environmental compartments (soil, water, air and biota). The possible effects of insecticides in soi1 were mentioned by Edwards (1973 in McEwen and Stephenson 1979). The kt, however, can be generalised to suit organisms in any environmental cornpartment. The possible fates of pesticides in biota include: being directly toxic to animals andlor plants; affecting the organisms genetically, creating resistant populations; having sub-lethal effects that alter behavior or the metabolic or reproductive systems of the organisms; being taken into the bodies of the organisms and being passed to other organisms.
The effects of pesticides can be divided into two groups: those that are direct effects, and those that are indirect. As stated by McEwen and Stephenson (1979) direct effects are those which impact the numbers, physiology, pathology, reproduction or behaviour of an organism, while indirect effects are those that result from the effect that a change in one organism may have on another. 5.4 The Model Island Analysis- Available Data This section will discuss the information as it fits the rnodel island, about transport, fate and effects of pesticides in the Caribbean. It will be organised in the same way as the previous section, and areas where the information is missing will be highlighted.
With regard to transport, the infomation discussed will be from studies conducted on pesticide transport via the environmental compartment, rather than to the compartment as a destination. The reason for this is that the environmental compartments can be contaminated by many different mechanisms.
5.4.1 Transport (Soil) No comprehensive studies have been conducted on the transport of pesticides via soil. For example, there is no infomation on the amount of contamination of soils or waters downslope of a sprayed area due to erosion.
5.4.2 Transport (Water) Only one specific study, conducted in Barbados by Chilton (1991) looked at ground water contamination by pesticides (section 4.2). He did not discuss the mechanisms (such as leaching) by which the pesticides were transported to the groundwater. Regardless, the results showed that somehow pesticides were transported frorn the soi1 to the groundwater. This study, however, may not be 100% applicable to the other islands because the geology of Barbados is quite different from most other CARICOM islands except Antigua.
5.4.3 Transport (Air) No specific studies have been conducted to quantify pesticide transport by air in the Caribbean. An example would be a study of the amount of pesticide which drifts from an application site, or a study of the amount of atmospheric fall-out which contributes to pesticides residues in the Caribbean from far away areas. It rnay also be important to determine the ambient levels of pesticides in the air after spraying fields. Knowing this information could help to detemine the tirne required before reentry into a recently sprayed field in the Caribbean is safe. Ambient levels can be used to assess whether pesticides in the air rnay contribute to pesticide exposure of the general population.
Singh U(1991a) conducted a wmprehensive laboratory study on the degradation of dieldrin, alpha-endosulfan, and beta-endosulfan from surfaces under conditions typical of the region. It was estimated that 25 and 43 glhalday of 1.O kg ailha of dieldrin and endosulfan, respectively, would be lost via volatilization. It can be assumed that pesticides do enter the air via volatilization and could be transported away from the target area. This particular study estimated that one quarter to almost a half of the pesticides is lost to the atmosphere in a day (section 4.6). Hassell(1984 in Alleyne 1986) also conducted vapour pressure studies under climates typical of the Caribbean. Pesticides which were examined included carbaryl, propoxur and benomyl, and the results indicated that the rates of evaporation of these pesticides were also very high (section 4.6).
5.4.4 Transport (Biota) Residues have also been detected in several crops by Mansingh (1987) and Alleyne (1986), as shown in Appendix 14 and 22, respectively, which would eventually be food for other organisms including humans. Residue studies of several fish species, which may be eaten by other species including humans, have also been documented by several authors in Dominica, St. Lucia, and Jamaica. None of the studies on pesticides in biota, however, have conclusively shown the transport of pesticides from foods to other organisms. 94 5.4.5 Fate (Soil) Several studies have been conducted on pesticide residues and persistence in soil. As described in section 4.3, Rainey et al. (1987) detemined the residues of several banana fungicides in a few soi1 samples in Dominica, however the results were negative. Mansingh (1987) reported concentrations of endosulfan and dieldrin in soi1 from several areas in Jamaica measured in 1985 (Appendix 15). Singh (1990) mentioned that endosulfan and dieldrin on plants and soils in the region had a relatively short penistence time with a half-life of only 3-6 months. Singh (1991a) also looked at the degradation of dieldrh and endosulfan from surfaces and showed that the persistence times were short (section 4.6).
Although sorne studies have been conducted on the fate of pesticides in soil, the total picture is not complete. Information which is lacking includes studies on the uptake of pesticides by soi1 organisms, microbial degradation studies, and information on the degradation of other pesticides besides dieldrin and endosulfan.
5.4.6 Fate (Water) Several studies have been conducted on the fate of pesticides in water and sediment in Dominica, St. Lucia, and Jamaica. In general, there appear to be pesticide residues in many different areas of the aquatic systems in the region. Organochlorines are the pesticides which are most often looked for and detected.
In St. Lucia in 1984, Ramsammy et &. (1985 in CARDIIUWIIUNESCO 1986) detected pesticide residues in coastal waters (Appendix 7), and mullet, mussels and oysten (Appendix 19). Another study, conducted in St. Lucia by Singh and Ward (1992) also showed pesticide residues in mullet and oysters (Appendix 20), and in sediment and coastal waters as described in section 4.2. The Centre for Nuclear Sciences (1 994) documented organophosphate and organochlorine residue concentrations in Jamaican surface water, groundwater and sediments in 1994 (Appendix 8, 9 and 10, respectively). Williams and Chow (1993) also detected endosulfan residues in riven around Jamaica. A series of studies were conducted on organochlorine residues in water and sediment in Jamaica, including those by Mansingh et alL(1 997) and Mansingh (1987) with the results shown in Appendix 12 and 13, respectively. Residues were detected in many of the samples.
5.4.7 Fate (Biota) The only studies which were conducted on plants were of pesticide residue analysis for crops. Since the crops are meant to be eaten by other biota, the crops are a transport mechanism as discussed in section 5.4.4.
In Dominica, Ross and Mann (1990) and Rainey Wl,(1987) conducted the only studies on residues in wildlife in the CARICOM (section 4.5.1 and 4.5.4). These particular studies were not very extensive and did not lead to conclusive results.
Pesticides have also been detected in human populations in the CARICOM as described in section 4.5.5. Appendix 25 documents some pesticide statistics on the incidence of DDT, lindane and dieldrin in the general population of Jarnaica as adapted from Reid (1987).
Studies have been conducted on the residues of pesticides in aquatic organisms in St. Lucia and Jamaica (section 4.5.1 ). However, few studies have been conducted on pesticides in specific fish. As well, the transport of pesticides via the food chah has not been investigated in the islands representing the model island.
As described in section 4.5.1, pesticide and PCB concentrations in several pilot whales and long snouted dolphins in the coastal waters of St. Lucia were 96 deteded by Gaskin et alL(1974) in the 1970s. It should be noted, however, that the sources of these compounds could have been from anywhere along the migratory paths of the pilot whales and dolphins.
Further analysis of pesticide residues in biota could be done. The levels of pesticides in crops, livestock and pesticide users should be monitored regularly. A comprehensive study on the levels of pesticides in wildlîfe and the general human population could also be done to assess the range of contamination.
5.4.8 Effects (Soil) No Caribbean studies have been conducted on the effects of pesticides on soi1 organisrns. The effect of pesticides on the following soi1 organisms should be examined: earthworms, soi1 microorganisms and other species which are vital components to the soi1 ecosystem.
5.4.9 Effects (Water) Pesticides are thought to have caused several fish kills in the region. Particularly alarming, due to its magnitude, was one such kill in Jamaica in 1985 as documented by Aiken and Jupp (1985). Virtually no toxicity studies on local aquatic organisms have been conducted. One which was available, by Williams and Chow (1993), was on the toxicity of endosulfan to the mangrove guppy. Both studies are described in section 4.5.1 . Further studies, including a broader range of pesticides and aquatic species, should be conducted.
5.4.10 Effects (Biota) Several studies have been conducted on the effects of insecticides on disease vectors in the Caribbean. One, by Rawlins and Ou Hing Wan (1995), was on the resistance of A. aegypti to malathion, temephos, fenthion, fenitrothion and chlorpyrifos (section 4.5.2). This type of investigation is important because should insect strains becorne resistant, the pesticide management strategies must be altered in order to get effective control. Effective pesticide application is also imperative to protect public health rather than arbitrarily increasing the pesticide dose in the hope of killing the insects. This could result in the unnecessary contamination of the environment.
Pesticide poisonings of livestock and humans have been documented in various CARICOM islands. Reid (1 987) mentioned a study on pesticide poisoning of livestock in Jarnaica. From 1977 to 1981 there were 836 cases on the island, and more than half were due to insecticides (section 4.5.4). There was a case documented by Coleman et alL(1 990) where three fernale workers from a Jamaican coffee plantation suffered carbofuran toxicity after applying the pesticides. Cases such as this, however, probably occur far more often than they are reported as indicated by the results of several KAPB studies in the region. Another alarming fact is the number of child pesticide-poisonings which occur in the region. Reid (1987) mentioned several cases of child poisoning in the 1980s which were reported in Jamaica. Downes (1994) also examined the cholinesterase levels of farmers in Barbados exposed to organophosphate and carbarnate insecticides, as described in section 4.5.5.
Several KAPB studies, consisting of questionnaires to farmers or the general public, were conducted in the region (section 4.7). In a study by McDougall et a!, (1993), 29% of St. Lucian pesticide users said that they had feli il1 in the past from using pesticides, and most farmers knew of cases where people have used pesticides in suicide attempts. Various Jamaican respondents, both farmers and the general public, who were surveyed by the Stone Team (1994) also said they were aware that paraquat was used in suicide attempts. Twenty percent of the users said that they had felt different after handling pesticides, and 12% said they had been poisoned in the past. 5.5 Conclusions of Model Analysis No specific studies on the transport of pesticides via wind, soil, water or biota have been conducted in the Caribbean. Therefore, it is not known if the contamination in the region is strictly frorn pesticides used locally or also from those used in other parts of the world. It is possible, for example, that pesticides could be transported by air or water from distances as far away as Africa or North America.
Erosion also appears to be a problem in the mountainous islands, such as those fitting the profile of the model. For example, it is not known how much contamination of waterways is due to the transport of eroded soils containing pesticides from hillsides w here crops are often cultivated. Waterways could also be contaminated by atrnospheric fallout, spray drift, direct application, erosion, or runoff. Knowing the mechanism by which pesticides reach the different environmental compartrnents can be important in developing a pesticide management scheme to minirnize the transport of pesticides to non-target areas.
The majority of pesticide studies in the Caribbean appear to examine the fate of pesticides in the environment, expressed in ternis of residue analyses. Analysis has been conducted on a few soi1 samples, several different aquatic organisms, sediment, some food samples, and two human populations. However, there are many other components of the environment that have not been sampled adequately for pesticide residues. Examples include soi1 organisms, a broader range of fish species, ambient air, a broader range of crops, wildlife, livestock, and human populations. Further degradation studies could also be conducted.
Studies on the effects of pesticides have only been conducted on several aquatic organisms, insects, livestock and humans. However, the information was not extensive and several organisms, such as non-target plants, wildlife, birds, soil organisms, and household pets were completely ignored. In general. there are many aspects of the island ecosystem in the Caribbean for which the effects of pesticides are unknown. As a result, the answer to the third question of the thesis statement: "1s there enough information to understand the ecological implications of pesticides in a Caribbean island?" is NO. Virtually nothing is known about pesticide transport or effects in the region. Studies have assessed pesticide fate, however, these were mainly conducted to identify organochlorine pesticide residues in a select few aquatic organisms, water and sediment samples. Although the ecological implications are not fully understood, there are good data to help support pesticide awareness campaigns. 6.0 Discussion and Conclusions
6.1 Introduction The first section of this discussion will deal with the literature search process, specifically where the information came from and the response received from the potential information sources. The next section will discuss the pesticides for which scientific studies were found compared to those identified as concerns in the region (Appendix 1). The third section will present the findings in Chapters 4 and 5 and provide the answers to the thesis statement questions. The final sections will briefly deal with the KAPB studies and public awareness campaigns.
6.2 The Literature Search Process The literature search process. as described in the methods (Chapter 2), consisted of a %hot gunn approach to reach as many potential infomation sources as possible. Appendix 2 lists the potential information sources (those who were contacted via letter to request information) and the actual information sources (sources from which information was actually obtained). Fifty-two people or organisations from 15 countries around the Caribbean were initially contacted via letters, as presented in Appendix 3, to request infomation or to make arrangements for an appointment.
The response was unfavorable from the organisations which were not visited in person. Only three individuals who were not actually visited responded and provided information. Two were from Jamaica and one from Guyana as listed in Appendix 2 under "other" in the 'List of actual information sourcesn section. All other information was obtained from the organisations and libraries visited in St. Lucia, Trinidad and Barbados.
In several instances i received a letter stating that only one penon in the organisation was an expert on pesticides and should be contacted for the requested information. Unfortunately, in several cases, the person was unavailable once I anived. Some organisations also replied with the statement that a search of their library holdings had found nothing that would be useful to the project. Other contacts did not have any information directly applicable to the environmental impacts of pesticides in the region. However, they often provided interesting background information which did prove to be useful.
In terrns of the information gathered throughout the study, there were over 30 actual information sources. However, very few studies were found, as indicated in Chapter 4, on the transport, fate and effects of pesticides in the region. It is possible that relevant information mig ht be available in Central American and Cuban libraries and those in France (Martinique and Guadeloupe). The search, however, was limited to English-speaking sources.
6.3 Pesticides of Concern in the Caribbean Many of the reports and papen collected dealt with the effects of organochlorine pesticides in tropical or developing countries. These pesticides are still being widely used in many of the developing countries although use has been restrîcted in other countries. Botello et alt (1994), for example, stated that Mexico produces 4000 tons of DDT and 1800 tons of lindane, toxaphene, dieldrin, chlordane and heptachlor for use in national agriculture and also exports to Central America. Some of these pesticides might find their way into the environment of CARICOM countries.
These pesticides do not seem to be used to such an extent in the Caribbean, and organochlorines are being replaced with organophosphates which are generally less persistent. Of the pesticides of concern identified in Appendix 1 oniy five out of 16 were organochlorines: chlordane, dieldfln, endosulfan, lindane and pentachlorophenol, and each was reported to be used by fewer than three islands in the region. Also notable is that al1 of these pesticides (except pentachlorophenol) have been studied in the CARICOM (Table 13). Also summarised in the table are the reasons, as described in Appendix 1, why aiese particular pesticides were selected as concerns.
Table 13 Summary of how pesticides used in the CARICOM were identified as a concern r 1 Pesticide Banned ... Dirty Dozen Mentioned as Exteniive Studied in by UN pesticide concern in Use in the Regioi literature Region aldicarb J J atrazine J J J benomyl J J J carbaryl J J J carbofuran J J J L chlordane J J J dieldrin J J J dimethoate J J J 1 diuron J J endosulfan J J J etho prophos / J J lindane / 4 J matathion J J paraquat J J J J J pentachloro- J / phenol tridemorph J J 1 J
From the above table, it can be seen that only four of the selected pesticides were not studied in the region according to the findings of this literature search. Therefore, most of the pesticides which were thought to be a concem based on their extensive use, classification as restricted or banned by the UN, or a dirty dozen pesticide were also examined to varying degrees in ternis of their environmental impacts in the CARICOM.
As described in Gips (1987) the "Dirty Dozen Campaignnwas initiated in 1984 by Pesticide Action Network (PAN) representatives frorn 20 countries. Although more than a dozen pesticides were considered dangerous, PAN decided to mount a public information campaign on 12 of the most widely used and particularly hazardous pesticides. Both the carbarnate aldicarb and the organochlorine pentachlorophenol are dirty dozen pesticides, and as indicated in Table 13 they are two of the five which do not appear to have been studied in the region. Although a limited amount of information was available, it appears that they are each used in only one island (Appendix 5). Aldicarb, however, is an occupational concern because of its high acute toxicity via inhalation and skin contact, and a general concern to the population due to the potential for contamination through foods. Aldicarb is also known to be a potent chloinesterase inhibitor, although its effects are reversible as stated by WHO (1991a). According to the WHO classification, aldicarb is extrernely hazardous (la). Compared to aldicarb, pentachlorophenol is not as toxic with a WHO classification of highly hazardous (Ib). As mentioned by the WHO (1987), pentachlorophenol was used in a variety of applications including industry, agriculture and domestic uses. Recently, agricultural and domestic uses of this pesticide have been restricted by many developed countries and it is currently used mainly as a wood preservative. Pentachlorophenol is a concern because of its persistence, high volatility and water solubility which has lead to widespread environmental contamination according to WHO (1987).
The herbicides diuron and malathion were identified as a concern in the region because the information in Appendix 5 indicated that they are extensively used in the CARICOM and they are controlled in one of the UN countries (Table 13). The definition of "extensive usen means that the particular pesticide is reported to be used by five or more of the islands. Although diuron and malathion were identified here as concerns, studies conducted in the CARICOM on the environmental impacts of these pesticide were not found in the literature examined. As shown in Appendix 1 diuron is a relatively non-toxic pesticide, classified as "unlikely to present acute hazard in normal usen by the WHO, with a persistence in the soi1 of four to eight months which can be considered moderate compared to the other pesticides listed in Appendix 1. Similar to diuron, the organophosphate malathion has a low toxicity and is classified as slightly hazardous (III) by the WHO. Due to their low toxicity and lesser penistence cornpared to the organochlorines they are considered to pose lime threat to the environment. This information may suggest why these two pesticides have not have been studied in the region.
Of the pesticides studied in the CARICOM, some were classified as dirty dozen pesticides (Table 13). These include chlordane, dieldrin, lindane and paraquat. The organochlorines chlordane, dieldrin and lindane will be discussed first, because unlike paraquat they are not documented in Appendix 5 as being extensively used in the Caribbean. Based on available information, chlordane, for example, is only used in Grenada and Trinidad. Chlordane is persistent in the environment, especially the soi1 and sediment (WHO 1984a). It is also considered highly poisonous to birds and aquatic organisms (Panos lnstitute 1992), highly toxic to earthworms (WHO 1984a) but is only classified as moderately toxic (II) by the WHO. In terrns of study reports in the CARICOM, chlordane has not been researched to the extent of some other organochlorines. Its residues have only been studied by Ramsammey st alL(1985 in CARDIIUWIIUNESCO 1986) and Singh and Ward (1W2), and were only detected in some aquatic organisms around St. Lucia.
The organochlorine dieldrin is considered extremely toxic and has been banned or restricted in many UN countries as noted in Appendix 1. The Panos lnstitute (1992) stated that dieldrin is a probable human carcinogen, and may reduce both male and female fertility, and has been shown to affect reproduction in wildlife species including birds. Although dieldrin is persistent, the WHO (1989b) stated that dieldrin is lost very rapidly from soi1 via volatilization in tropical areas. Dieldrin is also known to accumulate and bioconcentrate in organisms. The WHO (1 989b) also reports that dieldrin has a high acute toxicity to aquatic organisms. The only CARICOM country which documents the use of dieldrin is Grenada. However, it may have been used in other islands in the past, since its residues have been studied and detected in the CARICOM. It was detected in various environmental compartments including: aquatic organisms, water and sediment, soil, plants and humans (Table 12).
Residues of the organochlorine lindane have been detected in aquatic organisms, water and sedirnent, and humans throughout the CARICOM (Table 12). Like dieldrin, lindane is banned or restricted by numerous UN countries. The use of lindane, however, does not appear to be extensive in the Caribbean, with only Grenada and St. Lucia documenting its use (Appendix 5). According to Appendix 1, lindane is classified as moderately hazardous (II) by the WHO toxicity classification and is stable to light, air and temperature. The WHO (1991 b) stated that lindane is strongly adsorbed to soils containing large amounts of organic matter. It can also move downward in the soi1 with water, or be volatilized from surfaces in tropical regions. They also mentioned that lindane is distributed throughout the world and can be detected in many environmental compartments.
Paraquat is probably the most alarming pesticide which is currently being widely used in the Caribbean. It is identified as a concern on al1 counts (Table 13) rneaning that it is banned or restricted in various UN countries, it is a dirty dozen pesticide due to its toxicity (moderately toxic according to the WHO), it was mentioned throughout the literature as a concern due to its use in suicide attempts, and is extensively used in the region as a herbicide (ie. used by at 1O6 bast eight of CARICOM islands). The main concern with paraquat is its extreme toxicity to mammals via al1 routes of exposure.
The Panos lnstitute (1992) stated that neat paraquat is so poisonous to mammals that as little as one teaspoon taken orally or absorbed across broken skin can be fatal, and there is no effective treatment or antidote. The incidence of paraquat poisoning in the region has been briefly documented by Reid (1987) who mentioned, for example, that some Jamaican children have died from poisoning from the gramoxone formulation of paraquat in the 1980s. The KAPB studies described by various authon (section 4.7) also mention that pesticide users are aware of the fact that paraquat is used in suicide attempts in the islands. In ternis of persistence, once paraquat is applied to plant surfaces it is degraded photochemically to less toxic metabolites WHO (1984b). When it reaches the soil, paraquat becomes rapidly and strongly adsorbed to clays rendering the pesticide inactive. Residues also disappear quickly from water as they adsorb to aquatic weeds and sediment. Due to the characteristics of paraquat and its history in suicide atternpts in the region, it is an important candidate for further study in ternis of its environmental impacts. Should the impacts of this pesticide in environmental compartments, other than hurnans also be a concern, the use of this herbicide in the Caribbean should be reconsidered. In any event, the environmental monitoring of paraquat appears warranted.
Although endosulfan is not extensively used in the region, it was identified as a concern in the literature, and has been banned or testricted by several UN countries. As shown in Appendix 5, endosulfan is used in Trinidad, St. Lucia and Jamaica, mainly for coffee production. Endosulfan does not readily bîoaccumulate and is not persistent in biological tissues (WHO 1984c), but is moderately persistent in soil. It is acutely hazardous for bees and some aquatic species, especially fish even at recommended rates. Singh (1985 in the Panos lnstitute 1992) mentioned that susceptibility of the local Caribbean fish to endosulfan is unknown. Endosulfan can be considered highly toxic according to the WHO and EPA classifications (Appendix 1). Although it has no tendency for leaching, it is known to be persistent in the field for five to eight months. The presence of endosulfan has been widely indicated throughout the region in aquatic organisms, water and sediment sample, soil, and plants. Its behavior has also been studied under conditions typical of the Caribbean in the laboratory (section 4.6). As long as this pesticide is used in any of the Caribbean islands, it should continue to be monitored in the various environmental compartments.
Atrazine was selected for Appendix 1 because it was identified as a concern in the Caribbean literature on pesticides due to its potential for ground water contamination via extensive use in sugarcane production in Barbados as studied by Chilton (1991). According to the WHO classification, atrazine is not acutely toxic and is considered "unlikely to present acute hazard in nomal use." The WHO (1990) mentioned that atrazine has a low acute oral and demal toxicity to rodents. However, it is a concern because this herbicide is classified as a Group C Substance by the EPA meaning that is a suspected carcinogen. However, the WHO (1990) pointed out that there is no conclusive evidence that atrazine causes any health or safety hatards for the general population or exposed workers. Atrazine is not very persistent in the environment compared to other pesticides in Appendix 1, lasting only 35 to 50 days in soil. It is more persistent in ground water where it can last up to 200 days depending on the conditions. Atrazine also has little tendency to bioaccumulate (WHO 1990). Due to the concern associated with atrazine contamination of ground water in Barbados, which was confirmed in the investigation by Chilton (1991), atrazine levels in ground water should continue to be monitored where it is used.
The remaining pesticides in Appendix 1 (benomyl, carbaryl, carbofuran, dimethoate, ethoprophos, and tridemorph) were considered a concern mainly because of their extensive use in the region. The fungicide benomyl is considered slightly hazardous in terms of the WHO toxicity classification (III). It does not accumulate in animal tissues and is rapidly broken down in the water and soil. As stated by the WHO (1993), in the environment, benomyl is rapidly converted to carbendazirn with half-lives of twu and 19 hours in the water and soil, respectively. However, carbendazirn is strongly adsorbed to the soi1 organic matter and can remain in the soi1 for three years. Benomyl has not been extensively studied in the Caribbean. In the study by Rainey W (1987) in Dominica tests for its residues were conducted in several aquatic organisms, water and sediment, soi1 and wildlife species. It was not detected in any of the samples (Chapter 4).
Carbaryl, a carbamate which has not been studied extensively in the region, is considered moderately toxic by the WHO classification (II) and is rated as class 1, II and III by the EPA standards. It is known to be very toxic to bees and other beneficial insects. The WHO (1994) stated that it does not accumulate in marnrnalian tissues under normal exposure conditions, and it is not persistent in the environment under most conditions. It has, however, been shown to advenely affect marnrnalian reproduction and perinatal development in several species. Like other carbarnates, carbaryl is a cholinesterase inhibitor, but its effect is dose-related and quickly reversible (WHO 1994). Carbaryl residues have been briefiy studied in water, crops and in the laboratory (Chapter 4). Moore et alb(1 985 in Barrow 1990) detected significant levels of carbaryl in water samples from the Caroni River in Trinidad. This pesticide was detected in one okras plant sample in Barbados in the 1970s (Appendix 22).
Carbofuran is an highly hazardous carbamate insecticide, classed as Ib by the WHO, and I and II by the €PA toxicity classifications (Appendix 7). It is acutely toxic when taken orally by rats, dogs and mice, and is also toxic to bees. Its half- life in soils ranges from 30 to 60 days and therefore is considered to have a low persistence in the soil. This pesticide has not been studied in the Caribbean, but was reported by Coleman et alL(1990) to have caused illness in three female coffee plantation workers who were applying the pesticide. Due to its high toxicity and extensive use in the region, it should be further examined in ternis of its impacts on other environmental cornpartments in the Caribbean.
Dimethoate is an organophosphate which has not been extensively studied in the region. However, due to its moderate toxicity and solubility in water, its presence in Barbados ground water was examined but not detected by the EED as reported by Chilton (1991). Dimethoate is has a low persistence in the environment according to the WHO (1 989a). It is mainly inactivated via hydrolytic degradation, and its degradation in the soi1 is temperature, soi1 type, moisture and pH dependent. According to the WHO (Appendix l), dimethoate is considered moderately toxic (II). It is moderately to highly toxic to birds and aquatic organisms and very toxic for honey bees (WHO 1989a). The presence of this residue should continue to be monitored in areas where ground water contamination is a possibility.
Ethoprophos is an organophosphate pesticide which is widely used (Appendix 5), but not extensively studied in the region (Chapter 4). It is considered extremely hazardous (la) by the WHO classification and Class II by the €PA toxicity standards. Its presence in water and sediment in Jamaica, however, was reported by the Centre for Nuclear Sciences (1994). Its persistence, as indicated in Appendix 1, is low in a sandy loam soi1 of neutral pH. This pesticide warrants further monitoring due to its toxicity.
Trideinorph is a fungicide which was briefly studied by Rainey et alk(1 987) in various environmental cornpartments in Dominica. Its presence was not detected in any of the samples of aquatic organisrns, water and sediment, soi1 or wildlife. Appendix 1 indicates that tridemorph has a WHO II toxiaty raüng, meaning that it is moderately hazardous. It is also known to be phytotoxic to some plants. The persistence of tridernorph is low compared to the other pesticides in Appendix 1. In the laboratory, tridernorph is reported to degrade in 20 to 50 days while it degrades in only 14 to 34 days in the field (Appendix 1).
Table 14 summarises the information on toxicity and persistence for the 16 pesticides discussed in this section. Full details and an explanation of WHO and €PA toxicity classifications are provided in Appendix 1. For the purpose of this discussion, generally: highly toxic is considered WHO la and Ib, or EPA 1; moderately toxic is WHO II, or EPA II; low toxicrty is WHO III and table 5 or EPA III and IV; pesticides persisting for more than a year are considered persistent; those persisting for 3 to 12 months are moderately persistent; and those persisting less than 3 monais have a low persistence.
Table 14 Summary of toxicity and persistence information for the pesticides of concern Pesticide WHO EPA Toxicity Persistence data Persistencc toxicity toxicity clam clam aldicah la I high -activity in soi! is 10 low weeks 1 atrazine table 5 III low -0T50 soi1 35-504 low I benomyl 111 IV low -0T50 in soi1 19h low -0T50 in water 2d carbaryl Il lJl,lll moderate -0T50 in soi1 ranges low from 7-284 cartiofuran Ib 1,Il high -0T50 in soi1 is 30-606 low 1 chlofdane Il II high persistent high -0T50 1 year dieldrin - - high very persistent, lasts high for many years Table 14 continued Pesticide Toxicity Persistence data
dimethoate II I! rnoderate -DT50 in soi1 2-4d low -DT50 on surface is 7- 16d IOW -DT50 90-1806 rnoderate -activity in soil4-8 months endosulfan II I high -DT50 in soi1 30-70d moderate -DT50 in field 5-8 months ethoprophos la high -DT50 in humus is 87d -DT50 in sandy loam is 14-284
-- - - - moderate -extremely stable to light, air and temp - rapidly eliminated from body of rats -excreted from mammals in 24h -- paraquat moderate -strongly adsorbs to " II 1 clay and organic matter 1 Il pentahloro- / ~b 1 high 1 -very persistent in high phenol environment moderate 1 -DTSO in field is 14-34d 1 low
6.4 Summary of Findings The literature found on the transport, fate and effects of pesticides in the Caribbean was not extensive. The specific factors which were be considered important in order to develop a comprehensive picture of the environmental impacts of pesticides in the CARICOM included knowledge of their transport, fate and effects in each of the four environmental compartment (water, soil, air and biota). From the information available on the environmental impacts of pesticides in the Caribbean, this picture was shown to be far from complete.
6.4.1 Question One The answer to the first question of the thesis statement: 'What is presently documented about the transport, fate and effects of pesticides in the Caribbean Region?" can be summarised as follows: Preliminary research has been conducted on a number of pesticides and has generally focused on the fate of pesticides (often organochlorines) in the water and biota compartments. The investigation of the literature indicated that pesticides residues contaminate various environmental compartments in the region. The rnajority of these studies were conducted in the 1980s. Environmental impact studies on pesticides in the region were conducted in a few CARlCOM islands,
The main type of studies found were on the fate of pesticides in water, sediment and biota (mainly aquatic). Although organochlorine residues were often tested for, various pesticide residues were detected in the following aquatic organisms examined around Trinidad, St. Lucia and Jamaica: shrimp, catfish, redfish, mussels, mangrove crabs, tilapia, brochet, mullet, oysters, scale herring. In some situations where people eat fish as a main part of their diet, they may accumulate quantities of pesticides. Some agricultural crops in Jamaica, Barbados, and Trinidad tested pre-1986 indicated residues in various crops (cucumber, carrot, green pepper, egg plant, orange, onion, beets, cabbage, cauliflower, okras, peanuts, and tomatoes). One study conducted in 1981 also indicated that there were DDT, lindane and dieldrin residues in the general and occupational hurnan populations of Trinidad and Jamaica.
Although the studies were limited to several environmental compartments, the literature showed that residues were detectable in any cornpartment in which they were studied. The only studies where this was not the case was conducted in Dominica by Rainey et al' (1987) and Ross and Mann (1990), and the may have been affected by a small sarnple sire. Many of the pesticides being detected, however, are organochlorines which are known for their persistence and affinity for particles and fats. Therefore, it is not surprising to find evidence of residues such as DDT and dieldrin in aquaüc organisms, sediment or humans in the region even though they are no longer widely used.
As mentioned above, many of the pesticide impact studies were conducted in the 1980s. The results of the older studies can be questionable in the sense that equipment used today may have more sensitive detection limits. This becomes an issue when one is interested in how much of a particular residue is present at trace amounts. It may be sufficient for the people of the islands to know whether a particular residue was/is present, rather than the amount of that residue. There are a few studies which are more recent, including those by the Centre for Nuclear Sciences (1994), Mansingh et al. (1997) and Mansingh and Wilson (1995), conducted in Jamaica in the 1990s. Further follow-up studies or repeated studies could be done to provide information on the current level of pesticide contamination in the CARICOM islands. In terms of pesticide residues in foods, many of the residues were of organochlorines, some of which are no longer in use (Table 12). It would be more relevant to conduct current residue analysis of crops, testing not only for residues of persistent pesticides, but particularly those which were used during the production of the particular food.
It should also be noted that many of the pesticides identified as a concem (Appendix 1) based on their extensive use in the CARICOM were also studied to varying degrees. Of the nine pesticides (benomyl, carbaryl, carbofuran, dimethoate, diuron, ethoprophos, malathion, paraquat, and tridemorph), only the environmental impacts of diuron and malathion were not studied, according to the English literature found. The infonnation in Appendix 1, however, indicates that they do not pose as great a threat to the CARICOM environment due to their relatively low toxicity and persistence compared to the other pesticides of concern.
The main islands involved in research on the environmental impacts of pesticides include Trinidad, St. Lucia, Jamaica and Barbados. Dominica was also represented in two studies. Studies in Trinidad were mainly on residues in aquatic organisms and on residues in water; sediment and plant sarnples were studied to a lesser degree. The information obtained in Barbados covered various environmental compartments including aquatic organisms, ground water, residues in crops and human exposure studies. St. Lucia concentrated mainly on pesticide residues in aquatic organisms, water and sediment. From the information provided in Chapter 4, Jamaica appears to be the island for which the greatest number of studies were conducted covering the broadest range of the environment. Investigations in Jamaica involved toxicity and several residue studies on aquatic organisms, the analysis of water, sediment, soi1 and several crops, and reports of livestock and human pesticide exposure. Only one comprehensive laboratory study was conducted on the kinetics of two organochlorine pesticides under environmental conditions Iike those of the Caribbean. A reason why most of the investigations could have been conducted in these islands is that they are where the major institutions and laboratories are located in the CARICOM (for example, UWI, CEHl and CARDI).
6.4.2 Question Two The second question of the thesis statement is: 'What critical gaps in the infonnation about pesticide transport, fate and effects in the Caribbean Region exist?" The following list outlines the information gaps which were identified: No studies examined the mechanisms by which pesticides are transported throughout the Caribbean and between the vanous environmental compartments. Very few studies have been done to determine the effects of pesticides on the organisms in the various environmental compartments. Few studies have been done on the fate and effects of the pesticides which are being widely used at the present time. To date no studies on the impacts of pesticides to coral have been conducted in any of the islands.
Pesticide residues are found in various environmental compartments in the CARICOM. Direct application to a cornpartment can lead to residues but pesticides can also move through the ecosystem via transport processes by wind, air, water and biota. Further information is required regarding the transport of pesticides through the Caribbean Region and through the individual islands. Examples of topics which are important to study include: erosion, the amount of pesticide volatilization and drift which typically occun, transport via water, and transport via biota (including misuse of pesticides by humans). It is difficuk to detemine which pesticides corne from sources outside the CARICOM, but the degree of global transport of pesticides from other areas of the world through ocean and atmospheric currents to the Caribbean should also be examined.
Although the residues in aquatic organisms have been studied, the fate and effects of pesticides on other biota (including earthworms, soi1 microorganisms, local fish species, birds, wildlife, livestock, and humans) have been examined to a lesser degree. Althoug h several authors have indicated the effects of pesticides on humans in ternis of reporting pesticide poisonings, very little monitoring of residue levels in the fam and general population has been done. As well no epidemiological investigations have been completed. Other tropical and developing cuuntries, for example, have recently investigated pesticides in the human population to a greater extent. For example Waliszewski et alt (1996) looked at organochlorine residues in human breast milk in Mexico, Waliszewski et alL(1 995) examined residues in adipose tissue, and Chandra et al. (1992) looked at biological monitoring of organochlorines among workers in mango fields in India.
Many of the studies which have been conducted in the CARICOM were done in the 1980s to detect organochlorine residues in various environmental compartrnents. The fate and effects of the pesticides presently used in large quantities, such as the fungicides benomyl and tridemorph, have not been studied in the region according to the literature reviewed. The herbicide paraquat has examined in terms of human poisoning, but its ecological effects have not been investigated. In order to develop management strategies to prevent or reduce the impacts of pesticides, it is important to know how large volumes of these and other pesticides could affect the island ecosystem.
The protection of the Caribbean island ecosystems from pesticide impacts was identifiecl as an important reason for compiling the available information on the impacts in the region (section 1.4). Also mentioned was the fact that tourism is very important to the economies of most of the CARICOM islands. The oceans and coral reefs must be protected from agrochemicals. It is surprising, therefore, that to date no studies on the impacts of pesticides to corals have been conducted in any of the islands. A case-study on pesticide impacts on the coral reefs surrounding the lshigaki Island in Japan stated that little is known about the effects of chlorinated hydrocarbons on corals. However, they are known to increase respiration and decrease photosynthesis in algae, and agricultural pesticides transported to the sea can cause mortality in reef organisms (Kuhlmann 1988).
6.4.3 Question Three In conclusion, the third thesis statement question "1s there enough information to understand the ecological implications of pesticides in a Caribbean Island?" can be answered as NO. Even if al1 the islands were similar and could be used in the model island analysis, critical pieces of information would remain missing. A complete picture of the potential impacts would not be possible and it is questionable whether there is enough replicable data to allow the use of any predictive models (pesticide fate and effects models) which have been developed.
6.5 Knowledge, Attitudes, and Practices and Beliek In section 1.4, exarnples of pesticide misuse common to developing countries were summarised from QLF (1995). Five of the six common pesticide misuse problems quoted by the QLF were confirmed as also being apparent in the Caribbean via the KAPB studies discussed in section 4.7. In summary, KAPB studies in: St. Vincent and the Grenadines (Grossman 1992b), Jamaica (Stone Team 1994), Barbados (Wood 1990) and St. Lucia (McDougall et alL1993) showed that protective gear and clothing are not used when pesticides are applied; Trinidad (Barrow et al' 1993), Jamaica (Stone Team 1994) and St. Lucia (McDougall et alL1993) showed that inaccurate pesticide dosages are sometimes applied to crops due to lack of understanding of the directions or lack of care; Jamaica (Stone Team 1994), St. Lucia (McDougall et aL 1993) and St. Vincent and the Grenadines (Grossman 1992b) showed that spent pesticide containers are sometimes disposed of incorrectly; Jamaica (Stone Team 1994) and St. Lucia (McDougall et alL1993) indicated that pesticides are sometimes stored at the home in an unsafe manner; and that in Jamaica (Stone Team 1994), spray equipment was sometimes washed in streams, leading to the possible contamination of the water source. The only point mentioned by QLF (1995) which was not proven by the Caribbean literature was that pesticide applications are often made at the wrong time or under inappropriate environmental conditions.
6.6 Public Awareness Campaigns As mentioned in section 1.4, two major public awareness campaigns have recently been conducted in the Caribbean. One was initiated among the countries of the OECS by the NRMU in 1995 (OECSINRMU 1995) and a second was undertaken in Jamaica by the Stone Team from 1994-1995 (Stone Team 1995). These campaigns can be strengthened by the use of some of the information derived from the literature, however this information must be used jud iciously: Some pesticides are human poisons and if they are not handled carefully or stored properly farrnen and other community members can be hamed. If pesticides must be kept at the home, they must be carefully stored and locked to prevent accidental exposures, especially to ch ildren as indicated by Reid (1987); Some pesticides are persistent in the environment and their residues can be detected in aquatic organisms and food crops meant for human or livestock consumption. Therefore, pesticides must be used, mixed and sprayed with care to avoid over-applications or exposure of non-target species. Singh and Ward (1992), Mansingh et alt (19W), Mansingh (1985), Barrow (1WO), and Alleyne (1986) al1 discuss residues which have been detected around the CARICOM in the various environmental compartments; Depending on the mode and timing of application, some pesticides can easily enter the surface and groundwater resources which may be used for drinking water. The consumption of drinking water contaminated by pesticides could lead to adverse health effects. The contamination of groundwater reserves is a distinct possibility in the coralline islands of the Caribbean, as demonstrated in Chilton (1991) who examined atrazine residues in Barbados groundwater; Equipment for applying pesticides should not be cleaned in riven or other surface waters because the pesticide residues will enter the water system. Pesticides entering the waterways by this route can result in the death of fish and other aquatic species as mentioned by several authors. The intentional killing of fish with pesticides is not an acceptable activity because it can contaminate fish tissue rendering them unsuitable for consumption. It can also unintentionally contaminate drinking water supplies. Pesticides may also enter surface water and oceans by other means such as pesticide drift, runoff, or erosion. Careful application of pesticides can reduce the amounts of pesticides entering surface waters via these rnechanisms. The potential problerns of water contamination are discussed by Aiken and Jupp (1985) who document a major fish kill in Jarnaica; Some pesticides, such as lindane (gamma HCH), are more volatile than othen (including DDT and endosulfan), and are susceptible to volatilization. One exposure route for humans and animals is by respiration. Therefore, people handling and applying pesticides should be made aware of this and Wear protective clothing including face masks. Farm workers should also not go into a recently sprayed field until the proper reentry time has elapsed to reduce exposure.
6.7 Conclusion Even though the results of this thesis produced very little information on the transport, fate and effects of pesticides in the Caribbean, materials to support several important lessons which may be presented in a pesticide awareness campaign were found. However, it is concluded that the information which is currently available in English-speaking island states of the Caribbean is not adequate to enable those developing public education programs, or pesticide awareness campaigns, to make anything more than general statements about the ecological impacts of pesticides currently in use. 7.0 Recommendations
7.1 The Literature Search The main reason why the information on transport, fate and effects of pesticides in the Caribbean was collected was to provide an information base for future educational or pesticide awareness campaigns. Many of the organisations involved in agricultural research in the Caribbean region were contacted during the literature search. Although one important library in the region was virtually inaccessible due to water damage from a tropical storm, it is assumed that the collection of information presented in Chapter 4 is reasonably comprehensive.
Recommendation t The inclusion of information relevant to the CARlCOM in pesticide awareness campaigns to which local people cm relate is of utmost importance. It is recommended that CEHl continue to collect scientific information and other materials on the transport, fate and effects of pesticides in the Canbbean. Public awareness carnpaigns would benefit greatly from further studies, if they are assembled in a collection as they are published. This collection should be made available to organisations throughout the region who are producing educational materials.
Recommendation 2 This author recornmends that the collection of infomation on the environmental impacts of pesticides in the CARICOM be kept at hivo locations to avoid the loss or damage of any of the materials. To make the infomation accessible, it can be kept at CEHl and a suitable location on another CARlCOM island.
7.2 Pesticides of Concern in the Caribbean Much of the docurnented literature on the environmental impacts of pesticides in the Caribbean were carried out on organochlotine pesticides. It is important to conduct studies on other pesticides which are currently used more widely in the CARICOM (such as paraquat) to determine how they behave in an island ecosystem.
Recornmendation 3 This author recommends that al1 CARICOM countries keep up-to-date records of the pesticides that are used for agriculture and public health, and the quantities of them. These records should then be compiled by one regional organisation and examined on a regular basis to detemine the current pesticide-use trends in the CARICOM. Once these trends are identified, further studies on the transport, fate and effects of pesticides in the Caribbean cm be focused on the pesticides which are used in large quantities and considered a concern due to their properties such as degradation, tendency for leaching, toxicity and biodegradation.
7.3 Summary of Findings The impacts of pesticides on various environmental compartments and species in the CARICOM have yet to be studied. Of the environmental compartrnents which were examined in more detail, many of the studies were only preliminary or are out-dated. In summary, more research is required regarding the transport of pesticides, and the effects of pesticides on the organisms in the different environmental compartments.
Recornmendation 4 This author rewmmends that a workshop be held with various organisations involved in agricultural research (for example: CEHI, UWI, Ministries of Agriculture, and CARDI, etc.) and funding agencies, in order to determine the priority investigations which should be conducted in order to gain a greater undentanding of the transport, fate and effects of pesticides of concern in the region. 7.4 Knowledge, Attitude, Practices and Beliefs It is important to understand the knowledge, attitudes, practices and beliefs (KAPB) of people involved in any stage of the pesticide life cycle because their actions directly impact the environment, especially if they misuse the pesticides.
Recommendation 5 This author recommends that KAPB studies continue to be conducted regularly in the region, but over a broader range of islands. The KAPB studies should also be conducted as a follow-up to public awareness campaigns as a tool to assess the successfulness of a particular campaign. Appendix 1: Information on selected pesticides of concern
Appendix 1 contains specific information on 16 pesticides used in different CARICOM islands which are of concem. They were selected based on several criteria as follows: 1. A pesticide that is banned, withdrawn, severely restricted or not approved by Governments as listed by the United Nations (UN 1991); 2. a "dirty dozen" pesticide (as detemined by the Pesticide Action Network of North American in Website # 2 and Gips 1987); 3. mentioned as a concern in the Caribbean pesticide literature; or 4. used extensively in the region (found on more than five islands).
The pesticides represented in Appendix 3 include: aldicarb endosulfan atrazine ethoprophos benomyl lindane (gamma HCH) carbaryl paraquat carbofuran pentachlorophenol chlordane malathion dieldrin tridemorph d imethoate diuron
Following is a description of the column headings found in Appendix 3: Active Ingredient lists the proper name of the pesticide (name of the active ingredient), and the type of pesticide. Common Names lists the names of the formulations used in the Caribbean Islands in which the active ingredient is the primary ingredient. Countries lists the Islands where the pesticide is irnported or used. Note that this is based on Appendix 1. Uses & Applications lists the uses of the pesticide and what crops it is used with. This information is from Tomlin (1994) for al1 active ingredient except dieldrin whose information is from Ashworth W 1970 and Gips 1987. Chsracteristics lists the important characteristics of the active ingredient. This information is from Tomlin (1994) for al1 active ingredient except dieldrin whose information is frorn Ashworth eu1970 and Gips 1987. Toxicity lists the information available on the toxicity of the active ingredient. This information is frorn Tomlin (1994) for al1 active ingredient except dieldrin whose information is from Ashworüi et al. 1970 and Gips 1987. The WHO and EPA toxicity classifications are also cited (see tables below for details). Environmental Fate lists the fate of the active ingredient in the environment, plants and animals. This information is from Tomlin (1994) for al1 active ingredient except dieldrin whose information is from Ashworth et alL1970 and Gips 1987. Please note that the environmental fate information may not be specific to the Caribbean. Regulated lists the countries in which the pesticide is banned, withdrawn, severely restricted or not approved by Governments as listed by the United Nations (UN 1991). See the key to determine what countries the three letter codes represent. Key ARG Argentina ISR lsrael AUT Austria JPN Japan BEL Belgiurn KEN Kenya BU Belize LIE Liechtenstein BGR Bulgaria LKA Srilanka CAN Canada MU( Mexico CHE Switzerland MYS Malaysia CH1 Chile NLD Netherlands CHN China NZL New Zealand COL Columbia NOR Norway CYP Cyprus PAK Pakistan DDR German Democratic PAN Panama Republic PHL Philippines DEU Germany (Federal PRT Portugal Republic) SGP Singapore DMA Dominica SUN Soviet Union DNK Denmark SWE Sweden EC European Community TG0 Togo ECU Ecuador THA Thailand FIN Finland TUR Turkey GBR United Kingdom USA United States HUN Hungary VEN Venezuela IND Indonesia YUG Yugoslavia NHO toxicity classification (adapted from Tomlii I 1994) T Clams Clam Oral LOS0 Oral LDSO Dermal LDSO code for solid8 for liquids pfor tiquids (mgirkg) fat mm) (mglkg) rat mm)fat / mme~1 55 hazardous Ib 1 Hiphb 1 5-50 1 20-200 l hazardous
HI 1 2501 1 22001 hazardous
EPA toxici classific tion (adapted from Tomlin Derrnal Inhalation LC5û (mgil)
Conosive; corrosive corneal opacity not revenible within 7 days
Comeal opactty severet irritation al revenible within 7 72 houn days: irritation persisting 7 daw no corneal opacity; irritation revenible
no irritation mild or slight I irritation at 72 Aldicarb
Aldicarb -oxirne carbarnate -insecticide, acaricide, nematocide Ternik -- -. . Trinidad -systemic pesticide mth contact & stomach action -&olinesterase inhibitor ..cantrol of sucking 8 chewing inseds: eg. aphids, leaf miner, nematodes -useci on: citrus, bananas, c6ffee. cottok sugarcane -Vp 13 mPa -solubility in water 4.93 g/L -stable in neutrai, acidic and weakfy alkaline media -hydrolysed &y concentrateci alkalis wacute oral LOS0 (rngtkg) rats 0.93 bobwhite quail 71 (ûd) -tom'c to bees -acute percutaneous LD50 male rabbits 20 mgkg -inhalation LC50: rats die in 5 min with 20 mg/L air -LC50 (Mh) (mgîL) rainbow trout 0.88 bluegill sunfish 1.5 -NOEL (5feeding) no effect in rat at 0.3 mgkg per day -non-phytotoxic when used as recommended -Toxicity class WHO la, €PA I labsorbed readily and completely in rats, dogs & cows -00% excreteâ in the urine within 24h, 95% excreted in 3-4 days -0xidised to sulfoxide and sulfone in animals -in plants, sulfer is oxidised to sulfoxide which a& systemically on the plant 8 is 10-20 times more potent cholinestemse inhibitor -in soil, sulfer is oxidised to sulfoxide & sulfone groups- further degradation 3CCUrs -activity in soil is 1O weeks 4UT BU ISR PHL BEL DMA NOR SUN Atrazine
Active lngredient Atrazine -herbicide Common Names Gesapax Aatmx FGesaprirn Amine Grenada Jamaica Trinidad cielecüve systemic -absorbed mainly via roots -pre- and post-emergence control of annual grass & bmad leaf weeds in: maize sorghum, fruit, citnis, sugarcane, banana, pineapple, guava, coffee oil palm -Vp 0.039 mPa (25C) -solubility in water is 33 mg/L (20C) -relative& stable in neutrac weakly acidic & weakly alkaline media -acute oral LOS0 (mgtkg)- - 1869- 3080 tecb. rats 1750- 3992 miœ 750 rabbits 940 bobwhite quail -acute percutaneous LD50 7500 mgkg rabbits >3100 mgkg rats -mild skin imtant -non-irritating to rabbit eyes -LCSO (4h) inhalation for rats is >5.8 mat -LC50 (96h) mg/L 4.5-1 1 rainbow trout 16 bluegill sunfish 76 carp 7.6 perch 4.3 guppies -LD50 (oral) >97 ug/bee -EC50 daphnia is 6.9 mgiL (48h) and >0.12 mglL (21d) -NOEL (2y) rats 10 mghg diet dogs 150 mgîkg diet rniœ 150 mgkg diet -phytotoxic to many crops, ie. vegetables, potatoes, soya bean and peanuts -LC50 (14d) for earthwoms is 78 mg~kgsoi1 roxicity Class is WHO table 5, WPA III -rapidly and completely degraded in animals after oral intake -in 24 h, more than 50% is eliminated in urine and 33% in faeces -tolerant plants rapidty metabolise atrazine -in untolerant plants, atrazîneaccumulates resuiting in chlorosis and death degrades in soi1 and water -0T50 in soi1 is 35-504, but may be longer under wld or dry conditions -DTS under qroundwater conditions 105200d depending on test system Benomyl
Benomyl -benzimidazole fungicide Benlate Benomyl Dominica Montserrat St Lucia Grenada St. Kitts/Nevis Trinidad Jamaica msystemic fung icide -control of wide ranqe of diseases in: mango, banana, sugarcane, pineapple -Vp 4.9 uPa (2%) -solubility in water (25C) 4 mgikg (pH 3-10), very souble at pH1 -decomposes pH 13 -amte oral LDSO (mgkg) rats >10000 mallard du& 8 bobwhite quail >MO (8d) -acute percutaneous LD50 rabbits >10000 mgkg -negligible irritant to guinea pig skin -temparary rabbit eye initant -inhalation LC50 (4h) rats >2 mg/L air -LC5O (mg/L) rainôow trout (96h) 0.1 7 goldfish (96h) 4.2 WPPY (4W 3-4 -non-toxic to bees -EC50 daphnia (48h) 640ugIL -NOEL (2y) rats ~2500mgkg dogs 500 mgkg -non-ohytotoxic if used as directed -~oxi&Gciass WHO III, €PA IV -in animals breakdown results in relatively stable carbendazim, then slow degradation ta non-toxic metabolite -hydroxylation in animals also -benomyl & metabolites excreted in urine and faetces in few days -no accumulation in animal tissues -same breakdown path in plants as animals -rapidly convefted to carbendazirn in soi1 (19h half-life) and water (2 day half-life) BGR Carbaryl
-carbarnate insecticide, growth reg ulator Sevin Tidc & flea powder Carbaryl Purina dog products Cutwom cfi'cket bait Grenada St KitWNevis St. Vincent & Grenadines Jamaica St. Lucia Trinidad Montserrat -insecticide with ~0ntaCt& St~machaction -slight systernic properües -chIolinstemse inhibition weak -useci on chewing & insects in many crop, eg. tobacco, maùe, couon, bananas,
-solubility in water 120 mg/L (20C) -stable in neutral& weak acidic conditions DT50 12d (pH 7) & 3.2h (pH 9) -stable to liqht 8 heat -acute oral LD50 (mgkg) male rats 850 female rats 500 rabbits 710 pheasants >2000 -acute percutaneous LD50 rats >4000 mgkg rabbits >2000 mghg -non-irritating to skin and eyes of rabbits -inhalation LC50 for rats >206.1 mgfi. air -LC50 (96h) (mg/L) rainbow trout 1.3 sheepshead minnaw 2.2 bluegill sunfish 10 mysid shrimp 5.7 mLC50 (48h) for Eastern opter 2.7 mg/L -toxic to bees (1 ug/bee) -€CS0 (48h) for daphnia 0.006mg/L -non-phytotoxic is used as direded -NOEL (2y) rats 200 mgkg -toxic to beneficial inseds -Toxicity dass WHO II, EPA 1, II & 111 does not accumulate in mamrnalian tissues -rapidly metaboliseci to non-toxic metabolites -metabolites eliminated via urine 8 faeœs -metaboliseci in plants -aerobic conditions, 1 ppm degraded with half-life of 7-14 in sandy loam and 14-26d in clay loam soi1 DEU SUN Carbofuran
Active lngmdient Carbofuran -carbarnate insectiadet nematocide Common Nam- Furadan Countriea Grenada St WNevis St. Vincent & Grenadines FMontserrat St Lucia Trinidad User & Application -systemic -&tact and stornach action -control soi1 dwelling & foliar feeding insec& I-US& in cotton, sugarcane, coffee, don, bananas -Vp 0.031 mPa (20C) -solubility in wakr 320 mg/L (20C) -unstable in alkaline, stable in acidic & neutral media
31d (pH9) -acute oral LD50 (mgkg) rats 8 dogs 15 miœ 14.4 -amte percutaneous LD50 rats >3000 mghg -mildly ifitating to skin & rabbit eyes -inhalation LC50 (4h) rats 0.076 mghg -LC50 (96h) (mg/L) rainôow trout 22-29 bluegill sunfish 1.75 -toxic to bees -ECSO (48h) 15 ug/L -NOEL (mgkg) rat & miœ 20 (5) dogs 10 (1~) -non-phytotoxic when used as directed -~om'citiciass WHO ~b,EPA I,II -metabolised by hydrolysis & oxydation in rat teliminated via urine and faeces to metabolite 33tetocafbofuran cquidtly metabolised in plants to insedicide 3hydroxycarbofuran & ketocarûofuran -0T50 in soi1 3WOd and carbon dioxide is rnost important metabolite wicrobial degradation in soi1 BK CHN Chlordane
Chlordane -orsanochlorine insecticide Common Names Countrier FTrinidad Uses & Application -non-systemic -contact, stomach and respiratory action -persistent I-used for =il, household pests, man and domestic animal pests, wood preservative -solubility in &rvO.l mglL rats 457-590 -acute oral LD50 (rnglkg) miœ 430 rabbits 300 bobwhite quail 83 macute perwtaneous L050 rabbits 200-2000 mgkg rats 217 mgkg -extrernely imtating to eyes & mild skin irritant to rabbits -non-sensitising to guinea pig skin -LC50 (96h) (mg/L) rainbow trout 0.09 bluegill sunfish 0.07 -toxic to bees mEC50 (48h) 0.59 mg/L for Daphnia -non-phytotoxic Men used as directed -Toxicity dass WHO II, EPA II -hydroxylated in rats to various metabolites -DTW in soi1 is iy Regulateâ EC AGR BEL BGR BK CAN CHL CHN COL CYP DDR DEU DMA ONK ECU FIN GBR ISR JPN KEN LIE MU( NLD NOR PAN SGP SWE TUR IUSA VEN YUG Dieldrin
Active lngredient Dieldrin 45% HEOD insecticide Common Nam- Dietdrin Timber fluid concn FTermite soi1 concn Countriea Grenada U808 & Application -used for pest control in rice, œreals, coffee, tea, cocoa, oil palms, bananas, 8 vegetables F-control of malaria mosquitoes and &etse flies -Vp 3.1 x10-6 mm Hg -practically insoluble in water -stable to alkali, mild acidity and light -drins (dieldrin, aldrin & endrin) have been shown to produce cancer in lab animals -especially cause liver problems -associated with birai defects -embroytoxic in animals -causes loss of appetite, kidney damage -extrernely toxic: oral LC50 of 46 mgntg in rats -severe poisoning can ause muscle twitching, seisures, & difficulty breathing -demal exposure cm cause rash -cari cause thinning of duck and grey hening egg shells -in most organism, dieldrin is a metabolite of aldrin -in 1971, 99.5% of human adipose tissue samples in US contained dieldrin residues (average 0.29 ppm dieldrin) -very persistent, can last for many years -tend to bioa~cumulate EC ARG AUT BGR BK CAN CHE CHL COL CYP DDR DEU DMA ONK ECU FIN GBR HUN IND ISP JPN KEN LIE MU( MUS MYS NLD NOR NZL PAK PAN PHL PRT SGP SUN SWE TUR VEN TOG YUG Dimethoate
Dimethoate -organophosphorous insecticide, acaricide Perfekthion Dimethoate Cygon Antigua & Barbuda Jamaica St. Lucia Dominica Montserrat Trinidad Grenada St KittslNevis U8es & Application -systemic with contact & stomach action -cholinesterase inhibitor I-used for wide range of insects in coffee, cotton, fruit, tobacco, tea -Vp 1.1 mPa (25C) -solubility in water 23.3 g/L (pHs) -relatively stable in aqueous media -hydrolyseci in alkaline -DT50 12d (pH 9) wacute oral LDSO (mghg) rats 290-325 miœ 160 rabbits 400-500 guinea pigs >IO00 male pheasants 15 chickens 108 -acute percutaneous L050 rats >800 mgîkg guinea pigs > 1000 mgkg -non-irritating to rabbit skin -inhalation LC50 (4h) for rats N.2 mg/L air -LC50 fish (96h) (mglL) mosquito fish 40-60 rainbow trout 6.2 bluegill sunfish 6 wtoxic to bees -EC50 (24h) Daphnia 4.7 mg/L -NOEL (2y) for rats 1.O mgkg -non-phytotoxic when used as directed -Toxicity class WHO II, €PA II -rnetabolisrn in ~lantsand animals is same -metabolites can be more persistent and stronger inhibitor of cholinesterase -in soil, DT50 2-46 -photolytic DT50 on soi1 surface 7-16d CYP USA Diuron
3iuron -ma herbicide i(armex Direx Diuron Herbatox Dominica Jamaica St Vincent & the Grenadines Srenada St KWNevia Trinidad Guyana St Lucia Umm a Application wsystemic ginhibits photosynthesis vcontrol of weeds & moss in non-aopland r-tselective control germinating gwsd broad leaf weeds in citNs, bananas, -solubility in water 42 mg/L (25C) -stable in neutral media at normal temperatutes -hydrolyseci by acid and alkalis -acute oral LD50 for rats is 3400 mghg -acute percutaneous LD50 for rabbk >2000 mgntg -non-imtating and non-sensiüsing to guinea pig skin -inhalation LC50 (4h) for rats is >5 mg/L -8d dietary LCM (mgkg diet) bobwhite quail 1730 pheasant chicks >50ûû wLC50 (96h) (mgIl) rainbow trout 5.6 bluegill sunfish 5.9 guppies 25 -non-toxic to bees -EC50 (48h) for Daphnia is 12 mgL -Toxicity dass WHO table 5, EPA III -metabalism in mammals is by hydroxylation and dealkyfation -in plants, breakdown via demethylation -in soil, enzymatic & microbial demethylation occuts -activity in soi\ lasts 4-8 months, depending on soi! type & humidity Endosulfan
Active lngredient Endosulfan -organochlorine insecticide, acaricide Common Namm Thiodan Thionil Countrias Jamaica Trinidad St Lucia U8ea h Application -non-systemic -contact and stomach action -control of sucking, chewing 8 boring insects and mites wsed in: colton, tea, mffee, rice, maize, sugarcane, tobacca, alfalfa -Vp 0.83 mPa (20C) -solubility in w&r. alpha-endosulfan 0.32 mg/L beta-endosulfan 0.33 mglL -stable to sunlight lslowly hydrolysed in aqueous acids and alkalis -acute oral LD50 (rng~kg) rats 70 (aqueous susp.) dogs 77 mallatd dudis 205-245 ring-necked pheasants 620 - 1OOO -acute percutaneous tD50 rabbits 359 mg oiVkg male rats >4000 mgkg female rats 500 mgkg -inhalation LC50 (mgiL) rats >21 (1 h) male rats 0.0345 (4h) female rats 0.0126 (4h) -phytotoxic to alfalfa, lima beans -LC50 (96h) for golden orfe fish is 0.002 mg/L (highly toxic) -non-toxic to bees -€CS0 (48h) Daphnia is 75-750 ug/t -NOEL (mg~kgdiet) rats (2y) no il1 effects at 30 dogs (1 Y) 3 -Toxicity Class WHO II, EPA I Environmental Fate -mainly eliminated via faeces -accumulation in kidney rather than fat celimination from kidney half-life is 7 days metabolised rapidly in rnamrnals -main plant metabolite is endosulfan sulfate -50% of residue is lost from plants in 3-7d depending on species degradeci in soi1 wiai DTSO of 30-70d -main soi1 metabolite is endosulfan sulfate -DT50 total in the field is 5-8 months -no tendency for leachinq L Regulated BU. CAN DMA DNK FIN HUN NLD NOR PHL SGP VEN YUG Ethoprophos
Ethoprophos -organophosphate insedicide, nematocide - - Mocap Dominica Jamaica St. Vincent & Grenadines Grenada St Lucia Trinidad USOS b Application -non-systernic -contact action -cholinesterase inhibitor -controt of nematodes in: tomato, potato, maize, soya bean, ciûus tobacco banana, pineapple and sugarcane I-Vp 46.5 mPa -solubility in water -very stable in neutral a weakly acidic media -rapidly hydrolysed in alkaline media Toxiciîy -acute oral LD50 (mgikg) rats 62 rabbits 55 hens 5.6 -acute perwtaneous LD50 in rabbits is 26 mgkg -rnay cause skin and eye irritation -inhalation LC50 for rats is 123 mglm3 -LC50 (mgfL) rainbow tout 13.8 bluegill sunfish 2.1 goldfish 13.6 -non-toxic to bees wtien used as direded -non-phytotoxic when used as directed -NOEL in 90d trial dogs were fed 100 mg/kg diet -Toxicity class WHO la, €PA II l~nvironment~lFate mprinciple metabolite in rat is more toxic than ethoprophos -cm be broken dom into non-toxic metaboli in sorne plants like rnaize and haricot bans -usually leaves no detectable residues in plants -DT~O~humus soi1 is 87d (pH 4.5), in sandy loam 14-2ûd (neutral pH) BK DDR MYS PHL Lindane
Active Ingrdient Lindane (gamma HCH) -organochlorine insedicide Common Namas Wood work fluid Kill off Purina mange- wntrol r Gammalin Lindane Bat dust Countries Grenada St. Lucia User & Application -contact, stomach & mspiratory action -controls broad spectnim of pests L Chancterimtica -Vp 5.6 mfa (20C) -solubility in water 7.3 mg/L (2SC) -extremely stable to light, air, and temp -de hydrochlorinationin alkalis Toxiciîy -acute oral tD50 (mg/kg) rats 88-270 (vary with test condbok) miœ 59-246 bobwhite quai1 120-130 -Young animais particularly sensitive -acute percutaneous LD50 in rats is 900-1000 mghg -skin and eye irribnt -Le50 (48h) for guppies 0.16-0.3 mgL -toxic to bees -non-phytotoxic when used as difected -NOEL (2y) (mg/kg diet) rats 25 dass- 50 -Toxicity class WHO II, EPA Il Environmental Fate -found in milk, body fat, and kidneys of rats after oral administration but is rapidly eliminated Regulatsd EC ARG 8GR CAN CHE COL CYP DEU DNR ECU HUN JPN KEN tlE MD( NLO NZL PAN PRT SGP THA TUR USA YUG Malathion
Malaaiion -orqanophosphorous insedicide, acaricide Malathion Fyfanon Iniaiion Big dust 6 Bio mpsaver Dominica Jamaica St. Lucia Grenada Montserrat St. Vincent & Grenadines Guyana St KWNevis f rinidad Uaea 6 Application -non-systemic antact, stornach and respiratory action r-wsed to control major arthropod disease vecton -Vp 5.3 mPa (30C) -solubility in water 145 mgll(25C) -relatively stable in neutral, aqueous media decomp&ed by acids and alkalis Toxicr( wacute oral L050 (mgkg) rats 1375-2800 mice 7753320 -24h acute percutaneous LD50 for rabbits 4100 mgkg -5d dietary LC50 (mg/kg) bobwhite quail 3500 ringneck pheasants 4320 -1ow mammalian toxicity -non-phytotoxic in general -LC5O (96h) (mg/L) bluegill sunfish 0.1 largemouth bass 0.28
-Toxicity ciass WHO III, III r EPA Environmantal Fate -in mammals after oral administration most of dose is excteted in the urine and Paraquat
Active Ingreclient paraquat -bipyridylium herbicide Common Namm Gramocil Parachem Herbiquat Gramoxone Gramoxone super Pilarxone SMCP Millquat FGrenade Montserrat St Vincent 8 Grenadines Guyana St. WNevis Trinidad Jamaica St Lucia Dominica -non-selective contact herbicide -broad spec controt for broad leaf weeds -citrus, plantation mps -non-crop land used al30 -Vp CO. 1 mPa -solubility in water 700gIL (20C) -stable in neutral& acidic media creadily hydrolysed in alkaline conditions -photochemically decomposeci in aqueous solutions -acute oral LD50 (mgkg) rats 157 mica 104 guinea pigs dûgs 25-50 cab 40-50 mallard du& 4048 cows 50-75 sheep 50-75 hens 262-380 bobwhite quail 981 (5d) Japanese quail 970 (5d) -tethal dose man 30 mgkg œacute percutaneous LDSO rabbik 236-500 mgikg bimtating rabbit skin & eyes -minimal absorption thmugh intact human skin -not skin sensitiser -LC50 inhalation (no vapour toxicity, may cause nose bleed) -NOEL (2 year) do9s 34 mm rats 170 rngikg -LC50 (96h) fish rainbow hut32 mg/L (depends on formulation) bmtrout 2.5-1 3 mglL -non toxic to bees -Toxicity dass WHO II, €PA Il -after feeding rats, 7690% excreted in faeces, 11-20% excreted in urine -photochernical degradation on plant surface days & organic matter strongly & rapidly adsorb, thus complete deactivation 7 N ISR NZL SWE Pentachlorophenol
-insecticide, herbicide, fungicide Termite AA
-control termites -Vp 16 Pa (100C) -solubility in water is 80 mgtL (30C) -relatively stable and non-hygroscopic -ara1 LD50 rats 210 mgkg -acute perwtaneous LD50 not available mirritating to skin, eyes and mucous -LC50 (48h) for rainbow and brown trout 0.17 mglL -NOEL no deaths of dogs or rats receiving 3.9- 10 mgldaily for 70-190 days -Toxicity dass WHO Ib, EPA II -very persistent in environmant -broken down in female rats BK CHE CHN DDR EU DNK ECU FIN LIE NLD NZL PAN SUN SWE Tridemorp h
rridemorph -morpholine fungicide Calixin Dominica Jamaica St. Vincent & Grenadines Srenada St. Luaa J8es 8 Application wsystemic -eradicant action -usad in bananas, tea and cereals to combat disease -Vp 6.4 mPa (20C) -solubility in water is 11.7 m& (pH7,20C) *table SOC ro~lcity -acute oral LD50 (mgkg) rats 480 quail 1388 duck ~2000 -acute percutaneous LD50 in rats is >4000 mgkg -severe eye & skin irritant in rabbits -inhalation LC50 (4h) for rats is 4.5 mg/L -LC50 (Wh) for guppies is 3.5 mglL -not toxic to bees -€CS0 (48h) daphnia 1.3 mglL anbe phytotoxic to some plants -~oxici$clk WHO II, €PA III :nvironmental Fats -after oral admin. in rats, rapidty absorbed and almost wrnpletely eliminated in 2d -midues in cereal grains at harvest are ~0.05mgkg -soi1 degradation: DT50 in lab is 2&50d, in the field is 14-34d SUN Appendix 2: Information Sources
There are two components to this appendix. The first is a list of the potential information sources (those who were initially contacted via Men),while the second is a list of the actual sources from which information was obtained. St. Lucia
Mr. Chris Corbin Mr. David Demarque Environmental Engineer Head Ministry of Planning and Environment CARDl Govemment Building PO Box 971 Castries, St. Lucia Castries, St. Lucia
Mr. W. Lesmond Magloire Dr. Errol Reid Occupational Health and Safety Officer WIBDECO Department of Labour PO Box 163 PO Box BI15 San Souci Wm. Peter Boulevard Castries, St, Lucia Castries, St. Lucia
Mr. Everton Ambrose Dr. Vansantha Chase Plant Protection Specialist Head llCA PO Box 1223 NRMU Castries, St Lucia The Morne Castries, St. Lucia
Barbados
Mr. Jeffmy Headley Dr. Wayne Hunte Senior Environmental Engineer Director Environmental Engineerîng Division MAREMP Ministry of Health University of the West lndies Culloden Fann Cave Hill, Barbados St. Michael, Barbados
Ms. Glenda Medina Mr. Dennis Yearwood Executive Director CCA General Manager Savannah Lodge Barbados Water Authority The Gamson The Pine St. Michael, Barbados St. Michael, Barbados
Mr. Rickardo Wafd Mr. Wendell Lawrence Environmental Scientist Caribbean Development Bank Ministry of Health PO Box 408 Jemmotts Lane Wildey St Michael, Barbados Bridgetown, Barbados
Dr. Karen Sealey Professor Lawrence Wilson Caribbean Programme Coordinator FA0 PAHO Central Bank Building PO Box 508 Church Village Christ Church, Barbados Bridgetown, Barbados Eastern Caribbean Representative Ms. Beverely Wood UNDP Scientific Officer 1 PO Box 625C Governrnent Analyücal Services Jemmotts Lane Laboratory Bridgetown, Barbados Culloden Road St. Michael, Barbados
Trinidad
Mr. Keith Meade Mr. Hayden Blades Environmentai Specialist CARDl CARlRl UWI SL Augustine Campus Tunapuna Post Office Trin idad Trinidad
Mr. Patrice LeBlanc Dr. Richard Brathwaithe Executive Director Senior Lecturer in Crop Production Environmental Management Authority Department of Crop Production PO Box 150 Faculty of Agriculture Newtown Post Office University of the West lndies Port of Spain, Trinidad St. Augustine Campus Trinidad
Mr. Stanley Teemul Dr. Ivan Chang-Yen Pesticides & Toxic Chemicals, Senior Lecturer ChemistryiFood and Drugs Division Department of Chemistry Ministry of Health University of the West lndies 115 Frederick Street St. Augustine Campus Port of Spain, Trinidad Trinidad
Mr. Errol Pilgrim Mr. Eric Blommestein Permanent Secretary ECLAC Ministry of Health 22-24 St. Vincent St. 10-1 2 Independence Square Second FIoor Port of Spain, Trinidad PO Box 1113 Port of Spain, Trinidad
Dean of Facuity of Agriculture Mr. Michael Hams University of the West lndies Executive Director St. Augustine Campus CARlRl Trinidad Tunapuna Post Office Tunapuna, Trinidad Dr. Stephen Blount Executive Director Mrs. Particia Aquing CAREC Il0 Caribbean Office PO Box 164 PO Box 1201 Port of Spain, Trinidad 11 St Clair Avenue Port of Spain, Trinidad Director FA0 134-138 Frederick St. Trinidad Jamaica
Director Kingston 7, Jamaica Dr. Janice Reid UNEPIRCU CARDI 14-20 Port Royal Street Mona Campus Kingston, Jamaica Kingston 7, Jamaica
Dr. Ajai Mansingh Department of Zoology University of the West lndies Mona Campus Kingston 7, Jamaica
UnWd States Virgin Islands
Mr, Edward Towle President Island Resources Foundation 6296 Estate Nazareth Number 11 St. Thomas, VI 00802-1 104
Guyana
Mrs. M. Collins Mr. Melvin Sankies Food and Drug Division of Vice Chancellor the Govemment Analyst University of Guyana Ministry of Health Turkeyen PO Box 1019 Guyana Mudlot, Kingston Georgetown, Guyana
Director Father Malcolm Rodrigues €PA University of Guyana do Institute of Applied Science Turkeyen and Technology Guyana University of Guyana Turkeyan Carpul Guyana
Belize
Mr. lsmael Fabro Mr. Sylburn Arthurs Ministry of Tourism and the Principal Public Health lnspector Environment Ministry of Health and Sports 19 Mayfiower St Pnncess Margaret Drive Belmopan Belmopan Belize Bahamas
Dr. Donald Cooper Dr. John Hammerton Direcîor Consultant- Agronomy, Pesticide Department of Environmental Health Management, Weed Science Services, Ministry of Health PO Box N-8409 PO BOXN-3729 Nassau Nassau, NP, Bahamas Bahamas
Pesticide Control Boards
Ms. Florita Kentish Mr. Philmore lssacs Director of Agriculture & Chief Agncultural Officer and Chairperson of PCB Chairperson of PCB Ministry of Agriculture Ministry of Agriculture and Labour St. John's Kingstown Antigua St. Vincent and the Grenadines
Mr. Aubrey George Mr. Julius Polius Environmental Health Officert Director of Agriculture Services and Chairperson of PCB Chairperson of PCB Govemment of BVI Ministry of Agriculture, Lands, Roadtown Fisheries and Forestry Tortoia 5" Floor NIS Building British Virgin Islands Castries, St. Lucia
Mrs. Claudia Bellot Mr. Leslie Richardson Chairperson of PCB Chairperson of PCB Ministry of Agriculture Anguilla Botanical Gardens fax: 497-3389 Roseau Dominica
Dr. Guido Marcelle Dr. Winston Small Chairperson of PCB Chairperson of PCB Ministry of Agriculture Ministry of Agriculture Mount Wheldale Barbados St George's Grenada
Dr. Jerome Thomas Mr. Paul Whylie Chairperson of PCB Registrar Ministry of Health Pesticides Control Authority Basseterre 1O Caledonia Avenue St Kitts Kingston 5 Jamaica
Mr. Claude Gerald Chairperson of PCB PO Box 272 Plymouth Montserrat Barbados
ME. W. Walker-Drakes Environmental Division, Ministry of Health
Dr. W. Srnall Ministry of Agriculture (library)
Ms. B. Wood Govemment Analyst Laboratory
Mr. Brewster Coastal Zone Management Unit
Caribbean Agricultural Research and Development Institute, UWI Campus (library only)
Mr. R. Baitson MAREMP, UWI Campus CERMES, UWI Campus (libraiy only)
Dr. Knight and Mr. J. Headley Environmental Engineering Division, Ministry of Health
Mrs. Hee Houng Caribbean Conservation Association (library only)
Mr. L. James Caribbean Development Bank (library)
Dr. Mwansa Barbados Water Authonty
Bellairs (library only)
St. Lucia
Ms. V. lsaacs NRMU (NRMU and OECS libraries)
Mr. L. Magloire Ministry of Labour Dr. E. Reid WIBDECO (library)
Mr. E. Arnbrose l ICA
CEHl (library)
Mr, G. Mathurin Union Agricultural Station Ministry of Agriculture (PCB), Crop Protection Unit
Mr. C. Corbin Ministry of Planning and Environment
Trinidad
Dr S. Parasram and Dr. C. Paul Caribbean Agticultural Research and Development Institute, UWI Campus (library)
Mr. R. Ramnasibsingh Caribbean Industrial Research Institute, UWI Campus
Dr. Seaforth and Dr. 1. Chang Yen Department of Chemistry, UWI
Mr. C. Kalloo Food and Drugs Division of Ministry of Health
Dr. R. Doon Ministry of Health
Mrs. Aquine International Labour Organisation
Dr. Sam Rawlins Caribbean Epidemiology Centre (library)
Ms Linda Besson Employer's Consultative Association
Dr. RAI. Braithworth Department of Crop Science, UWI lnstitute of Marine Affairs (library only)
University of the West lndies (library)
Ms. A. Wilson Mansingh Research Team, Jamaica
Dr. O. Eastwood Guyana Sugar Corporation
Mr. P. Whylie Pesticide Control Authority, Jamaica
Dalhousie University (library)
Nova Scotia Agricultural College (library) Appendix 3: Letter of Introduction
The following two letters are copies of the letter of introduction sent to the organisations and governrnent departments in the CARICOM as listed in Appendix 2 under "Potential Information Sourcesn. Letters were sent from CEHl and signed by Mr. V. Sweeney, the Executive Director.
Letter A is a sarnple of the letters sent to the organisations in the islands of St. Lucia, Trinidad and Barbados I wanted to visit, requesting a visit to the particular organisation. Letter 6 is a sample of the letters that were sent to organisations located in other islands which I would not be able to visit, requesting that any pertinent information be forwarded to CEH 1. E-MAIL: [email protected]
June 20,1996
(Address of Organisation as found in Appendix 5)
Dear (contact person)
Re: Comoonent # 3. "Manaaement of Industrial Chemicals & Wastes" Pr-
Ms. Danielle Vienneau, from the School for Resource and Environmental Studies, Dalhousie University, is currently on attachment to CEHl for the period June to September 13, 1996. Her work during Mis Ume period will involve an assessment of the environmental impacts of pesticides used in the Caribbean Region. This assessment will input into Component #3 of the regional project "Institutional Development for the Management of Industrial Chemicals 8 Wastes in CARICOM States" which is being jointly implemented with Dalhousie University.
As part of her work, Ms. Vienneau will be conducting an assessment of the available information on the fate, transport and effects of pesticides in the Caribbean. In relation to this assessment, she will require information on statistics conceming the types of pesticides and their volumes currently being importedlused by each of the CARICOM States, materials on the behaviour and effects of pesticides in the environment (soil, fresh and ocean water) and wildlife, and the hurnan health impacts of these chernicals.
We would be grateful of you could advise us as to whether or not your Ministry/organisation would have any information useful to Ms. Vienneau's work and how she could access it. Her current plans indude trips to Trinidad and Barbados in the latter part of July. She would be interested in visiting your Ministry to meet and discuss her information needs and to source materials as necessary. The outputs from her work should be useful to CARICOM Member States and will certainly be made available once completed, through CEHI.
We will be grateful as usual for any assistance which you can provide. Thank you in advance.
Yours Sincerely,
VINCENT SWEENEY Executive Director (Ag.) E-MAIL: [email protected]
June 20,1996
(Address of Organisation as found in Appendix 5)
Dear (contact person)
Fe: Cornmnent # 3. "Manaaement of lndust al Chernicals & Wastes" PrQieçf
Ms. Danielle Vienneau, from the School for Resource and Environmental Studies, Dalhousie University, is cunently on attachment to CEHl for the period June to September 'l3, 1996. Her work during this time perîod will involve an assessment of the environmental impacts of pesticides used in the Canbbean Region. This assessrnent will input into Component Ut3 of the regional project "Institutional Development for the Management of Industrial Chernicals 8 Wastes in CARICOM States" which is being jointly implemented with Dalhousie University.
As part of her work, Ms. Vienneau will be conducting an assessment of the available information on the fate, transport and effects of pesticides in the Caribbean. In relation to this assessment, she will require information on statistics concerning the types of pesticides and their volumes currently king importedlused by each of the CARICOM States, matenals on the behaviour and effects of pesticides in the environment (soil, fresh and ocean water) and wildlife, and the human health impacts of these chemicals.
We would be grateful of you could advise us as to whether or not your Ministry/organisation would have any information useful to Ms. Vienneau's work and how she could access it. Her cuvent plans include trips to Tnnidad and Barbados in the latter part of July. As a result, she rnay not be able to visit your Ministry. If you have any information that would be an asset to this project, please let us know if and how it can be made available. The outputs from her work should be useful to CARICOM Member States and will certainly be made available once completed, through CEHI.
We will be grateful as usual for any assistance which you can provide. Thank you in advance.
Yours Sincerely,
VINCENT SWEENEY Executive Director (Ag.) Appendix 4: Website Information
As described in the rnethods (Chapter 2), the Intemet was also used as a search tool to locate information on pesticides in the Caribbean. The following list of websites are those which were found to have useful content on pesticides. Only some of them were used in the thesis, and are referenced as appropriate in the Citation List. 1. Virginia Tech Pesticide Program- Pesticide Site Locator http:l~.vtpp.ext.vt.eduBtmldocslsitelsthtml
2. Pesticide Action Network North America (PANNA) http:lhuww.panna.org/panna/
3. Pesticides http:l/g rove.ucsd .edu:80lcniise~chemlpest/pestindex.html
4. Welcome to McGill University Libraries http:lW.library.rnqill.ca:801
5. PESTE Database from PANNA gopher~llgopher.igc.apc.org:2998~PESTIC?Caribbean
6. MAREMP http:lhnrww.sunbeach.netlcomp/marernplMarernp.html
7. DuPont Home Page http:l~.dupont.coml
8. Caribbean Outpost http://WHNv.cariboutpost.com/ff/ic~html
9. Island Resource Foundation http://www. irf.org
10. Confederacion Nacional Campesina http:l/WHNv.azstarnet. corn/-elrojolwnsitm
11 . Bellairs Research lnstitute http:lW.sunbeach.net/cornp/marernp/bellairs. hbn#research
12. Pesticide Poisoning Handbook http:llhammock.ifas.ufl.edu/kt/fairs/ppll9729.html
13. United States Environmental Protection Agency Office of Prevention, Pesticides and Toxic Substances http:lI\MMiv.epa.gov/intemet/oppts/
14. Agriculture Canada h~p:/laceis.agr.ca/newintre.html
15. Monsanto Home Page http:/hnrww.monsanto.comlMonPub/index.html 16. The WoM Wide Web Virtual Library- Agriculture http://ipm_www.ncsu.edu/cemag/œm. html
17. Cooperative Research Centre for Tropical Pest Management http:/liivww.ctpm.uq.edu.au/
18. Welcome to the CGlAR (Consultative Group on InternationalAgricultural Research) http:l~.cgiar.org/
19. Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations http:/Ewww.fao. orgl
20. FAOSTAT Agricultural data http://a pps.fao.org1cgi-bidn p hdp. pl?subset=agriculture
21. World Bank http:/hvww.worldban k.org1
22. World Health Organization http:/Ewww.who.chl
23. Extoxnet- the Extension Toxicology Network http://ace.orst.edulinfo/extoxnetlg hindex. html Appendix 5: List of pesticides imported into various CARICOM Islands in 1995-1996
The data in this appendix was compiled from information on the pesticides imported by different islands. The islands for which information was available, and represented in this Appendix, include: Antigua and Barbuda Dominica Grenada Jamaica Montserrat St. KittstNevis St. Lucia St. Vincent and the Grenadines Trinidad and Tobago
Note that detailed information was not available for Barbados. Pesticide use in Barbados is described in section 3.3.5.
Appendix 5 is organised into charts for each island, and within each chart the pesticides are ordered alphabetically by active ingredient (Al). The reference manuals by Copping et alL(1 995), Kidd and Hartley (1988) and Tomlin (1994) were used to determine the active ingredient when it was not provided in the original documentation.
In many cases, the cornmon name was provided in the original documentation and it was necessary to use a pesticide index or manual to determine the active ingredient and/or pesticide type. In some cases, the comrnon name in the manual provided several options for an active ingredient or type. In Appendix 1, brackets are used to indicate these options (based on the cornmon name provided) when there was uncertainty as to the exact active ingredient used by a particular island. In the original documentation, the amount of pesticide imported was not always known or recorded. Therefore, the amount of active ingredient imported was only recorded in Appendix 1 when the information was available. Under the column entitled 'active ingredientnthe ? means that the name of the active ingredient corresponding to the common name provided in the original source could not be found in various reference manuals,
Key for "Type" column A= acaricide B= bactericide EG= ethylene generator F= fungicide Fum= fumigant G= growth regulator H= herbicide I= insecticide J= adjunvant M= molluscide N= nematocide R= rodenticide RH= restricted herbicide RI= restricted insecticide RR= restricted rodenticide RSS= restricted soi1 sterilant S= soi1 sterilant T= tickicide V= viricide W= wound protectant
Key for Teference" column a= Pesticide Control Board of Dominica. 1996. Country Report 1995-1 996. Paper presented at the First Meeting of Coordinating Group of Pesticide Control Boards of the OECS. 25th-28th June, 1996. Tortola, BVI.
b= IICA. 1996. List of Pesticides Registered for Use in the Windward and Leeward Islands. Paper provided at the First Meeting of Coordinating Group of Pesticide Control Boards of the OECS. 25th-28th June, 1996. Tortola, BVI.
c= Chemistryl Food 8 Dnig Division. 1996. Pesticides to Register. Ministry of Agriculture. Trinidad and Tobago. d= Pesticide Control Authority. 1996. lmports of pesticides to Jamaica for 1994- 1996. From the PCA Register. Pesticides Control Authority, Jamaica. e= Magloire, WL. March 1995. Reconnaissance Survey of agro-chernical use in Montserrat. Funded by OECSMRMUIENCORE. St. Lucia. f= Crop Protection Unit. 1996. Crop Protection Technical Report. lssuing of Licenses to lmport Pesticides. Ministry of Agriculture. Research and Development Division. Crop Protection Unit. St. Lucia. April 1996- March 1996. g= Pesticide Control Board. July 1996. Registered Pesticides: Draff. Ministry of Agriculture. St. Lucia. Antigua & Barbuda Fenemiphos N Nemaarr .b Fenbutatin oxide .A ,Toque 1 L a ~snpmpathrin I Danrlol Shell Int-P. b FluarrfOp -- H Fusilade ---60 L a FlUaElfOp butyl H : Fusilade 2000 -ICI -- .b Flusilarole F Punch Dupont .b - -- -- Foset$aluminum F Aliette --- Rhone P. b Furadan FMC Corp. b LP LP - N TCa-@ran ------H Roundup M-o -b -H TouChdOmi 600 L a
IrnazaRl F funganor Janseen Phar. -b Irnidadoprid -1 -Condor -1 L ,a - lsatofas N Miral Ciba Geigy b Dominica
._----- .- ---a--- b-- -- 432 L --Paraquat - - -_ _ :H GmnoXOM suF"?!!----- + ICI .a.b - Paraquat --+ H PiIlam ------Plllar Int ---b Paraquat dich-- .- - H ,=rmw- _- -1218o!-. _- _ - - --a!. - -Cyana-m~d - b ---Pdimernlin- -_ - _-_ - JSlomp------+- -- Phanthoate 1 U8an Nian ---- a.b ------t 24 L -- --- I 'Vdatlocl b --PMm ------Bayer - - - c--- Pirimiph- I ~rimldd a,b - -- .40 L -6 JCL------,-- ---4 t .Aasllk -pinmiph=- .------A -60 L -ICI ------f MPsde -----Potasbium $ab oifafîy wds - ___ = 42 t - men- -- --!.b -- -. Profenofos I Tamk 440 18 L a- -- PL-- -- -_ Propioo=L ------F TM -Wb 1 -Dlvemidb oivemy b -pvremfin -- - -- Grenada
Grenada ------_--- + C------F .Fungailor75SP - b $BZB!I' - _------+ - c______-__-_C___l_t Imlll F FunqMor JanmPham ' b - -_ _ _ -_ _ IC- III-----*- b ,%ldeclorprid-_ ------A--I arath thon ------A 3lnâandlone R 'Ramik gr& ban pack --* ------.--t- .-- .------.b 1.3-indandiorie -- -+R Rozol _---- -______------+ b- -- lrwofos N .Mlral ___- _- - -. __ C._ __t- - -- ClgaGeiey C -- N Mira1 10 G b -fos ------*--c- -!!?!?Pmrb------* I '~ntrolobn5 GR ------b
a- ---a Malathion ----- I Big 6 dust -, b MaWwl _ - - - I :Malathion cm EC) . - -- .8 Matathlon - . l :Melathion LC) ---. -b Malamton I .Malathion 50 WP - . .e -- --- A - - - -- Maîathlon - - . I :MalamMM b
Malathkm I ' Punna maiaihion spray .b - Malathion - I lPunna poultry insectiade .b Mancoreb - -- -F Dmne DuPont b -Mancozeb . F Dithane45 - .b Manauab F RkkmiI plus 72 WP b ~ancazetb(etfiylk~iioc~rbarnatb) IF Maruate200 DP _b Mancozeb .F .Vm --- - b Mancoreb (rnanglCions) F Vondotab80%WP b Maneb - - 1 Hot Wt mch 8 ant .-b Metaldehydede M Blim b Metalaxyi . F . Rldomil plus 72 WP b MeUaxyVmaMb -- F Rldomil plus ----- b ~,~dlethylmetatoluamide .I ûfî inmrepdient ---,b Methiocarb M ~Mesutolrinailpalleta b Methomyl . I Lannate --DuPont _b Methomyl I Lsnnate L b . Methomyl --- I -Purina ny patrol +---- b Methyl bromide Fum Dawson 73 iumigant b- Methyl bromide Fum . Melhyl bromlde b
Metnyl bmmide Fum , Pemamrfurnigant 1 b 2(lniathyietnoxy)-phenyi melhyi carbarnate - I Hot shot fOaCh & ant 31 1 b 2(1-methyletnoxy)-phenyi rnethyl carbamate . t Kem kilCb b &Me thio hanata manab b Methyi miophanata manab F Pdtar -- b Momsodiummethansanonato(MSMA) H MW b 7 - Napthenic add f .Tenite AA b Naopynarnin 1 . Bdt aimme for ilies b Neopynarnin 100% t . Dat insedade b Neopynamin t Hot shot cridtet 8 Wder killer b Neopynamin I Kill ofi .b Grenada Grenada Grenada
------. ------t - CI__-_ - _--_---_1_(
.RssporisatMWP & -- t--.i b SltIcadd(highlyL ------* 1- - --.- SlUca &round) --. 1 A Rmr10 Wp_____------b 1 Sirnazine - - - .H i~esatop~500F~ - !b - . H i -m 2= -- --- Iciba~efey b Si-ndametryn------a- ' b :Sodium tauml suifate - I purina9 shampoa --C--- f -----.a Sodium methyi dithiocarbamag@~me&-"_$, RSS IVaparn ______-_.___-__ A b A I b 'suMonk edd _il-__li- -- A -l__l_ll_C_ L 4 A I b w- -- _-- Synergised rasmethrin 1 jsmkelnriectidde b _ -- _* __C______c__-
Jamaica
- -- -. . - -- Ai ;.!!Y !!!@nd!E!t - . . . - .- .- --,! Typo 1 Common Nime IAmount of I Manuhcarnr I ~lfrnml I I
------Cadusefo- NI 1OG 48800 Ru kg . -- d _!?!@!'Y!- _!?!@!'Y!- 7 Se%dW5% 2?!E!L-.---- d Carbaryl - l :Sevin BOS 1016ok~ = -- -- d Chloraphaanone R Orat 2400 L d Chlorothalonil . F :Chlomthaknil500 .IO22 kg d Chlorothalonil - F - Damil 2787 .3404 kg .d Chlofpynm -1 Dunban 2E 2905 kg d Ch- l Oursban TC 3240 L d Ch .I ,PmtbanTC -1306 kg . d -&Frbonate F .Malachite 227 kg d Copper hydromde -- FB ' Champion WP 1588s kg d Copper hydrmde .F -KoadelOl _ 3900 kg d Copper naphüwmîe .F _Cupfinoldsar miod praservaüv 10838 L -d Copper naphoieriaie F -Cupnnol green wod prsservativi4098 L d F Cuprinal low odaur 5 star nrood (1 4572 L d Co~mrnaohthenal F Cuonnol low odour uioadwonn ici 1560 L d Jamaica ------* ------7 -AdlcideAZ .a50 kg - d ? Chas~-weymtoxk bracelets 72 kg d-- ? - ---- ER-? mtkit .ikg .d 7 1 flash inseetlcide 5 kg d +--- +--- -? --- Hi #mer AIWS killer 128 L d 3 -- : Home & garderi inaed kilkr ' 109 kg -. d 7 Homet 8 wasp kilIer 255 kg d ? Jwt bi 8 balp 100 kg -- one rat mouse , d 7 ] Komefvan ZS 11 kg d -7------Limimx inaedlade 23 L d ? Nuoc..de 40CD 507 ka d ------. 1 7 Omo buggtta plus .211 kg -- .d -+ 7 Ortho waab&gon 2 L d -
? Ortho hornet & wasp ktlleif Br 68 L .d ? Omo vddc OII ML d -- --- spray - 7 Pico No. 2 2280 kg d 7 - Pibrfaam -25 kg d -7 - -- - Rug patrd küler spray 60 kg - . d 7 - Seqsent't fies ahampoo for dq52 L d ----? Sergeanl's ïïea 8 ück powder fafi 18 kg d ---? Sergetant's ilea & ack spray ~/CU60 kg d 7 .Seqeanî's fie@ 8 tick cdlars for.135 kg d ? Sargearrt'sshoocat&&g fraini 12 L d 7 SergeanCs rnedicated shampoo 30 L .d 3 Starbar golden malfin iiy bait 142 kg d 3 Sulfonate AA-1 OL 14nkg d 3 - Syneqizer 264 t8 kg d Jamaica Montserrat
------+ ---- r - _cae!!!!! - - _ -- - -- . - - -.- - - . -- *!- -_.Capten- le -, ~~~~-... ..------L.1 ISeven L_fllljl b.8 Carbofuran I .Furadan -. ------.. . ------C--C -- Chlorotnaloriil F ,Bravo -- - - - . - - -. - . - .- .+- .. - -- _- ._- - W., ~9~~oxychlandK.A - _ . _ F . Cuproaan super
$F?nc'Y!e+! -- _ - - _ -_ _ _ -._ -cl-*- F ;~oade ,-vl!-iri"flemWa)-. -. - - -- :Karate
------A ------a -2.44 -- amine ------I Amine 56 L --- .e Deltamethfin - -Ï~s -3 L H&st R. b.e ------A A------* .-.:z!!!-A - - __ -+- I Diazinon -9.5 L Draxdl , A Kdthane ICI b
* ------* - --- . .!!iwt .!!iwt -- _------Ci--flH '~epkne -15L --ICI --e
------. ------*-- ---+--- : H Round Up . 17 L Monsanto - -- b.e Gvf%!e-_ - A - --A St. KittsINevis
!!!!Elu!!-.- H Gramoxone ICI -b Pendirnettiaiin ---- H - Heftmbx Cynamid .b Permettirin I Ambush ICI .b m-- Pemleum Oil .I VdcOü :O#o Chern. b Pirimiphowmthyi I Adellic Zeneca b d 1 MPW :Mycoeen Corp. b +-PoWum sab fatty aads Potassium satts d fatty aciâs - I Sefenin-soap Wncal Ltd. b
.- .- -- H Gesagard -Ctba ~'glei b-
Quizabfop-egi -- -- H Assure DuPont b
Tellukmtumn i Nomdt Shell Int b Trichlofon ----- 1 0iptem.x Zeneca b St. Lucia St. Lucia
Ekifos N Rugby 1OG 4880 kg FMC Corp. - b,f,g EndosuIfan RI 'Thiodan50WP FMC Corp b,g Eîhiofencarb I Cmton -1L f Ethoprophos 10% N MocaptOG 19440 kg .Mob~l Chem. b,f,g
FenamtphUs 10% N NemaairlOG Baw .bug Fenitrothon I Fenittotnion Cyanamid g Feciaxycah -- - I TONS Maag Agro Chem. _b.g FawypydMctilorWnfoJ -- I PT470 Rqulator Wh& Mice Res. -b,g . -Fenpropathnn I DanM 1t23 L ' Shell Int b,f,g Fenthion -- I &1ytetx4 MobayCllem b,g Fiprwiil l RegentSGR B flumthnn 6% T BaytocdEC6% 4 L f,Q Rumethnn 1% T -Baytlcolpouranl% 9 Flumthnn A .b ~tumethnn - A _Bayiicalpour an b
Fluz~bpPbutyl H , Frwibde 2000 08.9 L , ICI big Fosetyi alummum F Alieüe80WP RhoneP b,g St. Lucia
c --.- - - Hertw 5% ksrosan- oil
F ;Anvil 25 SC - -.-. ----iQ-- 4 --.I .~-"=f'~~bprey , --.* 8 F j Bordeaux mlxnim 5 f -- - kg------.
Oit coal buae~ote ----- I Wbum medium kown Salignum b*L Oryralin I _Suflan 22.7 L f
*-Oryzalin 75% --- H ,Surilan a7L , f Oxadiaton 50% H - Ronstar 50 WP Sandoz Ltd. b,g !??!!!Y-N Wata 18365.8 L . hf Oxydameion rnear/l - , t M~~ R 2% EC hQ -- Padobutrazol G BOM 8
Paraquat . H Gramoxotie 119884 L , f Paraquat H Gramaxoriasuper :ICI b.g Paraquat -- H Herbquat ICI ParaquaVdiuron ] H :Gramocil 7780 L ICI b.f.g Permetnnn 50% - 1 ArnbwhSO EC 31.1 L ICI b.f.g Pmthrin -1 BOP 65496 L Mcende b,f,g '~emietnnn I BioRydami Pan Bntanica b.g St. Lucia
---- &- Raamethrin RI 'Furfcide - ' b,g Remettirln -- I . Synthrin liqu# - Faidleid Cotp. ' b,g Rotenone I Liquld defris - b4L--+
--fdurmnzuron I -Nomoit 9 kg 129.5 L -Shell Int b,f,g Temphos 5% - IR .AbateSCG 556.0 kg b,f,g Tebamethnn 1 Smpr0f.m 9 Tetramethrinicypermethrin I . Raid ant & codvoach killer Johnson Wax bI9 Tetrernetnrin/D.phenothfin I . Raid Ry CL wasp kilkr Johnbon Wax - hg Tmmeifiririlpemettirln I Masteildl - Master Cham. b.g ThiabmdaaJe20% F Meftect20-S _MewCo LM. b.g
Thiaômdazoie 4228% -F , MercWy Ca LW. b,g miopnanale methyt F Sigma AOPchem i b,g miram . F Pornarsot 1 L -f Toicofos-mthyi .F Rizoiex50WP - 32 kg Sumtthomo Chem. b.f.g Tramiiuthnn 37.5% I ûaygon vapairirer .Q Transîiuthrin 0.03% --- 1 , Baygon musqudo ail Tnadimefon F BeylaionSWG 5 kg b.f.8 ~rldemorph -F Caüxin 7560 L BASF b.f.9 Tnforinelpemeainnlsulphur I Eio muRhse Pan Bntanica . b,g ? Tn(haxylene glywî)biborate F Redcedarlanglawmiodpras. 9 ? Tn(hsxyltme glycol) biôoraîe cypermethnn F . Ciear langlowwood pm. _8
Waffann - R Warîànn rat baiî Bell Lab. blL
Zinc form. whm spmt F Barkep brmmrad pen. .g Zinc km. whrte spmt F Barkep red esdar wood pras.
? RI Wyandotle b,g St. Vincent & the Grenadines
& - lmatalil - F -Fungtlkr --. Jan= phami.- . b lprodiorie - F Chipa RbP. .b lsazofos N .Miral -- Ciba Mg/ b -- Malalhion I Malathion b Ma-b F Maruate200 OF DuPont b- ~anebiü~iophanate-methyl F .Peltar P ..- ---- b MCPA potassium H .Agroxone b Metalaxyl mancorab -- F Ridomil MZ72 Ciba Gengy b MoroJodlum acid (MSMA) H .Dacorrate . Fermenta ASC -b
Paraquat -- H Hefbiquat ICI - b- -Permethrin .I ,Ambwh ICI . tJ Permethrin RI Torpedo . ICI Americans b Petroiam diJtilhte . 1 Sunspray Sulér lnc b Plrimicarb I . Pirimor ICI b ICI P~*miphOSgthylOSgthyl--LL- I Primidd -b - Pirimiphw-methyl -- - I Actellic ICI b Potassium fatty aad salts I M-pede Mycogen Cdrp b H Gesagard b --Propiconarok F Tilt Ciba Geigy b St. Vincent & the Grenadines -- - 6- - 6. thuringienais - -.-AI Agraa50WP _CibaGei C- 6. thuriqiensis ------l 'Dipei Abbotl C B. thuringiensis - l Dipela Abbon c A -- ! +B. thuringiensis I DiwWP Abbot! c B. thurlnglensk I Javalin WG Sand02 c B. thurlnglensls I MVP Mycoeen - c B. thuringiensis I ThuriadeHP Sandoz .c -i------I : Camco iMect mer Cambridge- c Rendiocarb l Ficam W : Cambridge c BendiocarWpynthrins/pip.b -- I . fÏm plus Agrevo Env c F Benlate50DF . DuPont c F :Banamyl509bWP .Mamian c -%%&--- . I .TaMar 100EC FMC .c Bioallatnrin I Ooubk rabbit mabqutto coi1 - _ c Bioallathfinlpematnfinipip.b - 1 1 :~oaper FIK MeEride _c BioaUethrinlpip.buWde I .Eaygon genitis L vaparuer -. c Bonc aad .l .SMCP borlad mach control !MC-- c BIodifacoum R .iüarat pefkts .ICI c Bfadifacoum .R .merat wax II- - ICI c Bromacil .H .wrx _ DuPont c BroWVdiuron H KrovarlOF DuPont c Brumadiolorie R Musal AgrEvo c Bmm~xynil H Budril Rhone P. c
BromoxyniUMCPA H BuctrilM Rhane P. , c Trin idad
- ZrcD _- -- -- H Amine 800 (2.4-0) Rharicl P. c 2.4-0 amine H Amine (2.4-0) 8 Ib Maman c 2.4-0 amine H AminexCS72 Insaides Int c 2,CDldimethyiamineldietn H AanaagrlhEdepkoadleaf PB1 Gordon Corp c Dalapon LH Dabpm 85% WP -Maman c OCPA H -DWWWtS :Fernianta ASC Corp. c Deet I C~rcmam~reeri Morllex C --Deet I . Cutler cntam original hbrfiex c Trinidad
------y acWZ,4-O H 'Ssndor '~icambay ------, r~anvel4S ------___-'c -Didikromropiorianilide H :Propanil 360 GR CE El Carnien --c DMknrod uthrin - --- I -0korpray Pl= C 'Di6&memiin------I *SW~FIK c --A Dml A . Ke)tnan8 35 WP -Rohm 8 Hass - c ------t-----C- Diafol A KelthaneMF .Rhom & Hass c
-Farittiion I BayteXX)EC C Fentnion l ~WP40 sayar Fenvakrate 1 üelmarir - Sheil c Fenoxaproppeaiyl H Furorel Hoechst c Ferioxaprom H Excel super 120 HoacnJt c
Fiprwiil -- IA Rqent Rhone P. . c Fîocournafen R Sm Shelt c !!!E!3?P''"Y' H Fusilade 2000 ,ICI .c F~nnetanatehydrochM Ai OiCarzol AQ&M , C Fomîhion I Anthio 23 Sandoz c F0setyl-A -- F Aillm Rhona P. c
~lufosinatkammonium- -@H -ta Hoedist c Gm -- H Atila Maman c Glyphosate H Pilaroundo Pilarquim Corp c Gfypbsate H Roundup Monsanto c Trinidad
Merlin -- 'RhoneP. c - - -t--t --
- - MeMnphos LA PlKIsdrin Shall Chem c - --CI-c C mtalawmb - - .- - -- - F .Rldomil MZ 72 WP -Pb cm----- % SMCP siug & snaii ban SMC +-M~~ldShydS ------_ - _.-- - -. --_---_( 1 AmldorCSBO Insecticides Inl c
Qcadiargyl Rait 40 SC Rhone P. -. .c Oxadlaurn - H . Ronstar ZSEC .Rhone P. 'C Oxamyl _INA -Vydate L DuPont c
Paraquat -H Grama#wia super ICI c Paraquat H Herbiquat24% Maman c Paraquat H . Pilamne Ptlarquin COQ c Paraquat - H SMCP Millquat 36% SMC c Paraquat - H - SMCP Millquat harbiQds SMC c Paraquaüdiquat _H _Grarocii ICI c PCNB __ F .Eartndde 75% WP Maman c P~imethalin IH Herbadox330E Cyanamid .c Pmthm f Baots insact rapeliant Mitchell c Trinidad
-- --- d .- .- Tallow fatty aad amine ethaxylate -J :FrQate Bbtech c Tebuthluron -H :Combme5WSC Mamn _c +- Teiiubenruron I .Nomdt Snell .c Temaphos 1 -Abab Cprnid - c Temephos -- -1 -Tempo -SanexAgm C Terbutryn -H Ingran 5W FW .Ctôa Geigy c TetlalV rmidictikrvos I Rop insadlcids Mc Brlde -C + Tetfam~niVd~kMwlP.~ I DETAsml Canbôean MC . c Taeamethnnicyphenathnn 11 %haerwoi :Sumttorno - c Tetramethrinlcyphenothnn I Miqhty lullsr aerosol Omni ProducAs c Tetralelle/cyphenotnrin I Pmloxaaml Omnr Products c
TatramethrinldkhkrviJlpip.b LA , Regment aeml Canôôean A&C c ~hmqciarn Il 'EmectS Sandoz c Thiodlcarb IM . La~n375 Rhoiie P. c
Thiophanate methyi F Cercobin tiquM Nippon , c Toicktosnietnyi -- F RitoiexSûWP Sumrtomo C TiSazophas - IAN Hostarnion 25 ULV Hoedist c -Tnazophos IAN Hostalhion 40 EC Hoecf~st c Tddecerbl-yi acetate . H Checkmate TPW Corisep lnc. c Tnfonne --- - F Saprol Shell c
Vamidothion I Kitval Rhone P. c
Zinc acloateipermathrin I Sdignurnaioriess Pmtim Solignum c Zinc mnatatdpsmieainn _ I Sdignwn cut end Pmtim Solignurn c Zfnc versaSaWpermetfinn -- -1 Soiignum unnienal Pmtim Solignum c Appendix 6: List of Active lngredients Found in the Caribbean
This appendix consists of a consolidated list of active ingredients, organised alphabetically, used by the following Caribbean islands in 1995-1 996: Antigua and Barbuda Dominica Grenada Jamaica Montserrat St. KitWNevis St. Lucia St. Vincent and the Grenadines Trinidad and Tobago
Note: The list of active ingredients, as follows, is based on the information found in Appendix 1. Abamect'n Acephate Acetamide Aclonifen Alachlor Albendaxole Aldicarb Alkylary lsulfonate N-alkyl dimethyl benzyl NH4CI Alkynapthalene mixture Alkyl phenol ethoxylate Allethrin D-allethrin Aluminum phosphide Ameiryn Amitraz Ampitrin Asulam Atrazine kadirachtin Azamethiphos Azocyclotin
B. thniingiensis Bendiocarb Benefluthrin Benomyl Bensulide Bifenthrin Bioallethnn Bioresmethrin Boric acid Brodifawum Bromacil Bromadiolone Bromoxynil Brornuconazole Bu profeu'n Butachlor Butoxycarboxin Butoxypolypropylene N-butyl acid
Cadusafos Calcium carbonate Captafol Captan Carbaryl Carbendazim Carbofuran Carbon bisulphide Carbasulfan Cartap hydrochloride Chinomethionat Chlorbromuron Chlordane technical Chlorfenvinphos Chlorimuron ethyl Chlorocinone C hlorophacinone 2(pchlorophenyl) phenyl-acetyl Chloropicn'n Chlorothalonil Chlorpyrifos Chlofthal-dirnethyl Cholecalciferol Coal tar creosote Copper hydroxide Copper naphthenate Copper oxychloride Copper salts Copper sulfate Coumaphos Cournatetralyl Creosote Cupric hydroxide Cfluthrin Cyhalothrin (lambda) Cypermethrin Cyphenothrin Cyromazine
2,4-D amine 2,4-0 dicamba Dalapon Dazomet DCPA DDVP Deet DeltamethRn Demeton-s-methyl sulfoxide Diafenthiuron Diazinon Dicamba Dicartaximide Dichloflaunid Dichloropropionanilide Dichlorovinyl D methyl phosphate Dichlorvos Dicofol Oieldrin N,Ndiethyl metatoluamide Difenacoum (or flocoumafen) Dimetharnetryn Dimethoate Dinocap Diphacinone Diquat Disobutylnaphtalin no sulfonate Disodium octoborate Disodium tetrahydrate octaborate Disulfoton Diuron Dodecachlofine Dursban
Ebufos EndosuIfan Endox Epichloryhdnn Ergocalciferol Esbiothnne Ethephon Ethiofencarb Ethoprophos Ethylene dibramide Etofenprox Etridiatute
Fenamiphos Fenbutatin oxide Fenfluthrin Fenitrothion Fenobucarb Fenoxaprop-p-ethyt Fenoxycarb Fenoxypyrifos Fenpropathrin Fenthion Fenval erate Fipronil Flocoumafen Fluazifop Fluazifop butyl Flumethrin Fluoroacetamide 1081 tech Flusilazole Folpet Formetanate hydrochloride Formothion Fosetyl-alurninum Fumaric ester Furadan
Gibberellins Glufosinate-ammonium Glyphosate
Herbs 5% kerosene Hexaconazole Hexazinone Hydrarnethylnon Hydrated CuS04, CaOH Hydroprene
I BA Irnazalil Imazapyr lrnidacloprid 1,3-indandione lodine Indole-3-butydc acid loxynil Iprodione lsazofos lsoprocarb lsoxafiutole
Kasugamycin
Levanizole buramidine hydrochloride Lindane (ai=gamma HCH) Linuron Lufenuron
Malathion Mancozeb Maneb MCPA potassium Metalaxyl Metaldehyde Metam-sodium Methamidophos Methiocarb Methomyl Methoprene Methyl bromide 2(1-methylethoxy)-phenyl methyl carbarnate Methylethyl benzoate Methyl thiophanate maneb Metiram-cornplex Metolachlor Metnbuzin metsu Ifwon-methyl Mevinphos Molinate Monocrotophos MSMA
Naied Napthenic acid Neopynamin N-octyl bicycloheptene N-octyl bicycloheptene dicarboximide (ENT) N-octylcycle leptene N-octylcycloheptene D-carboximide
2-octyldodeconol Oil mal tar creosote Organic polycupric Oryzalin Oxadiargyl Oxadiazon Oxamyl Oxydemeton methyl Oxyfiuorfen
Paclobutrazol Paraquat Paraquat dichloride PB0 technical PCNB Pendimethalin Pentachlorophenol Pennethrin Petroleum oils Phenol methylcarbamate Phenothrin 0-phenothrin Phenthoate Phenyl methyl carbarnate Phosphamidon Phosphorothiotes Phoxim N-phthalimide scoordimethyl phosphate Piperonyl butoxide 1.6% Pirimicarb Pirimiphos-ethyl Pirimiphos-methyl Polyglycok ethers Polyvinylalcohol Potassium salts of fatty acids PP321 Prallethrin Pretilachtor Profenofos Prometryn Proparnocarb hydrochloride Propanil Propetamphos Propiconazole Propoxur Pthalthrin Pybuhrin Pynamin forte Pyrethrin Pyrethnims Pyridaphenthion
Quinalphos Quinclorac Quizalofop p-ethyl
Resmethrin Rotenone
Sethoxydim Silica (ground) Silicon dioxide Sirnazine Sodium laure1 sulfate Sodium rnethyl dithiocarbamate (or metam-sodium) Sulfometuron-methyl75% Sulfonic acid
Tallow amine ethoxylate Tebuthiuron Tefiubenzuron Temephos Terbuthylazine Terbutryn Tetramethrin Tetrapropylene benzoyl Thiabendazole Thiocyclam 1% thiode-pphenylene phosporothoid temephos Thiodicarb Thiophanatemethyl Thirarn Tolclofos-methy1 Transfluthrin Triadimefon Triazophos Trichlorfon Tridecen-1-y1 acetate Tridemorph Trifuralin Trifon'ne Vamidothion
Warfarin
Zinc fom. white spirit Zinc octoatdperrnethrin Zinc phosphide tech Zinc versatateipemethrin Appendix 7 Concentrations (ppb) of pesticides and PCBs in water around St. Lucia (adapted from Shim 1985 and Ramsammy U1985 in CARDllUWllUNESCO 1986). Site Heptachloi 1 Lindane pp9DDT Arochlor Endrin Atdrin Castries 6.5 7 61.2 250 13.2 6.9 Harbour Vigie Choc 8.2 10.8 29.2 113 - - Cas Bas - 3.5 31.2 60.3 - - en , Note: - means no data Appendix 8 Pesticide concentrations (ugkg dry matter) in sediment samples in Jamaica (adapted from Centre for Nuclear Sciences 1994). Pesticide Low value High Value # sites above (& location) (6, location) detection limita (24 total) 11 chlorpyrifos 1 0.069 (Cabarita River) 1 135.2 (Rio Minho: Alley) 1 10 ethoprophos 1 below detection lirnits 1 1.38 (Spanish River) 1 11 II diazinon 0.774 (Rio Minho: May (Rio Minho: Alley)12 0.913 (Rio Minho: 1 108.1 (Yallahs River) endosulfan I Chapelton) I l5 1 15.29 (Hope River) 1 49.35 (Cabarita River) 5
-- - endrin 1 bebw deteciion limits 1 0.006 (Martha Brae) 1 Appendix 9
Pesticide concentrations (ppb) in surface water samples in Jamaica (adapted rom Centre for Nuclear Sciences 1994). Pesticide Low value High Value # sites above (& location) (& location) detection limits (22
chlorpyrifos 0.001 (Spanish River) 0,022 (Cabarita River) 2
alpha 0.01 1 (Rio Cobre: 0,354 (Rio Minho: endosulfan Linstead) I Chapelton) beta 0.022 (Rio Cobre: 0.306 (Buff Bay River) 12 endosulfan Linstead) endosulfan 1 0.003 (Morant River) 1 0.244 (Crum Ewing 13 sulphate 1 1 Bridge) 1 Appendix 10 Pesticide concentration (ppb) in groundwater samples in Jamaica (adapted from
Pesticide Low value (& High Value (& location) # sites above location) detection limits (22 totai) chlorpyrifos below detecüon limits 0.001 (Springfield 2) 1 ethoprophos 1 0.02 (8ulstrode) 1 0.03 (Tulloch Spring) 1 2 profenofos ( below detedion limits 1 0.002 (Cavaliers) 1 alpha 0.01 (Roaring River 0.42 (Bellefield endosulfan Bluehole) 1 Hampden) beta 0.03 (Roaring River 1 0.17 (Tulloch Spring) endosulfan Bluehole) /* -- . I - - -- - endosulfan 0.02 (Roaring River 0.38 (Catherine Mnt 2) 6 sulphate Bluehole) Appendix 11
Concentrations (in ppb) of alpha-, beta-endosulfan and endosulfan sulfate in waters and sediment of several Jamaican Rivers (adapted from Willams and Chow 1993) Hope River 1 Salt River
alpha in water
11 beta in water 11 beta in sediment II sulfate in water 11 sulfate I - 0.45 k0.03 - 11 in sedirnent 1 NOTE: i stand:3rd error of the means given - no data * discrepancy in the data provided in source. Chart value was 0.95 while value in text was said to be 0.79 ppb. Appendix 12 Mean concentration of organochlorine residues in water and sediment in the iope River wa ershed, Jamaica 1989-1 991 (adapted frc n Mansingh et al. 1997 Insecticide Water (ppb): Sediment (ppb): [year] mean concn. Wear] mean concn.
alpha endosulfan [1989] 0.313 [1990] 2.53 [1991] 1.60 beta endosulfan [1989] 0.091 [1990] 15.25 [1991] 2.02 endosulfan sulfate [1989] 0.713 [ 1990) (1991 1 0.097 dieldrin
diazinon
Mammee River alpha endosulfan [A9891 0.035 [1990] 7.30 [1991] 2.72 beta endosulfan [A9891 0.034 [1990] 3.27 [1991] 1.QI endosulfan sulfate [1989] 0.323 [1990] [Iggl] diazinon
dieldrin
Hoc; Hole River alpha endosulfan (1 9891 0.1 67 ['i 9901 0.528 [l991] 0.216 beta endosulfan [1989] 0.654 [1990] 10.2 [1991] 0.538 River/ Insecticide Water (ppb): Sediment (ppb): Station Wear] mean concn. Wear] mean concn. endosclfan sulfate [1989] 12.5 [A9891 0.508 [1990] (19901 [1991] 0,722 (19911 1.14 dieldrin [1Q89]0.017 119891 1.51 [1990] [19901 3.9 1 [1991] 15.7 [lQ91] 2.33 diazinon (19891 [1989] 0.182 [1990] (19901 [1991] 89.78 (19911 1.82 Salt River alpha endosutfan [1989] 0.028 [1989] 2.18 [1990] 0.371 [1990] 238 (19911 0.475 [1991] 0.430 beta endosulfan [1989] [1989 J [1990] 0.208 [1990J [1991] 0.228 [1991] 235 endosulfan sulfate [1989] 8.49 [1989] 0.678 (19901 [f 9901 [1991] 0.464 [l991] 0.385 dieldrin [1989] 0.01 3 [1989] 1.O1 [1990] [1990] 0.005 [1991] (1991 J diazinon Cl9891 [A9891 [1990] (19901 , [1991] 4.01 . 11991] 10.07 Note: where there are blanks, the residues were not detected. Appendix 13
Summary of data on insecticide residues in the water and sediment in Kingston Harbour July-~ugust1992 (adapted from Mansingh and Wilson 1995) Insecticide Water (ugA): Sediment (nglg): mean concn. (Frequency) _ mean concn. (Frequency) alpha endosutfan 2.18 (5) 0.52 (2) II beta endosulfan 17.86 (2) 10.38 (3) 11 endosulfan sulfate 1 0.0003 (1) 10 (0)
II dieldrin Il.88 (2) 1 0.001 (1)
diazinon 1 0.05 (2) 1 0.0046 (2) Appendix 14
Residues (ppb) of pesticides by location and commodity in Jamaica, 1985 :adapted from Mansingh 1987) Location & Endosulfan Dieldrin commodity Soil from various parishes 6.5-400 92-1 224 Rio Cobre water 1 0.2 1 0.2 Rio Cobre sediment 1 9.5 1 0.86.2 Black River water 1 0.33 1 0.37 Driver's River water 1 0.2 1 0.6 Yallahs River water (Aug) 1 8-33 1 35623 Yallahs River water (Sept) 1 O 1 0-52 Salt River water 1 6.6 1 2.2 Hunts Bay (sea) 1 0.4 1 - Hellshire (sea) 1 0.3 1 0.05 Cucumber 1 31 1118
Green pepper 1 26 1 89 Egg plant
Onion 1 47 1 230 Shrimp 1 1.4 1 24 Scale hemna I 1 - Appendix 15 Average atrazine concentrations (uqiL) found in the Bell and Hampton iatchments from December 1988 6 june 1991 (adapted from chilton 1991). Catchment and Average Atnzine Concn Date of sampling Site (uglL) Bell Catchment Applewhaites 0.35 Dec 1988-June 1991 Codrington 0.4 1 June 1989-June 1991 Newmarket 0.86 June 1989-June 1991 Hampton Catchment Hampton 1.15 Dec 1989-June 1991 Edgecumbe 2.12 Dec 1989-June 1991 Browmanston 0.45 Aug 1990-June 1991 Brighton 0.62 Aug 1990-June 1991 Sweet Vale 0.32 Aug 1990-June 1991 Appendix 16
Pesticide residues in aquatic species frorn the Caroni Swamp (adapted from Deonarine 1980 in Esack 1994) "I Organisrn Chlorinated hvdrocarbon Wet weifiht (ppb) Arius sp. arochlor 1254 59.5 (catfish) pp'DDT 0.8 dieldrin 2.0 r - - Luÿanus gnseus arochlor 1254 127.20 (redfis h) pp'DDT 1.3 pp'DDE 0.3 -dieldrin 0.5 Mytella guayanensis arochlor 1254 (mussel) pp'DDT op'DDD op'DDE dieldrin Aratus misonii arochlor 1254 II (mangrove crab) dieldrin Tilapia mossambica arochlor 1254 (tilapia) pp'DDT dieldrin Appendix 17
Concentration of organochlorines (ppb wet weight) in Mussel (Mytella guyanennsis) from the Caroni Swamp (adapted from Sampath 1982 in Esack 1994) Pesticide From mouth of Cipriani Channel Mouth of Blue Caroni River River heptachlor 14.53 5.58 5.21 epoxide
dieldrin 1 18.8
arochlor 1 21.25 pp'DDT 1 104.86 Jote: ND means not detected Appendix 18
>esticide residue levels in fish frorn the Caroni River Basin (adapted from 3owawa 1976 in Esack 19941 Date Fish species Residues ppm March 1973 T. mossambica 0.001 DDT (tilapia) 0.001 dieldrin 0.002 DDE Centropomus sp. 0.002 dieldrin (brochet) January 1974 1. mossambica 0.002 DDE (tilapia) 0.002 DDT 0.009 lindane 0.001 dieldrin 0.006 DDT 0.003 dield rin Appendix 19
Concentration (ppb) of pesticides and PCBs in fish and molluscs for St. Lucia ladapted from Rarnsammy et alL1985 in CARDIIUWMUNESCO 1986) Site Organism Compound Concentration Castries Mugi/ cumma Chlordane 0.058 Harbour (mullet) Arochlor 1254 0.030 pp'DDD 0.006 pp'DDE 0.006 dield rin 0.005 aldrin 0.001 Castries Bmchidonfes Arochlor 1254 0.034 Harbour exustus (mussel) pp'DDE O.Ot O L Castries Crassostrea C hlordane 0.760 Harbour hizophorae Arochlor 1254 0.036 (O y ste r) dieldrin 0.015 pp'DDE 0.164 Appendix 20
Concentrations (nglg dry weight) of PCBs and organochlorine pesticide residue rvels in St. Lucia marifle biota (adapted from ~inghand ~ard1992) Sample 1 aldrin 1 amchlot 1 chlordane 1 disldrin 1 lindane 1 pp' DDO pp' DDE
I. altus lipid - 8.01 67.05 1.25 5.96 muscle - 1.O6 8.9 0.13 0.79 C. rtiizophorae lipid muscle 2.99 13.35 0.31 1.30 - 8. exustus tipid - 1.81 musde - 0.15 ote: ND means not detected, - means not detemined. Appendix 21
Organochlorine residues detected in fish and oyster collected from Kingston Harbour, Jamaica from July to August 1992 (adapted from Mansingh and Wilson
Species . Sampling Location Residues (nglg) Benthic Fish: Archosargus rhomboid8lis station 35 BOL Sp hoemides testidineus station 35 BOL station 65 0.31 diazinon Trinectes inscnptus station 59 BOL Monocanthus setifer station 59 BOL Pelagic Fish: Opisthonema oglinum 1 station 65 Oyster: lsognomon atatus station 26 July BOL August 0.04 diazinon 0.25 alpha endosulfan station 36 2.24 aldrin July 0.27 alpha endosulfan IDL = below detection limits Appendix 22
Sumrnary of residues found in food produce from Barbados between 1972 to 1975 (adapted from Alleyne 1985). Commodity DDT DO€ Dialdrin Endfin Carôaryl Fanitro- Other (# samples) Mion beets (8) 8(2) - 2 2(2) - - - cabbage (8) 1 - 2 1(1) - - - ~a~otS(8) 7(1) - 2 - - - - cauliff ower (1) 1 ------cucumbers (6) 2 1 3(3) - - - egg plant (1 ) - - - .. - - - okras (2) 1 1 - 1 1(1) - onions (7) 6 3 - - - - peanuts (1) 1 - - - - -
PePpeS (1) - - - * - - - I tomatoes (5) 1 - 1 - - -
trials (48) 28(3) 3 9 6(6) 1 1 O 4ote: The results are presented as occurrence of pesticide residues. A - (dash) means no data. The figures in brackets show the number of samples in which the residue level was equal to or greater than the FAONVHO suggested tolerance levels. Appendix 23
Concentration of pesticide residues detected in "market basketnsamples from Trinidad between 1971 2 Concn Range in pprn Crops tested (# samples tssted)
cabbage, cauliflower, eggplant, orange juice, Iettuce, patchoi, spinach, sweet pepper, tomato cabbage, caulifiower, christophene cucumber, eggplant, orange juice, lettuce, patchoi, spinach, sweet pepper, tomato DDT cabbage, cauliflower, eggplant, patchoi, spinach, sweet paper, tomato 1 chlorpyrifos cauliflower, patchoi, spinach 11 endosulfan cabbage, patchoi heptach lor cabbage, cauliflower, eggplant, II sweet pepper, tomato grapefruit juice, orange juice, patcho tomato trace (NA) patchoi, spinach toxaphene cabbage, cauliflower, eggplant, okra II sweet pepper cabbage, cucumber, sweet pepper, sweet potato, tomato
II methyi parathion 1.2-1.6 (NA) cauliflower trace (7) patchoi II parathion patchoi cauliflower, patchoi, tomato cabbage, cauliflower, christophene, cucumber, eggplant, patchoi, sweet pepper, sweet pobto, tomato Appendix 23 Continued Pesticide Concn Range in ppm Crops tested (# 8amplea tssted)
arsenic cpd 1 0.014.03 (19) 1 cabbage, patchoi NA= not available Appendix 24
Number of pesticide poisoning cases reported in Barbados (1980-1 985) ladapted from Alleyne 1986). Date Chlorinated 1 Orqanophoophate8 & 1 Othw pesticides 1 Total
1980 none 1 2 undetermined 1 none 12 L 1981 4 accident 8 2 suicide 2 undetermined 2 deaths L 1982 15 accident 8 suicide .. . I 1983 1 undetemined 1 accident 17 3 suicide 12 undetermined 1984 1 suicide 1 undetermined 17 accident 27 5 suicide 3 undetemined 1985 June none 2 suicide 3 accident 7 2 suicide Appendix 25
Presence of persistent pesticide residues in Jamaica and Trinidad populations. iadapted from Reid 1987)
Sample Source Number of Kpos %POO Kpos Sampler DDT Lindane Dieldrin Jamaica 84 98 1981 (general population) Trinidad 51 1981-82 (general population) Trinidad
(occupational
Note: Results shown as percent positive samples Bibliography
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