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27 | the Fluidity of Rock Art 27 | The fluidity of rock art Johan Ling, Göteborgs universitet Introduction. The following article focuses on terrain, I will argue for the trend that many rock problems concerning reconstructions of pre- carvings have been placed on or near the contem- historic landscapes. Central for this discussion porary shore during the Bronze Age. is how the knowledge about the process of land In order to establish this fact further, ana- uplift over the years both caused limitations and logies are being made with rock art areas in prejudices, acceptance and possibilities on the in- western Norway, where the land up lift has not terpretations of the rock art in Bohuslän. There been so severe and where the rock art is made in have been more or less proper geological studies accordance with the south Scandinavian tradi- on this subject since 1950 which then have been tion. In the following I will also advocate for an revised and completed through the years (Fries alternative, (third) model for the interpretation 1951; Persson 1973; Miller & Robertsson 1988; of rock art, that by no means stands in opposition Svedhage 1998; Påsse 2001, 2003). In spite of to the traditional ones, but whose purpose and this accumulation of knowledge, rock-art research intention is more to juxtapose these perspectives has not been able to upgrade, compare, and reflect in a dialectic manner (fig. 8). It is here suggested these results in relation to the prehistoric remains that the rock art in the investigated area might be in the landscape (Nordbladh 1980; Bertilsson traces of different forms of “ambivalent” seasonal 1987; Bradley 2000; Winter 2002; Fredell 2003). interactions, negotiations and interpretations that It seems as if rock art research in Bohuslän is stuck took place in “a third space” maritime port or in a “terrestrial” tradition or “paradigm”, which passage during the Bronze Age. has limited, distorted and separated a priori and It is tempting to see the high frequency of symbiotic relationship between the prehistoric rock art in these areas as a materialised reflec- man and the sea in Bohuslän. tion of friction and stress caused by contacts and In opposition to this traditional terrestial pa- meetings between a domestic and a non-domestic radigm, I strive to re-emphasize the importance of public with different concepts regarding time and the presence of the sea in the rock art areas during space. However, before entering on these case the prehistoric times in Bohuslän. On the basis studies, I intend to give a description of the histo- of the latest and so far most extensive shoreline rical, theoretical and methodological constraints study ever made on northern Bohuslän, and new that have traditionally governed and even today measurement of rock art panels and surrounding govern rock art research in Bohuslän. Ling 435 05-01-16, 13.08 JOHAN LING | 436 The terrestrial paradigm. In order to get a wider This perspective didn’t meet any direct resistance understanding of why rock art research in Bohus- among the contemporary recognized Antiquari- län traditionally either neglected or only briefly ans, e.g. Oscar Montelius and Emil Ekhoff, who discussed the correlation between the placing of rather encouraged this viewpoint in accordance the rock carvings and the Bronze Age shore, we to the import and interactions of bronzes. By this have to turn to some of the earliest attempts. time a consensus had also been reached within the The first elaborate and extensive thesis concern- antiquarian discourse that the rock art primarily ing the rock art in Bohuslän was in fact in favour was produced during the Bronze Age (Montelius of this idea, promoted by the early antiquarian 1874: 151, 159; Ekhoff 1880). George Brunius. Brunius, born and brought up The later Oscar Almgren did not share this in Tanum, was among the first who observed that earlier maritime interpretation of the rock art pre- many rock art panels were situated at the very historic location and function in the landscape same topographical height and that many were of Bohuslän. Almgren was strongly influenced by heavily affected by corrosion (Brunius 1839: 79, the contemporary settlement centred archaeolo- 1868: 151). gical research, and its methods and evolutionistic tendencies, partly inspired by Gustaf Kossinna “Att en och annan hällristning finnes högt öf- and his “Siedlungs Archaeologie”, primarily en- ver hafsytan kan ingalunda upphäfva vigten forced by Knut Stjerna seminars in the beginning av det förhållande, att ingen enda förmärkes of the twentieth century at Uppsala university. på hafvets strandklippor. Det är alltså klart, Inspired by the means and forms of this institu- att hällristningarne, som med få undantag tion Almgren started his extensive inventory and blifvit anbragta å kustklipporna, liksom gan- documentation of rock art in the Tanum area ska många namnchiffer, bomärken och årtal in Bohuslän (see Almgren 1912; Baudou 1997: blifvit sednare tider inhuggna i Bohuslänska 124-129). However, the strongest impression on skärgården, måste efter en lång följd af sekler Almgren was probably the power of the contem- fått närvarande höjd öfver hafsytan. Här porary landscape. By the carvings location in the får vittringen jemväl åberopas, hvarigenom landscape, on the outermost edges of the cliffs vidsträckta ristningar blifvit till en sådan yt- that surrounded the clayey lowlands, Almgren terlighet förstörda, att ej sällan blotta botten made his major conclusion; the rock art reflected af breda linier är öfrig, hvilket bevisar, att de an agricultural population’s religious believes and fordom haft en betydlig fördjupning” (Bru- rituals that were proceeded and projected into nius 1868: 151). the rocks by the arable land, away from the sea, in the vicinity of the settlements (Almgren 1912, On basis of these observations and by ana- 1927, fig. 1). logies with rock carvings situated by lakes and rivers in Scandinavia and North America, Brunius “Det är i närheten af sina bostäder, som concluded that many rock carvings may originally bronsålderfolket velat se dessa bergstaflor, ej have been carved on rocks at the water’s edge. vid stränderna af de havsvikar, som de på sina Ling 436 05-01-16, 13.08 437 | THE FLUIDITY OF ROCK ART skepp beforo, huru mycket än deras tankar just in general these assumptions have been verified sysslade med just den sidan af livet” (Almgren by studies during the twenty century (Almgren 1912 : 562). 1927; Selinge 1966; Nordbladh 1980; Bertilsson 1987; Vogt 1998; Hygen & Bengtsson 2000; Almgren’s theories concerning ritual behavi- Bradley 2000; Winter 2002; Fredell 2003). Even our, settlement, landscape, utilisation, in the rock if Almgren’s religious diffusionistic perspective art areas during the Bronze Age, was further deve- was criticized during the mid- and later parts of loped by circular argumentation between him and the twenty century, his main theories concerning the other participants in Stjerna’s archaeological rock art location and functions in the landscape settlement seminars (e.g. Ekholm 1921). These still remained uncontradicted (ibid.). early inductions and assumptions regarding the In the 1980´s restrictive and rhetoric modifi- rock art in function in the landscape formed to- cations of the “terrestrial paradigm" were made gether the terrestrial paradigm cornerstones, and which resulted in that Almgren’s agrarian har- Figure 1. Map over the Tanum area in Bohuslän showing the distrubution of rock carvings (red dot) and cairns (black dot) (after Almgren 1927: 197, Fig 128). Ling 437 05-01-16, 13.08 JOHAN LING | 438 mony was transformed into pastoral competition, e.g. Hallbäck 1944: 54). divine communication into social and structural In his often quoted dissertation of 1987, Ulf communication (Nordbladh 1980: 44-45). Bertilsson is in favour of Hallbäck´s analysis. He consequently addressed criticism to Göran Buren- “The cairns lie on hilltops partly inside the hult (1980) and others who advocate that many petroglyph area, partly out on the coast. Here rock carvings might have been placed near the one can distinguish a symbolic division of the contemporary coast or at the water’s edge during landscape by the topography, with graves on the Bronze Age. However, considering the maps the heights, far from presumed habitation and which Bertilsson published in his dissertation, presumed agriculture and cattle farming, and and his assumption concerning the shoreline level then the petroglyphs lying nearer at hand. during the Bronze Age, it is clear that many sites This also implies that graves are kept apart with carvings in Tanum, Kville, etc., are, in fact, from the actual area of habitation”. situated on the Bronze Age shore. Consequently, these low situation carvings and the other carvings The significance of the sea and its relation to on higher ground in the vicinity of these plains the rock art was still being regarded as a margi- must then have been deliberately placed adjacent nal, passive ahistoric element, that primarily was to the sea during the entire Bronze Age. Despite used as a backdrop for death and utilisation by this Bertilsson concluded his analysis with the the Bronze Age groups. Further communicative following statement: functions as well as practical as cosmological were not encountered for (Nordbladh 1980; Bertilsson “The analysis of the general pattern of distri- 1987). Strangely enough, many of these earlier bution in relation to levels has clearly demon- attempts relayed on a shoreline assumption made strated that there exists no direct correlation primarily by ocular estimation by the geologist between rock carvings and the Bronze Age Erik Ljungner, back in 1939 (Ljungner 1939). sea shore-line. Instead, it is obvious that, the By this time there had been more proper studies distribution is correlated to the plain areas on the subject in Bohuslän, but these were appa- with open and arable land, which must have rently ignored (Fries 1951; Persson 1973; Miller constituted the basis for subsistence economy” & Robertsson 1988).
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