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Bioenergy Options Multidisciplinary Participatory Method for Assessing Bioenergy Options for Rural Villages in Tanzania

Kauzeni, A.S., Masao, H.P., Sawe, E.N., Shechambo, F.C. Institute of Resource Assessment, University of-JDar Es'Salaam

Ellegard; A. Stockholm Environment Institute

Energy, Environment and Development Series - No. 44

Published by Stockholm Environment Institute ISBN: 91 88714 594 1998 ISSN: 1400-4348 DISCLAIMER

Portions of this document may be illegible in electronic image products. Images are produced from the best available original document. Bioenergy Options Multidisciplinary Participatory Method for Assessing Bioenergy Options for Rural Villages in Tanzania

Kauzeni, A.S., Masao, H.P., Sawe, E.N., Shechambo, F.C. Institute of Resource Assessment, University of Dar Es Salaam

Ellegard, A. Stockholm Environment Institute Stockholm Environment Institute Box 2142 S-103 14 Stockholm Sweden Tel: +46 8 412 14 00 Fax: +46 8 723 03 48 E-mail: [email protected] WWW: http://www.sei.se/

Responsible Editor: Karin Hultcrantz Copy and Layout: Karin Hultcrantz Stockholm Environment Institute

© Copyright 1998 Stockholm Environment Institute. No part of this report may be reproduced in any form by photostat, microfilm, or any other means without written permission from the publisher.

ISBN: 91 88714 59 4 ISSN: 1400-4348 TABLE OF CONTENTS EXECUTIVE SUMMARY...... vi 1 INTRODUCTION...... 1 l. l Project Background ...... l 1.2 Bioenergy Status in Tanzania ...... 1 1.3 Bioenergy Options ...... 4 1.4 Problem Statement ...... 5 1.5 JUSTIFICATION FOR THE STUDY...... 7 1.6 Objectives and Focus of the Study ...... 8 1.7 Scope and Limitations of the Study ...... 9 2 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY...... 11 2.1 R eview of Methods ...... 11 2.2 Developing a Methodology ...... 13 2.2.1 Methodology Justification and Rationale...... 13 2.2.2 Applicability of MUPARMIBO...... 14 2.3 Description of the applied methodology ...... 15 2.3.1 Preparation for Field Work and Logistics...... 16 2.3.2 PRA Activities in the Study Villages...... 17 2.4 Application of Different Techniques to Gather Data and Information on the Study V illages ...... 17 2.4.1 Preparation of Village Map...... 17 2.4.2 Presentation of Village History and Significant Events...... 18 2.4.3 Identification of Significant Changes and Trends...... 18 2.4.4 Preparation of Annual Seasonal Work Calendar...... 19 2.4.5 Preparation of a Diagram of Daily Activities...... 20 2.4.6 Conducting Technical Interviews with Village Leaders...... 21 2.4.7 Meeting with Leaders of Various Groups, Enterprises and Institutions.....21 2.4.8 Transect Walk Across the Village...... 21 2.4.9 Household Interviews and Farm Sketches...... 21 2.4.10 Organisation of Emerging Issues...... 23 2.4.11 PRA Workshop...... 23 2.4.12 Ranking by Voting...... 24 2.4.13 Paired Ranking Method...... 24 2.5 Procedure for Analysis After Fieldwork ...... 25 3 THE STUDY AREA...... 26 3. l Kilimanjaro R egion ...... 26 3.2 The Study V illages ...... 27 3.3 R ombo District ...... 28 3.3.1 Kelamfua Village...... 28 3.3.2 Maharo Village...... 29 3.3.3 Shimbi Mashariki Village...... 31 3.4 Mwanga District ...... 34 3.4.1 Chomvu Village...... 34 3.4.2 Kagongo Village...... 36 3.4.3 Kigonigoni Village...... 38 4 MAJOR FINDINGS OF THE STUDY...... 40 4.1 Methodology Testing ...... 40 4.1.1 Energy Issues...... 42 4.1.2 Social Issues...... 44 4.1.3 Economic Issues...... 46 4.1.4 Endowment of Natural Resources...... 46 4.1.5 Institutional Issues...... 47 4.1.6 Policy Issues...... 47 IV Bioenergyoptions

4.2 Summary of Bioenergy Options ...... 47 4.2.1 Improved Stoves...... 47 4.2.2 Improved Charcoal Production Techniques...... 48 4.2.3 Biogas...... 48 4.2.4 Producer Gas...... 48 4.2.5 Liquid Fuels from Biomass...... 48 4.2.6 Bioenergy Produced Electric Power...... 49 4.3 Income -Earning activities Linked To Bioenergy U se...... 49 4.3.1 Increasing Agricultural Production Through Water Pumping...... 49 4.3.2 Milling, Chaffing and Cutting...... 50 4.3.3 Tea and Tobacco Curing...... 50 4.3.4 Charcoal Production...... 50 4.3.5 Tar Production...... 50 4.3.6 Beer Brewing, Liquor Distilling...... 50 4.3.7 Brick Making...... 51 4.3.8 Pottery...... 51 4.3.9 Lime Burning...... 51 4.3.10 Fish Frying and Smoking...... 51 4.3.11 Briquetting...... 51 4.3.12 Workshops...... 51 4.3.13 Bakeries...... 52 4.3.14 Tourism Industry Development...... 52 4.3.15 Dairy Production...... 52 4.4 V illage Specific Bioenergy Options ...... 52 4.4.1 Kelamfua Village...... 53 4.4.2 Maharo Village...... 54 4.4.3 Shimbi Mashariki Village...... 54 4.4.4 Kagongo Village...... 55 4.4.5 Chomvu Village...... 55 4.4.6 Kigonigoni Village...... 56 4.5 Feedback Process of the PRA...... 56 5 THE ROLE OF INFORMATION AND RESOURCES FOR BIOENERGY OPTIONS IMPLEMENTATION...... 59 5.1 Information ...... 59 5.2 Financial R esources ...... 60 6 CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS...... 63 6. l Methodology ...... 63 6.1.1 Recommendations...... 64 6.2 Policy Issues...... 64 6.3 Study findings ...... 65 REFERENCES...... 67 PROJECT REPORTS...... 70 INDEX...... 71 APPENDIX 1: EXCERPT FROM VILLAGE DOCUMENT...... 75 Background and explanation for the project ...... 75 R easons for failure of bioenergy projects ...... 76 The villagers are the experts ...... 77 R esults of the work ...... 77 APPENDIX 2: FINAL WORKSHOP RECOMMENDATIONS 79 Kauzeni, Masao, Sawe, Shechambo and Ellegard v

LIST OF TABLES Table 1. Annual Final Energy Consumption for the Year 1992...... 2 Table 2. Distribution of Forest Area in Tanzania, 1992...... 3 Table 3. Estimated Average Amounts of Agricultural Residues in Tanzania in 1990...... 5 Table 4. Residues Generated by Sawmills Operated by TWICO...... 6 Table 5. Selected Live Stock Populations in Tanzania...... 6 Table 6. Paired Ranking Matrix - Kelamfua Village...... 25 Table 7. Priority Development Areas in Ranking Order ...... 41

LIST OF BOXES Box 1. Village History For Chomvu Village...... 18 Box 2. Significant Changes And Trends In Kagongo Fishing Village...... 19 Box 3. Annual Agricultural Calendar For Kigonigoni Village...... 19 Box 4. Daily Work Schedule For Women And Men In Maharo Village...... 20

LIST OF FIGURES Figure 1. Traditional Woodstove...... 4 Figure 2. Transect Sketch Of Kigonigoni Village...... 22 Figure 3. Sketch of a farm in Shimbi Mashariki village...... 23 Figure 4. Kilimanjaro Region: Location of Study Districts...... 27 Figure 5. Sketch Map of Kelamfua Village in Rombo District...... 30 Figure 6. Sketch Map of Maharo Village in Rombo District...... 31 Figure 7. Sketch Map of Shimbi Mashariki Village in Rombo District...... 33 Figure 8. Sketch Map of Chomvu Village in Mwanga District...... 35 Figure 9. Sketch Map of Kagongo Village in Mwanga District...... 37 Figure 10. Sketch Map of Kigonigoni Village in Mwanga District...... 39 Figure 11. Firewood Pile in Kigonigoni Village...... 42 Figure 12. Brickmaking in Kigonigoni...... 43 VI Bioenergy options

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY In Tanzania, like in many other developing countries in Southern and Eastern Af­ rica, bioenergy planning has received relatively little attention, compared to plan­ ning for “modem” energy sources, although it accounts for about 90% of the country’s energy supply. As a result there is less understanding of the complexity and diversity of bioenergy systems. There is a lack of reliable data and information on bio-resources, their consumption and interaction with social, economic, insti­ tutional and environmental factors. This is largely due to lack of adequately devel­ oped and easily understood methods of data and information development, analy­ sis and methods of evaluating available bioenergy options. In order to address the above constraints a project was initiated where the general objective was to develop and test a multi-disciplinary research method for identifying bioenergy options that can contribute to satisfying the energy needs of the rural household, agricultural and small scale industrial sectors, promote growth and facilitate sustainable development. The decision on the development and testing of a multidisciplinary research method was based on the fact that in Tanzania several bioenergy programmes have been introduced e.g. tree planting, improved cookstoves, biogas, improved charcoal making kilns etc. for various purposes including combating deforestation; promoting economic growth, substi­ tution of imported petroleum fuels, health improvement, and raising standards of living. However efforts made in introducing these programmes or interventions have met with limited success. This situation prevails because developed bio­ energy technologies are not being adopted in adequate numbers by the target groups. The development and testing of the multidisciplinary research method was conceived to identify salient development issues and problems related to efficient and sustainable bioenergy utilisation in dialogue with rural people, and to identify potential bioenergy options. The research method developed aimed to take into account effects or influence of crucial non-energy parameters e.g. social-cultural, economic, institutional, environmental, political and technical factors on the adoption and diffusion processes of bioenergy technologies. The applied research method enabled researchers to collect area-specific data and information at the micro-level which would be useful for micro-planning of bioenergy. However from the micro-planning useful policy issues can be isolated. The study area selected for the application of the method is located in the Kilimanjaro region in northern Tanzania. The research team selected three villages in Rombo district and three villages in Mwanga District for in-depth case studies. The villages were selected using a set of criteria prepared during a survey made prior to the commencement of the main study. The research method has been named “Multidisciplinary Participatory Methodology for Identifying Bioenergy Options” (MUPARMIBO). The method emphasises the multidisciplinary composition of the research team, participation of the target communities in the research process, micro-view of the energy prob­ lems and integration of energy issues with other rural development concerns. The need to capture linkages between households, agriculture, small scale industry and other rural income earning activities was emphasised. The main objective of the methodology has been to understand rural energy issues within a broad context of the needs and priorities of the villagers in the study area. Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA) techniques were applied. The method developed enabled the participation of the community in prioritisation of Kauzeni, Masao, Sawe, Shechambo and Ellegard vii needs and planning for their fulfilment using their own resources as much as pos­ sible. The method is expected to contribute to reducing the problem of not ade ­ quately taking into consideration non-technical factors in the planning and imple­ mentation of bioenergy programmes. The findings of this study show that local communities differ widely ac­ cording to socio-economic stratification, development experience, leadership, etc. Therefore, identified bioenergy options will also be area-specific. A common feature found during the PRA workshops is the low ranking of energy issues in five out of the six villages. However, this low ranking of energy issues during the PRA workshop is in contrast to results of household interviews (especially with women) which indicate that firewood was indeed a serious prob­ lem. In all villages the use of crop and animal feed residues for fuel is common while few households are beginning to use improved stoves. Women and children spent up to five hours collecting only enough firewood for a day ’s cooking for a household of five to six people. In two study villages leadership was ranked as the number one problem while in two others it ranked as number three leadership was found to be a prob­ lem which has often lead to failure of co-operative or village government eco­ nomic ventures. Another problem which was ranked high by the villagers was lack of or lim­ ited income earning opportunities. This means that bioenergy options cannot be considered in isolation from the context of economic development if they are to be adopted. There is also a need to link bioenergy technologies with the delivery of social services such as water pumping and refrigeration of medicines and vac­ cines. In all study villages it was revealed that women do not own land, livestock or trees but they get access to these resources through men e.g. husbands, fathers or brothers. This means that women have limited decision making powers over the acquisition, use and disposal of the above mentioned resources. This problem is particularly serious for unmarried women and widows. The study shows that women’s workloads are heavier than men’s. This suggests that any new bioenergy intervention should seek to reduce and not to increase the workload for women. The presence or absence of institutions rendering specific services to villag­ ers were believed to influence the adoption or non-adoption of bioenergy tech­ nologies or options. For instance where financial lending institutions exist, there are better opportunities for villagers to get credits to finance bioenergy technolo­ gies or options than otherwise. Non-Governmental Organisations (NGOs) and Community Based Organisations (CBO:s) could play an important role in this re­ spect. There are some indications from the study that some of the real barriers to effective bioenergy interventions or adoption of bioenergy technologies lie at the policy level and not at the project level. After the development and testing of the methodology (MUPARMIBO), some particular bioenergy options were recommended for each study village in the two districts. The participatory approach was extended to the selection of possible projects that villagers may implement using their own resources. Some of these projects include production and marketing of improved stoves, improved fish smoking and drying ovens, and planting of multi-purpose tree species. Where vil­ lagers keep cattle under the zero-grazing system and can afford initial costs, bio­ gas plants were recommended. The need for information on available technolo­ viii Bioenergy options gies, development of skills and financing mechanisms were seen as critical ele­ ments for the adoption of bioenergy options. 1 INTRODUCTION 1.1 Project Background Bioenergy planning, more particularly, planning for wood fuels in Tanzania, like in many other developing countries, has so far received little attention. Most ef­ forts in the past were directed towards planning of commercial energy systems. While demand and supply and the associated planning and analytical methods are well established and understood for commercial energy, there continues to be a lack of understanding of bioenergy systems. These are only partly governed by the formal economy, and little account of the resource flows and costs are generated in transactions of biomass energy. This results in lack of reliable data and infor­ mation on resources and consumption and interaction of social, economic, institu­ tional and environmental factors. Similarly, the lack of adequately developed and easily understood methods of data and information development, analysis and methods of evaluating available potential options contributes to the limited under­ standing and development of biomass energy systems. In order to contribute towards reducing these constraints, the then Ministry of Water, Energy and Minerals (MWEM) and The Stockholm Environment Insti­ tute (SEI) in 1993 developed a project concept where the general objective was to develop and test a multi-disciplinary research method for identifying bioenergy options that can contribute to satisfying the energy needs of the rural household, agricultural and small scale industrial sectors, promote growth and facilitate sus­ tainable development. The research components of this project are not new but previous attempts to encourage their adoption have met with limited success. This project is there­ fore intending to make a unique contribution to efforts to promote bioenergy op­ tions by: • Providing and field testing a methodology for performing case studies ex­ amining the bioenergy options of a specific region, suited to local resources and perceptions of needs. • Using a systems approach focused on the linkages between the household, agricultural and small-scale industrial sectors. • Employing an innovative research technique combining the skills of a multi-disciplinary team of experts. • Considering the impact of a comprehensive range of institutional, eco­ nomic and cultural factors affecting the options that may be applicable and the user’s decision-making process in choosing whether to adopt them or not.

1.2 Bioenergy Status in Tanzania In Tanzania, bioenergy (biomass energy) and in particular firewood and charcoal remain the dominant energy sources for most rural and urban households. More than ninety percent of household energy for cooking in Tanzania is obtained from woodfuels. As shown in Table 1, bioenergy in the form of charcoal also continues to be the main energy source for certain types of commercial establishments e.g. restaurants and small scale industries. The energy consumption therefore is char­ acterised by a low per capita consumption of commercial energy (less than 0.1 Tons of Oil Equivalent (TOE)) and a relatively high consumption of biomass (more than 0.44 TOE). 2 Bioenergy options

Table 1. Annual Final Energy Consumption for the Year 1992.

Fuel Resource Energy Consumed Percent (Peta Joules)1 Woodfuel 430.8 83.3 Petroleum 33.2 6.4 Electricity 6.3 1.2 Coal 1.1 0.3 Other Biomass 45.4 8.8 Total 516.7 100.0 Source: URT, Ministry of Energy and Minerals, 1992

Energy use in households and small scale industries are closely linked. In fact, the key end-users in these sectors are often the same. The majority of the ru­ ral population are farmers, and most small-scale industrial entrepreneurs are also farmers engaged in industrial activities on a part-time basis. With a better under­ standing of the energy problems and linkages between these sectors, one can move forward and identify bioenergy solution oriented measures that fit the socio­ economic setting, be they institutional, economic, social, environmental technical or a combination of these factors. Once such measures are identified, one can es­ timate their costs and evaluate the potential of each to increase the supply of en­ ergy services in the region and reduce environmental impact. In addition to supplying domestic energy requirements bioenergy is also used in supplying process heat for many rural industrial production activities (Sawe, 1995), for example: • Brick burning: There are few medium scale brick burning industries in the country, they include Kisarawe, Mbeya and Zuzu brick factories. The ma­ jority of burnt bricks in the country are produced from small scale indi ­ vidually owned village based kilns which utilise substantial amounts of firewood. • Fish smoking or drying: In the absence of adequate cold storage facilities, especially in the rural areas, drying or smoking are the best methods of pre­ serving fish. It has been estimated that between 0.2 and 1.1 m3 of fuelwood or 20 kg of charcoal are required to smoke 1 ton of fish. • Beer brewing: Brewing of local beer is in many rural communities a major activity which consumes a considerable amount of fuelwood. It is esti­ mated that for every 100 liters of brew a range of between about 0.03 and 0.15 m3 of fuelwood are required. Variations depend on the type of brew. • Pottery making: Within the villages, this is a specialised activity for certain households. The process uses woodfuel in a very inefficient way. There are now efforts to introduce efficient kilns. Firing time varies depending on the fuel, the number and size of pottery items. Pottery making therefore creates a localised demand for fuelwood. • Salt-drying: In Tanzania, salt is produced from drying sea and underground waters. It is estimated that in total, about 350,000 m3 of wood are used an­ nually for salt production in Tanzania. • Lime burning: Lime is a product of limestone obtained after calcination (firing). In Tanzania, there are about thirteen lime production factories. It is

1 A Petajoule (PJ) is equal to 1015 joules (one million billion). By way of comparison, a ton of crude oil (one ton of oil equivalent, TOE) is equal to approximately 41.8 billion joules (gigajoules, or GJ), thus one petajoule is the energetic equivalent of approximately 24 thousands tons of oil. Kauzeni, Masao, Sawe, Shechambo and Ellegard 3

estimated that about 4,400 m3 of woodfuel are used annually for lime pro­ duction. • Tobacco curing: Both the method of growing tobacco and the way the crop is processed affect the consumption of fuelwood. The quantity of firewood used for tobacco curing in Tanzania is not known to any degree of accu­ racy. Only estimates have been given by various sources, with a lot of variations. One such estimate is given by ESMAP (1986) which indicates that 15 m3 of solid wood (20 m3 of stacked woodfuels) are used to cure 1 ton of tobacco in Tanzania. • Tea drying: It is estimated that about 1.5 tones of dry wood (with a mois­ ture content of 20%) is required to dry one ton of tea. It is estimated that 120-140 kg of dried tea require about 1 m3 of wood. This translates to 1 hectare of wood for drying 5 tons of tea (Kulindwa and Shechambo, 1995). Thus, if the output of tea is known, then the quantity of wood required to dry it can easily be estimated. A large percentage of woodfuels in Tanzania is obtained from natural for­ ests. Table 2 shows the distribution of forest area in Tanzania.

Table 2. Distribution of Forest Area in Tanzania, 1992.

Tvoe of Forest Area (in 1000 ha) Closed 1 400 Open 40 600 Plantation 98 Protected Land 11 913 Total 54 051 Source: Adapted from URT, Ministry of Natural Resources (Forestry and Beekeeping Division), 1992

Medium to large-scale industries, like wattle tanning, sugar mills, sawmills and pulp and paper mills also use bioenergy for co-generation of electricity and heat. Studies of energy consumption patterns (TFAP, 1989) indicate that, due to various reasons e.g. local availability, environmental acceptability, technical feasibility and non-affordability of substitutes by the users, bioenergy will remain the major indigenous resource in the country in the foreseeable future. The country’s annual sustainable fuelwood supply is estimated to be about 60 million m3 of solid wood (TFAP, 1989). Although reliable figures are not available, estimates suggest that there is no nation-wide fuelwood crisis as such. However, in many areas surrounding main urban centers, densely populated set­ tlements and those around rural industries and in drier regions, fuelwood shortages are being experienced. It is generally agreed that these areas include much of the semi-arid central regions of Dodoma, Singida, Shinyanga, Southern Mwanza, parts of Arusha and Tabora, and the high agricultural and densely populated re­ gions of Arusha, Kilimanjaro, Kagera and Mbeya. In most of the above areas, woodfuels resources are no longer used sustaina­ bly and continue to be depleted (URT, Ministry of Energy and Minerals, 1991; 1992). The increasing depletion of wood resources due to growth in demand re­ sulting from population increases, agricultural expansion, overgrazing by livestock and overexploitation of forest resources for commercial gains continues in such areas of the country. There is a growing shift towards the use of other bioenergy resources, such as crop residues and animal wastes in rural household and small scale industrial sectors. 4 Bioenergy options

1.3 Bioenergy Options Bioenergy options as considered in this project, are comprised of activity chains from given bioenergy resource to a given end-use. Each step in a bioenergy activ­ ity chain involves choices between a multitude of practical solutions. In Tanzania, traditional bioenergy options which are mainly used for cook­ ing e.g. firewood, charcoal, cowdung crop residues, etc. are characterised by low investment requirements, simple indigenous technologies, relatively large inputs of human labor and low energy efficiencies. An example of such an option is the use of fuelwood from natural forests for rural cooking and provision of heat for process heating in small-scale industries. Woodfuel is harvested manually and transported mostly as headloads. Fuel preparations involved are cutting wood to size and natural air drying. The end-use device is often a three-stone fireplace.2 It is now known that there are alternatives to most traditional bioenergy op­ tions that offer potential merits. Some of such options increase the resource base by, for example, using biomass from agroforestry practices, forest plantations, or residues which are otherwise wasted. Some improve the efficiency of specific pro­ cess steps, for example, by introducing more efficient end-use devices. Others cre­ ate possibilities for improving the overall efficiency of the supply chain by intro­ ducing new energy carriers like liquid or gaseous biomass fuels. Using a systems approach to combine specific options into efficient and sustainable bioenergy ac­ tivity chains is one way of capturing these advantages. To do so, each step in each chain must be well defined and suited to the particular setting and needs being ad­ dressed. Usually these advantages can only be captured through investments in more complex technologies.

2 This should not be taken to imply that the three-stone fire is necessarily the most wasteful device for cooking with woodfuel. Reference is made to an interesting investigation by Gill, 1987. Kauzeni, Masao, Sawe, Shechambo and Ellegard 5

1.4 Problem Statement In Tanzania several development programmes associated with bioenergy have been introduced, for instance tree planting, improved cookstoves and biogas plants (Mwihava and Towo, 1994). The purpose has been to halt deforestation or to sub­ stitute imported petroleum fuels. With time, other justifications for establishment of bioenergy programmes have emerged, such as reducing waste disposal prob­ lems, economic reasons, health improvement and raising of standards of living. Efforts in introducing these programmes or interventions have met with little suc­ cess. Efforts in introducing alternatives such as coal for household and institu­ tional use, have had no significant positive impact at all and in some cases have resulted in negative impacts3. Even with these substitutions, the problem of bio­ energy supply continues to worsen. Bioenergy technologies developed have not been adopted in adequate numbers by the target groups and their economic situa­ tion is either stagnant or worsening.

Table 3. Estimated Average Amounts of Agricultural Residues in Tanzania in 1990.

Crops Residue types Quantity (1000 tons DW) Maize Stalks 4 484 Millet Cobs 701 Oil seeds Straw 578 Rice Shells 216 Wheat Straw 918 Cotton Husks 140 Coconut Straw 198 Coffee Chaff 12 Sugar Stalks 606 Sisal Seed gin husks 143 Husks 462 Shells 136 Husks 56 Molasses 76 Bagasse 776 Leaf pulp 900 Sources: Sawe, 1995; Moyo et al., 1993.

A study on rural energy consumption carried out in 1983 reports that due to lack of affordable substitutes, bioenergy and in particularly fuelwood is likely to remain the main source of energy for the majority of Tanzanians for many decades to come and therefore, afforestation and promotion of alternatives should be inten­ sified. Other end use sectors include crop-processing and small scale industries. As the country develops demand for energy in the industrial sector will continue to grow while commercial energy sources remain unaffordable for the majority of the people. While the potential to produce and harness bioenergy in Tanzania is finite, it is currently under-utilised. There are considerable opportunities for increasing bioenergy production, exploiting under-utilised resources such as agricultural and forestry residues and wastes, and increasing levels of services delivered by im­ proving the efficiencies of energy conversion and end use. Apart from woodfuels, Tanzania has a considerable biomass resource in form of forest residues, wood

3 A good example is the promotion of coal by the then Ministry of Water, Energy and Minerals in 1992/93 as household fuel in Shinyanga Region which did not prove to be successful (E.N. Sawe, Personal Communication). 6 Bioenergyoptions processing wastes, surplus softwood, agricultural and animal wastes. As woodfu- els become increasingly scarce biowaste resource is diverted for use as fuel. Biowaste appears in different forms and quantities, and depends on soil, climate and number of harvests per year. There is no comprehensive data to indi ­ cate how much biowaste is available, and only estimates based on production are as given in Table 3. Forestry and wood processing activities also produce a lot of residues. Sawmills generate waste in form of dust and off-cuts. Based on the volume of the bark, the useful timber can be estimated at 50 percent and the amount of residues as saw dust at 15 percent, splinters 10 percent and cut-offs 20 percent (Mwihava and Towo, 1990). The total amount of residues generated by the saw mills oper­ ated by the Tanzania Wood Industry Corporation (TWICO) has been estimated and the results are presented in Table 4.

Table 4. Residues Generated by Sawmills Operated by TWICO.

Sawmill Region Residues generated annually (m1) Sao Hill Sawmill Iringa 37 Sikh Sawmill Tanga Tembo Chipboards Tanga S Fibreboards (A) Ltd. Arusha 7 Tabora Msitu Tabora 2 Mingoyo Sawmills Lindi 2 Mkata Sawmills Tanga 2 Kiltimbers Kilimanjaro 8 Mbeya Sawmills Mbeya 8 West Kilimanjaro Kilimanjaro 6 Ushirikiano Wood Products Morogoro Morogoro 8 Source: Mwihava and Towo, 1990.

Three of the TWICO’s plants are using their residues for energy production. Some of the residues generated by other plants are partly used for cooking as fuel by people living in the neighbourhood of the plants. Like agricultural wastes, data to indicate how much animal waste is avail­ able in each place is sketchy. However, the major concentration of domesticated animals population (60%) particularly cattle happens to be where traditional fuel- wood is scarce. It is estimated that about 6 million tons of dung is produced each year (of which 2.5 million are collectable) and about 20-30% of it is burnt directly as fuel for cooking. Some of the dung is used on farms as manure. Dung is also used to generate biogas and the slurry is used as fertilizer, although this amount is still insignificant compared to the national energy balance. Table 5 gives total number of selected animal populations in 1992. There are many methods available for harnessing bioenergy efficiently and renewably. The challenge is to determine how to utilise new technologies and ideas in ways that best address the specific problems and meet the needs of the industry, agro-industries and households, thereby enabling sustainable economic development while minimising negative social and environmental impacts.

Table 5. Selected Live Stock Populations in Tanzania.

Animal Number’ (000) Cattle 13 500 Goats 9 110 Sheep 3 556 Source: Bureau of Statistics, 1992. Kauzetii, Masao, Sawe, Shechambo and Ellegard 1

Programmes to improve the situation have suffered from lack of national priority, inadequate information and lack of the requisite institutions and skills in the face of a challenge that is far from being simple or purely technically based; the problems and the solutions reach into the heart of the economic, social and cultural life of villagers. All along the process, it is the woman who is expected to carry out the activities of collecting and carrying the firewood to households and using it for cooking. At the same time the women do not own land or trees and have no say in any major policy issues (Afshar, 1991). Change in this area can be difficult; it must necessarily be gradual. Since women have traditionally played a major role in woodfuel provision, any changes must carefully consider the impact of gender roles and must include women in the planning and implementation.

1.5 Justification for the Study From the above discussions, it is clear that in Tanzania a number of institutions have tried to implement policies and programmes with the aim of improving bio­ energy supply, utilisation and substitution. Most of these interventions have not achieved their desired results. There are a number of reasons for this state of af­ fairs. Most bioenergy studies conducted so far have not been able to adequately contribute to the formulation of strategies required to make widespread adoption of sustainable bioenergy utilisation practices possible. Some examples of such studies include Mnzava (1987); Mrema (1985); Mwandosya and Luhanga (1988; 1990); Mwandosya et al. (1992); Sawe and Leach (1989); Sawe (1995); URT/MWEM (1986); and World Bank/UNDP (1989). Issues addressed in these studies have not been explored deeply enough to warrant the identification of sali­ ent issues and problems related to efficient and sustainable bioenergy utilisation and identification of potential bioenergy options. Most of these studies were con­ ducted in an uncoordinated manner without involving other relevant sectors which have great effect on either adoption or rejection of bioenergy technologies. Some of these studies were very general at the macro-level and not area-specific at the micro-level resulting in giving general information which is not very useful for micro-planning. In some cases crucial non-energy aspects such as socio-economic, cultural environmental, institutional, information, etc. were not adequately inves­ tigated. Also target groups were not involved, since bottom-up approaches in bio­ energy planning, development and implementation were not used. Macro-scale energy surveys have several distinctive features (Leach, 1995). Naturally they are concerned mainly with patterns of energy consumption which focus on averages at the expense of finer variations. They are also concerned with the socio-economic variables and energy supply factors which do most to deter ­ mine those patterns. These variables include household size; household income; climate (e.g. as it affects space heating needs); dietary patterns; and settlement size (e.g. the ‘modem’ primary city versus the medium to small town); energy prices; and in rural areas, the time and effort required to collect fuels (Leach and Gowen, 1987). Both types of information are needed for national energy policy formula­ tion. This includes the need to project future energy consumption according to likely changes in the socio-economic and energy supply variables as well as the effects of energy policies and projects. Leach (1995) observed that micro-scale or location-specific surveys are de ­ signed to give a richer, more detailed and comprehensive picture of energy use patterns and the influences on them. Variation and the reasons for it are (or should be) as important to the researcher as averages. Inter-relationships between energy 8 Bioenergy options and many other facets of rural life-forests, farm trees, crops, livestock, water sup­ ply, labour and time budgets, land ownership and tenure, cash and non-cash in­ come generation, differences between genders in power, responsibilities and as­ sets, etc., - should ideally be examined for the light they throw on present energy behaviour and problems as well as possibilities for change. The top-down perspective of bioenergy and the macro-level energy surveys, as outlined above, has little bearing on the realities of wood energy problems for rural people. The top-down perspective on bioenergy with its energy-centric focus, its interest in averages rather than variation, and its search for the strong links between energy and other variables, typically fails to match the experiences and pre-occupations of real villages and their inhabitants (Leach and Meams, 1988). In view of the above facts there is every justification and need for embarking on a comprehensive and multidisciplinary bioenergy study in order to address some of the weaknesses or shortcomings of the previous bioenergy studies. This study has been designed and conducted with the aim to facilitate easy and ade­ quate compilation and analysis of generated data and other useful information. Detailed and area-specific data and information are needed for bioenergy planning and policy formulation in order to understand energy problems and bioenergy use together with their linkages to the agricultural, rural household and small-scale industrial sectors as well as understanding factors that influence decision making processes regarding energy supply and use. The exercise has to include an exploration of the economic, institutional, environmental and social barriers to adopting potential bioenergy alternatives and in the process identifying a range of synergistic cross-sectoral measures which ap­ pear promising for enabling the adoption of bioenergy options. The study is needed to contribute in providing mechanisms for qualitative and to a certain ex­ tent quantitative evaluations of the potential of the identified measures for allevia­ tion of some specific problems of rural households and small-scale industrial bio­ energy users, while reducing their negative environmental impact and eventually contributing towards increased economic growth of the target communities.

1.6 Objectives and Focus of the Study While the main objective of the study was to develop and test a methodology that would be suitable for identifying bioenergy alternatives in specific settings, spe­ cific objectives of the study were: • To gain a better understanding of energy problems and bioenergy use in the agricultural, rural household and small-scale industrial sectors and their linkages. • To gain a better understanding of the factors that determine how decisions regarding energy supply and use are made in rural households and small- scale industries: prioritising and managing their bioenergy, economic, la­ bour and other resources. This will include an exploration of the economic, institutional, and social barriers to adopting potential bioenergy alterna­ tives. These might include lack of capital or access to finance, lack of eco­ nomic incentives lack of technical capacity and social traditions and ex­ pectations which may hinder acceptance of a technology. • To identify a range of synergistic cross-sectoral measures (both non­ technical and technical) which appear promising for enabling the adoption of bioenergy options within the context of the lessons learned under the first two objectives. Kauzeni, Masao, Sawe, Shechambo and Ellegard 9

• To provide qualitative evaluations of the potential of the identified meas­ ures to alleviate some specific problems of household and small-scale in­ dustrial bioenergy users (as found under the first objective), reduce their negative environmental impact, and contribute toward increasing economic growth. The focus of this study is on rural households, groups, entrepreneurs, insti­ tutions and small-scale industrial sectors because of their dependence on biomass fuels, their apparent problems of maintaining sustainable supply, their obvious lack of realistic alternatives to biomass fuels, and the present lack of information about the real obstacles to adopting new bioenergy options in these sectors.

1.7 Scope and Limitations of the Study The methodology developed could be applied also in other developing countries with similar set of conditions. In selecting a study area it was therefore necessary to select an area which is not only a fair representative of the administrative re­ gions in Tanzania but also a good representative of other areas in African devel­ oping countries. For this reason, Kilimanjaro region in northern Tanzania was se­ lected, with its diversity in altitude and ecological zones and population density. Care should be taken when applying the results to areas of different character. The initial assignment of this study included search of relevant documenta­ tion, review of the collected literature which included country specific bioenergy publications, project reports and papers taking into consideration of on going pro­ grammes. The intention was to get detailed area-specific analyses of the factors determining patterns of bioenergy supply and use and potential future options in rural households and/or small scale industries. With respect to Tanzania and probably to other African countries within the region, this is an innovative study requiring harmonious efforts of researchers from different and specialised disciplines (natural and social scientists) with varying experiences and perspectives. With such a diverse group of researchers it is not easy to reach a compromise on certain issues. Although this is a very healthy situation and combination it can be very time consuming. Originally it was thought to be ideal to include or cover as many villages as possible in this study from different ecological zones and to visit as many institu­ tions as possible those that deal with bioenergy issues. This process would have greatly enriched the findings, conclusions and recommendations. The research team encountered physical limitations in doing so due to time, financial and logis­ tical constraints. The research team therefore had to limit itself to only six villages and it had to visit only a few institutions dealing with bioenergy issues. The visits made to various institutions that deal with energy issues revealed to the research team the serious paucity of relevant and useful data and informa­ tion for the planning of bioenergy options. It was assumed that more relevant data might be obtained from the villagers themselves, which was one of the reasons to adopt the PRA methodology. Bioenergy issues cut across different sectors which are uncoordinated as far as planning is concerned. Data and information on these sectors are very much scattered or fragmented in different offices and documents. It was not easy for the research team to get hold of all the required data and information for this study. The research team tried its level best to address such problems by trying to get re­ liable data on biomass resources, supply and consumption at least in the study villages. It also tried to collect data and information on interactions between so- 10 Bioenergy options cial, economic, institutional and environmental factors on the adoption of bio­ energy technologies. A method for data development, analysis and evaluation of potential bioenergy options was developed by the research team. Kauzeni, Masao, Sawe, Shechambo and Ellegard II

2 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY During a workshop held in July 1995 to launch the project and discuss the meth­ odology4, a major shift of the project methodology from traditional techniques to­ wards PRA-types of methodologies was determined. This implied a change from an approach that would generalise conditions for large areas, into an approach where the actual micro-conditions were put in focus. This is not to say that certain aspects could not be generalised even with the participatory approach, but gener­ alisation was no longer seen as the main objective of the investigation. The task remained a challenge for the research team to test the method in the determination of bioenergy options for the six selected villages. The research methodology developed and applied in this study has been named Multidisciplinary Participatory Research Methodology for Identifying Bio­ energy Options (MUPARMIBO).5 This method emphasises a number of key is­ sues which include: multidisciplinary nature of the research team, participation of the target communities in the research process, a micro-view of the energy prob­ lems rather than a macro-view, integration of energy issues with other rural devel­ opmental concerns and the need to capture linkages between households, agricul­ ture, small-scale industry and other rural income earning activities. The objective of the methodology has been to understand rural energy issues within a broad context of the needs and priorities of the villagers in the study area by applying Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA) techniques. Therefore, in this section at­ tempts have been made to place MUPARMIBO in a general context of the evolu­ tion of PRA.

2.1 Review of Methods The term participatory rural appraisal (PRA) is used to describe a growing family of approaches and methods to enable local people to share, enhance and analyse their knowledge of life and conditions surrounding them, to plan and to act (Chambers, 1994, p.437). PRA has gained popularity over the last decade or so and now presents a viable challenge to traditional methods such as large-scale questionnaires and brief rural visits by professionals. PRA as we know it today has evolved and draws upon five traditions of re­ search methodologies. According to Chambers (1994) these traditions are: activist participatory research; agroecosystem analysis; applied anthropology; field re­ search on farming systems and rapid rural appraisal (RRA). A brief survey of the contributions of each tradition is made as follows:

(a) Activist Participatory Research refers to approaches and methods that use dialogue and participation to raise and enhance people’s awareness, confidence and to empower them to take action to change their situation. The method works on the basis of three prescriptive ideas: • That poor people are creative and capable, and can and should do much of their own investigations, analysis and planning. • That outsiders have roles as convenors, catalysts and facilitators. • That the weak and marginalised can and should be empowered.

4 See project report no. 3 Ally, V.K. et al Methods for Exploring Bioenergy Options: Research Project Report HI. Proceedings of the Workshop held on 26 and 27 July 1995 in Dar Es Salaam. August, 1995 5 See Ally, V.K. et al Methods for Exploring Bioenergy Options: Project Report IV. November, 1995 12 Bioenergy options

(b) Agroecosystem Analysis draws on systems and ecological thinking, com­ bining analysis of systems and system properties such as productivity, sta­ bility, sustainability and equitability with pattern analysis of space, time, flows and relationships, relative values and making. The major contribu­ tions of this approach to PRA and RRA have been: transects; informal mapping; diagramming and problem assessment (scoring and ranking). (c) Applied Anthropology with its concern about understanding change within societies has contributed significantly towards helping professionals to appreciate the richness and validity of rural people’s knowledge as well as the need to distinguish the outsiders mental frame (etic) and that of an insider (emic). This method of investigation has also contributed to PRA by promoting the idea that field learning is a flexible art rather than rigid science. Also it is necessary to appreciate the value of field residence, un­ hurried participant-observation and conversations. (d) Field Research on Farming Systems has been carried out by a variety of natural and social scientists to try and understand small farmers. It empha­ sises the view that what appears to be untidy and unsystematic farming practice of the small farmer is actually characterised by a high degree of complexity, diversity and rationality. Through the farming systems ap­ proach, it has come to be recognised more strongly that farmers were ca­ pable of experimenting e.g. they conduct own trials, assessments and analysis. Their methods and findings should not be ignored by hard core “scientists”. (e) Rapid Rural Appraisal (RRA) emerged first in the 1970 ’s as scientists sought better ways for outsiders to learn about rural life and conditions. This method identified biases that outsiders usually have e.g. anti-poverty bias and “rural development tourism”. These are situations whereby urban- based professionals visit rural areas near cities, on roadsides, centres of villages, where projects are located, meeting more male elite than female poor, dry season visits rather than during the rainy season when conditions are at their worst etc. RRA also developed out of a realisation of the short­ comings of formal questionnaire surveys and their results which often tend to be:

“...drawn out, tedious, a headache to administer, a nightmare to pro­ cess andwrite up, inaccurate and unreliable in data obtained, leading to reports, if any, which were long, late, boring, misleading, difficult to use and anyway ignored. ” (Chambers, 1994:956)

There has also been a search for cost effective yet fairly reliable methods as alternatives to questionnaire survey. However, RRA was criticised for being too much pro-outsider. It was considered to be more extractive and ellicitive rather than participative and pro-insider. An appreciation of the shortcomings of RRA led, in the 1980’s, to more em­ phasis upon participation of local communities or target groups in problem identi­ fication, analysis, planning, action and evaluation. The growing importance of NGO’s was also recognised as agencies and institutions for stimulating and sus­ taining local actions. In the literature on PRA, it is cautioned that the word partici­ pation must also be looked at critically e.g. it should not mean participation of lo- Kauzeni, Masao, Sawe, Shechamboand Ellegard 13 cal people in outsiders’ projects but rather participation of local people in projects which address their priority needs and which they own. PRA methods have been applied for appraisal, analysis and research on many subject areas such as agroecosystems, natural resources, irrigation, technol­ ogy and innovation, health and nutrition, farming systems, pastoralism, organisa­ tional assessment, social, cultural and economic conditions, etc. However, so far their application on energy issues is very limited. It is expected that this study has demonstrated the use of PRA in the area of identifying bioenergy options for rural areas in Tanzania and elsewhere and will continue to be applied and adapted for increased used in energy planning in the future.

2.2 Developing a Methodology The starting point for the methodology development is the recognition that energy is a critical input for basic and development needs in rural areas, and that people at the individual and household levels have traditional knowledge and experience in energy, its acquisition and associated problems. They however lack awareness of the modem energy technologies. The methodology aims at working with local people to identify their basic developmental needs of which bioenergy could be one, or could contribute to fill­ ing several, and it facilitates the assessment on how the needs are related to each other. It involves the target communities in planning for their interventions and eventual implementation. Participation of target communities in the whole process was the basic principle behind the methodology.

2.2.1 Methodology Justification and Rationale Justification for the methodology development is derived from the experience with limited success and many failures associated with several isolated attempts to implement bioenergy projects in the past. The conventional focus by energy plan­ ners has been on the supply-side with less emphasis on the demand-side. Indeed, the set-up of government energy planning exercises normally starts with surveys and data collection, expert analysis and planning without involving the target groups e.g. the rural communities. As a result: (a) Projects did not link up with peoples’ perceptions of their problems, real needs and priorities. (b) Projects have been seen as mostly technical experiments. The anticipation was that as soon as people saw how wonderfully the different technologies were working, they would soon adopt them and start reproducing them. But in these projects the possibilities for the people (individuals or groups) to reproduce the technologies were rarely taken into consideration. People must have the skills, the capital and ways to find out more about the tech­ nologies if they are to use them by themselves. (c) Bioenergy technologies were installed to solve problems that were thought up by researchers and planners. In many cases the problems that the re­ searchers thought the people had were not the same as the problems the people actually had. The result was that technologies were introduced as solutions to problems which the people did not have. An example could be the introduction of improved stoves in an area where there is no firewood problem. Why should the people use an expensive stove to save wood in such a case? 14 Bioenergy options

(d) Even the technologies that can solve problems and are functional and eco­ nomic to use did not diffuse in the community because people did not have sufficient information about the technology. There must be good sources of information available in different forms, for instance: • A person in the village who has the training and experience in how to make the technology work; • Written information available in the village office, for instance a small brochure just presenting the technology, or a more comprehensive technical manual containing all the required details; • A representative in the village who knows where to get the appropriate information, and training if necessary; somebody or a group of people interested in the technology and who will disseminate the information to the other villagers. (e) Inadequate attention has been paid to economic factors. While people in the rural areas are often poor, this does not mean that they lack economic sense. If a technology is proposed that does not give the benefits it is said to give, nobody will be surprised if rural people do not use.

The above shortcomings have necessitated new perspectives in the way of looking at energy issues locally and globally. Experience dictates that bioenergy challenges cannot be resolved from an energy or forestry points of view alone. The need for a holistic approach has been reaffirmed in which activities are tailored to specific and multifaceted needs of an area including socio-economic and envi­ ronmental aspects (Bhagavan and Karekezi, 1992). Therefore, the main justification for this methodology is the need to change the previous approaches by trying to develop bioenergy options based on people’s real needs and priorities. The methodology requires working with local people to identify their needs, to be ranked and prioritized by themselves, to work with the local people to suggest solutions for the identified needs and prepare plan of ac­ tion including responsibilities and resources management. Maximum active in­ volvement of the target communities in every stage of planning, developing inter­ ventions and implementing the project based on the needs identified by them­ selves is the basic principle behind this methodology.

2.2.2 Applicability of MUPARMIBO The multidisciplinary and participatory method developed in this project focuses on active involvement of the local people in the overall development needs identi­ fication and planning process. This is first and foremost about values and key principles which should guide the behaviour and attitudes of the development agencies when they intervene in the development process of a community. The method is based on the basic tenet that people are the means and the end of development. People are considered to be the subjects instead of objects. For the applicability of the method the beneficiaries of the development intervention should own the intervention instead of being moulded into the parameters set from the outside. The method also starts from the premise that people should have maximum control over the decisions about interventions (projects, programmes, etc.) which are affecting their daily lives. The development agents should have respect for local values, traditions and cultural expressions. Agents should also recognise the fact that the needs and pri­ Kauzeni, Masao, Sawe, Shechambo and Ellegard 15 orities of the community members may be different from what agents themselves think are people’s needs and priorities. The method requires that the role of development agents should mainly be that of an intermediary or facilitator between the local community and the outside world. The approach should involve a process in which the community becomes aware of its history, development, experience and potential for positive change. For successful application of the methodology the work of the development agents must be transparent, and their role should be clearly known and understood by the local community. In other words the local community should be clear about who the development agents are, why they are there, what they can offer and what they cannot offer, which strategy they would like to follow in working with the community., for whom they would like to work. The method can also be applied in the identification of overall development needs and of bioenergy needs in particular for a given community. The methodo­ logical approach requires first the identification of development needs within the overall community development context. This approach is followed by identifica­ tion and ranking of development needs and priorities. The next step after estab­ lishing priorities is to analyse data and information in order to establish whether or not priority development needs are linked to energy in general and bioenergy in particular. The method is applicable in the identification of feasible bioenergy options, potential projects and interventions at the village level. It also helps in determining which interventions are feasible and within the ability of the community in the short term and which interventions require external inputs and are of a long term perspective. There is a set of conditions that determine the successful application of this method. • Local people have to express genuine interest to participate in the PRA ex­ ercise. It is extremely important that people are mobilized together with their community leaders to take a leading role in this exercise. • Identified options/projects should be well explained and be implemented through a combination of local and external efforts. This implies the exis­ tence of a policy environment that facilitates the integration of energy in overall development in addition to the existence of political will and finan­ cial commitment. • Local institutions to assist in the research and implementation should be identified. These institutions are expected to institute mechanisms for im­ plementation and making necessary follow-ups. The applied method is described in detail in the following sections. By and large this includes a selection of RRA and PRA techniques, where energy issues and questions are present more as a matter of emphasis in the different participa­ tory approaches than as an over-arching objective forced on the local people. Elaborate discussions on various bioenergy technologies were not generally held in the initial process, unless local people exhibited awareness or specific interest in such technologies.

2.3 Description of the applied methodology The composition of the study team will greatly influence the quality of the infor­ mation, analysis, and the subsequent solution options and plans. The study team should be interdisciplinary as far as possible. The team should have a team leader and three or four core members supplemented by technical extension officers from 16 Bioenergy options the area under consideration, and as appropriate, village and group leaders. The team should of course have the ability to communicate with local people in their language, and care should be taken to include both men and women. The team members should have adequate working experience at the local level. The fol­ lowing criteria could assist in selecting a research team. • Language skills: - At least one team member should be able to communi­ cate in a local language or any other language understood by both research team and local people. • Gender balance:- A balanced mix of men and women should be ensured . • Require professional experience:- The team should consist of people from different disciplines e.g. sociology, economics, energy, agriculture and health. • Experience from Participatory Methods:- Participants with previous expe­ rience should be appointed resource people. • Local knowledge of the field site:- Identify those who know the study area.

2.3.1 Preparation for Field Work and Logistics The mobilised team should discuss and get to understand the terms of reference of the study. It is essential at this stage that the team is aware of the tasks and ex­ pected outputs. A revision of the terms of reference could be made after such dis­ cussions if found necessary. Before proceeding with any fieldwork activities, it is necessary for the team to acquaint itself with available literature, identify knowledge gaps in the topics of concern and generate working hypotheses. Contacts with knowledgeable persons are essential. If required, checklists and questionnaires should be discussed and prepared in advance and translated into the local language if possible. In order to facilitate easy and speedy collection of data and other information using the assistance of extension staff in the study area, it is necessary to review and reorganise the checklist and questionnaires together with the extension staff. The research team needs to visit the leaders of the district and discuss vari­ ous issues of area administrative procedures with them to secure information and data, and also as a matter of courtesy. These discussions should centre on the pur­ pose and objective of the study, how the study is going to be carried out and to what extent extension staff in the area will participate. It is at this time that re­ quests for research clearance and attachment of relevant extension staff to the re­ search team should be made. The research team should hold meetings with presumptive local staff to ex­ plain to them in detail what is involved in the study and what their specific roles would be. A briefing on the purpose and objectives of the study in general and fieldwork in particular should be done. This should be done step by step, using already prepared checklist and questionnaires. Any unclear and ambiguous issues should be clarified at this stage. The final selection of the study villages should then be undertaken, guided by a set of criteria prepared in advance by the research team. The experience and knowledge of the extension staff should be fully utilised in the selection process. After selecting the study villages, letters of introduction should be prepared by the District Authorities to enable the research team and extension staff to actu­ ally go to the study villages and meet with the village leaders. The purpose should Kauzeni, Masao, Sawe, Shechambo and Ellegard 17 be to explain the mission of the team and the work plan to the village leaders. The field work should naturally be carried out at a time convenient to the villagers.

2.3.2 PRA Activities in the Study Villages On day one, the research team and the local extension staff (in Tanzania known as District Extension Staff) should meet with the village leaders (Village Chairperson and Village Executive Officer). This initial meeting should serve four purposes:- To introduce each other, to explain the objective of the research study, get­ ting study clearance and to prepare a village specific research study workplan for study activities that are to take place in the village. The village research study workplan should consist of the following PRA activities. • Research Team and District Extension Staff meeting with village leaders. • Meeting with leaders of various groups and institutions located in the vil­ lage. • A transect walk across the village. • Interviews with selected households and farm sketches. • Organisation of emerging issues. • A large village meetings to receive and consider emerging issues, rank the issues and suggest potential solution options, propose interventions, pre­ pare a workplan, assign responsibilities to various people/institutions and design a resource management plan. The village research study workplan should be agreed among the research team Village Chairpersons (VCP), Village Executive Officers (VEO) and villag­ ers. The VCP and VEO should take the initiative of notifying other village leaders, groups, institutions and some selected villagers on the dates and time of the meetings and interviews with the research team.

2.4 Application of Different Techniques to Gather Data and Information on the Study Villages It is important to collect adequate and detailed background information on the study villages in order to understand the economic, social institutional and envi­ ronmental conditions of each study village. This can be achieved by undertaking the activities listed in the following sections. The collection of such detailed back­ ground information and the application of PRA methods can only be justified if the village accepts that it has an energy problem and is willing to participate in finding solutions to the problem. If this is not the case, then it not necessary to un­ dertake the PRA exercise and collect that amount of information.

2.4.1 Preparation of Village Map The drawing of a village map should be the first concrete activity that will require participants’ input. Village leaders and key informants should take a leading role and the exercise should provide a visible concrete output. Preparation of the vil­ lage map is considered a good start as it is an easy way of getting village leaders actively interested and involved. The maps are also considered effective pictorial and symbolic presentation of information and should form a central element of participatory analysis and needs identification. Maps help to indicate areas with adequate or inadequate social and economic infrastructure, and also indicate the natural resources found in the village as well as prevailing environmental condi­ tions. Village maps for the villages visited as part of this project are presented in the next section. 18 Bioenergy options

2.4.2 Presentation of Village History and Significant Events The second activity is the review of village history to emphasise significant events in the village past. The village history will reveal important information that will help the team to understand the present situation in the village. The review should stimulate exchange of ideas about events and problems as far back as the oldest village leaders can remember or have been told by their parents and grandparents. Such events could include: outbreaks of epidemics, droughts and famines, changes in land tenure, introduction of new crops, building of social and economic infra­ structure (e.g. schools, hospitals, roads, etc.), changes in administration and or­ ganisation and major political events. Some of the events in the history of Chomvu village are presented in Box 1.

Box 1. Village History For Chomvu Village.

• In 1922 there was an outbreak of measles and smallpox disease. • In 1930 a heavy rain storm destroyed crops and houses. • Due to this storm, there was serious famine known as “Mkebe” or “Kopo” famine in the following years (1931 and 1932). • In 1940 the primary school was built. • In four consecutive years (1945-1948) there was another famine caused by the invasion of red locusts, which ate or wiped out all crops in the fields. This time it was called “The locust famine”. • From 1945-1947 there was an uprising against taxation. This uprising was known as “Mbiru". • In 1960 another famine occurred, caused by drought. This was called the “Kibaba” famine. • In 1973, piped water was supplied to the village for the first time. • In 1974 there was another famine called “Yanga” famine. This name was de­ rived from the colour of the maize flour donated by the US government. • In 1984 electricity was brought to the village for the first time. • From 1985 about thirty people have died of AIDS. • In 1990 there were heavyrains which caused landslides killing several people. • Recently there has been an outbreak of anthrax disease for cattle and a poultry disease known as “Kideri”.

2.4.3 Identification of Significant Changes andTrends The third activity is the identification of significant changes and trends that has occurred in the village history. The changes and trends would indicate quantitative and qualitative changes over time for variables like crop yields, area under culti­ vation, livestock population, prices, migration patterns, time and distance to col­ lect fuelwood and fodder, water availability, population size and number of households, weather patterns and environmental change. Kauzeni, Masao, Sawe, Shechambo and Ellegard 19

Box 2. Significant Changes And Trends In Kagongo Fishing Village.

• In 1964-66 the Nyumba ya Mungu Dam was constructed • 1973 ’’Makokoro fishing was introduced instead of normal fishnet trap method. That type of fishing was later prohibited as it was catching more young fish. • 1974 The Ministry introduced a new fish species from Lake Babati (Tilapia Scu- lenta). The new species breeding rate is very high. It can be transported longer dis­ tances and still remain in good condition. • In 1981-82, many trees were grown in the village as a result of several village by­ laws. Each villager was required to plant five trees. Trees were grown in school and church and office compounds. Tree seedlings were brought to the village by the de­ partment of forestry. Several tree species which were planted e.g. Cassia siammea, Christmas tree and several fruit trees did not survive due to regular droughts and grazing animals in the village. The Neem (Mwarobaini) tree performed better. Someof the houses are now surrounded by fully grown trees. • In 1981-84 the Quantity of fish in the reservoir declined considerably and fish size was small. Research was carried out by the fisheries department to find out why the fish had remained small. One reason given was that due to the drought fish were not getting adequate food Vehicles with cold storage facilities used to come to the vil­ lage to collect fish, they contributed considerably to the increased sale of fish. Some such vehicles used to come all the way from the neighbouring country of Kenya.

2.4.4 Preparation of Annual Seasonal Work Calendar The fourth activity is the preparation of a seasonal work calendar. The seasonal work calendar attempts to establish regular cycles or patterns of activities and oc­ currences within the village over one year. The calendar will show the main ac­ tivities, problems and opportunities throughout the annual cycle.

Box 3. Annual Agricultural Calendar For Kigonigoni Village.

Month Activities J anuary-February Preparation for “masika” (short rains). Rains are expected at any time. Harvesting of Maize and sunflower. March Planting of maize, beans and sunflower. May Protecting farms against vermin, e.g. wild pigs, monkeys and birds. June Harvesting beans and paddy rice. July Harvesting maize, sunflower and paddy rice. Preparing farm for irrigation season. (“Chamazi”) August Planting maize and beans. Preparing farms for “vuli” season. Cleaning of irrigation canals in paddy farms. September Further preparation of farms. Weeding of beans. October Harvesting of beans. November Planting of maize, sunflower and paddy rice. December Planting of paddy rice.

The calendar will identify the months of the greatest work load and other significant variances which have significant impacts on peoples’ lives. The calen­ dar will summarise the following issues among other things: - crop sequences 20 Bioenergy options

(from planting to harvesting); activities connected with livestock (fodder collect­ ing, milking etc.); social events; types and quantity of cooking/heating fuels; mar­ keting; labour demand for men, women and children; climatic factors, (rainfall and temperatures), annual festivals, etc. An example of a calendar is given in Box 3, which is from Kigonigoni village. Agricultural practises varied strongly in the visited villages, due to climate, altitude and other conditions.

2.4.5 Preparation of a Diagram of Daily Activities The fifth activity is the preparation of a diagram of daily routine activities. The daily routine diagram will help the team to collect and analyse information on the daily patterns between activities of village members and to compare the daily rou­ tine patterns for men and women and seasonal changes in these patterns. The daily routine diagram will help to identify time constraints and opportunities. The example presented in Box 4 is from the high-altitude village of Maharo. In this village it is common to own farmland both in the village itself, and in lower villages, e.g. Shimbi Mashariki. In this case there was a heated debate between women and men at the village meeting as to how representative these schedules were. It was agreed that much depends on how a couple co-operates in performing various tasks. In some respects there was, however, a clear division of labour: milking the cows and removing dung from the shed was always done by women.

Box 4. Daily Work Schedule For Women And Men In Maharo Village.

Women Men 5 a.m. Waking up and preparing food for the children 6 a.m. 6 — 7 a.m. Cleaning the house, removing cowdung from the Waking up and taking breakfast cowshed, preparing and taking breakfast. 7 a.m. - 2 p.m. 8 a.m. -1:30 p.m. Walking to the farm, working at the farm. Leaving the house to go and work on the farm within the homestead or occa­ sionally to the lowland farm. He cuts grass to feed cattle, prunes coffee trees, thins banana plants, sprays the coffee, feeds the cattle. 2 - 4 p.m. 1:30 - 3 p.m. Walking back home, collecting grass and other cattle Taking lunch and a little rest. fodder. 4-6 p.m. 3-7 p.m. Fetching firewood or water Social activities, including drinking 6-7 p.m. local beer. Preparing the evening meal, milking the cows, taking the evening meal. 7-8 p.m. 8 - 8:30 p.m. Washing dishes, preparing children for bed. Dinner 8:30 p.m. Going to bed Kauzeni, Masao, Sawe, Shechambo and Ellegard 21

It could be noted that the schedule for the men appears far less demanding than for the women. This brings an interesting aspect to the “increased time for productive work” that is often quoted as an important benefit of energy improve­ ments like light or water pumping.

2.4.6 Conducting Technical Interviews with Village Leaders Semi-structured interviews and discussions based on a pre-determined checklist of topics and questions for village leaders will be undertaken to help the team to gather general village-level information and data that are yet to be collected from the previous activities. More technical questions focusing on various sectors and social services e.g. water, land, health, agriculture, transport, energy, institutions and groups in the village will be asked. The interviews and discussions will pro­ vide further access to a larger body of knowledge and will also provide a means of cross-checking information that will have been received from others in the meet­ ing. Major problems facing the villagers in relation to the above sections will also be discussed.

2.4.7 Meeting with Leaders of Various Groups, Enterprises and Institutions With the assistance of the village leaders, development related institutions and groups in the village should be identified. Representatives of each of these should be invited for a meeting with the team. Semi-structured interviews and discussions with leaders and representatives of NGOs, groups with common interests, may be conducted where available. The interviews and discussions would focus on their history, activities, sources of funding, constraints facing the groups, future plans and their views on energy is­ sues.

2.4.8 Transect Walk Across the Village A transect walk may be undertaken in the village to ensure that the team fully ex­ plores to the full the spatial differences in the village area under study. The team should walk across the village periphery after reviewing the village sketch map to estimate the line of greatest diversity. The transect walk should explore differ­ ences in land-use, vegetation, soils, cultural practices, infrastructure, livestock and water availability. It should provide mapping information beyond that which was collected during the village sketch map preparation exercise and should verify in­ formation on such sketch maps. The transect should give some details on specific characteristics (slope, drainage, vegetation, etc.) which would further refine the team’s understanding of the area and the interaction between the physical envi­ ronment and human activities. A transect sketch diagram which should show main land use zones and compare main features, resources, uses and problems of differ­ ent zone will be prepared. An example of a transect diagram for Kigonigoni vil­ lage is presented in Figure 2.

2.4.9 Household Interviews and Farm Sketches With the assistance of the village leaders, a few households will be randomly se­ lected from a section of each sub-village. The selected households should include those from among well-off, poor families and those headed by women. 22 Bioenergy options

\

iA \

o

SOIL Deposits Clay soil Clay soil Black loamy Brown soil Forest soil cotton soils

VEGETATION/ Water Natural Maize fields, Maize, rice Maize, rice Dense CROPS weed bushes rice fields, sunflower. sunflower. forest Grass and trees scattered Mango trees, Mango along mango coconut trees trees, the banks trees coconut trees

SETTLEMENT None Sparse None except Densely Densely None for scaring populated populated animals and (Village birds centre)

Irrigation Settlement Source of ACTIVITIES Fishing, Settlement, Settlement source of grazing, farming farming farming fuelwood water for charcoal humans making and cattle

Figure 2. Transect Sketch Of Kigonigoni Village.

The team should divide itself into smaller groups of two to four members. The smaller groups should also include extension staff from the districts but not necessarily village leaders. The groups should then visit the selected households, introduce themselves and explain to the households the purpose of their visits. In­ terviews should then be conducted with the adults who have the primary responsi­ bilities in the households. The interviews should be conducted using the checklist of important issues or topics prepared in advance for guidance. Where necessary respondents should be asked to elaborate or clarify on points of interest and rele­ vance. Additional information may be collected through on the spot observation and the use of indicators such as the quality of houses, ownership of property (e.g. radios, TVs, bicycles, sewing machines, etc.) and appearance of family members which would indicate the extent of wealth or poverty of the households. Farm sketches of the selected households will be prepared by the team members with the assistance of the heads of household. The farm sketches would include the farm layout, cropping patterns, crop diversity, stands of trees, posi­ tioning of buildings and storage. An example of a farm sketch from Shimbi Mashariki village in Rombo District is shown in Figure 3. The farms in this vil­ lage usually occupied relatively large area compared to those in villages higher up on the Mt. Kilimanjaro. Kauzeni, Masao, Sawe, Shechambo and Ellegard 23

\\\ \ . t f Maize f r \\ 0 Mango trees X r,v f 't-rt v ’*'• t" ti '\\ : • ' \ \ x i Housed Luceanea. trees. i Beans

: CO^°N' • '

\ Crops:

\ Scattered trees Acoccio Mixed forming two • ' .a-,- .r?-x' .*&< hectres

. - . 'SUnflower:/:.:. — • — Farm boundary \ S V----

Figure 3. Sketch of a farm in Shimbi Mashariki village.

2.4.10 Organisation of Emerging Issues After the above data gathering exercise is completed, a structure for analysis should be established. The research team and the district extension staff, a few representatives of villagers and groups’ representatives should meet to draw up preliminary lists of emerging issues and potential opportunities by organising the disaggregated information into manageable structures for the villagers to assess and to rank. Basic issues which the villagers raised during the entire exercise should be considered and all sources of collected data should be reviewed. In most cases the listing of the emerging issues should be by problem or sector e.g. water availability, land, health, famine, leadership and energy. At this stage the emerging issues should only be listed and no attempt should be made to weigh or to rank the information. Ranking and prioritisation should only be carried out by the villagers in their general meeting (PRA workshop).

2.4.11PRA Workshop A village general meeting of at most twenty five participants consisting of village leaders, key informants, representatives of common interest groups, village resi­ dents (both women and men), PRA team and District Extension Staff should be organised. In such a meeting, the following activities would be conducted: the process of data gathering, kinds of information that the villagers had provided to the team, and the key changes/trends emerging in the village should be reviewed. 24 Bioenergyoptions

Presentation of the emerging issues prepared earlier by the research team, District Extension Staff and a few village representatives should be carried out. The issues should be carefully presented to villagers for verification. Any new information should be included and corrections be made as agreed by the PRA workshop par­ ticipants. After the above presentation, the next step should be to prioritise and rank the emerging issues. The ranking of emerging issues may be carried out by a variety of ap­ proaches, ranging from use of formal “options assessment” to pair-wise ranking or to an open-ended discussions followed by voting or buying of options. Once the emerging issues/problems have been identified and listed the task of ranking them will follow. This is a major step whereby parties involved in PRA exercises will be given an opportunity to discuss and agree upon priorities. It also creates community awareness of an information base oriented towards the com­ munity and their needs. Ranking of issues/problems is done to set priorities given the limited re­ sources e.g. finance, labour, etc. Locally accepted criteria as well as externally identified factors such as environmental sustainability, stability, equity and pro­ ductivity, cost effectiveness, time taken to realise the benefit, social and technical feasibility are taken into consideration. In this way, PRA workshop will be able to draw out village perspectives on possibilities for each solution option and finally form a basis for developing the village development and resource management plan. The outcome of the ranking activity should be the agreement on the priorities for community action. The following are two explanation of how ranking of issues may be carried out using ranking by voting and pair-wise ranking methods.

2.4.12 Ranking by Voting After discussions of the emerging issues with the villagers, the villagers are re­ quested to rank issues by buying them using beans, stones or other tokens. Each villager is given several tokens (for instance three tokens per emerging issue). The tokens are considered as investment opportunities in solving the listed issues problems. Villagers are allowed to secretly distribute the tokens through voting in any way among the different lists of issues by putting the tokens in a closed con­ tainer representing one of the listed issues. A person could put all the tokens in only one, or could distribute them evenly with three tokens per issue if he or she may distribute the tokens in any ratio depending on how he/she feels about the is­ sue or problem. The number of tokens voted for each issue are counted and the results pre­ sented in a tabular form consisting of issues, number of tokens and prioritised rank. The outcome of the voting and ranking exercise are presented and approved by the villagers.

2.4.13 Paired Ranking Method To prepare a paired ranking of emerging issues use the sample ranking table as a model (Table 6). The emerging issues are listed on the top and left hand side of the matrix. Each open square represents a paired comparison of the points. For each comparison, ask the group which issue/problem they consider to be most im­ portant. The decision on the most important issue is made through voting. The voting can be an open hand-raising exercise or a confidential balloting. Record the Kauzeni, Masao, Sawe, Shechambo and Ellegard 25 results of voting in the appropriate square. When the comparison is completed, add horizontally the score for each issue. The issue scoring the highest vote is ranked first.

Table 6. Paired Ranking Matrix - Kelamfua Village. Issues Land Water Health Income Trans­ Energy Lead ­ Total Rank problem port ership vote Land 10 13 11 17 16 12 79 4 Water 15 10 15 16 18 11 86 1 Health 12 15 10 13 14 17 81 2 Income 14 10 15 12 16 13 80 3 Transport 8 9 12 13 10 14 56 6 Energy 9 7 11 9 15 16 67 5 Leadership 13 14 8 12 11 9 67 5

After the voting and ranking activities the exercise of giving potential solu­ tions options for each of the ranked problems and issues is conducted. The villag­ ers will propose potential solution options and also suggest who would be respon­ sible for the execution of the proposed solution options and indication of the time frame for execution.

2.5 Procedure for Analysis After Fieldwork After the above fieldwork exercise which includes a PRA workshop, further analysis should be carried out by the research team. This will involve detailed as­ sessment of the issues raised by the villagers in relation to the actual situation in each village. Capitalising on the knowledge and experience of research team members, additional potential solutions could be suggested, linking up the is­ sues/problems with solutions and how the sector under study - in this case bio­ energy - can address some of the problems and issues raised by villagers. Thereafter, specific recommendations for interventions related to the sector understudy will be made which may also contribute to addressing problems re­ lated to other sectors e.g. economic, social service provision and environment. Since PRA method requires the researchers to get feedback from the villag­ ers, it will be the responsibility of the research team after further analysis and sug­ gesting recommendations to go back to the villages for additional assessment and verification with villagers of the possible village-specific bioenergy options and their potential for solving major problems perceived by the villagers. After this feedback, assessment and verification, it may be possible to propose, together with the villagers, one or several projects in the study villages. Proposals for such proj­ ects should then be prepared in detail indicating clearly the roles, resource avail­ ability and activities which villagers can undertake with their own resources and those requiring external support during the implementation phase. 26 Bioenergy options

3 THE STUDY AREA The process of selecting a case study region or area for this project started by a literature review on bioenergy for most of the country, gathering secondary data and information from libraries, government and non-government institutions and individuals. After this literature review a number of criteria for the selection of a study area were formulated. Some of the criteria include: • Availability of baseline information on the region which include among others, the order of magnitude of the potential bioenergy needs based on end-uses, ecological zones, demography including population and its dis ­ tribution. • Severity of the energy problem based on energy supply and demand • Accessibility of the region from researchers’ residential region and ease of movement in the region when carrying out the in-depth study. • Absorption capacity potential of the bioenergy technologies by the com­ munities or an apparent near-term potential for implementing energy proj­ ects. • Replicability of the study and application of conclusions and recommenda­ tions derived from the study to other parts of Tanzania and the Eastern and Southern African Region as a whole. • The extent to which social-cultural values of the communities promote or hinder the adoption of bioenergy options. • Economic activities including small-scale industries, agriculture and households. These criteria were used to prepare a shortlist of a few possible study re­ gions. Out of the twenty administrative regions in Tanzania, only four candidate regions (Iringa, Tanga, Arusha and Kilimanjaro) were identified for further as­ sessment using the selection criteria already formulated. The screening exercise of the remaining four regions continued until the Kilimanjaro Region was finally se­ lected. Two districts in the region were then selected, Rombo in the north east, and Mwanga district in the centre of the region. Three villages were selected in each of the districts, as representative of different ecological zones as possible.

3.1 Kilimanjaro Region The Kilimanjaro Region is located on the North Eastern part of Mainland Tanza­ nia just South of the equator. It borders Kenya in the North, Tanga Region in the East and Arusha Region in the West. It is divided into five districts; that is Rombo District, Hai District, Moshi Rural District, Mwanga District and Same District. The total surface area is 13,309 km 2. About 23 percent is cultivated land, 33 per cent grazing land, 10.6 percent forest land while 35 percent is arid land in­ cluding the Kilimanjaro mountain. Forest area covers 1,402 km 2 (which is 10.6 percent of the land). The altitude varies from 600 meters in the low lands up to 5,895 meters at the highest peak of Mount Kilimanjaro. The majority of the population is settled at between 1,000-1,800 meters. The population was projected at 1,202,226 in 1992 and at 1,230,100 in 1993. About 85 percent of the population is settled in the rural areas. Average population density is estimated to be 89 persons per km 2, while population densi ­ ties are as high as 700 persons per km 2 in the zone between 1,100 - 1,800 meters. The main activity is agriculture including dairy keeping (e.g. cattle and sheep keeping, pigs and goats). Dominant food crops are bananas, maize and beans. Kauzeni, Masao, Sawe, Shechambo and Ellegard 27

Figure 4. Kilimanjaro Region: Location of Study Districts.

3.2 The Study Villages In this study, the final selection of the study villages started by conducting a pre­ liminary survey/literature review on bioenergy issues in all potential study areas by the research team. Secondary data and information were collected from librar ­ ies, government and non-government institutions as well as from knowledgeable individuals. After a preliminary survey/literature review, a provisional list of crite­ ria to guide the final selection of sty villages was prepared. Finally the research team sat together with the Area Authorities to make the final list of criteria and to use of them in the final selection of study villages. The criteria used in making the final selection of study villages were: • Availability of baseline information which include among others, the order of magnitude of the potential bioenergy needs based on end-uses, diversity of ecological zones, demography including population and its distribution; 28 Bioenergy options

• Severity of the energy problem based on energy supply and demand imbal ­ ance, etc.; • Reasonable accessibility of the villages and logistical convenience for car­ rying out the in-depth study; • Availability and accessibility to adequate basic resource e.g. biomass, land, water, livestock, extension services, etc.; • Reliability and commitment of local leadership to development; • Potential for the development of agricultural, agro-processing and small- scale industries; • Existence of small-scale industries and other development programmes re­ lated to bioenergy; • Existence of social-cultural values of the communities which can promote or hinder the adoption of bioenergy options. Selection of the study villages can be done on proactive or reactive basis. One possibility is that the Area Authority, after identifying a village community that requires development assistance, can approach the development agency to provide that assistance. A given community or village can also make a request for development assistance. Finally, an external development agency can make some initiatives in providing development assistance to the community without being requested by the community concerned. In a situation whereby selection of a study village is dictated by certain con­ ditions, then, a visit to the potential study villages should be made by the study team. The study team should make full use of the knowledge and experience of extension staff and other field workers in the area.

3.3 Rombo District The district borders the republic of Kenya in the North East, Hai District in the North West and Moshi Rural district in the South. The total surface area is 1482 km 2 with a population density of 136 persons per km 2. The district can be divided into upper Rombo and Lower Rombo. Upper Rombo covers the slopes of the Kilimanjaro mountain while lower Rombo lies in the eastern lowland part of the district. The district rises from 800 meters in lower Rombo up to 2,500 meters in upper Rombo. Upper Rombo experiences high rainfall and has therefore a good number of water resources, e.g. rivers and springs which provide water throughout the year. Lower Rombo experiences less rain and suffers from water problems, especially during the dry season. Agriculture is the main economic activity in Rombo district. Main crops cultivated are coffee and bananas in upper Rombo, and maize and beans in lower Rombo. Other activities are forestry and livestock keeping especially in lower Rombo. There is zero grazing in upper Rombo where there is high population density. Vegetation varies with altitude and amount of rain. Upper Rombo is covered by Miombo trees which are green almost throughout the year while lower Rombo is covered by grass during the rain season. The land in lower Rombo is almost bare during the dry season.

3.3.1 Kelamfua Village The villagers themselves drew the Kelamfua Village map (Figure 5) showing the location of the village in the middle ecological zone on the slopes of Mount Kili­ Kauzeni, Masao, Sawe, Shechamboand Ellegard 29 manjaro. Kelamfua village which covers an area of about 271.92 ha is shown to share the boundary with Mokala Village in the West, Ibukoni Village in the East, Ubaa Village in the North and Makiidi Village in the South. The village is divided into three sub-villages, namely: Mahembeni, Mkuu Mjini and Ng’ambeni. Each sub-village has a Chairman who takes care of the administrative duties of the sub­ village and reports to the Village Chairman and the Village Council. The whole of the low land-ecological zone and part of middle ecological zone of the village are relatively flat. The vegetation cover in these areas are mainly grass and widely scattered trees and shrubs. The remaining part of the middle ecological zone and the whole of the high ecological zone of the village have relatively steep slopes to gentle slopes. These areas are covered with coffee and banana trees interplanted with exotic tree species for shade and wind break. They are also used for fuelwood, as well as for timber used for furniture making and as building materials. The high and middle land ecological zones are heavily populated. The soil is of volcanic origin. It is a red sandy loam with gravel. Origi­ nally soils on the highland and middle land ecological zones were very fertile. Historically, Kelamfua village is described by villagers as a traditional vil­ lage i.e. it was established before the villagisation programme of the 1970s. The human population has always been growing fast and exerting increasing pressure on the available resources e.g. land, forests and water. Sizes of farm plots have been decreasing year after year due to sub-division of farm plots among male members of the family after the death of their father. The village has been experiencing high rates of out migration of its residents par­ ticularly the young men and women in search of land or employment outside vil­ lage, district and even outside the region. Crop production (e.g. coffee) per unit of land has been decreasing or de­ clining due to depletion of soil fertility and also due to crop pests and disease.

3.3.2 Maharo Village Maharo is one of the villages located in the high-ecological zone on the slopes of mount Kilimanjaro. The village is one among 57 registered villages in the district. It borders on Mokala and Kelamfua Village in the North and Makiidi Village in the East. The southern part of the village borders on Shimbi Kati Village and to the West lies the district council forest (a half mile strip). The village has an area of 350 hectares with 697 households and 6719 people. These figures imply an av­ erage land ownership of 0.5 hectares per household. The villagers of this area are the Wachaga tribe and they are all citizens by birth. 30 Bioenergyoptions

TO NOK A l A V I.L L A « E

M 0 K A L A

M A H E

M K U U M J

M K U U M J I N

boundary. .—Sub-Village boundary- -Other tracts ■ ■

Figure 5. Sketch Map of Kelamfua Village in Rombo District.

The village is situated on the south-east slopes of Mawenzi peak. It has steep slopes on the western side and a fairly flat area down the slope. The area situated in the highland zone of the district (between 1500 - 1800 metres above sea level). Figure 6 shows a sketch map of Maharo Village. The average temperature is estimated to be 14SC. It has two rain seasons “Vuli”(short rains) from October to December and “Masika” (long rains) from February to July. Kauzeni, Masao, Sawe, Shechambo and Ellegard 31

I \ !

M R I /M A S H A

MOKALA VILLAGE

H A W y H I

M A K l l D I

Village boundary.—. ^—Sub-Village boundary. Main road,

Figure 6. Sketch Map of Maharo Village in Rombo District.

The soil consists of sand loam, with a percentage of gravel and stones. As in other parts of Kilimanjaro, the soils in Maharo are of the volcanic type which are very fertile, but the area is also prone to soil erosion. Maharo village is a traditional village in the sense that it was not a creation of the “Ujamaa” policy but has been in existence since pre-colonial times. Like other villages in Rombo, it shares the same history. Each small village used to have its own chief (“Lamwai”) before the chiefdoms were centralised in 1800 un­ der Chief Horombo. After Horombo’s death in 1830, the centralised chiefdom split again into smaller chiefdoms. With the establishment of Rombo District in 1970 and the villagisation policy of 1972-1975, many of the traditional villages acquired the status of registered “development” village, even when there was no resettlement of population. The registration number of Maharo Village was KM /VC / 252 in 1975.

3.3.3 Shimbi Mashariki Village Shimbi Mashariki Village is located in the lowland ecological zone of the Shimbi Ward, Rombo District. The village borders on Makiidi Village and the Kifu- nika/Nana valley along the northern boundary. This valley extends eastwards, where together with the Republic of Kenya it makes up the boundary on the east­ 32 Bioenergy options ern side. The Shia valley separating this village from Mengwe Division meanders along the southern border, with Shimbi Kati Village in the west. Figure shows a sketch map of the village which was drawn during the village leaders meeting. Shimbi Mashariki covers an area of 1150 hectares with a population of 3354 people. It is divided into three sub-villages Mlambai, Mookoro and Munga. Each sub-village has a chairman and reports to the village who heads the village coun­ cil. According to the map, the village elevation is around 900 m (a.s.l.) near the Kenya border and around 1500 m (a.s.l.) on the border of Shimbi Kati village, along the main upper road from Moshi to Mkuu. In the lower part of Shimbi Mashariki, from the Rombo lower road to the Kenya border, mostly seasonal crops are grown. This area suffers from regular droughts which often affect crop production. At the time of the survey the village had no map, and therefore the initial sketch of the village map was prepared by the district extension staff, the village executive officer and a few village representatives. During the village leaders meeting several complementary ideas were given to improve the map. Other vil­ lage leaders provided guidance on such matters as the correct position of bounda­ ries and other site-specific details. The map (Figure ) indicated topographical data, slope, drainage, valleys, rivers etc. Infrastructure and social services such as roads, schools, health facilities water pipes, market places and industries were also indi­ cated. The village’s southern and northern borders consists of Nana River, Ibuk- wini Village, Shia River and Alemi Chini Village respectively and these are the only rivers within reach of the village. The border between Kenya and Tanzania marks the eastern border of the village and the western border is marked by the main upper road and Shimbi Kati Village. Notable infrastructure and social serv­ ices shown on the village map include: • Water pipes running from Shimbi Kati to the central part of the village, it was explained that the pipes have been dry since the early eighties. • Two dry tap water tanks and other smaller tanks for rain water harvest. • A cattle dip located in the Mookoro sub-village area. The dip is no longer in use due to lack of repair and maintenance. • An abandoned stone crusher located at the border between Munga and Mlambai sub-village area as a reminder of the transience of development co-operation. Although people started settling in the Shimbi Mashariki lowlands in the early 1950s, the village was formally registered on May 28th, 1976 and was given the village registration number KM/KV/273. Most of the migrants to Shimbi Mashariki Village came from the upper villages of Maharo, Shimbi Kati, Kelam- fua etc. following population increase and land scarcity in these villages. The vil­ lagers used to be allocated land by the traditional chiefs before the chiefdom sys­ tem was abolished in 1963 by the Government. By 1961 most of the land in Shimbi Mashariki had already been allocated. Kauzeni, Masao, Sawe, Shechambo and Ellegard 33

Figure 7. Sketch Map of Shimbi Mashariki Village in Rombo District. 34 Bioenergy options

The village land was also allocated to some families living in the upper vil­ lages. Some of them still continue to own farms in Shimbi Mashariki but reside in the upper villages of Maharo, Shimbi Kati and Kelamfua etc. where climate, water availability and soil fertility are more favourable for human settlement. Due to the continuous increase of population and subsequent land scarcity in the upper vil­ lages more people continue to settle in Shimbi Mashariki from the upper villages.

3.4 Mwanga District Mwanga District lies between latitude 36.5° and 38° East and longitude 3° to 4° South. The District is bordered by Moshi Rural District in the North, Same Dis­ trict in the South, the republic of Kenya in the East and riverPangani in the West. (See Figure 4.) The total surface area is 2170 km 2 with a population of 45 people per km 2. The district can be divided into lowland areas and high land areas. In the low lands the temperature is between 25°C and 31°C and the rainfall is 500 mm per annum. In the highlands the temperature is between 18.9°C and 26.4°C while the rainfall is 750 mm to 1000 mm per annum. Mwanga District has two main rivers, that is Ruru and Kisangiro which enter Nyumba ya Mungu Dam and run parallel to the Moshi Dar Es Salaam road. Agriculture is the main economic activity in the district. In the lowlands of the Southern part crops like rice, maize, bananas, sugar cane sisal and beans grow. These crops fare well because of the alluvial type of soil found and suitable tem­ perature and rainfall regime. In the western lowlands, sisal, cotton, simsim, cas­ sava and beans are grown. In the Ugweno and Usangi Highlands where there is plenty of rainfall and low temperature, crops like coffee, bananas, potatoes, sugarcane, fruits and onions grow very well. The mountain foot zone supports food crops like maize, bananas, beans, peas, rice and vegetables, and cash crops like coffee, cotton, sugar can and sisal. The Western part of the district e.g. the area surrounding Nyumba ya Mungu Dam, is covered with forests, such as the Maramba, Minja, Kileo and Kindoroko Forest Reserves. The Eastern part of the district consists of lowland areas which have less rainfall and vegetation cover. This area is bordered by Mkomazi Game Reserve.

3.4.1 Chomvu Village During PRA workshop members of the Chomvu Village council drew a map of the village showing its location in relation to the surrounding villages (figure 8) in the high land ecological zone of the Pare mountains. On average, the village is about 1380 m.a.s.l. The village shares the boundary with Mshewa Village in the East, Kimbale Village in the West, Lomwe Village in the North, Ndorwe Village and Kindoroko Forest Reserve in the South. The village occupies an area of about 3 km 2 and is divided into four sub-villages i.e. Chomvu Juu, Chomvu Kati, Mwerera and Sereni. Each sub-village has a Chairman who looks after the admin­ istrative aspects of the sub-village and reports to the Village Chairman and the Village Council. Chomvu Village is divided into three parts based on topography, altitude and vegetation cover. The areas on highest altitude (1792 m.a.s.l.) have very steep slopes and are covered with natural vegetation. These areas are left as natural forest reserves and are not suitable for cultivation and habitation. Kauzeni, Masao, Sawe, Shechambo and Ellegard 35

Kindoroko Fores t Reserve

NDORWE C H 0 H V. VILLAGE

iMWERERA

C H 0 ,V U K A T I

LOMWE VILLAGE Village iaery—------Sub-VMege boundary. .... Main reod^-^™«Terreee Mmnaa MPUN6l(Clan Forest Reserve)

Figure 8. Sketch Map of Chomvu Village in Mwanga District.

The second highest areas or middle land ecological zone are fairly or moder­ ately steep and covered with exotic trees and indigenous trees. These areas are fairly densely populated. Farming and livestock keeping are practised in this zone. The lower parts of the village are fairly rugged with deep narrow valleys and mainly covered by planted trees. These are moderately good for farming and live­ stock keeping. These parts of the village are very highly populated. Chomvu is a traditional village established before the villagisation pro­ gramme of 1970s. The name of the village “Chomvu” was derived from the name of the clan called “Chomvu” which originally settled in the northern part of the present village. Later on other clans joined the Chomvu clan and then established Chomvu Village. The village was officially registered in 1977 as an Ujamaa or 36 Bioenergy options

Development Village under the Ujamaa Village Registration and Designation Act of 1975.

3.4.2 Kagongo Village Kagongo Village is located in Lang’ata ward in Mwanga Division. It is one of the 58 villages in Mwanga District, the village is located 21 km south west of Mwanga Town which is the district headquarters. The village borders Bora Vil­ lage to the North, Lwami and Nyabinda village to the South. To the west the vil­ lage border is formed by the Nyumba ya Mungu Reservoir (figure 9). Kagongo Village lies in the Western lowlands of North Pare Mountains at an altitude ranging between 700 to 1000m. above sea level, (m.a.s.l.). The village lies on the leeward side of the mountain, as a result it receives little rain and the area is semi-arid. The village receives some rain in the months of March, April and May. During these months the rainfall amount is less than 150 mm. The months of July, August and September are very dry. Despite the poor weather conditions, the village has sustained a substantial livestock population and fishing industry. Kagongo Village was established in 1966 following the construction of the Nyumba ya Mungu hydro-electricity plant (in 1964-1966) which resulted in the formation of a reservoir where it was possible to catch fish. Prior to the construc­ tion of the dam there was no permanent settlement in the village except for very few huts built by Maasai herdsmen who where shifting from one place to another. At that time fishing was done along Pangani River by a few people. Following the construction of the dam and the formation of a reservoir, peo­ ple migrated from various parts of the country and also from Kenya. The migra­ tion led to the formation of a village which was named Langata. In the early 1970s more than half of the village population were of the Luo tribe from Kenya. Others were Ngoni, Rundi and Pare. Most of the migrants came from Lake Jipe. Bora and Kagongo were initially one village, but they were divided in the late 1970s to form separate villages. When the villages were divided the Kagongo Primary School was built, as well as a Roman Catholic Church dispensary. Presently, the Kagongo Village has a mixed population consisting of more than 30 different tribes. The village population, especiallythat of Luo from Kenya, has declined considerably due to reduced fish availability and government restric­ tions on foreigners residing in the area. The entire village area is almost flat with little gentle sloping towards the reservoir. There are no permanent rivers flowing through the village, although a number of dry river trenches can be seen within the village. During the long rain­ fall, water from various water catchment areas located some distances from the village flows through the river trenches to the Dam.

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tivity Figure sandy Village boundary------Sub-Village boundary...... Main road——Other tracks — ——Health Centre-NC. 01*)ensary.0. Church-Ch. School-Sth. 38 Bioenergy options the exercise provided a visible concrete output. The preparation of the village map was considered a good start as it proved to be a good way of getting the village leaders actively involved. The map also functioned as an effective pictorial and symbolic presentation of information and formed a central element of participa­ tory analysis and needs identification. The village map indicated areas with ade ­ quate or inadequate infrastructure, social services and also the natural resources found in the village as well as prevailing environmental conditions. The village map indicates that Kagongo Village has natural borders of sea­ sonal rivers on three of its four sides. The seasonal rivers form the Northern, Southern and Eastern borders. The western border consists of Nyumba ya Mungu Reservoir. The village is roughly divided into two halves by one main road leav­ ing the village to Mwanga Town, other feeder roads connect to this main road. The village is divided into four sub-village areas; Kiwanja, Mashine, Barafu and Lang’ata Ndogo. A majority of the village population is settled in Mashine and Barafu sub-village areas which lie along the main road. A large portion of the village consists of depleted public forest.

3.4.3 Kigonigoni Village Kigonigoni village is found on the eastern side of North Pare Mountains. It bor­ ders on Butu ya Ugweno Village in the North, Kwakoa village in the South and Toloha in the South East. To the West lies the Usangi highlands and to the East it borders on the Republic of Kenya and Lake Jipe. Administratively, the village is located within Kwakoa ward in Usangi Division. Kigonigoni Village lies in the Eastern lowlands with an altitude range be ­ tween 700- 1000m above sea level. Being situated on the windward side of the mountain range, Kigonigoni Village receives moderate amounts of rainfall. The village land is almost flat except at the western side where the steep slope of Usangi Highlands is found. A number of streams flow from the highlands to Lake Jipe during high rain­ fall. The Kirurumo River in the north forms the village boundary with Butu ya Ugweno Village. This river is the source of water used for irrigation in the village. The Lake is the source of water for domestic consumption to the Ruru people and also provides fish. The River Mvureni which forms the border with Kwakoa Vil­ lage runs to the south. On the western side of the village, soils are generally loamy while on the East they are mainly clay soils which are difficult to cultivate. When these soil types dry up, they form a very hard surface with many cracks. A transect line from Lake Jipe upwards towards the mountains indicates clay soils followed by black loamy cotton soils, brown soils on the upper part of the village and black forest soils on the slopes of Usangi Mountains. Kauzeni, Masao, Sawe, Shechambo and Ellegard 39

International boundary > VHIege boundary ____Sub-Village boundary...... Main road.

Figure 10. Sketch Map of Kigonigoni Village in Mwanga District

The Kigonigoni area has been settled since the 1920’s. However, as a vil­ lage, it was formed by people from former Ruru village and people from the highlands. In 1969 it became a communal village and in 1972 turned into a per­ manent development village under the villagisation programme. In this period people from various places were forced to live together to form permanent settle­ ments. Among the people who were affected by this policy of villagisation were those from Ruru and Butu ya Usangi. This policy, however, did not succeed en­ tirely as planned because some people who resisted to move were left where they were. The current village is formed out of four sub-villages: Butu ya Usangi, Kigonigoni Ruru and Kwakihindi. 40 Bioenergy options

4 MAJOR FINDINGS OF THE STUDY 4.1 Methodology Testing The multidisciplinary and participatory method developed in this project focuses on active involvement of local people in the overall development needs identification and planning process. It is first and foremost concerned with the values and key principles which should guide the behaviour and attitudes of the development agen­ cies when they intervene in the development process of a community. Energy issues, in particular bioenergy, were given special emphasis throughout the methodology testing period. Fieldwork which included PRA and the analysis carried out in the study villages was followed by further analysis of the main findings after the fieldwork. The aim of the analysis was to assess village specific issues, solutions and options suggested by the villagers during the field work activities. Using the research team knowledge and experience, and taking into consideration the actual field situation, additional solution options and rec­ ommendations were provided. The analysis also contributed in the identification of policy implications and options related to the needs and potential of the studied villages. On the basis of the results of testing the developed method and analysis of the field work findings, it is evident that identified bioenergy options will apply specifically only for specific area as no local situation is similar to the other. The field work results confirm that local communities differ widely according to eco­ logical zones, socio-economic stratification, leadership, development experience, etc. The application of this methodology (PRA) has enabled the research team to capture social issues which influence the adoption of bioenergy options more than could be captured by applying conventional research methods. These issues in­ clude e.g. linking the history of the village to the present, knowledge of significant events, discerning daily routines and annual calendars. This knowledge is useful when considering the introduction of new technologies. A major output from the studies was the ranking of emerging issues in order of importance in the villages. Since the identification of issues was based on in- depth discussions, interviews and deliberations in the respective village meetings, the definition ofthe identified issues were different in the villages. The methods used for ranking the issues were also different. The result of this ranking proce­ dure, which took place in the final village meeting, is presented in Table 7. A large amount of specific information on the village conditions was gathered in ad­ dition to this. This has been presented in other project reports (See page 70). The emerging issues were related to problems of leadership, water, land access, educa­ tion, health, income earning opportunities, agricultural inputs, transport and access to credit. The prioritisation of issues, problems and suggested solutions in the vil­ lages clearly reflected the village’s specific differences. In all the upper ecological zone villages (Maharo, Kelamfua in Rombo District and Chomvu in Mwanga District) water is plenty, land is scarce and the population is very dense. In the lowland ecological zone villages (Shimbi Mashariki in Rombo District, Kagongo and Kigonigoni in Mwanga District) water availability is a serious problem, land is not a major problem and the population density is low. Kauzeni, Masao, Sawe, Shechambo and Ellegard Women Men 11 10 Rank 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 b a issue meeting. Table Wood/fuel Land Leadership

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In the following sections, the findings of the field studies are discussed. In section 4.1.1-4.1.6 the discussion is based on over-reaching issues including en­ ergy, social economic and policy issues. Section 4.2 gives a brief summary of pos­ sible bioenergy options, and income-generating activities that could be linked to energy services are presented in section 4.3. Finally the bioenergy options are linked to the village-specific conditions, and possible projects are outlined in sec­ tion 4.4. After the research team had analysed the PRA results and prepared additional recommendations, another field trip to the study villages was organised. The purpose of the visit was to present, the main findings and recommendations to the village gov­ ernments and allow villagers to comment upon the findings and propose implementa­ tion plans for those recommendations which they have accepted. The outcome of this feedback process is presented in section 4.5.

4.1.1 Energy Issues A common feature found during the PRA workshop in all the six villages is the low ranking of energy issues as a whole. It was only in Kelamfua that energy was ranked among the first three priority issues. In Kagongo energy was ranked fourth among eight issues while in Kigonigoni woodfuel was ranked as number seven out of eight. In Chomvu, Maharo and Shimbi Mashariki, woodfuel was ranked last. This low ranking of energy issues at the village PRA workshop is in contrast to results of household interviews (especially with women) which indicated that firewood was indeed a serious problem. On individual basis, households have de­ veloped a number of responses to the firewood problems. In Kagongo where fire­ wood is also used for fish-smoking, men are also involved in the collection of firewood by using carts and vehicles as far as 10 kilometres and beyond.

Figure 11. Firewood Pile in Kigonigoni Village. Kauzeni, Masao, Sawe, Shechambo and Ellegard 43

In all villages the use of crop and animal feed residues for fuel is common whereas a few people are beginning to use improved stoves, e.g. saw-dust stoves at Maharo and charcoal stoves at Kigonigoni. The villagers have realised that such responses to the energy problem cannot be addressed jointly at the village level. As a result, the village general meetings were more concerned with issues of lead ­ ership, water, transport, education, health and medical care, income earning op­ portunities and the marketing of agricultural inputs and outputs. It was found that in all the villages, household energy (fuel for cooking and lighting) was the main energy related issue. Collection of firewood, fetching water and cooking were tasks that were normally carried out by women and children. During the household interviews, it was observed that women were particularly affected by lack of adequate woodfuel. Women and children (in some villages men also) spent three to five hours traveling more than five kilometres (Maharo, Shimbi Mashariki and Kelamfua) to collect only enough firewood for a day ’s cooking for a household of five to six people, as reported by the villagers. The long time required for short distances reflects the mountainous terrain in those ar­ eas where wood is collected - e.g. Chomvu, Kelamfua, Kigonigoni and Maharo. It must be assumed the time women spent collecting firewood detracts them from the time they are able to spend caring for their children, water collection, per­ forming agricultural tasks, or engaging in income-generating activities. Firewood is usually collected together with other tasks such as collection of grass for the cattle, walking back from the fields to prepare food etc. Female heads of house­ holds are particularly affected because they have more tasks to undertake with less money to buy firewood and less time to collect it.

Figure12. Brickmaking in Kigonigoni. 44 Bioenergy options

Small scale industries found in the study villages such as carpentry, sewing, grain milling and workshops utilised human energy and in a few places used elec­ tricity but rarely used large amounts of energy. However, some industries such as brick-making in Kigonigoni, pottery production in Chomvu, fish-smoking in Ka- gongo and beer brewing in almost all villages were found to use considerable amounts of woodfuel. With the exception of the Kagongo and Kelamfua villages where energy is­ sues were of higher priority, in most other villages energy issues were low priority items on the community agenda, although it was observed that the energy issue was a serious problem at the household level. A possible reason for this could have been that people consider energy issues to be a private matter, and not something to be solved at the community level. It was also suggested that it might have been due to energy issues being considered a “woman’s problem” and women were generally underrepresented at the PRA workshop (community meet­ ings) organised by the research team (See last row of Table 7, page 41). However, the procedure used for ranking (except in Kelamfua and Maharo villages) Was constructed so that it would have been possible for minority groups to make an impression on the outcome if they were feeling especially strongly about a certain issue. This was even more apparent in Chomvu, where the woodfuel issue did not receive a single vote in the meeting. Also the representation of women at the Chomvu meeting was the highest of all the villages (39%). The reasons for this result could lie in the fact that the villagers have a natural forest reserve which has been sub-divided among the households of Chomvu. Each household takes care of its plot and harvests wood from it. Also the people of Chomvu practice agrofores­ try to a great extent. Therefore they have a reliable supply of firewood and conse­ quently do not feel that firewood is a problem. This could explain the zero votes for fuelwood problems. While household fuel use issues may constitute serious energy problems in certain areas, the application of modem and advanced bioenergy options at the household level is rarely feasible. The advantage of modem forms of energy (gas, electricity) for rural households do not outweigh the costs of installations on such a small scale. Instead, the energy options at the household level identified to con­ sist of measures to improve access to fuelwood and the introduction of improved stoves in some areas, and biogas for those who can afford. For advanced bioenergy options e.g. gasification, ethanol and briquettes production to be feasible, it was determined that these must be linked to solving the major problems perceived in the villages, such as income earning activities or provision of water. If the use of bioenergy could be directly (and economically profitable in competition with other energy sources) linked to income earning ac­ tivities, then there would be an economic advantage of applying them. A discus­ sion on potential energy technologies and their linkage to the problems of the vil­ lages is presented in the sections below.

4.1.2 Social Issues Leadership as one of the human or social factors can influence rural development positively or negatively depending on its qualities or characteristics. In many villages e.g. Kelamfua, Maharo, Kigonigoni, and Chomvu leadership was found to be a prob­ lem which has often lead to the failureof communal/collective/co-operativeor village government economic ventures. In most of these villages the leadership lacked com­ mitment towards development, was inactive, lacked motivation, was not willing to Kauzeni, Masao, Sawe, Shechambo and Ellegard 45 listen to what villagers said and it lacked transparency regarding projects. On the con­ trary if the leadership is pro-development, responsible, committed and ambitious, it will motivateand mobilise villagers to participate in village developmentactivities and make these activities to succeed. For instance, if such leadership is aware of bioenergy options and the contribution these can make to development it can initiate projects of bioenergy options and see to their success. One of the reasons for the failure of many communal/collective/govemment owned and managed project was lack of effective involvement of villagers in planning and initiation or establishment of projects. Projects were imposed on villagers from above by leaders and experts from outside the villages. This situa­ tion did not inculcate the necessary sense of ownership in villagers. For any de ­ velopment project to succeed it has to be a people’s project and must originate from the people. Some activities or projects that apparently started off as commu­ nity projects in some study villages were not community projects in the sense that they were not conceived, planned and executed by the villagers themselves. So, any bioenergy intervention imposed on villagers from above outside the village is doomed to failure. There was an apparent lack of awareness of modem bioenergy options in all the study villages. Many villagers had never heard of or seen a biogas plant or im­ proved cookstoves. It is not possible to consider a bioenergy option if you are not aware of it. For the adoption and diffusion of bioenergy option to take place, one of the requirements is the availability of information on the option to the village leadership and villagers in general. In the policies guiding education, health and other social services, greater emphasis has been placed on community involvement in the provision, ownership and management of infrastructures as well as the introduction of cost sharing ar­ rangements. Communities are encouraged to take greater responsibility for their own welfare. From the past experience in Tanzania the management of communal infrastructures and project has often not been good. It now appears that projects or technologies should be owned and managed by individuals and not by the com­ munity or village government in order to have a chance to succeed. Another factor which may hinder the adoption of bioenergy options is the is­ sue of land tenure and ownership of bioenergy resources such as trees. In all the study villages, and in Tanzania as a whole, land is owned and controlled by men. Any decisions to use land e.g. for tree planting has to be approved by them. This may hinder women from making independent decisions over the use of land. Also the ownership of trees is vested in men although women do participate in planting and taking care of the trees. Shortage of land is indeed a constraint to the adoption of bioenergy options that require committing land to other uses e.g. tree planting. This is particularly true in the upper densely populated villages such Maharo, Ke- lamfua and Chomvu. The findings of the study underscore the centrality of other gender issues which should be taken into account when considering the introduction of bio­ energy technologies and options in the study villages and indeed elsewhere. In all the study villages, it was revealed that women do not own land, livestock or trees but they access these resources through men e.g. husbands, fathers or brothers. This means that women have limited decision making powers over the acquisition, use and disposal of land, livestock and trees. This problem is particularly serious for unmarried women and widows. 46 Bioenergy options

In some cases however, women have some leeway in the control of certain products. Whereas they may not be directly involved in decisions over sale of cof­ fee and other cash crops, they do control food crops, animal products such as milk, cowdung etc. and small animals e.g. chicken, small ruminants etc. The role of women in the upkeep of cattle and the disposal of cowdung gives them a special importance when biogas is considered as bioenergy option. Also whereas decisions to plant or not to plant trees may lie with men, the use of trees for woodfuel is the responsibility of women. This has an important bearing in matters concerning improved stoves and other technologies that aim at efficient use of woodfuel. The study results also show that women’s workloads are heavier than men’s. This suggests that any new bioenergy interventions should seek to reduce and not increase the workload of women. For example biogas plants could be convenient for women who are already handling cowdung without extra effort. The use of gas will reduce the workload of collecting firewood. In all the study villages the phenomenon of youth migration especially of men is common. This implies is that more and more women have to taken on activities that would have been undertaken by men. Also the number of female headed households is increasing in the villages.

4.1.3 Economic Issues One of the most important issues raised by the villagers was lack of income earning opportunities. The results of this study suggest that bioenergy options cannot be con­ sidered in isolation from the context of economic development. Poverty was wide ­ spread in most villages. In some villages e.g. Chomvu residents did admit that they were aware of the existence of some bioenergy technologies and have seen them, for instance biogas and improved cookstoves, but were unable to adopt them due to their high investment costs which villagers cannot afford. Being aware of the existence of bioenergy option or technology alone is not enoughfor its adoption. This must be cou­ pled with financial affordability of the adopter, hence, the need for financial capability to install or purchase the technology. In the prevailing financial situation in the village the adoption of some bioenergy options by villagers can be made possible by making credit facilities accessible to the villagers from the government or by getting loans from NGOs and other organisations. Another possible alternative is to encourage in­ ternational co-operation agencies to direct grants or part of their assistance directly to the villages concerned. However for such direct grants to villages to achieve the de ­ sired result, a number of conditions have to be put in place. These include good village leadership, good government supervision, skilled personnel for project and financial management and good planning. Credit capital should under no circumstance be seen as “gift” or “aid ”. All credits should be repayable and the minimum requirement should be that interest which is at par with inflation.

4.1.4 Endowment of Natural Resources Bioenergy options are area-specific.. There is a very strong and direct link between energy use and the environment. For example, unsustainable utilisation of biomass resources contributes to environmental degradation whereas afforestation helps to in­ crease the availability of biomass. Therefore, afforestation may be seen as one of the bioenergy options is very appropriate in an area where large amounts of biomass is required as a source of energy. Bioenergy technologies which make it possible to use biomass more efficiently, such as improved stoves and kilns, are other examples. Kauzeni, Masao, Sawe, Shechambo and Ellegard 47

Given the ecological variations witnessed in the study villages which often dictate availability of the resources in the area concerned. For instance, in an area where there is easy availability of biomass or livestock is zero-grazed, biogas as a bioenergy option could be considered.

4.1.5 Institutional Issues The presence of institutions that can render services or offer skills and expertise in construction/installation, repair or training related or relevant to bioenergy technolo­ gies will positively affect the adoption and diffusion of the technologies. The existence of financial institutions is, as mentioned above, also of great importance. With respect to general extension services that could provide know-how and information on proce­ dures and technologies, the system in Tanzania is generally well developed, at least in theory. When it comes to the real situation, the system is often hampered by a serious lack of resources, such as background information material, communication facilities, stationery and transport. Even if there is trained and dedicated manpower available, their opportunities to assist is severely restricted by such constraints.

4.1.6 Policy Issues There are indications that barriers exists to effective bioenergy interventions at the policy level rather than at the project level. Some of the policies referred to in this context include fiscal policies (e.g. prices, taxes, subsides, credits, etc.) and techno­ logical policies. Efficient improvement policies; land use and land tenure policies and environmental trade-off policies such as using crop residues as fuel compare with its use as fodder for livestock. Some aspects of community development policies with a bearing on the foundation of private enterprises were mentioned previously. One of the fundamental ingredients for successful adoption of the potential bioenergy options is a set of policies that influence the adoption of the options. The adoption of a particular bioenergy option will largely depend on prevailing policies. Certain policies could be directly or indirectly in favour of or in disfavour of the adoption of particular option(s) e.g. policies governing the extension of credits and loans. If lending policies set a high collateral which most farmers can­ not afford, then it will be difficult for people to acquire loans for adopting modem bioenergy option technologies. There is therefore great need for analysis of such policies in order to suggest modification(s) or changes if necessary or to recom­ mend new policies that will enhance or be conducive to the adoption of the identi­ fied potential option(s).

4.2 Summary of Bioenergy Options The major bioenergy options considered in the study villages are presented in this sec­ tion. While it is clear that the options are by no means exhaustive, the following are the options considered most feasible. Further work should involve a greater detail into the possible options. These were taken back to the villages for further discussions.

4.2.1 Improved Stoves The major use of bioenergy in rural Tanzania is for cooking, and the most common way of cooking is on the traditional three-stone fire place. Improving the efficiency of cooking through the use of improved stoves might reduce the time spent collect­ ing firewood, and the amount of firewood needed. At the same time, production of improved stoves might constitute an income-earning opportunity and a source of employment for people in certain rural areas. The main advantages with improved 48 Bioenergyoptions stoves are that the technology requires raw materials that are available locally. The skills required in making improved stoves are found in some villages or in a nearby village. The technology has no adverse environment impact. There is also a market for the final product.

4.2.2 Improved Charcoal Production Techniques The second most common fuel for cooking in Tanzania is charcoal. Charcoal is pre­ dominantly used in the urban areas due to its convenience and high energy/mass ra­ tio. It is always produced in rural areas through the traditional earth mound kilns. It is produced where there is enough wood for this activity, and constitutes an impor­ tant source of income for rural people. Improving the techniques used in charcoal production would increase the income earned. This bioenergy option is feasible only in areas where there are large quantities of biomass. If the available biomass is not used sustainably the technology may lead to negative environmental impact. On the other hand the technology involved in improved charcoal production is simple and affordable by villagers.

4.2.3 Biogas Biogas production is possible where fresh or wet biomass is available. Examples are animal manure, especially from stall-fed cattle, household waste, agricultural resi­ dues (husks, weeds), food industry residues (baggase, abattoir wastes, fish wastes) ad water weeds. Biogas is mainly useful for heating purposes, but is also a useful fuel for Internal Combustion (IC) engines that could be used for shaft power in dif­ ferent stationary applications, among them (small-scale) electricity generation. Lighting directly with biogas lamps is possible, though not particularly convenient. Biogas output is more or less constant, and so the technology is not suitable for end- uses with strong variation in energy requirement. The major problem with this bio­ energy option is the high cost of investment in installing the plant, which most vil­ lagers cannot afford. However, the technology is environmentally friendly. In addi ­ tion, local materials are used in the production of biogas. Operating a biogas plant does not require high technical skills (depending on the size and technology used).

4.2.4 Producer Gas Producer gas production is feasible where there is an abundance of dry lignified biomass (i.e. wood) in relatively small pieces. Applications are similar to those of biogas, though it may also be used for motive power (if there are absolutely no other alternatives). Producer gas production involves tedious task of cutting dry wood into small pieces. This option has similar characteristics as those of biogas. Operating producer gas installations requires trained personnel, also from the point of view of security due to the poisonous nature of the gas. Gas produc­ tion is more flexible than biogas production and is produced on demand. Power output can be substantial.

4.2.5 Liquid Fuels from Biomass It is possible to produce liquid fuels from biomass, especially through fermentation and distillation. The techniques are well known even in rural areas. The use of alco­ hol for fuel is rarely economically competitive with fossil fuels, even in remote ar­ eas. Also, the net energy output of the process is usually very low. The direct liquefaction of solid biomass into liquid hydrocarbons is possible, but is a highly sophisticated and costly process. It is most likely not suitable in ru­ Kauzeni, Masao, Sawe, Shechambo and Ellegard 49 ral areas of developing countries. The production of tars from charcoal burning is one low-technology example of the process, but the output is probably always too low for it to be considered as a viable energy alternative.

4.2.6 Bioenergy Produced Electric Power While not a specific bioenergy option, we are here considering electricity generation with biomass energy as the source. This is probably only feasible where abundant biomass of little alternative use is available, such as sawmills or sugar industries, and hence on a slightly larger scale. Electric generators could then be run by steam turbines or internal combustion (IC) engines operated on producer gas or biogas, where steam turbines appear to be the most feasible alternative.

4.3 Income-Earning Activities Linked ToBioenergy Use The findings of this study suggest that energy options can not be considered in iso­ lation from the context of economic development as such. It has been seen that the major concerns of the villagers in the study areas are the ones related to economic development, infrastructure and social services development. In this section a number of potential income-earning activities with a direct bearing on bioenergy options are presented. Of course the list is not exhaustive, and relying on the initiative of the villagers, certainly many more options exist. Unfortunately, since the people have not been endowed with financial resources to implement their own initiatives, such options have generally not been imple­ mented in the study villages at the present time. Wood for cooking was virtually the only bioenergy option that it was really possible for the villagers to relate to, since in general they were not familiar with other forms or conversions of biomass into energy, except for conversion of wood into charcoal. It was also found that woodfuel issues were comparatively low on the priority list in most of the villages visited. However, in order to make an impact on development, and be an attractive option for the people, bioenergy has to contribute to income-earning activities in the villages. For this, other options than using biomass for cooking fuel has to be considered as well. In the following section a number of potentially income earn­ ing or income augmenting activities will be examined from the point of view of their applicability to different bioenergy solutions. For a bioenergy option to be economically feasible, the following general conditions have to be fulfilled: • adequate biomass for the conversion technology. • manpower trained in servicing the technology. • capital. • market for the (additional) output. • easy access to the market (transport, traders). Following is a list of possible income-earning or income-augmenting activi­ ties, to which a number of bioenergy options could be considered. It is with this matrix in mind that the bioenergy options for the studied villages have been con­ sidered.

4.3.1 Increasing Agricultural Production Through Water Pumping Water pumping can increase agricultural production by supplying water for irriga­ tion purposes. This will increase the agricultural season as well as increase the secu­ 50 Bioenergyoptions rity of the harvest in draught years. Overall the result will be an increase in produc­ tivity and earnings. Power for pumping could be supplied either through electricity (though this could be supplied using bioenergy in certain areas) or directly from e.g. biogas or producer gas. The experience of Nzasa Biogas Plant in Nzasa Dodoma where a biogas plant has been used for several years to pump water from a bore hole could be utilised. In order for water pumping for irrigation to be feasible, additional conditions are that there should be adequate ground water, and that irrigation techniques should be known or made known in the areas.

4.3.2 Milling, Chaffing andCutting These are activities or services that are either purchased off farm, undertaken in the local co-operative or done manually at the farm. Substituting bioenergy sources for these activities would either savelabour (mostly women’s labour) or money. Feasible bioenergy options are biogas and producer gas for running the en­ gines for shaft power or electricity generation.

4.3.3 Tea and Tobacco Curing Whether on large or small scale, these activities require large amounts of wood. Op­ portunities to reduce the wood demand have been researched by the Ministry of En­ ergy and Minerals, Tanzania.

4.3.4 Charcoal Production While a bioenergy option in itself, charcoal production is an activity that is well suited for income earning purposes in the short-to medium term. Improved methods for charcoal production would make the same amount of wood go further in pro­ ducing charcoal, while increased quality of charcoal would ensure the highest price obtained. A number of technologies exist, ranging from simple improvements in the management of the traditional kiln (Hibajene and Kalumiana, 1994) over the Ca- samance and half-orange kilns to industrial retorts. The latter types require a large amount of capital as well as transportation and treatment of the wood to be carbon­ ised. Private tree growing through agroforestry or woodlots could be an important source of charcoal and hence income for the owners, if accessible for the urban charcoal markets.

4.3.5 Tar Production Tar is a by-product of charcoal production process which could be used for protec­ tion of construction timber, ropes and twine. Given that there is a market for tar, tar production could be carried out in conjunction with charcoal production. The proc­ ess and raw material requirements in Tanzanian conditions are little known at pres­ ent.

4.3.6 Beer Brewing, Liquor Distilling Beer brewing is already a substantial source of income in many villages, and distil­ lation of brews is not uncommon. While beer brewing is legal, distillation of “gongo” is illegal and may be doubtful to encourage from ethical, health and devel­ opment standpoints. However, the use of woodfuel for brewing may be consider­ able. Improving the efficiency of the techniques used may increase the income as well as reducing the demand for biomass for this activity. While alcohol could also Kauzeni, Masao, Sawe, Shechambo and Ellegard 51 be used as a fuel, the most likely use is for human consumption. These activities could well be carried out using biogas instead of wood fuel.

4.3.7 Brick Making This is an activity that can be carried out where there is suitable soil and a market for burned brick. Brick making in some parts of Tanzania is remarkably efficient com­ pared to similar techniques in other parts of the world although the quality is not generally satisfactory for commercial construction purposes. This has been con­ firmed by studies on assessment of energy efficiency in small rural industries carried by the Ministry of Energy and Minerals (van de Ven, 1996). Biomass is the ubiqui­ tous source of energy for this activity.

4.3.8 Pottery Pottery is another possible income earning activity making use of bioenergy. While improvement of the pottery kilns may certainly be feasible in many instances, the activity as such could also be coupled with the saving of energy by producing liners for energy-saving stoves. Main prerequisites are availability of good clay, fuel and marketing possibilities.

4.3.9 Lime Burning Lime burning using biomass gasification rather than direct combustion has been shown to reduce the biomass demand for the process, and hence increase the profit margin of the user.

4.3.10 Fish Frying and Smoking The process of fish smoking is one that already requires large amounts of biomass, and where other fuels can not be substituted for biomass. The fish smoking industry is already putting severe pressure on forestry resources around lakes and rivers. Im­ proved fish smoking ovens have been tried with varied resultsby the Tanzania Fish­ eries Institute. Wood use for fish frying can be reduced using improved stoves, or replaced by e.g. biogas given there are other biomass resources. Fish treatment waste is an excellent feed for biogas digester, but must probably be supplemented by agricultural wastes for example.

4.3.11 Briquetting Briquetting is a method that could be used for augmenting the value of an existing bioenergy source, e.g. charcoal, husks, or other agricultural wastes, but also for in­ creasing the value and transportability of other products e.g. sugar cane and protein additives for cattle fodder. There should be an emerging market for cattle fodder in areas where zero-grazing is prevalent. Medium-size briquetting equipment typically requires electrical power, though there are bullock-operated types. In processes where electric power is used for heating the material to increase binding capacity, this could probably well be replaced by bioenergy sources. Even manually operated equipment is available, though quality and capacity would be low. The experience of the Kilimanjaro In­ dustrial Development Cooperation (KEDC) is an important source of information.

4.3.12 Workshops Repair and production of locally used implements such as axes, hoes, hinges, furni­ ture, bicycles are income-earning opportunities that exist in most villages. Such 52 Bioenergy options workshops sometimes have use for heat and most would have use for electric power, e.g. for welding or running small electric tools. Some bioenergy options could be used to supply electricity, although the cost for power would not be competitive with grid supply under present conditions.

4.3.13 Bakeries A versatile bakery oven fuelled with charcoal has been developed by TaTEDO and is in use in urban areas of Tanzania. Baking can also be undertaken using biogas ov­ ens. Baking could be a lucrative business, both for the local consumers in the village and for passers-by on the road.

4.3.14 Tourism Industry Development Development of facilities to receive tourists in remote areas include all the energy needs for cooking (and cooking with unfamiliar methods), but additionally requires power for lighting and sometimes for heating and cooling. While electric power is the immediate solution to these requirements, in remote areas where there is abun­ dant biomass, this could be supplied by bioenergy. Heating could be supplied by fu- elwood. Tourism industry development of course requires several other conditions such as roads, telecommunications, marketing etc., but is probably among the stronger income-generating activities that could be initiated. Tourism development would imply development of side-line activities such as markets for souvenirs, tourist guides, laundry etc. •

4.3.15 Dairy Production While many farmers in most study villages keep dairy cows stable-fed (zero­ grazing) in order to earn money from milk sales to immediate neighbours and estab ­ lishments for direct consumption, there is also the possibility to expand dairy pro­ duction for mini-dairies which produce a range of products ranging from pasteurised and hygienically packed consumers milk, to yoghurt, cheese and ice cream. While this may not be an activity in every village, there may be individuals or groups who consider this an alternative activity given the availability of transport and markets.

4.4 Village Specific Bioenergy Options Bioenergy options are area specific. Therefore, the identification and introduction of realistic bioenergy options for meeting increasing bioenergy demand with more environmentally sound energy technology, must take into consideration the pre­ vailing conditions or situations of the area concerned in totality. These conditions refer to the natural resource base of the areas, environmental, economic, social - cultural, institutional and technical issues. All suggestions or recommendations of potential bioenergy options for each study village were arrived at during PRA workshops conducted in each study villages. Workshop participants or villagers themselves under facilitation of the research team came up with suggestions or recommendation of potential bioenergy option as outlined below for each study village. The choices of potential bioenergy options were made after making com­ parisons of all potential bioenergy options for each particular village in terms of economic, social, environmental, institutional and technological factors and after that process the best or most suitable/feasible bioenergy options were chosen. During the PRA meetings it was emphasised that villagers would be responsible Kauzeni, Masao, Sawe, Shechambo and Ellegard 53 for whatever bioenergy options projects would be agreed upon. This implies that villagers would contribute labour and finance where possible before requesting support from donors outside the village.

4.4.1 Kelamfua Village In Kelamfua Village woodfuel scarcity was seen as a priority at the village meet­ ing and as a concern of individual villagers in the household interviews. Thus it is possible that actions aiming both at reducing the amount of fuelwood required and increasing the fuelwood available would be successful in this village. 1) The first suggestion is to promote the manufacture and marketing of improved woodstoVes. This suggestion was agreed upon during the first PRA meeting and was confirmed during the feedback revisit to the village. The reasons for this proposal are: • There are organisations already involved in the promotion and produc­ tion of improved stoves e.g. CAMARTEC, Rombo PACT and the Churches; • There is an organisation (Rombo PACT) which provides credit and training for small-scale industries: • Raw material for making stoves (clay) is readily available within the village; • There seems to be a ready market for stoves due to the acute shortage of fuelwood; • Villagers are already aware of the existence of the technology. 2) The other suggested bioenergy option is biogas. Biogas could also be pre­ sented as a way of addressing the perceived needs of the villagers. This would provide cooking fuel as well as effluent that would be useful for the fertilisa­ tion of the farm land. Reasons for this recommendation are as follows: • Villagers keep livestock under the system of zero-grazing. This is conducive for the production of cowdung which is the raw material used in the production of biogas. The results show that Kelamfua vil­ lagers keep on average three to four cows per household. • Although the installation of biogas is capital intensive, there is poten­ tial for securing loans from the Savings and Credit Cooperative Soci­ ety in the village and there is the National Bank of Commerce and Co­ operative and Rural Development Bank at the District Headquarters nearby. • Information about the biogas technology could be obtained from CAMARTEC and there is already a biogas plant at the Kilimanjaro Boy’s Secondary School in Shimbi Mashariki Village which the vil­ lagers could learn from. 3) The third bioenergy option suggested for Kelamfua is agroforestry with multi­ purpose tree growing. The question is not to raise awareness about tree plant­ ing in general but to use the little land available for multi-purpose tree species. Information on the types of seedlings to use, where to get them and how to care for them is required. 4) A fourth option is to encourage the use of electricity to more households and for more users to substitute electricity for bioenergy sources. Electricity supply from the national grid in Kelamfua is extended to 75% of the households. But due to the installation of meters there is a tendency not to use electricity for cooking. 54 Bioenergy options

4.4.2 Maharo Village Given the priorities of this village, the relatively good availability of biomass and the high degree of electrification (almost 100% of households are connected) in the village, bioenergy options as such are limited. However, it was noted that electricity is not generally used for cooking purposes due to upfront capital in­ vestment and high tariffs. In view of this, the following alternatives were consid­ ered: 1) Given the availability of saw dust from the many wood industries in the dis ­ trict (e.g. Rongai), the use of saw dust stoves is one possible option. Villagers have expressed willingness to be educated and one villager is already using such a stove. This is a medium term solution given the fact that despite the acute shortage of firewood in Maharo, there is always the option of encroach­ ing the forest under the existing weaknesses in the enforcement mechanisms. 2) The use of biogas is also an option for some households in Maharo given the fact that they own cattle and feed them on zero grazing system. However there are technical, economic and cultural constraints to the adoption of biogas as an option in the short turn. 3) The option of using electricity for cooking is also a possibility in Maharo due to the fact that the village is connected to the national power grid. However, there are economic as well as cultural constraints to such a shift. It is necessary that low cost electrical cookers suitable for rural areas are made available at a price that an average villager can afford. Another condition is that beliefs and attitudes have to be changed to accept cooking with electricity. Many villagers fear the use electricity for cooking for safety reasons. Others believe that the taste of the food will not be the same when food is cooked with electricity. There is also a technical reason for not using electricity e.g. the need to change cooking habits and utensils. This option is of the long term. 4) A feasible option for Maharo appears to be in the area of improving the effi­ ciency of the three-stone stove so as to reduce the quantities of firewood nec­ essary to produce given quantities of heat for cooking. Since most households already feel the pinch of firewood shortage and the fact that such improve­ ments will not cost them a fortune. The fact that it does not involve a complete change of cooking habits is another reason why it is more likely to succeed in the short run. 5) Improved Agroforestry methods and new tree species or multiple use could be introduced in order to promote further biomass availability. 6) Privatisation of the half-mile strip, as a proposal for increased production of wood for fuel and construction may also be put forward. The outcome of this would depend on the views of the Forestry Department. 7) Tourism development is seen as one of the most feasible income-earning op­ portunities related to trade. The main road between Moshi and the Kenya bor­ der passes at the lower boundary of the village, and so there would be some opportunities for e.g. restaurants, guest houses and bakeries. Guest houses ca­ tering for foreign tourists might well have an advantage in offering space heating facilities in the cold season. Traditional biomass using modem tech­ niques would be feasible options for both these activities.

4.4.3 Shimbi Mashariki Village If bioenergy options should be tied to the needs of people in Shimbi, this is most likely to take place through improved agricultural production, or through im- Kauzeni, Masao, Sawe, Shechambo and Ellegard 55 proved management of farm forestry. There is a market for fuelwood in the areas, which is already supplied to a large extent from this sparsely populated village. 1) Biogas, especially from the Improved Biogas System (IBS, a new way to de­ sign biogas plans which has not been tried in Tanzania) seems feasible, in view of a lot of agricultural residues and relatively few cattle. The Mookoro (a sub-village of Shimbi M.) women’s group have already expressed interest in biogas and have been trained at CAMARTEC. 2) Introduction of convenient bio-residues stoves could have a market. However, the stove market is probably best served from Kelamfua Village, at least ini­ tially. 3) Electricity is being installed in the village as this report is being written, and so power production for lighting or running motors will be available to villag­ ers of Shimbi Mashariki.

4.4.4 Kagongo Village Kagongo is a fishing village located at the Nyumba ya Mungu dam. Ironically, electricity is still not available in the village, though the dam where it derives its mainstay was constructed for a hydropower plant with a capacity of 8 MW which was commissioned in 1969. However, there are plans for connection to the na­ tional electric grid during this year (1997), funded by the Japanese International Cooperation Agency (JICA). 1) Fuel-saving technologies such as improved fish smoking ovens involving wood and energy issues were relatively high on the agenda in this village, probably due to the large use of wood for fish frying, drying and smoking. There appears to be possibilities to introduce such technologies since all the wood is bought from outside the village. These improved fish smoking/drying ovens would contribute to reduce the wood consumption. 2) Biogas from fish wastes could be an alternative to wood for fish smoking, drying and frying given the availability of large quantities of fish-wastes. Bio­ gas technology can also be used to clean waste water. 3) Improved solar drying techniques would probably also become feasible for fish processing because of the availability of sunshine especially during the dry season. 4) A specific use of power in the village would be for refrigeration of the fish, which would increase its market value since it could be sold fresh in Mwanga town or even as far away as Moshi. Thus ice production or even fish freezing is a potential small-scale industry which could be powered by bioenergy sources, but is of course readily feasible when the village is connected to the electric grid. 5) The favourable wind conditions in Kagongo could also favour the use of wind power for water pumping.

4.4.5 Chomvu Village Chomvu village appeared to the researchers to experience many problems. The road is impassable in the rain season, and the elevation of the land is extremely steep in the higher ranges of the village. Sources of income are limited. However, from the energy point of view, things may not be so bad. There is electric power in the village, with about a quarter of the households electrified. Furthermore, the wood resources are reasonable, with a village forest divided into private woodlots. 56 Bioenergy options

The real needs in this village probably relate to the lack of income-earning possi­ bilities. 1) Charcoal production, is a potential option even though the forest is located in the high area of the village and the wood would need to be transported down to the lower areas. If a wood transportation system were put in place localised charcoal production in brick kilns could take place. The village is close to Lomwe minor settlement, the divisional headquarters, which is a fast growing centre. Also there is a pottery workshop which could utilise the charcoal as the source of energy. The workshop also produces day stoves which can conven­ iently use charcoal as fuel. 2) Pottery, is another possible income-earning activity, since there appears to be good clay deposits at the lower end of the village. Furthermore there is a SEDO initiated pottery workshop not far away which might offer training to Chomvu Villagers. 3) Production of dairy products (e.g. yogurt and cheese) might be feasible due to the large number of cattle kept in the village but the transportation problems would have to be addressed. 4) Electric supply in Chomvu is already in place for some 25% of the house­ holds. The supply should be extended to more households and more uses to substitute for bioenergy sources.

4.4.6 Kigonigoni Village Kigonigoni village is located in the eastern part of Mwanga district, with Lake Jipe at its north eastern comer. Water access is the main problem of the village, though there should be reasonable amounts of ground water due to the proximity to the lake. There are also seasonal floods. Safe and abundant drinking water is a high priority. However, given the availability of ground water and the proximity to the lake it is likely that there might even be enough water for irrigation purposes which would serve to improve agricultural productivity. 1) One option here might be the installation of a large improved biogas system (IBS) that utilises the water weed from Lake Jipe as feedstock. Biogas would then be used either directly for water pumping, or for producing electricity to power water pumps. 2) Another option could be the utilisation of the favourable wind and solar re­ gime to generate wind and solar energy. 3) Producer gas for electricity generation might also be a feasible solution due to the relatively good access to wood resources. 4) Improved charcoal production methods is a suitable option for Kigonigoni due to the fact that charcoal production has become a common activity in the vil­ lage since 1992. This increased production of charcoal warrants the promotion of more efficient charcoal kilns so as to utilize less wood for the same quantity of charcoal.

4.5 Feedback Process of the PRA In all the six villages, the idea of re-visiting study villages was received with great en­ thusiasm. As a result, mobilising members of the village government for the meetings was not as difficult as during the first visit. The discussions were very lively and held under a relaxed mood. Villagers participated more actively and effectivelycom­ pared to the initial visits. The villagers, NGOs and institutions in the study villages Kauzeni, Masao, Sawe, Shechambo and Ellegard 57 discussed with the research team different aspects of the bioenergy options in relation to: • Different bioenergy options technologies • Organisational framework for successful implementation • Operational requirements of new technologies as opposed to conven­ tional energy technologies • Required skills for installation and maintenance • Financial implications (investment, operation, replacement, mainte­ nance costs) • Institutional aspects, training needs etc. • Environmental impacts of such options • Other renewable and conventional non-bioenergy options technologies To facilitate the dialogue between the research team and villagers, the team had prepared two summary reports in Swahili. These included a very short simpli­ fied version for the villagers and a rather more detailed and sophisticated version which could be used by extension staff. Copies of these reports were also distrib ­ uted to the district offices as well. The impression of the research team is that also the availability of written material added weight to the good reception that the research team received. In each case, the team was accompanied by a number of extension workers from the district. In all six villages, there was almost total agreement about the recommenda­ tions for bioenergy options. In Kelamfua, for example, the three main recommen­ dations were approved, consisting of improved stoves of various types, biogas and agro-forestry with multi-purpose tree growing. Villagers agreed on steps to be taken as follows:- • Informing villagers of the possibilities of new technologies • Mobilising to adapt and adopt the new technologies • Educating them properly • Providing live examples and demonstrations • Enabling credit facilities for those who wish to start More concretely, it was resolved to call a village government meeting to propose two people who would travel to Chomvu Village in Mwanga District to learn about making improved stoves using clay. The research team took soil sam­ ples for further analysis. This was to be done immediately. In the next sixth months the village leaders will launch a campaign to mobilize the villages about improved stoves and biogas. A tree planting campaign will also begin by distribu ­ tion of Leuceana and avocado tree seedlings. In Shimbi Mashariki similar options as in Kelamfua were agreed upon e.g. agroforestry with multi-purpose tree growing, improved stoves and biogas. On tree planting, the villagers wanted more education on the types of trees, where they should be grown, how to protect them from insects and general care until the trees mature. For this objective, the District Agricultural and Livestock Develop­ ment Officer informed villagers that their village could benefit from a project on soil and water conservation (Kilimanjaro Integrated Soil and Water Conservation) which covers the village of Shimbi Mashariki. On improved stoves, it was agreed to entrust the responsibility of mobilising women on the Mookoro Women Group of Shimbi Mashariki. It was suggested that stoves would be included in next year’s (1997) farmers day exhibitions. It was 58 Bioenergyoptions also agreed that one woman and one man would be selected to go to Chomvu Village and learn more about making improved stoves by using clay. Furthermore, it was agreed that the women’s group would be given the re­ sponsibility to start a biogas demonstration plant since they have already been trained and are in touch with CAMARTEC. On the question of mobilisation, it was agreed to co-operate closely with the District Community Development De­ partment. In Maharo, discussions were centred around five issues 1. Biogas was accepted as an optionbut as it is expensive, and there was little knowl­ edge about it was agreed to propose that a demonstration plant be established at Mkuu Secondary School or at the Roman Catholic Mission. Also villagers who can afford to construct biogas plants should be encouraged to do so. 2. On improved stoves, there was a suggestion for demonstration stoves, sending people to go and learn about stove-making using clay and researching on the suit­ ability of Maharo soil for stove-making. 3. People of Maharo are already aware of multi-purpose and profitable trees to plant on the meager land resource they have. What they need is to improve on existing knowledge e.g. three various benefits of the avocado tree for fruits, timber, fire­ wood, animal feed, shade, etc. 4. The village government should prepare a proposal for privatization of the half-mile strip to be discussed during the next Ward Development Committeemeeting. 5. The idea of making use of the natural beauty of the Maharo and Rombo Districts in general for eco-tourism was accepted as a long-term strategy to expand income earning opportunities. In Kagongo the villagers accepted the idea of co-operating with experts to make a modern fish smoking kiln for demonstration purposes. Also the idea of using fish wastes to establish a community biogas plant as one of the alternatives was highly appreciated. It was noted that electricity grid was being extended to Kagongo and villagers were busy installing wiring systems in their houses. In Kigonigoni the options agreed upon included improved charcoal making kilns, tree planting and the possibility of using Lake Jipe water weed to produce gas that would eventually produce electricity. This latter idea was received with enthusiasm given the fact that Kigonigoni was not among the villages where the electricity grid was to be extended. Like in the other villages, there was a call for expertise to be brought to the village and the village was ready to contribute towards mobilising charcoal mak­ ers and successful establishment of demonstration kilns. For tree planting, there were already neighbourhood work groups in place, some of which have tree nurs­ eries. In Chomvu Village two bioenergy options were accepted. One option was an improved charcoal making kiln. Planting of trees is necessary if charcoal making is to continue as an economic activity. The other option was agroforestry with multi-purpose trees. In the future, the natural forest reserved for use by each household will not satisfy the fuelwood requirements as the population increases. This calls for increased tree-planting and the development of efficient charcoal making kilns and other end-use devises. The need for more information and training was emphasised as in the other villages. Also keeping in touch with the village was reiterated. Kauzeni, Masao, Sawe, Shechambo and Ellegard 59

5 THE ROLE OF INFORMATION AND RESOURCES FOR BIOENERGY OPTIONS IMPLEMENTATION In the policy perspective, which is a top-down perspective, bioenergy options as such are rarely given consideration. With what has been said above about the par­ ticipatory approach in identifying bioenergy options, which can be seen as a bottom- up approach, the role of information and resources is very relevant, since the devel­ opment issues in the villages are rarely linked directly to bioenergy options. This whole problem, however, rests on the assumption that bioenergy solu­ tions can contribute to solving actual problems in specific situations, and hence there is a need to identify these situations. One possibility is of course to carry out a PRA project in every village and employ a highly skilled team of local and for­ eign experts to assess the situation with respect to bioenergy options. This ap­ proach is probably both inefficient and expensive. The other approach is to enable the people in the villages to address their situation in earnest, and allow them to make the selection of choices and application of options that they deem appropri­ ate. This approach will be applicable not only on bioenergy options, but on the village problems in general. Enabling village people means giving them opportunities and resources to solve their problems. In this context it should be pointed out that from the point of view of this research project, the enabling of villagers is by no means to be con­ sidered as a recommendation for embarking on community projects. To the con­ trary, many development options, and bioenergy options in particular, are probably most appropriately implemented as private projects, be it a biogas plant for cook­ ing fuel and fertiliser, an improved charcoal oven for baking, or a gasifier for grain milling. On the other hand, there is no bar against community projects, but such projects should be proposed, organised and managed by the villagers themselves, not village government making use of the resources on the villagers’ behalf. The enabling circumstances for bioenergy options (and all other options) are basically provision of information, skill and resources. It is not possible to con­ sider an option if you are not aware of its existence, and it is not possible to im­ plement an option if you do not have the resources. From the above discussion it is clear that the proposal from this project is to make information and resources available at the village level. With the aim of the present project, the focus is natu­ rally on bioenergy options, but similar reasoning could be used for any sector.

5.1 Information The first focus on information is with the village leaders. The leadership has been discussed above, and as such it has its own problems. Disregarding these for the time being, it is necessary that the village leadership is informed about possibilities and options for development in general. While the village chairperson is politically elected on specific merits in specific circumstances, it may be unrealistic to require knowledge about all aspects of development from him/her, at least initially. How­ ever, the Village Executive Officer (VEO), (and maybe some additional officers) who is appointed by the district, as the primary conveyor of information to the vil­ lagers should have the required knowledge. This implies that the VEOs should be targeted by information campaigns pertaining to bioenergy options. Each VEO in each of the 8347 villages of Tanzania should have a basic awareness of bioenergy options, their applicability, potential and conditions. To this end, information mate­ rials should be made available, specifically suited for application at this level. It is not the aim that the VEO should be responsible for implementation, but that he/she 60 Bioenergy options should be aware of the possibilities and be able to present the information in village meetings for discussions with the village governmentand villagers. Documents should be available in Swahili and references given to projects in Tan­ zania. The level of technical detail should vary from overview to detailed instruc­ tions. Contents should include: • A brief description of different options. • Identification of applications and end-uses suitable for the different options, including realistic economic information (costs, market val­ ues). • A list of organisations (names and addresses) from where further in­ formation, demonstrations, seminars and training can be requested. • A list of already implemented projects (most importantly economically operating projects on an individual or group basis rather than demon­ stration installations at the site of organisations) all over the country which accept visits, and agree to demonstrate their achievements. The second level of focus will be on those villagers and groups who have become interested in different options through briefings and discussions. In order to be able to determine the viability of applications in the home village, such per­ sons or groups should be allowed to visit existing projects, and where appropriate, be trained on how to implement, manage or operate the options of choice. De­ pending on the level of interest, this information dissemination should be more or less exhaustive. The third level of focus is on the primary schools in the villages. Efforts should be made to include at least a brief presentation of bioenergy options and environmental issues in the primary school syllabus. This implies that the topic should be covered both in the curriculum of teachers’ colleges, and in the cur­ riculum of primary education. In this way it will be ensured that even the children in the villages will be sensitised to the existence of these options. The policy implications of this recommendation for the central government (as well as for donors) are the following: • Creation of information packages on bioenergy options should be sup­ ported and distributed to all VEO’s. This should basically be carried out by a local expert or organisation, but should be reviewed by inde­ pendent international experts in the area. Printing and distribution should be made by the government. • Government institutions as well as NGO’s and charity organisations which have training and demonstration facilities in bioenergy options on their programme should be supported and encouraged to reach out with their experiences. • Energy issues should be included in the curriculum of teachers’ col­ leges and primary education.

5.2 Financial Resources No matter how well informed people are of different options, development will come to nought if they are not vested with the resources to implement development projects. Most importantly this means making capital available at the village level. While the issue of credit was not mentioned as an issue as such in the village meet­ ings, and this is hence not a conclusion based on the observations, it is clear that the lack of credit facilities severely impedes any development alternatives that would Kauzeni, Masao, Sawe, Shechambo and Ellegard 61 otherwise have been feasible. There are at least two areas where the availability of capital should be improved, i.e.: • Funds for the village government to operate and take initiatives, • Risk capital to venture on projects of interest to the village or individual vil­ lagers. With regard to funds for the village government, there is a by-law that re­ quests 20% of the revenue (development levy) collected in the village to be re­ tained by (or returned to) the village government. However, it appears that this is not always being implemented. In some villages the reasons are that no such levy is being collected, in others, there may be other takers higher up in the hierarchy. With the retention and possible increase of development levies, the village gov­ ernment would be in a position to demand services, e.g. from extension organisa­ tions, and pay for these services. There is presently a great deal of discussion regarding the “bottom-up” ap­ proach in planning. However, this is not what is actually being implemented. If taken seriously, there are implications of this approach that could be interesting. One aspect would be that, instead of the villages being subjected to the whims and opportunities at the district level, the district level would be an organisation at the service of the villages. The villages would contribute part of their development funds to the district organisation (may be 20%), but most of the funds would be distributed through the villages demanding services from the district level, and paying for them. In this scenario the district organisation would truly be made to respond to the village requests. However, with what has been learned during the course of the project with respect to community organised projects of economic nature, no strong recommendation for implementing such projects is being put forward. On the other hand, the most important interface between capital and initia­ tives will be at the level of the private enterprise and individuals striving to im­ plement the projects. In order for this to take place, it is necessary that there is risk capital available for village projects. The mere availability of capital for private initiatives precludes central planning other than in a very broad sense, because central government would not be able to direct the initiatives in detail. The detailed organisation of how this village capital initiative should be made possible cannot be extensively discussed here, but a basic and very strong policy recommendation is that this should be seriously considered. It is extremely important to point out that sound economic management of the credit capital is required. Credit capital should under no circumstances be seen as gifts or “aid ”, and its use for mere consumption should not be encouraged. All credits should be repayable, and the minimum requirement should be that interest which is at par with inflation. One possibility is to take inspiration from the Grameen Banks in Bangladesh and India, with a thorough assessment of the applicability under Tanzanian condi­ tions. It seems, for instance, that the Grameen banks are best suited for relatively small, private projects. Also the commercial environment in comparatively sparsely populated areas (compared to the Asian countries), in Tanzania it may have implications on the applicability. Another possibility is that the government directs the state banks to open new line of credits and service points in the villages. Such service points could simply be an office located within the village government building or other exist­ ing structure manned by a single bank officer. Credits would be determined by the 62 Bioenergyoptions bank officer assisted with a board of trustees selected in the village. Whether or not the village government should have any direct representation on this board could be discussed. The success of such an initiative would depend on the deter ­ mination of the government to implement such a policy, and the resources put to its use. A third possibility is to encourage international co-operation agencies to di­ rect part of their assistance directly to such credit institutions. On the one hand, it could be seen as problematic as resources would have to be re-directed from cen­ tral initiatives. On the other hand, with a sound economic development in the vil­ lages, there would probably be more funds available in the country as a result of development than there would ever be as a result of international assistance. Also, with sound management of the credit facilities, the funds initially spent on credit would not go to waste, but would remain and even expand as a result of develop­ ment. In this way there would be less risk of reduction in international assistance, since the donor countries would stand much less risk of losing the capital. How­ ever, with international assistance as a backup, the credit policy could be slightly less conservative in appreciation of risks and requirement of collateral. A fourth possibility is to involve NGO’s in the scheme of village credit ex­ tension. However, it may be said that their role is best played in a set-up similar to that of the Grameen Banks, or simply as service agencies to the projects that the villagers want to implement. With village capital available, there would also be a market for experts, training and construction by NGO’s, consultancy firms, manu­ facturers of tools and implements all over the country. Whether or not the initiatives taken will result in bioenergy options in the end will be up to the determination of the villages. Hence, it is possible that other options for development will be selected. On the other hand, without resources at the disposal of the villagers it is certain that no village options will be imple­ mented, including bioenergy options. If bioenergy options are pushed under such circumstances, the same old policy will be followed in the future, the risk of fail­ ure will be great and the impact on development will be slim. Kauzeni, Masao, Sawe, Shechambo and Ellegard 63

6 CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS 6.1 Methodology The research method developed is the Multidisciplinary Participatory Method of Identifying Bioenergy Options (MUPARMIBO). The method emphasises two ba ­ sic principles multidisciplinary approach and participation of target groups in the overall needs identification, planning and implementation of interventions. The main component of the method is Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA) which is used to determine priority problems, needs and issues of the local people in rural areas. The developed methodology is applicable for the identification of overall development and specifically bioenergy needs of a given community. The meth­ odological approach requires, first, the identification of development needs within the overall community development context. This approach is followed by ranking of identified development needs and priorities. The next step after establishing priorities is to analyse data and information in order to establish whether or not priority development needs are linked to energy in general and bioenergy in par­ ticular. The methodology can be applicable in the identification of feasible bio­ energy options, potential projects and interventions. It also helps in determining which interventions are feasible and within the ability of the community in the short term and those which require external inputs and are of a long term perspec­ tive. The methodology is applicable in evaluating which options can be imple­ mented using local skills and resources, and which ones are not within the ability of local people. The methodology as adapted in this project is a systematic yet semi- structured approach carried out in the field by a multidisciplinary team designed to acquire quickly new information on local development needs in general and in particular on bioenergy needs. The methodology involves holding discussions with village leaders, villag­ ers including women and other key informants during PRA meetings to solicit in­ formation on the history of the area, trend lines for important variables which in­ cluded; natural resources, environmental, economic, social services and infra­ structure, social-cultural, technical, institsutional and leadership issues. The ap­ proach also include on site observation through transect walks as well as farm in­ terviews. The type of information that results from this participatory methodology is mainly qualitative, reflecting the diversity and complexity of the situation it is describing. The information therefore gathered is of a very wide range and all the materials should typically be analysed by a multidisciplinary team involving vil­ lagers also. The use of participatory approaches in research studies and other develop­ ment initiatives has not been without its constraints. A number of drawbacks and difficulties are likely to be encountered when working in an area with local people to analyse their situation. These could include: • Facilitated by outsiders, the methodology can raise expectations on lo­ cal people for outsiders continued involvement and support. The in­ tense involvement of local people in research and development tends to generate much enthusiasm and anticipation about the action that they have identified. Although this is, in principle, a positive aspect, it can 64 Bioenergy options

cause problems if any support promised by the facilitating agency is not forthcoming. • The outcome of the methodology approach depends on the attitude and vision of the persons facilitating the process. • If carried out too quickly, they can lead to incorrect insights. Therefore time and patience are required. • The choice and sequence of methods needs to be adapted to fit each situation. • In most cases, the methodology will not lead to quantifiable results. • The methodology will never provide final answers (but then no ap­ proach ever will).

6.1.1 Recommendations For the adoption of the developed methodology for wider use in energy planning, the following conditions need to be fulfilled: - • Creation of awareness among planners and policy makers of the exis­ tence of the method. • Institutionalisation of conditions which will enable the method to be adopted for energy planning. • Establishment of effective channels and an institutional framework for the participation of bioenergy users and suppliers/planners in the plan­ ning process, in order to allow effective bottom-up participation in all stages of planning. • Facilitation of multi-sectoral co-operation in bioenergy planning and implementation. • Integration into the procedure or process of energy planning aspects sustainability as well as environmental, economic, social-cultural and institutional factors is highly recommended.

6.2 Policy Issues The approach and analysis of both national and local bioenergy policies discussed in this study offers hope for achieving sustainable change to bioenergy problems which are complex and often intractable. Such change is centred on the participation of lo­ cal communities in planning and executing development projects, which in turn may not happen until a policy environment is created which opens up opportunities for the empowerment of local communities. There are indications that some of the real barriers to effective bioenergy interventions lie at the policy rather than the project level. As such, development policies must strive to meet priority needs of the communities as a goal which stands alongside or even takes precedence over single sectoral approach. The value of local communities own knowledge of their problems, priorities, and po­ tentials for development need to be fully recognised. Communities need to be given the power to influence the decisions which affect their lives. The conclusion is that bioenergy problems and potential solutions to those problems are specific to people in their areas. If policies in these areas are to be successful they must be able to capture this local specificity and build on particu­ lar ways in which the people who count the actual users of bioenergy respond to the problems they face and opportunities they perceive. The significance and origins of bioenergy problems in, for example, a semi- arid area such as Kagongo are very different from those found in a mountainous Kauzeni, Masao, Sawe, Shechambo and Ellegard 65 area such as Chomvu or a high population density area such as Maharo. The pol­ icy options which are appropriate for each of these different sets of circumstances will similarly be varied. To work, bioenergy policies must be tailored to the spe­ cific circumstances of people in their areas. A top-down single sectoral technology driven approach to bioenergy issues is doomed to failure, since it invariably attempts to impose a solution on the ground. Such an approach limits the options open to the local communities and frequently demands of their inputs which affect other issues of higher priority in their lives. As such bioenergy issues must be approached from a dynamic per­ spective, and must be related to trends and the actual development needs of the people in that specific area. Provision of effective management structures from national to the village level in order to provide improved management skills, leadership and availability of financial resources which are needed to counter the many associated develop­ ment problems is necessary. The role of the government as policy and decision maker as well as facilita­ tor should be to accept effective decentralisation in which control over local re­ sources is given to local communities. On the basis of the study findings, an improved institutional framework and capacity at local and national levels is needed if the principles of the methodology for bioenergy identification and evaluation as outlined in this project are to be translated into effective action. On the basis of the analysis of sectoral policies, and bioenergy policy in par­ ticular, it is evident that interventions which are undertaken at local level will be doomed to fail in the absence of an appropriate policy environment. Such policy environment must create circumstances in which the following can be realised: • Empowerment of local communities to have effective control over their local resource base, • Create an economic and political environment conducive to local empowerment and sustaining of local solutions based on their priorities. • Provide effective support to ensure the availability of adequate and appropriate information, technical inputs and resources for effective local level solutions of their priority problems. • Provide an atmosphere that allows for bioenergy beneficiaries to continue to de­ velop and adopt appropriate bioenergy options through private ventures rather than as community ventures which are vulnerable to leadership and managerial problems. • Articulate institutional arrangements that would allow relevant sectors to co­ operate (e.g. forestry, agriculture, livestock, community development, lands, etc.) in ensuring that rural people manage bio-resources properly.

6.3 Study findings Perhaps the most important finding during the application of the participatory method for investigating bioenergy options has been that energy issues as such were not seen as much of a problem in the villages visited. Instead, local people were concerned with issue such as income earning, provision of water and politi­ cal leadership. These findings indicate that energy issues cannot be considered in isolation from the context of economic development as such. It has been seen that the major concerns of the villagers in the study areas are the ones related to eco­ nomic development, infrastructure and social services development. 66 Bioenergy options

The first lesson learned from the project is that if energy issues in general shall have a bearing on the priorities of the people of the villages, it is not simply by satisfying already known and prioritised energy needs. If energy solutions in general, and bioenergy options in particular are going to be at all successful in solving the people’s problems it is necessary to identify the linkages between en­ ergy solutions and the areas which are identified as the major problems by the villagers. At the end of this research project, it is recommended that the findings of the project be put into practice by way of support to pilot bioenergy projects in the study villages, as determined in participation with the villagers and presented in the village specific bioenergy options section (4.4). While the villagers are deter­ mined to implement whatever is possible with local resources, a proposal for sup­ port to projects requiring more input has been compiled for consideration by out­ side agencies. REFERENCES Afshar, H. (Ed.) 1991. Women Development and Survival in the Third World. London: Longman. Barnett, A., Bell, M. and Hoffman, K. 1982. Rural Energy and the Third World: A Review of Social Science Research and Technology Policy Problems. Ox­ ford: Pergamon Press. Bhagavan, M. R. and Karekezi, S. (Eds.) 1992. Energy for Rural Development. London: Zed Books. Bureau of Resource Assessment and Land Use Planning, 1970. Agro-Economic Zones of Northern-Eastern Tanzania (Research Report No. 13). Butera, F. 1989. Renewable Energy Source in Developing Countries: Success and Failure in Technology Transfer and Diffusion. Rome: PFE (LB -18). Carlos, E.S. 1984. A Methodology and Planning Style for Developing Countries. In: Proceedings of the International Seminar on Methodology and Institu­ tions for Energy Planning, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. Chachage, C.S. and Mvungi, A.A. 1988. Village Participation Survey (Back­ ground Paper for the TFAP). Dar Es Salaam: Ministry of Lands, Natural Resources and Tourism. Chambers, R. 1994. “The Origins and Practice of Participatory Rural Appraisal”. World Development 22(7):953-969. Chopra, S.K. 1990. A New Integrated Approach for Energy Planning for Sustain­ able Agriculture and Rural Development in Developing Councils. Rome: FAO (Environment and Energy Paper 12). ETC Foundation, 1987. Wood Energy Development: A Study of the SADCC Re­ gion. Luanda, Angola. FAO, 1990. A New Approach to Energy Planning for Sustainable Rural Devel­ opment. Rome. Foley, G. 1991, “Energy Assistance Revisited”. Paper Presented at SEI, 16th April, 1991. Gill, J. 1987. Improved Stoves In Developing Countries - A Critique. Energy Pol­ icy April: 135-144 Hibajene, S.H. and Kalumiana, O S. 1994. Manual For Charcoal Production In Earth Kilns. Stockholm Environment Institute and Ministry of Energy and Water Development, Lusaka. RED, 1994. Special Issue on Training. London. (RRA Notes Number 19). INSTRAW, (ILO), 1980. Women and Renewable Sources of Energy. Turin, Italy. Karekezi, S. and G.A. Mackenzie, 1993. Energy Options for Africa: Environmen­ tally Sustainable Alternatives. Cambridge. Karekezi, S. 1988. Review of Mature Renewable Energy Technologies (RETs) in Sub- Saharan Africa. Research Report for NIR/SAREC/IDRC. Karekezi, S. 1990. “Energy for Rural Development.” In: Proceedings of United Nations Group of Experts on the Role of New and Renewable Sources of Energy in Integrated Rural Development. Stockholm. Karenzi, C. P. 1994. “Introduction to the Biomass Study.” In: Biomass, Energy and Coal in Africa. London. Zed Books King, R.B. 1984. Remote Sensing Manual for Tanzania. Surrey: Land Resources Development Centre (LRDC); Dar Es Salaam: Institute of Resource As­ sessment. Kristoferson, L. and Bokalders, V. 1991. Renewable Energy Technologies: Their Applications in Developing Countries. London: IT Publications. 68 Bioenergy options

Kulindwa, K. and Shechambo, F. 1995. “The Impact of Rural Energy Use on the Environment During the Economic Reform Period, 1981-1992): Some Evidence from Tanzania.” UTAFITI (New Series) Vol.2, No.l and 2, 1995 p. 110-131. Leach, G. and Gowen, M. 1987. Household Energy Handbook. Washington, D.C: World Bank Technical Paper No. 67. Leach, G. and Mearns, R. 1989. Beyond the Woodfuel Crisis: People, Land and Trees in Africa. London: Earthscan. Mascarenhas, A., 1985. Keynote Address to the Workshop on Biomass Resources Assessment, Arusha, Tanzania, 30 June - 5 July. London: Commonwealth Science Council (Technical Publication No. 177). Mearns, R. and Leach, G. 1989. Energy for Livelihoods; Putting people back into Africa’s woodfuel crisis. Gatekeeper series: SA 18, BED , London. Millington, A. and Townsend, J. 1989. Biomass Assessment: Woody Biomass in the SADCC Region. London: Earthscan. Mnzava, E. M. 1980. Village Afforestation: Lessons from Experience in Tanzania. Rome: FAO. Mnzava, E. M. (1987. National Survey of Biomass/Woodfuel Activities: Tanza­ nia. Luanda: TAU Moyo, S., O’Keefe, P. and S.M.U., 1993. The Southern African Environment: Profiles of SADC Countries: London Earthscan. Mrema, G., 1985. In Biomass Energy Systems: Building Blocks for Sustainable Agriculture. Proceedings of Symposium. Ailie,VA, USA. Mwandosya, M. J. and Luhanga, M. L. 1988. A Compendium of Energy Sources in Tanzania. Ottawa, IDRC (IDRC-MR 176 e) Mwandosya, M. J. and Luhanga, M. L. 1990. Energy: Research Development and Extension Projects in Tanzania. Ottawa: IDRC (IDRC-MR 257e) Mwandosya, M. J., Kinyanjui, M. and Sawe, E.N. 1992. Development and Diffu­ sion of Wood Conservation Technologies in Tanzania: The Experience of the Energy Project I, Dar Es Salaam. Mimeo, Ministry of Water, Energy and Minerals, Dar el Salaam. Sawe, E.N. 1995. Bioenergy Based Industries in Tanzania: Report for the UNIDO Bioenergy for Industrial Development Programme in Africa. Dar Es Sa­ laam: MWEM. Sawe, E.N. and Leach, G. 1989. Bioenergy: Background Paper prepared for the Tropical Forestry Action Plan (TFAP). Dar Es Salaam: MWEM. Skutch, M. M., 1983. Why People Don’t Plant Trees: The Socio-Economic Impact of Existing Woodfuel Programmes: Village Case Studies, Tanzania. Eneregy in Developing Countries Series. D-73P. Washington: Resources for the Future. Theis, J. and Heather, M.G. 1991. Participatory Rapid Appraisal for Community Development: A Training Manual Based on Experiences in the Middle East and North Africa. London. TFAP, 1989. See Sawe, E.N. and Leach, G. 1989. UNIFEM, 1993. Gender, Environment and Development (GED) Guide: Strength­ ening and Maintaining Environmental Awareness in UNIFEM - Supported Programmes. New York: UNIFEM. United Nations, 1993. UN Conference on New and Renewable Sources of Energy, Nairobi. Kauzeni, Masao, Sawe, Shechambo and Ellegard 69

URT. Ministry of Livestock Development, 1983. The Livestock Policy of Tanza­ nia. Dar Es Salaam. URT. Ministry of Agriculture, 1982. The Tanzania National Agricultural Policy. Dar Es Salaam. URT. Ministry of Community Development, Women Affairs and Children, 1992. Policy on Women in Development in Tanzania. Dar Es Salaam. URT. Ministry of Science, Technology and Higher Education, 1993. The National Science and Technology Policy (Draft). Dar Es Salaam: MSTH. URT. Ministry of Water Energy and Minerals, 1986. Organizations Engaged in the Development and Manufacture of Renewable Energy Devises. Dar Es Salaam: MWEM (Mimeo) URT. Ministry of Water Energy and Minerals, 1992. The Energy Policy of Tanza­ nia. Dar Es Salaam: MWEM. URT. Ministry of Water, Energy and Minerals, 1991. Draft Energy Master Plan and Programme. Dar Es Salaam: MWEM. URT. Planning Commission and Ministry of Finance, 1994. The Rolling Plan and Forward Budget for Tanzania. Dar Es Salaam: Planning Commission, President ’s Office. URT. Vice-President ’s Office, 1996. The National Environment Policy (Draft). Dar Es Salaam. Walubengo, D. (Ed.), 1989. Proceeding of the International Biomass Course. Nai­ robi, Kenya. Van de Ven, H., 1996. The Sustainability of the Small-Scale Brick-Burning In­ dustry in Tanzania: With Special Attention to Biomass Energy Consump­ tion. M.Sc. Thesis, Eindhoven, University of Technology, April 1996. World Bank, 1994. Estimating Woody Biomass in Sub-Saharan Africa. Wash­ ington: IBRD. World Bank/UNDP, 1984. ESMAP: Tanzania: Issues and Options in the Energy Sector. Washington: World Bank/UNDP (Report No. 4969 TA) World Resources Institute, Egerton University and Clark University, 1993. Par­ ticipatory Rural Appraisal Handbook: Training Notes on Participatory Ru­ ral Appraisal. London: BED. 70 Bioenergy options

PROJECT REPORTS No. I: Ally, V.K., Kauzeni, A.S., Sambali, J.S. Sawe, E.N. and Shechambo, F.C. “Background and literature study”, March 1995, 49 pp. No. II: Ally, V.K., Kauzeni, A.S., Sambali, J.S. Sawe, E.N. and Shechambo, F.C. “Criteria for Selection of a Case Study Region.”, June 1995, 54 pp. No. Ill: Ally, V.K., Kauzeni, A.S., Sambali, J.S. Sawe, E.N. and Shechambo, F.C. “Proceedings of the Workshop held on 26 and 27 July 1995 in Dar Es Salaam”, August, 1995, 48 pp. No. IV: Ally, V.K., Kauzeni, A.S., Sambali, J.S. Sawe, E.N. and Shechambo, F.C. “Description of methodology, field work organization and ana­ lytical framework”, November 1995, 63 pp. No. V: Kauzeni, A.S., Sawe, E.N. and Shechambo, F.C. “Summary of the meth­ odology, field test and study activities”, February 1996, 32 pp. No. VI: Masao, H.P., Kauzeni, A.S., Sawe, E.N. and Shechambo, F.C. “Results of field study, data analysis and identification of bioenergy options”, May 1996 130 pp.; No. VII: Masao, H.P., Kauzeni, A.S., Sawe, E.N. and Shechambo, F.C. with El- legard, A. “Analysis of policy options”, August 1996,49 pp. No. VII: The present report

Working papers: Kauzeni, A.S. “Issues on methods for exploring bioenergy options”, Paper pre­ sented at the EE&D review seminar in Stockholm, April 1995 Kauzeni, A.S., Sawe, E.N. and Shechambo, F.C. with Ellegard, A. “Village document”, paper prepared for translation into Kiswahili for pres­ entation of analysis to villagers. December 1995, 9 pp. (Partly in­ cluded as an appendix to the current report) Kauzeni, A.S., Sawe, E.N. and Shechambo, F.C. “Field work raw data material” May 1996, 133 pp. Leach, G. 1995. “Information Needs for Bioenergy Options”. Paper Presented at the Methods for Exploring Bioenergy Options Mid-Term Semi­ nar, Bahari Beach Hotel, Dar Es salaam, 26 - 27 July 1995. INDEX afforestation, 5,46 39, 40, 44, 45, 46, 47, 49, 50, 52, agriculture, vi, 11, 16,21,26,41,65 54,58,59, 60,61, 62, 63,64, 65 agroforestry, 4,44, 50, 53, 57, 58 diagram, 20, 21 altitude, 9, 20,26, 28, 34, 36, 38 Dodoma, 3, 50 anthropology, 11 ecological zone, 9, 26, 27, 28, 29,31, Arusha, 3, 6, 26, 68 34, 35,40 avocado, 57,58 electric power, 51,52, 55 banana, 29 electricity, 3, 44, 48, 49, 50, 52, 53, beans, 24, 26,28, 34,41 54, 55, 56, 58 beer, 2,44, 50 environment, 15, 21, 25, 46, 48, 61, bioenergy, vi, vii, 1,2,3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 64, 65 8, 9, 10, 11, 13, 14, 15, 25, 26, 27, ethanol, 44 28, 40, 42, 44, 45, 46, 47, 48, 49, experience, vii, 13, 14, 15, 16, 25, 50.51, 52, 53, 54, 55, 56, 57, 58, 28,40,45, 50,51,55 59, 60, 62,63, 64, 65, 66,70 family, 11,22,29 biogas, vi, vii, 5, 6, 44, 45, 46, 47, famine, 23 48, 49, 50,51, 52, 53, 54, 55, 56, farming, 11, 12, 13, 35 57, 58, 59 fermentation, 48 briquettes, 44 firewood, vii, 1,2,3,4,7,13,42,43, capital, 8, 13, 46, 49, 50, 53, 54, 60, 44, 46, 47, 54, 58 61,62 fish, vii, 2, 36, 38,48,51,55, 58 carpentry, 44 fish frying, 51,55 cassava, 34 fish smoking, vii, 51,55, 58 cattle, vii, 6, 26, 32, 43, 46, 48, 51, forest, 3, 4, 5, 26, 29, 34, 38, 44, 54, 54, 55, 56 55, 56, 58 central, 3, 17,32, 38,60,61, 62 forest reserve, 34,44,58 chairman, 32 furniture, 29, 51 charcoal, vi, 1,2,4, 43, 48, 49, 50, gas, 44,46, 48,49, 50, 56, 58 51.52, 56, 58, 59 gender, 7,45 chicken, 46 goats, 26 chief, 31 government, vii, 13, 26, 27, 36, 42, children, vii, 20, 43, 60 44, 45, 46, 56, 57, 58, 59, 60,61, Chomvu, 18, 34, 35, 40,41, 42, 43, 65 44,45,46, 55, 56,57, 58, 65 grazing, 26, 28, 54 coffee, 28, 29, 34,46 Hai, 26, 28 cooperative, vii, 44,50 health, vi, 5, 13, 16, 21, 23, 32, 40, cotton, 34, 38 41,43,45,50 credit, 40,46, 53, 57, 60,61, 62 history, 15, 18, 21, 31,40, 63 crisis, 3 household, vi, vii, 1,3,5, 7, 8, 9, 13, crop, vii, 3, 4, 18, 19, 22, 29, 32, 43, 22,29,42,43,44,48, 53,58 47 improved stove, vii, 13,43,44, 46, crop residue, 3,4,47 47,51,53,57, 58 cultivation, 18, 34 income, vi, vii, 8,11, 40, 43, 44, 46, curing, 3 48,49, 50,51,55, 58, 65 dairy, 26, 52, 56 Iringa, 6, 26 deforestation, vi, 5 irrigation, 13, 38,49,50,56 demography, 26, 27 Jipe, 36, 38, 56, 58 development, vi, vii, 1, 5, 6, 7, 10, Kagongo, 19, 36, 37, 38, 40,41, 42, 12, 13, 14, 15, 21, 24, 28, 31, 32, 44, 55, 58, 64 72 Bioenergy options

Kelamfua, 25, 28, 29, 30, 32, 34, 40, planning, vi, vii, 1,7, 8, 9, 11, 12, 41,42, 43,44, 45,53,55, 57 13, 14,40,45, 46,61,63,64 Kenya,26,28,31,32, 34, 36, 38, 54, planting, vi, vii, 5, 20,45, 53, 57, 58 69 population, 2, 3, 6, 9, 18, 26, 27, 28, Kigonigoni, 19, 20, 21, 22, 38, 39, 29.31.32.34.36.38.40.58.65 40,41,42,43,44, 56, 58 pottery, 2,44,51, 56 Kileo, 34 PRA, vi, vii, 9, 11, 12, 13, 15, 17, Kilimanjaro, vi, 3, 6, 9, 23, 26, 27, 23, 24, 25, 34, 40, 42, 44, 52, 53, 28, 29,31,51,53,57 56, 59, 63 kiln, 50, 58 problem, vii, 5, 12, 13, 17, 23, 24, Kindoroko, 34 25, 26, 28, 40, 42, 43, 44, 45, 48, Kisangiro, 34 56,59, 65 Lamwai, 31 producer gas, 48,49, 50 leadership, vii, 23, 28, 40, 43, 44, 45, questionnaire, 12 46,59,63,65 rain, 28, 30, 32, 55 Lindi, 6 rainfall, 20,28, 34, 36,38 liquid fuel, 48 ranking, vii, 12, 15, 24, 25, 40, 41, livestock, vii, 3, 8, 18, 20, 21, 28, 35, 42, 44, 63 36, 45, 47, 53, 65 refrigeration, vii, 55 local, vii, 1, 2, 3, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, research, vi, 1, 9, 11, 13, 15, 16, 17, 16, 17, 28, 40, 48, 50, 52, 59, 60, 23, 24, 25, 27, 40, 42, 44, 52, 57, 63, 64, 65, 66 59,63,66 Luo, 36 resources, vii, 1, 3, 5, 8, 9, 13, 14, Maasai, 36 17, 21, 24, 25, 28, 29, 38, 45, 46, Maharo, 20, 29, 30,31, 32, 34, 40, 47, 49,51, 52, 55, 56, 59, 60, 62, 41,42, 43,44, 45, 54,58, 65 63, 65,66 maize, 26, 28, 34 rice, 34 man, 58 Rombo, vi, 22, 26, 28, 30,31, 32, 33, Maramba, 34 40,53, 58 Mawenzi, 30 RRA, 11, 12, 15, 67 men, vii, 16,20,21, 23, 29, 42, 43, Rundi, 36 45,46 rural, vi, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 7, 8, 9, 11, 12, milk, 46, 52 13, 14, 26, 44, 47, 48, 49,51, 54, milling, 44, 59 63.65 Minja, 34 Ruru, 34, 38, 39 Mkuu, 29, 32, 58 Same, 26, 34 Morogoro, 6 saw dust, 6, 54 Moshi, 26, 28, 32, 34, 54, 55 school, 18, 32, 60 multidisciplinary, vi, 8, 11, 14, 40, seedlings, 53,57 63 sheep, 26 Mwanga, vi, 26, 34, 35, 36, 37, 38, Shimbi Mashariki, 20, 22, 23,31, 32, 39,40, 55, 56, 57 33, 34, 40,41, 42, 43, 53, 54, 55, NGO, 12, 60, 62 57 Ngoni, 36 simsim, 34 Nyumba ya Mungu, 34, 36, 38, 55 sisal, 34 ownership, 8, 22, 29, 45 steam, 49 Pangani, 34, 36 stove, 13,54, 55 Pare, 34, 36, 38 sugar cane, 34,51 participation, vi, 11, 12, 63, 64, 66 Tabora, 3, 6 peas, 34 Tanga, 6, 26 Kauzeni, Masao, Sawe, Shechamboand Ellegard 73 tar, 50 village, vii, 2, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, technology, 8, 13, 14, 46, 48, 49, 52, 20,21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 28, 29, 30, 53, 55, 65 31,32, 34, 35, 36, 37, 38, 39, 40, temperature, 30, 34 42, 43, 44, 45, 48, 52, 53, 54, 55, timber, 6, 29, 50, 58 56, 57, 58, 59, 60, 61, 62, 63, 65, tourism, 12 66 training, 14, 47, 53, 56, 57, 58, 60, village council, 32 62 village meeting, 17, 20,40, 53, 60 transect, 21,38, 63 wind, 29, 55, 56 transport, 21,40,43, 47,49, 52 woman, 7 tree planting, vi, 5,45, 53, 57, 58 women, vii, 14, 16, 20, 21, 23, 29, urban, 1,3,48, 50, 52 42, 43,45,46, 50, 55, 57, 58, 63 water, vii, 8, 18, 21, 23, 28, 29, 32, woodfuel, 2, 3, 4, 7, 42, 43, 44, 46, 34, 36, 38, 40,41, 43, 44, 48, 49, 49, 50,53 50, 55, 56, 57, 58, 65 voting, 24, 25

Kauzeni, Masao, Sawe, Shechambo and Ellegard 75

APPENDIX 1: EXCERPT FROM VILLAGE DOCUMENT

This is the English version of the beginning of a document that was subsequently translated into Kiswahili and sent to the village representatives, prior to the re­ visit by the team. The remaining part of the document is quite similar to the rec­ ommendations of section 4.4 of the present report.

This document is written for the villagers of the study area. It is the intention of the watafiti6 that this brief version of the project work could serve as a starting point in re-opening the discussion with the people of the villages. The document tries to explain why the project was started, how it was realized that the villagers were the most important people in such a project, and finally to present, very briefly, some suggestions on certain bioenergy options that could be considered in each specific village visited.

Background and explanation for the project The original thought behind this project is that bioenergy ( or biomass energy, meaning energy that comes from wood, plants and wastes) is a good energy source because it is: • locally available • environmentally benign • technologically feasible In addition, bioenergy projects have been propagated because they are often believed to be both socially acceptable and economically viable. Watafiti in Tanzania and abroad have a great concern especially for the envi­ ronmental argument, since they see that using biomass as an energy source is a way to arrest climatic changes in the whole world. For ordinary people in Tanza­ nia, and in Africa as a whole, this may also be an important aspect, since it is thought that the effects of using non-biomass fuels (such as oil, kerosene and coal) all over the world will result in an increase in the temperature all over the world. In many regions this would mean less rainfall. It is not possible to say which re­ gions would experience less rainfall, however. It should be said that using elec­ tricity does not have the same effects. With this in mind, a project was designed that would investigate the possi­ bilities to usebioenergy in a better way than is currently the case. • In the first place, this means that the way bioenergy is used should be less wasteful. An example is that the same amount of wood can be used for cooking more food by using an improved stove, or that the same amount of charcoal can be produced from less wood if certain proce­ dures are carried out while building and tending the kiln. • In the second place it means that biomass could be used for energy in other ways than is common today. This is what was originally meant by “Bioenergy Options”. Examples of such options include the production of biogas (gas arises from fermentation of cow dung), producer gas (gas arises from wood in a process similar to charcoal production), liquid fu­ els (either through fermentation to alcohol, which can be used to run engines, or through collection of by-products from charcoal produc­ tion).

6 Watafiti = researchers in Kiswahili 76 Bioenergy options

• In the third place it was thought that the use of bioenergy would be more beneficial if additional end-uses were considered, apart from only being fuel for cooking and light, even if these are also considered. This would include using the energy from biomass fuels for such purposes as running engines (this is feasible with gaseous and liquid fuels), which could in turn be used for important tasks such as water pumping, grinding or chaffing. It is also possible to use an engine that is being run with biomass energy to produce electric power which has a million uses.

Reasons for failure of bioenergy projects Several projects with these thoughts in mind have been launched over the years, also in Tanzania. It has been found in several instances that the results have not been as positive as expected. There are a number of reasons for this. 1. One reason is that projects have been seen as mostly technical experiments. The thought was that as soon as people saw how wonderfully the different technologies were working, they would soon adopt them and start reproducing them. But in these projects the possibilities for the people (individuals or groups) to reproduce the technologies were rarely taken into consideration. People must have the skills, the capital and ways to find out more about the technologies if they are going to use them by themselves. If they don’t have these things, the technology will stand as a goat tied to a tree in the sun without water. Eventually it will die, even if the goat itself is actually useful to its owner. 2. Another reason for the lack of success was also that bioenergy technologies have been installed to solve problems that were thought up by the watafiti. In many cases the problems that the watafiti thought the people had were not the same as the problems the people themselves had. The result was that technolo­ gies were introduced as solutions to problems which the people did not have. An example could be the introduction of improved stoves in an area where there is no problem to find wood. Why should the people use an expensive stove to save wood in such a case? 3. A third reason for the lack of success may have been that even technologies that solve problems that the people do have, and are functional and economic to the people do not spread because people do not know about them. Even the simplest technology concerns too many things to be possible to start on your own only on the basis of rumours, or because a neighbour has seen an example somewhere else. There must be good information available in several forms, for instance: • a person in the village has training and experience in how to make the technology work; • there is written information available for instance in the village office. This could be a small brochure just presenting the technology, or a more massive technical manual for all the details required; • somebody knows where to get the appropriate information, and training if necessary; • somebody is interested and tells other people about the possibilities. An example is for instance a women’s group 4. A fourth reason may be that not enough attention has been paid to economic actors. While people in the rural areas are often poor, this does not mean that Kauzeni, Masao, Sawe, Shechambo and Ellegard 77

they lack economic sense. If a technology is proposed that does not give the benefits it is said to give, then who is surprised if rural people do not use it? Or if funds are needed in order to start the technology, where do rural people get such funds? 5. A fifth reason is the issue of trust. It is outrageous to propose to poor people to invest the little money they have in order to achieve something which they do not know exactly what it is, or whether it relates to his actual needs. Especially only on the advice of a stranger (or a muzungu) who arrives one day in a four- wheel drive vehicle. You do not know if you will ever see him again, and then what to do if there are problems?

The villagers are the experts The bioenergy options project is an attempt to find out how the above issues could be dealt with in order to improve the success of bioenergy options for the benefit of people in the villages. We have been studying examples of bioenergy options in books and reports, and we have been discussing the issues with fellow watafiti in conferences and workshops. Finally we realised that the only people we had not talked to were exactly those who were said to benefit from our studies. In recent years many watafiti have come to the same conclusion, the people who are sup­ posed to benefit from the proposed initiatives must be involved in each step of a project: defining their needs, designing solutions and finally in carrying out the action deemed necessary. Such a process has even gained a name for itself which is “Participatory Rural Appraisal” or PRA. While having a name does by no means assure that the method is applied in the way it is intended (that is, for the benefit of the people), many of the methods appeared useful in the context of this project. However, we have not yet seen anybody using it for energy projects. With this in mind we embarked on a field trip into six villages: Kelamfua, Maharo and Shimbi Mashariki in Rombo District and Chomvu, Kigonigoni and Kagongo in Mwanga District. Some of you who read this may remember a visit by a group of watafiti asking a number of questions, walking around making observations and calling meetings to discuss village affairs. The reasons for doing so have now been explained.

Results of the work With the answers we got from the people in the villages we went back to our of­ fices and started thinking and analysing. Some of our conclusions are presented in the bigger document which we have now presented to the VEO in your village. Anybody interested in reading it should be allowed to do so. There are also even longer documents for those who are interested, but these are in English and have to be requested by you. If forced to summarise the conclusions very briefly, this is what we have come up with: • among problems ranking highly in many villages were the following: Water access, income and economy, leadership, education and health issues; • while some of these issues require outside assistance to solve, a large number of issues were found possible to solve in the village, using the resources at hand; • in most villages, people do not think that energy is one of their major problems, at least as expressed in the village meeting. In the households we found a slightly different picture; 78 Bioenergy options

• in most villages we think that activities that require energy could contribute to improving the lives for the villagers. The link between bioenergy options and income-earning might be attractive for the villagers; • in many villages we have found that projects based on community participation have failed • in many villages we have found that a functional mechanism for embarking on beneficial projects is lacking. In spite of many times dedicated and well in­ formed extension workers, resources are not enough, or not in the right place or not in the right time for development to occur; • there is not enough information for the villagers to form their own opinions on the viability of projects and activities in general • there is no adequate way for the villagers to get the capital to embark on bio­ energy (or indeed other) projects • the situation is very different in different villages, even those located close to each other. Generalisation from one village to the other should not be encour­ aged; While some of the conclusions relate directly to bioenergy issues, it is the strong feeling of our group that many relate to the much bigger issues of develop­ ment and living conditions in general in the villages. If our project in some way could contribute to solving such issues, we would of course be grateful, knowing that this is far more than what could be expected. However, with the conclusions in mind, we have studied the information that we gathered in the villages, and we have made suggestions which relate to bioenergy options for each village. These are presented in the larger document. We also hope to be able to discuss them in person with you at a village meeting in the near future. It is possible that an extension of the project will make it possible to embark on a small number of bioenergy-related projects. This we do not know at present, but we urge you to consider our suggestions and conclusions. The way to imple­ ment the projects we shall try to outline together. With this exercise our project on how to assess the viability of bioenergy options is coming to an end. We are deeply grateful to the people of the villages we have visited, and we realise that we have probably learned more from you than what you have learned from us. However, your participation in this project has enabled us to present a slightly different version of reality to other people that are concerned with these issues, be they in government, extension agencies or donors. This may contribute to a change in the priorities for rural development, so that ru­ ral people are more actively involved, that they are given information in a better way, and the possibility to acquire capital to invest in whatever activity they feel is appropriate, both to themselves as individuals and the community at large. Kauzeni, Masao, Sawe, Shechambo and Ellegard 79

APPENDIX 2: FINAL WORKSHOP RECOMMENDATIONS

At the end of the project, a final workshop was held in Dar es Salaam. Village representatives were invited to this workshop (and their fare was covered by the project, so that they would be able to take part), in addition to representative of government ministries, donors and organisations represented in Dar es Salaam. The workshop was held in Swahili, and the following is the translation of the workshop recommendation, translatedby the SEI representative at the workshop, Ms. M. Kjellen, who was the SEI observer.

How different levels can co-operate in planning and implementing bioenergy plans: National level: 1. To have a policy which can lead all levels and the people to take full part in initiating and disseminating bioenergy technology. 2. To help ensure that there are institutions, and that these institutions co-operate, in the co-ordination and planning of bioenergy at all concerned levels. 3. To help make possible that lending institutions exist in order to implement bioenergy and other types of development projects. 4. To formulate a program for monitoring policy implementation. 5. Have a policy that makes it possible for more resources be directed to the vil­ lages for project implementation and development, and also to ensure that these resources are actually used for the project. 6. The government to make sure that the policy of retention of a percentage of taxes and funds collected at village level be fully implemented. District level: 1. To encourage the implementation of approved projects by helping with energy expertise and means for local expertise to work. 2. To help by all possible means at the village level to make plans in accordance with the national policy. Village level: 1. To bring and disseminate tests of new bioenergy technology at the village level in participatory ways. 2. To start different groups that can plan and implement bioenergy plans by using their own abilities and ask for loans from concerned agencies. 3. To start production / trade enterprises that can help push the implementation of bioenergy projects 4. To co-operate in planting multi-purpose trees, such as avocado. Ways of improving the research methods:

To combine these methods with other research methods would improve the re­ sults. 1. To have enough time to make field research so that data and statistics have better quality. 2. To improve the system of reporting the research results so that the reader can understand the different steps that were gone through in order to come to the research results and information, and that they reach the beneficiaries as soon as possible. 3. That the participation does not end with the planing; but to be continued through implementation and evaluation of the research outcomes. 80 Bioenergy options

4. The methods to be extended also to learn the priorities (especially of energy) at the household level and the ways of deciding on energy uses for different needs. 5. To include the use of modem technologies to improve the information and data of the research, by for example using video camera for recording meet­ ings or important areas for the research. Strategies that can be used to implement the recommendations resulting from this research: 1. To educate all those concerned, at national, district, and village level of these recommendations. 2. To review different policies and strategies to see how these recommendations can be given priority and be implemented. 3. The government to have a reliable system for approving participatory devel­ opment projects. 4. Village level plans to be integrated in the implementation strategies of bio­ energy projects. 5. Development project design though consider participation of the beneficiaries. 6. The development of energy should aim at solving prioritised problems of the people. For example, water problems can be solved by constructing bioenergy driven water pumps. 7. Information, knowledge and know-how should be brought to the people through different means, such as books, journals, poster, etc. 8. To follow up from time to time on bioenergy plans. 9. To disseminate technology from one village to another by exchange of experi­ ences and expertise.