Continuing Higher Education and Lifelong Learning Michaela Knust · Anke Hanft Editors

Continuing Higher Education and Lifelong Learning

An International Comparative Study on Structures, Organisation and Provisions

123 Editors Dr. Michaela Knust Prof. Dr. Anke Hanft Universitat¨ Oldenburg Universitat¨ Oldenburg C3L - Center for Lifelong Learning Institut fur¨ Padagogik¨ 26111 Oldenburg 26111 Oldenburg Germany Germany [email protected] [email protected]

ISBN 978-1-4020-9675-4 e-ISBN 978-1-4020-9676-1 DOI 10.1007/978-1-4020-9676-1 Springer Dordrecht Heidelberg London New York

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Hugh Keith & Team Fax: +44 131 229 0693 E-Mail: [email protected] Contents

Continuing Higher Education in a State of Flux: An International Comparison of the Role and Organisation of Continuing Higher Education ...... 1 Ulrich Teichler and Anke Hanft Design of the International Comparative Study ...... 15 Wolfgang Muskens¨ and Anke Hanft Comparative Overview of Study Results ...... 23 Anke Hanft and Michaela Knust Continuing Higher Education in Germany ...... 71 Peter Faulstich, Gernot Graeßner, Ursula Bade-Becker and Bianca Gorys Continuing Higher Education in Finland ...... 145 Olaf Zawacki-Richter and Alexandra Reith Continuing Higher Education in France ...... 175 Torsten Dunkel and Isabelle Le Mouillour Continuing Higher Education in the United Kingdom ...... 215 Brigitte Geldermann and Susanne Schade Continuing Higher Education in Austria ...... 247 Ada Pellert and Eva Cendon Continuing Higher Education in the United States of America (USA) . 287 Heinke Robken¨ Corporate Universities and Research Associations as Players in Continuing Higher Education ...... 323 Michaela Knust and Anke Hanft Author Index ...... 357 Subject Index ...... 361

vii About the Authors

Dr. Ursula Bade-Becker graduated in Education Studies (Diplom-P¨adagogik), and since then has been a member of the academic staff in the Contact Centre for Academic Continuing Education at Bielefeld University and manager of the Centre for Academic Further Education of Bielefeld University. Her fields of activity are structure and organisation, ascertainment of demand and quality management for continuing higher education. Contact: [email protected] Dr. Eva Cendon has been member of the academic staff of the Department of Continuing Education Research and Educational Management at the Danube University, Krems and Director of the Office of AUCEN – the Austrian University Continuing Education and Staff Development Network. Since February 2009 she is member of the academic staff of the Berlin University for Professional Studies. Her academic activity is mainly in the fields of university continuing education and lifelong learning, with particular emphasis on universities. Current studies and projects are on matters concerning the European Qualifications Framework for Lifelong Learning (EQF) with special focus on learning outcomes in higher education. Contact: [email protected] Dr. Torsten Dunkel is project manager for the early identification of skill needs (Skillsnet) in the Area Research and Policy Analysis at Cedefop, the European Agency to promote the development of vocational education and training (VET) in the European Union, Thessaloniki. Formerly he was a member of the International Centre for Higher Education Research Kassel at the University of Kassel (INCHER-Kassel). His research fields include the links between education/training and the labour market and economy, in particular on the early identification of skill needs, the forecast of skill supply and demand, and on skill needs in enterprises. He also worked on the relations of HE, CVET and IVET, credit systems for education, competence development as well as mobility barriers and knowledge transfer between university and industry, the implications of the Bologna and Copenhagen processes for European education, and interchangeability between vocational and university education in Europe. In the area of research into comparative social sciences in France, he did research on the management of national innovations systems, research policy and intercultural communication. Contact: [email protected]

ix x About the Authors

Prof. Dr. Peter Faulstich is Professor of Educational Studies with the emphasis on adult education at the University of Hamburg. His fields of research and work are adult education, professional and vocational further education, staff development, cultural education and education policy. Since 2002, he has been Chairman of the German Association for University Continuing and Distance Education (DGWF, formerly Arbeitskreis Universit¨are Erwachsenenbildung). Contact: [email protected]

Brigitte Geldermann studied sociology, politics and Slavonic Studies in Erlangen and has many years’ experience of empirical research projects and European projects, as well as regular exchanges in partnerships with French, British, Spanish, Belgian, and Italian universities and research institutions, among others. She is currently Head of the department of continuing education at the Forschungsinstitut betriebliche Bildung (f-bb) (Research Institute for Occupational Training) in Nuremberg. Her work is mainly centred on the themes of continuing higher education, continuing education for older workers, cooperation and networking in education and quality assurance in continuing education. Contact: [email protected]

Bianca Gorys graduated in Education Studies (Diplom-P¨adagogik), and since then has been a member of the academic staff of the Contact Centre for Academic Continuing Education at Bielefeld University. Her activities are mainly centred on the structure and organisation of continuing higher education and benchmarking in continuing education. Contact: [email protected]

Dr. Gernot Graeßner is the academic director of the Faculty of Education at Bielefeld University. He is the Head of Continuing Higher Education and the director of the Contact Centre for Academic Continuing Education at Bielefeld University. His fields of research and work are academic continuing education, adult education and further education, particularly the methodology of teaching, and also adult and further education law and institutions. Contact: [email protected]

Prof. Dr. Anke Hanft is Professor of Continuing Education at the Carl von Ossietzky University of Oldenburg. She is the spokesperson for the department of continuing education and education management of the Faculty of Education and academic director of the Wolfgang Schulenberg Institut f¨ur Bildungsforschung (Wolfgang Schulenberg Institute for Education Research). Her work and research focuses on quality management and development in education and academic institutions. Prof. Hanft is a member of the Council of the University of Duisburg-Essen, the Advisory Council for Continuing Education of the German Adult Education Association, the Advisory Council of the Centre for Continuing Education of the University of Bremen, the Advisory Council of the journal Report, the Programme Advisory Council for the “Master-Online” programme of the state of Baden-W¨urttemberg, director of the Centre for Lifelong Learning (C3L) of the University of Oldenburg and chairman of the international About the Authors xi steering group of the Austrian Agency for Quality Assurance (AQA). Contact: [email protected] Dr. Michaela Knust is the managing director of the Center of Lifelong Learning at the University of Oldenburg. Until May 2009 she was a member of the academic staff in the department of Continuing Education and Education Management at the Carl von Ossietzky University of Oldenburg since 2006. The focus of her work includes national and international projects, such as the international comparative study on the structure and organisation of continuing higher education and the follow-up project on the dissemination of the results (project coordination and management), management of continuing higher education courses (“MaweSt”, project coordination) and DIES partnership with the NMM University in Port Elizabeth (project coordination). Contact: [email protected] Isabelle Le Mouillour is a senior researcher and project manager within the area “Enhanced Cooperation in VET and LifeLongLearning” at Cedefop (European Centre for the Development of Vocational Training, a European agency in Thessaloniki, Greece). She works at further developing the European instruments for education (ECVET, ECTS and EQF) and monitors implementation strategies for credit systems for education and European/national qualifications frameworks. Her research and publication activities include international comparisons of the strategies of European Member States and stakeholders in respect of lifelong learning and the Copenhagen/Bologna process. Her specific interest includes the development of educational standards and transition between vocational and academic education and training in Europe. She formerly worked at the International Centre for Higher Education Research Kassel at the University of Kassel (INCHER-Kassel, Germany) and the Federal Institute for Vocational Education and Training (BIBB, Bonn, Germany). Contact: [email protected] Dr. Wolfgang M¨uskens has been a member of the academic staff in the field of continuing education and education management at the Carl von Ossietzky University of Oldenburg since 2001. His research is centred on skills acquisition, qualification frameworks and performance points systems. He is the coordinator of the “Qualifikationsverbund Nord-West” (North-West Qualifications Association), a model project of the Federal Ministry of Education and Research initiative ANKOM (Anrechnung beruflicher Kompetenzen auf Hochschulstudieng¨ange/Recognition of occupational skills for courses at higher education institutions). Contact: [email protected] Prof. Dr. Ada Pellert is the president of the Berlin University for Professional Studies since January 2009. Until End of 2008 she was Professor of Continuing Education and Head of the Department for Continuing Education Research and Educational Management at the Danube University, Krems. She is the spokesperson of AUCEN – the Austrian University Continuing Education and Staff Development Network. The main emphasis of her academic activities lies in the areas of research on higher education management and organizational development, human resource xii About the Authors and quality management, lifelong learning and gender mainstreaming. She is member of several university councils and national advisory boards in the field of higher education. Contact: [email protected]

Alexandra Reith graduated in Education Studies (Diplom-P¨adagogik), after which she designed and ran projects on intercultural education and worked as a lecturer in adult education. As a member of the academic staff in the department of Continuing Education and Education Management at the Carl von Ossietzky University of Oldenburg, she worked on the present international comparative study, supporting the coordination of the project and the research for the national studies of Finland and the USA. She worked freelance on the editing study materials for continuing higher education and currently develops e-learning study materials for quality improvement of teaching and learning in higher education. At the University of Oldenburg, she is program coordinator for academic staff development. Contact: [email protected]

Prof. Dr. Heinke Robken¨ is Professor for Educational Organisation and Management at the Bergische Universit¨at Wuppertal. Until September 2008 she was Junior Professor of Education Management at the Institute for Education of the Carl von Ossietzky University Oldenburg. The focus of her research includes university management, international comparative educational research, networking research and transfer of knowledge. Various research visits to the USA took her to UC Berkeley, the University of Chicago, Cornell University and the Wharton School of the University of Pennsylvania, among other places. Contact: [email protected]

Susanne Schade studied psychology (Dipl.-Psych.) at the Dresden Technical University, specialising in work and company psychology. During a two-year stay in Great Britain, she also studied psychology and women’s studies at Manchester Metropolitan University. Since 2002, she has been working on a doctorate in the field of linguistics at the University of Sheffield on the subject of “Discursive Psychology and Psychoanalysis”.

Prof. Dr. Ulrich Teichler is a Professor at the University of Kassel. For many years he was Director of the International Centre for Higher Education Research. His major areas of research are higher education and the world of work, structural developments in higher education systems and international cooperation and mobility. He has held temporary professorships at the Northwestern University (USA), the College of Europe (Belgium) and the University of Hiroshima (Japan). He completed extended periods of research in Japan and the Netherlands. For many years, he has been Chairman of the Consortium of Higher Education Researchers and President of the EAIR. He is a member of the Academia Europaea and the International Academy of Education. He has been awarded the Comenius Prize by UNESCO and an honorary doctorate by the University of Turku (Finland). Contact: [email protected] About the Authors xiii

Dr. Olaf Zawacki-Richter holds a fixed-term Professorship in Educational Technology at the FernUniversit¨at in Hagen. Until End of August 2008 he was a member of the department of Continuing Education and Education Management at Carl von Ossietzky University of Oldenburg. After taking his doctorate at the Faculty of Education at the University of Oldenburg in 2003, he worked for four years as a project leader and lecturer with efiport AG (an e-learning service provider) and the Frankfurt School of Finance & Management (HR development) in Frankfurt/Main. His research is centred on continuing and distance education, and HR development. He is a faculty member at the University of Oldenburg (MBA Educational Management) and an Adjunct Associate Professor at the University of Maryland University College (Master of Distance Education). Contact: [email protected] Executive Summary

Anke Hanft and Michaela Knust

The present study examines and compares the structure and organisation of con- tinuing higher education in six countries: Austria, Finland, France, Germany, the UK and the USA. The focus is not just on current continuing education provisions at higher education institutions but also on the institutions themselves and their surrounding milieu. The study also attempts to move away from a purely national angle and to approach the topic from an international perspective. The conclusion is reached that when it comes to the development, establishment and professional implementation of continuing education provisions, German higher education insti- tutions lag behind the other countries in the comparison in almost all areas. The main findings in terms of the three levels ‘system’, ‘institution’, and ‘programme’ are summarised below.

1 Continuing Education in the Higher Education System

There are considerable divergences, both nationally and internationally, in the def- inition of the German term “wissenschaftliche Weiterbildung” (“academic con- tinuing education”). In the English-speaking world, a variety of terms such as “lifelong learning”, “adult education”, “continuing education”, “continuing higher education”, “university-level continuing education” or “continuing professional development” are often used as synonyms without any precise differentiation – and this is not perceived as a problem. It emerges that in international terms, the (continuing) education of university graduates – frequently regarded in the German- speaking world as the “supreme discipline” within academic higher education – only represents one aspect of continuing education, and the areas covered by the term are interpreted much more broadly and, above all, pragmatically. Another proba- ble obstacle for the development of continuing education is the prevailing opinion, expressed in many publications on higher education policy, that continuing edu- cation involves a “return to organised learning following a period of professional activity”. This unnecessarily restricts the concept of continuing education, and also

xv xvi Executive Summary is hardly compatible with the concept of “lifelong learning”. 1 We, therefore, recom- mend that in order to come closer to the international interpretation of the concept the terms “continuing higher education” or “lifelong learning at higher education institutions” should be used instead of “academic continuing education”. It is striking that in the countries studied, continuing higher education is inte- grated into vocational continuing education to a much greater extent than in Ger- many. This is accompanied by greater recognition of professional skills for the purposes of basic and continuing university-level education, greater vocational ori- entation of programmes and more intensive use of recognised subject specialists as continuing education teachers. In many of the countries examined, it is not enough to limit target groups to graduates – the systems in these countries put much greater emphasis on existing skills rather than formal qualifications when it comes to admis- sion to higher education institutions. The study found that – with the exception of Germany and Austria – in all the countries examined, the boundaries between basic undergraduate study and continu- ing education are increasingly disappearing and there is a trend towards longer-term programmes leading to the award of certificates. In all the countries examined, continuing higher education is regarded as important – not least because of the increasing significance of “knowledge” as a production factor and the ageing of the population in the countries concerned. What is extraordinary is that the size of the institution concerned seems to have little influence on the expansion of continuing education and the number of con- tinuing education programmes on offer. Thus there are large universities with very little involvement in continuing education and smaller universities that are extremely active and successful on the continuing education market. When it comes to integration of the concept of lifelong learning, a general trend can be perceived. Whereas Finland, France, the UK and the USA tend to show great willingness to incorporate groups of individuals with little or no previous academic education into the university system, Austria and Germany are not at all open to the idea.

2 Organisation and Management of Continuing Higher Education

The organisation of continuing higher education is characterised both nationally and internationally by a great diversity of models. Even within an individual institu- tion, continuing education courses can be offered by different organisational units.

1 When we speak of “lifelong learning”, what we mean, in line with the EU Memorandum, is guaranteeing universal and continuing access to learning for gaining and renewing skills. This includes improving methods for assessing learning participation and outcomes, particularly non-formal and informal learning (Commission of the European Communi- ties: Memorandum on Lifelong Learning. Brussels, 30.10.2000 SEC (2000) 1832, p. 4, http://www.bologna-berlin2003.de/pdf/MemorandumDe.pdf#search=%22EU-Memorandum%20 lebenslanges%20Lernen%22). Executive Summary xvii

In Germany, Finland, France and Austria, continuing higher education is largely centrally organised, whereas in the UK a trend towards increasing decentralisation – especially in recent years – can be observed. Strategic responsibility for continuing higher education is usually the responsibility of the institution‘s management, and the scope for taking action on far-reaching decisions related to operational imple- mentation varies to a great extent. There are also considerable differences with regard to the profile and profes- sional self-image of continuing higher education. Whereas institutions, mainly in Finland and the USA, make use of innovative learning methods and assume the role of “learning laboratories” that have an impact on undergraduate education as well, in other cases continuing higher education only has a low profile, or is not regarded as particularly prestigious. Particularly in Austria and Germany, continuing higher education tends to play a marginal role rather than being seen, as required by law, to be an equally important task for universities that is firmly anchored in their profiles. It is striking that the position of continuing education appears to be better in fields or universities with a strong research commitment. Research-intensive universities in the USA and the prestigious Russell Group of universities in the UK seem to display a greater commitment to continuing education than other higher education institutions. This suggests the tentative conclusion that research excellence and com- mitment to continuing education are interrelated. When it comes to particular aspects of management, such as the division of tasks/coordination, quality assurance, marketing and financing, the following fea- tures can be noted: r In all the countries covered by the study, short-term, non-credit continuing edu- cation provisions tend to be offered by continuing education institutions, whereas full courses are offered by individual faculties or departments. As full continuing education courses in German higher education institutions – compared with other countries – represent a relatively new area, the division of labour between facul- ties and continuing education institutions is still relatively fragile. In many cases, the organisation of continuing education courses in Germany fails as a result of a vacuum of responsibility between faculties and institutions. But negotiation on responsibility for continuing education courses is frequently a problem in other countries as well, and tends to be characterised not only by fruitful co-operation r but also by rivalry. The situation with regard to quality assurance varies widely from country to country. In principle, great importance is attached to the quality of continuing higher education, but the measures adopted to ensure quality are very heteroge- neous. There is a striking trend towards using customer-oriented measures such as course evaluations, analysis of complaints or surveys, with institutional quality assurance measures remaining relatively undeveloped – particularly in German r higher education institutions. When it comes to marketing, the main focus of German activities is on commu- nications policy – i.e. information is mainly distributed via websites and press relations. By contrast, other countries make greater use of direct approaches to alumni and potential target groups (e.g. by direct mailing) or attendance at fairs xviii Executive Summary

and congresses. One method that is not used is Internet advertising banners, as there is a fear of losing one’s reputation by association with advertisements for r less prestigious services. With regard to funding models, it emerges that a mixed approach is adopted in all the countries studied, involving funding by the state, the regions, companies and participants themselves, the proportions varying strongly from one country to another. Thus continuing higher education in the UK is to a large extent funded via the general university funding model, whereas the main source of funding in the USA comes from private tuition fees. In France, the state, companies and the regions are the main source of funding. Sponsoring and fundraising play an important role mainly in the USA, UK and Austria. In the USA in particular, considerable profits are generated with continuing higher education, and the uni- versities to some extent display a strong entrepreneurial streak, making a kind of venture capital available for promising continuing education programmes. By contrast, it is difficult to find start-up funding for continuing higher educa- tion in Germany, and this means that even where the motivation and ideas are forthcoming, programmes are frequently not actually developed. This often goes hand-in-hand with a lack of the necessary business models to secure long-term provision.

Continuing higher education is not embedded in an overall concept of lifelong learning to the same degree in all the countries studied. In Germany in particular, resources are currently flowing into implementing the structures of the Bologna process at undergraduate level, and continuing education has been shelved. It is not surprising, therefore, that few courses can be found that offer co-ordination between basic (non-consecutive) undergraduate studies and the continuing education sector. Neither is there usually any across-the-board transferability with the individual uni- versities’ programme portfolios. Furthermore, recognition of skills acquired outside the university for admission to university is also still in its infancy. The situation is similar in Austria, whereas in France, the UK and the USA in particular, embedding of continuing higher education in a concept of lifelong learning is much further advanced.

3 Provisions

The programme structures studied reveal, on the one hand, an increasing trend towards issuing credits – and this should have a positive influence on incorporating continuing higher education into a concept of lifelong learning. On the other hand, there is also a trend towards longer-term programmes leading to a certificate or academic degree, even though – especially in Germany and Austria – the number of short-term programmes is currently much greater than the number of long-term ones. Part-time Bachelors degrees are much less common in Germany and Austria than in other countries. Particularly in the UK and USA, there has been a sharp increase Executive Summary xix in such courses. One probable reason for Germany lagging behind in this respect is the current tendency to categorise Bachelors degree courses as basic undergraduate courses. The content of the programmes often follows the particular academic focus of the university concerned. Their academic nature – governed by the teaching staff, examination requirements and contents – varies in importance from one country to another, as does their degree of vocational orientation. In Germany and Austria, there is a greater focus on “Wissenschaftlichkeit” (academic rigour), which is achieved not just through course contents and examination requirements but also through using professors and lecturers for teaching, whereas in the other countries, although this aspect is also underlined by the use of academically qualified teachers and appropriate examinations, there is a much greater focus on the vocational nature of programmes, especially in France, the UK and the USA. The extent to which programmes are need-oriented varies from country to coun- try. In the case of Germany and Austria in particular, the focus is often currently more on the supply side. In other countries, continuing higher education provisions are strongly market-oriented. In the USA in particular, programmes are very much based on demand, possibly because of the need to raise much of the funding through tuition fees. A further aspect that was analysed was the question of e-learning. It was found that this approach had been adopted by all the countries in the study, albeit to dif- fering degrees. In the USA in particular, a small number of continuing education institutions and universities offer virtually all their programmes on an e-learning basis – in other words there is sometimes a strong focus on this approach to learning at individual institutions. Particularly in the case of longer programmes, the coun- tries concerned often include Internet-based self-learning phases. The majority of providers prefers a blended learning approach to teaching. Finally, the question of special modes of co-operation with private industry in the form of corporate programmes was examined. In this case, there are clear differ- ences between Germany and Austria on the one hand, and the other countries in the study. In the case of German or Austrian higher education institutions and continu- ing education institutions, co-operation with private business in the form of special learning alliances is the exception rather than the rule. In the other countries in the study, however, great emphasis is put on the importance of tailored or customised programmes specially developed for companies. This is ultimately also a result of the involvement of continuing higher education providers in vocational continuing education – and is most pronounced in France.

4 Recommendations for University Policy and Management

As mentioned at the outset, this comparative international study reveals that Germany lags well behind international developments in the field of continuing higher education. In order to catch up, there is a need to take action in the following areas in particular: xx Executive Summary

1. Adapting the framework to lifelong learning r If part-time Bachelors, Masters and doctoral programmes are to be firmly anchored in the university system, there is a need to revise the recommenda- tions issued by the Conference of Ministers of Education and Culture (KMK), r as these currently limit the scope to Masters degrees. There needs to be a focus on non-traditional learners as the target group, e.g. by – recognising professional skills for the purposes of university studies, – facilitating transfer between vocational education and university education and/or – promoting continuous professional development for university graduates. r Incentives need to be created for lifelong learning, e.g. in the form of – tax breaks, – government promotional programmes and/or – company promotion. 2. Professionalizing lifelong learning r A university-wide lifelong learning strategy needs to be developed. This involves, for example, a commitment by the institution’s management to r include continuing education in its agreed goals, profile, etc. Business models need to be developed for sustainable funding and implemen- tation of programmes (including those that do not cover their own costs), e.g. r through internal university funds or central pools. r Active, targeted marketing needs to be initiated. In addition to operational and programme-related quality assurance, there is r also a need to develop process-related QA measures. Within the framework of what is possible, there needs to be properly targeted human resources management, including appropriate incentive models. 3. Openingupbusinessareas There is a need to open up business areas (and German higher education insti- tutions are particularly under-represented when it comes to approaching corpo- rate customers, extending PUSH- and PUR-programmes and offering continuing education provisions for academics). In order to ensure that the German higher education system keeps pace, we recom- mend the introduction of a national programme – along the lines of the excellence initiative in research – aimed at promoting lifelong learning higher education insti- tutions. Such a programme would support the target of developing continuing higher education as a whole as well as the implementation of the recommendations listed above at appropriate institutions. Continuing Higher Education in a State of Flux: An International Comparison of the Role and Organisation of Continuing Higher Education

Ulrich Teichler and Anke Hanft

Contents

1 Higher Education in Germany: A System Geared Towards “Normal Students” ... 1 2 Continuing Higher Education in Germany: At the Centre of a Changing Environment 3 3 The Perspective Offered by an International Comparison ...... 4 4 Methodological Challenges ...... 5 5 International Range of Continuing Higher Education ...... 7 6 A New Direction for Continuing Higher Education ...... 9 7 Prospects of a More Open-Minded Approach ...... 12 References ...... 13

1 Higher Education in Germany: A System Geared Towards “Normal Students”

Seen from the perspective of the current reform debate and a comparison with other countries, a look back at the German higher education system over the past few decades and the role of continuing education within it highlights the following points:

1. In the past, study programmes at German higher education institutions were geared mainly towards the standard model of traditional learners enrolled before getting employed for the first time – full-time courses, face-to-face teaching and acquisition of the competences needed for early career. Compared with other countries, the German higher education system provided strikingly few courses

U. Teichler (B) Universitat¨ Kassel, International Centre for Higher Education Research Kassel, INCHER-Kassel e-mail: [email protected]

M. Knust, A. Hanft (eds.), Continuing Higher Education and Lifelong Learning, 1 DOI 10.1007/978-1-4020-9676-1 1, C Springer Science+Business Media B.V. 2009 2 U. Teichler and A. Hanft

designed specifically for adults with no higher education qualifications; it also suffered from paucity of continuing education courses for graduates. 2. On the other hand, compared with other countries, the traditional system for “normal” students offered particular flexibility to mature students and continuing education. Approximately one-tenth of students in mainstream higher education in Germany begin their studies aged 25 or over, and the average student age is also about 25.1 And 64% of students already have some work experience before going to university, and 66% do paid work while they are studying (HIS, 2005, pp. 38, 126). Depending on the chosen definition, a quarter or significantly more students are part-time students. One factor that fits in very well with the needs of non-traditional students is the ease with which students have traditionally been able to extend the duration of their studies or decide to study part-time. 3. Though German higher education legislation since the 1970s has attributed an important role to continuing education, experts agree that in practice it remains a rather peripheral activity. This is in no small measure due to the fact that higher education funding is concentrated on regular degree programmes and basic research. 4. Continuing education for graduates has always been the main focus of con- tinuing education at German higher education institutions. This involved post- graduate, other advanced study and continuing education programmes that were largely funded out of the higher education institution’s central budget, as well as continuing professional development seminars and courses that had to gener- ate income and compete with external providers, although this was made very difficult for them by the universities’ inflexible administrative procedures. As a consequence, higher education institutions did not behave like typical competi- tors on the market. 5. There were also a number of continuing education events that were open to the public, as well as continuing education for members of the higher education institution’s staff. 6. However, the two things that were completely or almost completely lacking were continuing education courses to prepare adults for higher education (this was viewed as a role of secondary education) and undergraduate courses for non- traditional mature students. The comparison with other countries demonstrates that there is no reason why either of these could not have been provided, indeed theywouldhavefittedverynicelyintotheexistingsystem.

The traditional German higher education system was thus very open to students of different ages and with varying degrees of previous work experience, as long as they entered it via the traditional routes. The supply-led study structures were not over- regulated and offered considerable flexibility to both traditional and non-traditional students. However, they were not geared towards specific target groups and their

1According to data from the Federal Statistical Office, the average student age for the 2004/05 academic year was 25.5 (http://www.destatis.de/basis/d/biwiku/hochtab2.php). Continuing Higher Education in a State of Flux 3 learning needs. Thus, adult learners could enjoy all the advantages of the system as long as they were happy to fit in with the existing structures and did not expect courses to be tailored to meet their specific requirements. The system offered a lot of flexibility and to some extent also promoted equal opportunities in the sense that similar conditions applied to all sorts of different learner groups. The established wisdom is that the German continuing education system used to be completely separate from the primary, secondary and higher education sys- tems. Without denying the fact that a separation did exist, it is nevertheless impor- tant to point out that it was not as pronounced as is often claimed and there were undoubtedly opportunities for continuing education to play a greater role in the higher education system. Thus, for example, planners of German undergraduate study programmes were by no means unaware of the need for vocational relevance – indeed Germany is one of the countries where work placements are most common. Furthermore, about a third of graduates in Germany have a vocationally oriented degree rather than an academic university degree. A third of new students choose to go to higher education institutions that specialise in technical and vocational studies (Fachhochschulen), and Germany is one of the few countries in the world where courses are required by law to be relevant for the world of work. However, study structures were geared towards students entering the system with no previous work experience. Higher education failed to take into account the pronounced vertical and horizon- tal links of vocational practice and academic study that characterised the everyday learning experience of “normal” students. Consequently, study programmes were not geared towards specific target groups, and this distinguishes the higher educa- tion system from the continuing education system.

2 Continuing Higher Education in Germany: At the Centre of a Changing Environment

Recent changes in the higher education system could redress the impact study pro- grammes have on academic and professional lives. The introduction of Bachelors and Masters courses allows people to change the pace and stages at which they move between study and work to enable them, for example, to have a period of full-time employment between their Bachelors and Masters degrees. Meanwhile, unlike in other countries, accreditation in Germany actually requires a clear distinc- tion to be drawn between Masters programmes primarily aimed at people with work experience and those that are not. Furthermore, the introduction of tuition fees is likely to cause higher education institutions to adopt a more demand-led approach to course selection and design than has previously been the case. The introduction of tuition fees confronts higher education institutions with the issue of whether or not to draw a clear distinction between full-time and part-time students at the point of matriculation. The expansion of e-learning means that it can now be much easier for students to study on a part-time basis. Overall, it can be 4 U. Teichler and A. Hanft assumed that while the courses offered by German higher education institutions are primarily geared towards people with no previous work experience, the flexibility they offer to continuing education students will continue to increase. Furthermore, it is likely that the distinction between courses for people with no work experi- ence and continuing education courses will become less pronounced than it used to be. Since the late 1990s, various education and higher education policy reforms had been implemented that are highly pertinent to the role and nature of continuing higher education. The knowledge society and lifelong learning have begun to receive more serious attention from the government. Although policy in this area was rather vague initially and the higher education institutions did little to breathe life into the issue, more concrete measures are now beginning to be taken, such as higher edu- cation institutions recognising professional competences in their admission require- ments or looking for ways to increase the involvement of alumni in their faculties and departments. A further factor is the reform of the regulatory and governance system (less state involvement in supervising the details, increased use of contracts and incentive mechanisms for regulation, tuition fees, more strategic input from the higher education institutions, etc.) that is, to some extent, causing higher education institutions as a whole to move towards the organisational structures and strategic approaches that have already characterised continuing education for some time. We can expect to see a more competitive and market-oriented approach, with more and more higher education institutions developing their own brand image. All these developments suggest that we are likely to see a major expansion in the kind and number of continuing education activities undertaken by higher educa- tion institutions. New developments such as the recognition of professional compe- tences, part-time Bachelors and Masters programmes for people who are working and continuing education measures for graduates could help continuing education to find a place in the core activities of higher education institutions.

3 The Perspective Offered by an International Comparison

The state of flux that continuing higher education currently finds itself in poses a particular challenge for an international comparative study, with its own set of opportunities and risks. If the study restricts itself to treating continuing higher education as a self- contained organisational unit that is largely separate from universities’ regular study courses, then it runs the risk of failing to take account of the changes occurring at the core level of the universities and of overlooking important trends that will also affect continuing education. Consequently, an empirical study of continuing higher edu- cation should not be confined to the numerous continuing education units that have recently been established within higher education institutions, but should instead cover the whole of higher education and its broader context. This is the only way to avoid the danger of focussing on an organisational structure that may be disappear- ing or about to disappear in its current form. Continuing Higher Education in a State of Flux 5

However, this approach is also accompanied by the risk of the study concentrat- ing too heavily on the demands of a changing environment, leading to the conclusion that there is a need for reform, which may result in recommendations that are superficially plausible but that contain the hidden danger of shorter learning cycles. The increased competition on the continuing education market could be used as jus- tification for demands that continuing higher education should focus more on its core competences and unique selling points, for example, by concentrating future provision on part-time Masters courses. The danger with this is that the percep- tion that existing continuing education units currently have of themselves might be rashly dismissed as inappropriate for a higher education institution, resulting in existing potential not being exploited. In view of the current state of flux, it would also be dangerous to focus too closely on the German higher education system and use it as a yardstick for comparisons with other countries. This could lead to insufficient attention being paid to develop- ments in the systems of Germany’s European neighbours, when in fact these devel- opments are of crucial importance in the context of the creation of a European higher education area. As such, the measures recommended by a study that focussed exces- sively on the German system could end up being too limited in nature. Against this backdrop, a successful international comparison of the structure and organisation of continuing higher education will clearly need to dispense with a national approach to the issue and be prepared to take an impartial look at other higher education systems and the way they integrate lifelong learning. This should potentially enable it to develop perspectives that go beyond the traditional German understanding of continuing higher education. A broader and more open perspective would indeed appear indispensable vis-a-vis` the creation of a European higher edu- cation area. However, in order for the study to make a contribution to this process, it needs to meet a number of methodological challenges.

4 Methodological Challenges

International comparative studies of education issues and particularly higher educa- tion have not always aroused much interest in Germany. As hopes for major reform evaporated over the course of the 1970s, opposition to the comparative approach grew and the prevailing view became that you hardly can make comparisons in this area. However, interest in international comparisons has grown significantly over the past 10 years or so, often as a result of the view that Germany has to catch up with international higher education reform trends concerned. Consequently, more international comparative studies take account of German involvement or are even initiated by Germany. At first sight, these studies look rather similar in terms of their conception and the key issues they address. However, anyone who undertakes a review of the current body of comparative research (see especially Kodron, 1997; and various contributions in Teichler, 1996) will soon realise that there is in fact a wide range of different approaches. 6 U. Teichler and A. Hanft

There are three key aspects that distinguish international comparative studies that are of interest to the present international comparative study of the structure and organisation of continuing higher education. First, some studies seek to undertake a multinational comparison, whereas others are more focussed on comparing one particular country with other countries:

• The former are genuinely interested in the situation in several different countries. • The latter see other countries only in terms of how to match with one particular country. They either look at the situation from the outside, i.e. “What is peculiar to this country and what is the same as elsewhere?”, or from the inside, i.e. “What do other countries do differently and what is similar or identical to what we do?”

The first of the above comparative approaches is equally meaningful to readers from several different countries in terms of helping them to understand the situation or to evaluate their experiences or encourage them to introduce reforms. But, it can provide less detail about the situation in individual countries. Meanwhile, the second approach may offer a more thorough analysis of the characteristics of one particular country, but at the expense of a less-detailed portrayal of the specific situation in the other countries. Second, the perspective of the comparative analysis may be either international or national:

• An international perspective is one where the concepts and categories used in the analysis are in principle equally suitable for investigating the theme in question in the majority or all of the countries in the study. • A national perspective is one where concepts and categories based on one country in particular are used as the reference point for analysing the other countries.

The national perspective is useful for establishing what differences and similarities there are in other countries in the areas that are central to the debate in the reference country. The international perspective, on the other hand, is better at identifying issues that are important in the other countries but may constitute a blind spot in the reference country. Third, it is possible to adopt different approaches to putting together a research team:

• One approach is for the individual country studies to be carried out by people from the country in question. • It is not uncommon for experts from a single country to analyse the situation in all the other countries. • Obviously, there are also other approaches, for example, using external experts from various different countries to carry out the individual country studies.

As a rule, experts from the country being investigated are much more knowledge- able about their subject. The richness of their everyday experience means that they Continuing Higher Education in a State of Flux 7 are familiar with far more aspects than any external expert could hope to pick up on. On the other hand, external experts have the objectivity that sometimes enables them to identify specific characteristics that would never even occur to people from the country under investigation, because they lack the requisite distance in their perspective. Furthermore, it is of course more likely that people from the country whose situation is to be used as the reference point for the whole comparative study will have a more consistent perspective when analysing the other countries. The present international comparative study analyses several different countries with reference to one single country, in this case Germany. The design of the sur- vey was also based on the characteristics of continuing education at German higher education institutions. However, the study is not confined to the investigation of the structure and organisation of continuing higher education, but all the country studies also address each country’s respective understanding of continuing higher education. Our endeavours to obtain as authentic a portrayal as possible of contin- uing higher education in each country are also reflected in the composition of the research team, in that the country studies were partly carried out by researchers from the country in question. The aim of this was to make sure that the study went beyond gathering specific information about the issues and approaches that are central to the German debate, thereby preventing everything from being seen only through German eyes and allowing for other, complementary perspectives to help avoid the danger of a blinkered attitude. The authors of the individual country studies for Finland, the UK, France, Austria and the USA have adopted a reflective approach. On the one hand, they have attempted, wherever possible, to provide information that can be understood from a German perspective. On the other hand, they also clearly demonstrate how dif- ferent the continuing higher education structures are in each country and what the main approaches are in each case. As such, the country reports are a useful resource for the German reader, but can also make for an uncomfortable read. They provide information that has been requested by German research coordinators, but at the same time they force them to consider whether they are able to approach the issue of continuing higher education from a less one-sided perspective, i.e. whether they need to analyse and review their established ways of seeing things. This dual perspective was actively sought by the project’s co-ordinators. The ini- tial questions in the guidelines for the country reports are as follows: “How would you define the field of continuing higher education for this country?”, “What prob- lems arise when trying to tie down a definition for the term ‘continuing higher education’?”, “Does this definition of continuing higher education correspond with the way the term is perceived in this country?”

5 International Range of Continuing Higher Education

There is no clear definition of the term “continuing higher education” either in German-speaking countries or internationally. Terms such as “lifelong learning”, 8 U. Teichler and A. Hanft

“adult education”, “continuing education”, “continuing higher education”, “univer- sity continuing education” or “continuing professional development” are often used interchangeably by English speakers, and the boundaries between the definitions of these terms are at best blurred (Teichler, 1999).2 The German higher education system’s traditional insistence on drawing a clear distinction between initial training and continuing education is often met with incomprehension by people from other countries. Meanwhile, Americans in particular adopt the extremely pragmatic stance that continuing education is anything that can be marketed to adult learners. Four types of classifications tend to be used in international comparative studies of continuing higher education (Teichler, 1999, p. 175):

• The first looks at how the continuing education provided at higher education institutions compares with other typical adult learning formats. Accordingly, higher education institutions can be said to provide courses for adult learners that (a) prepare them for a traditional study programme, (b) correspond to a typ- ical study programme (e.g. evening classes) and (c) are subsequent to traditional study programmes (e.g. postgraduate courses, continuing professional develop- ment for graduates). • The second compares characteristics of programmes for adult learners with those of regular degree programmes. There may be specific formats, e.g. courses lead- ing to a certificate, short courses, one-off seminars. • The third compares continuing higher education students with the young students in regular study programmes, identifying various groups such as adults, mature students, deferrers, returners, second chance learners and remedial learners. • The fourth looks at the different learning methods that are often employed in adult and continuing education, e.g. correspondence courses, evening classes, part-time courses, open university courses, modular courses, online courses.

Altogether, it can be said that countries where continuing higher education plays a more important role than in Germany cater for a wide variety of different learning goals and learner roles. The boundaries between these goals and roles are often very fluid, and there is a huge range of different formats, meaning that people prefer to adopt a very pragmatic approach and avoid drawing a strict distinction between training and continuing education or between continuing higher education and adult education. There are thus differences in the extent to which programmes for adult

2An article reviewing current research into the role of higher education institutions in continuing education identified a number of interesting overviews. Even the titles of these publications point to a variety of key themes and analytical perspectives for continuing higher education – Adult par- ticipation in higher education, Adults in the academy, Adults in higher education (Davis, 1995; OECD, 1988), Mature age students in higher education, New clients for higher education, Higher education: A part-time perspective, The challenge of lifelong learning for the universities, Adult study strategies, Open university, Continuing higher education, The role of universities in continu- ing education and training (Becher, 1992), Continuing professional education (OECD, 1995). Continuing Higher Education in a State of Flux 9 learners are linked to or clearly distinguished from courses for younger students, and whether or not adult learners have any previous experience of academic education. This extremely broad interpretation of continuing education is most pronounced in Finland, where more than half of all continuing or adult education is organised through higher education institutions, which are among the largest continuing edu- cation providers in the country (see Finland country study, p. 162). However, the boundaries between work and study are also increasingly disappearing in France (see France country study, p. 188), while the UK’s Open University, which was originally intended exclusively for adult learners, is now witnessing a growth in the number of younger students (see UK country study, p. 241). The European Qualifications Framework (EQF) is intended to act as a future link between the different education sectors and qualifications systems and to enable Europe-wide recognition of qualifications. The goal is for national and sectoral qual- ifications systems for general education and continuing professional development to be linked to each other through the EQF, which would serve as a reference point for easier transfer and recognition of qualifications (Fahle & Hanf, 2006). As far as recognition of professional competences is concerned, the higher educa- tion systems in the German-speaking countries still have a long way to go compared with other European countries. English and French continuing education organisa- tions have already developed accreditation of professional competences into a new market (see UK country study, p. 252, and France country study, p. 198), while in the USA certification has been a profitable area of continuing education for some years now (see US country study, p. 323). However, giving credit for professional competences continues to be virtually non-existent in the German and Austrian con- tinuing higher education systems (see Germany country study, p. 126, and Austria country study, p. 296). As for future developments, German continuing higher edu- cation experts will tend to focus on a stronger vocational orientation and greater emphasis on degree courses. They consider an increase in the number of Masters courses to be particularly likely (see Germany country study, p. 110) an area where they are in competition with the faculties and departments of their own institutions. In the long term, continuing higher education units might use their unique position at the interface between higher and continuing education to take greater account of developments in other parts of Europe and thus also attach greater importance to recognition of prior learning.

6 A New Direction for Continuing Higher Education

Until recently, continuing professional education of university graduates was the key activity of continuing education at German higher education institutions. However, the spectrum of continuing higher education provision is now being expanded by the emergence of formats aimed at adult learners, ranging from preparatory courses through degree programmes to continuing professional development for graduates. Purposes and target groups that have always played an important role in some other 10 U. Teichler and A. Hanft countries are now finally being included at German higher education institutions as well. In addition to the traditional range of continuing higher education activities, we are now seeing new formats that were previously not considered part of standard continuing education at German higher education institutions, even though they are important in other countries where universities are much more active in the field of continuing education. These include the following:

• Courses enabling adults to complete their secondary education, together with other “second-chance education” formats. In Germany, this had previously been seen as the exclusive responsibility of secondary schools or non-university con- tinuing education providers. • Continuing professional development that does not require a university degree or similar competence level. • Short courses leading to a certificate “below” the level of an ordinary degree, but where students can obtain credits that count towards degree programmes. • Standard study programmes where students obtain credits, but which are tailored to the specific goals, competences and lifestyles of adult students. • Study programmes aimed at adults who do not meet the usual admission criteria for higher education. • Tailored corporate programmes run in conjunction with businesses in order to meet their specific training requirements. • Recognition of professional competences so that they can be counted towards higher education study programmes, thereby reducing the time that the student needs to spend studying. • Development of completely new formats that are becoming increasingly impor- tant in the context of lifelong learning (e.g. children’s universities, courses for senior citizens and PUSH, PUR).

The comparative study provides a wealth of examples of the directions in which continuing higher education can develop if the higher education system provides sufficient opportunities to do so. However, in order to take advantage of these oppor- tunities, it will be necessary to abandon the old ways of thinking and reform the existing regulatory systems. Nowhere is this clearer than in the case of the obses- sion with tuition fees. It is true that even in other countries where higher education institutions are more active in the field of continuing education, undergraduate study programmes , unlike many areas of continuing education, either are free or have significantly lower fees. In Germany, however, the issue of fees is particularly thorny:

• Other continuing education providers in Germany are particularly vocal in insist- ing that continuing professional development courses at higher education insti- tutions should be fee-paying in order to prevent unfair competition. • Because of staffing regulations, many German higher education institutions are anxious to ensure that members of their ordinary academic staff do not teach Continuing Higher Education in a State of Flux 11

continuing education courses as part of their standard teaching load, despite the fact that continuing education is established by law as one of the main tasks of higher education institutions. • German higher education institutions get into such a tangle with the financial administration of fees (for example, regarding extra pay for in-house academic staff who do extra work in the field of continuing education) that many have opted to outsource their continuing education activities, often on the recommendation of the responsible ministry. This has led to the creation of organisations that are linked to the higher education institution but are separate entities with a different funding regime, all in order to circumvent the standard regulations that apply to the university as a whole • The impact that this has on the structure of continuing education provision is that there is a very clear-cut differentiation between courses on the basis of their primary function. This can also be seen in the accreditation framework or in the recommendations of the German Standing Conference of Education Ministers, which separate between consecutive, non-consecutive and continuing education courses. There is certainly no concerted effort to promote common courses for people with different prior educational experiences or different learning goals, to encourage a flexible attitude to the goals of training, or to organise courses primarily so as to meet the needs of adult learners. • Furthermore, certain specific continuing education course types are placed at a disadvantage because they do not fit nicely into the dichotomy of subsidised degree programmes versus continuing education courses that are fully funded by fees. Thus, for example, there is resistance to full fee-paying Bachelors courses with a didactic design and content aimed at people in work, because they do not fit neatly into the training versus continuing education dichotomy. The result is that people in work are denied the opportunity of obtaining their first degree qualification via the continuing education route. The paradox of the current sit- uation is that while all the efforts to introduce reforms are aimed at eliminat- ing structural obstacles and encouraging higher education institutions to adopt a more market-oriented approach, a sometimes unconscious tendency to stick to the old myths and ways of seeing things is preventing the potential for develop- ment from being fully exploited. These barriers are being erected not only within higher education institutions but also at a political level. Thus, reforms of univer- sity study programmes in Germany continue to talk about the goal of lowering the average student age. Instead of promoting greater flexibility for part-time studies, their flexibility is being reduced as a result of the move to charge fees by the semester and not (as is common practice in the USA, for example, or in the Rhineland-Palatinate vouchers model) based on the number of hours studied, e.g. full-time versus part-time. Moreover, the accreditation conditions for contin- uing education Masters study programmes comprise provisions designed to bring continuing higher education into line with mainstream regular study courses.

The future development prospects of continuing higher education will depend on the extent to which those responsible are prepared to learn from other models and to 12 U. Teichler and A. Hanft abandon their current way of thinking. Overarching learning processes are needed at a system level both in education and higher education policy and also within higher education and continuing higher education institutions.

7 Prospects of a More Open-Minded Approach

The decision to carry out a comparative analysis with reference to the specific char- acteristics of the current role of continuing education at German higher education institutions is justified as long as one can expect that any reforms remain confined to partial adjustments of the existing system. However, this approach shows that the core activities of German continuing education at higher education institutions are differently structured precisely because they are embedded in a different over- all understanding of the role played by higher education institutions in continuing education. However, looking beyond the German perspective provides an opportunity to discuss a much wider range of issues:

• Could higher education institutions’ “normal” study programmes (i.e. undergrad- uate and postgraduate courses) benefit in terms of quality, efficiency and equal opportunities if they did more to take into account the needs of adult learners and if they promoted a more fluid transition between “normal” studies and other teaching and learning activities? • Would the efforts to separate clearly “consecutive” and “continuing” Masters programmes be fertile, if higher education really aimed to be part of a flexible lifelong learning system?

In order to discuss these issues, it will be necessary to undertake a fundamental review of continuing education culture at German higher education institutions and to ensure that the results are coherently incorporated into the current re-organisation of regular studies. For the existing continuing education organisations, this will mean that they will be drawn into the reform process within higher education institutions. They will be required to review the decisions they have taken in the past, question how they perceive their role against the background of a changing context both at the overall higher education system level and within the individual institutions and determine to what extent the established structures will still be viable in the future. As things stand, there seem to be three possible future scenarios:

• Professionalisation of continuing education organisations. In this scenario, con- tinuing education organisations use the greater in-house competences that they possess compared with the faculties and departments with regard to planning and organisation of adult learning provision and use their know-how to help move the higher education institution’s structures towards a lifelong learning approach. Continuing Higher Education in a State of Flux 13

They become lifelong learning competence centres and, in conjunction with the faculties, they develop both courses that lead to credits and shorter formats that do not lead to credits, aimed at individual target groups, including corporate and institutional customers. • Marginalisation of existing continuing education organisations. In this scenario, continuing education activities are increasingly undertaken by the university faculties and departments tapping into new sources of funding. Meanwhile, the existing continuing education organisations either remain restricted to periph- eral activities and bound by traditional structures or find themselves subject to cutbacks or closure. • No change to the status quo. In this scenario, higher education institutions fail to recognise the potential currently offered by continuing education and decide not to develop a lifelong learning strategy. Continuing education remains in its current peripheral role.

We hope that this study will serve both to promote optimisation of existing structures and to encourage higher education institutions to redefine the role of continuing education by placing it at the core of their activities.

References

Becher, T. (1992). Meeting the contract. The role of European Universities in continuing education and training. Brussels: European Centre for Strategic Management of Universities. Davis, P. (1995). Adults in higher education. London et al. Fahle, K., & Hanf, G. (2006). Der Europaische¨ Qualifikationsrahmen – Konsultationsprozess lauft¨ . Retrieved 06/08/02, from http://www.bibb.de/de/21696.htm HIS. (2005). Eurostudent report: Social and economic conditions of Student life in Europe 2005. Retrieved 06/08/08, from http://www.his.de/Abt2/Auslandsstudium/AG13.2 Kodron, C. (Ed.). (1997). Vergleichende Erziehungswissenschaft: Herausforderung, Vermittlung, Praxis. Cologne: Bohlau. OECD. (1988). Adults in higher education.Paris. OECD. (1995). Continuing professional education of highly-qualified personnel.Paris. Teichler, U. (1999). The university and lifelong learning. In A. Tuijnman & T. Schuller (Eds.), Lifelong Learning, Policy and Research (pp. 173–187). London. Teichler, U. (Ed.). (1996). Special Issue on the State of Comparative Research in Higher Education, Higher Education, Vol. 32, No.4. Design of the International Comparative Study

Wolfgang Muskens¨ and Anke Hanft

Contents

1 Selection of Countries for Comparison ...... 15 2 Partially Independent Research Groups ...... 16 3 Three Levels of Analysis ...... 17 4 Methodological Challenges ...... 18 4.1 Problems of Definition ...... 18 4.2 Interdependence of the Subjects of the Three Levels of Analysis ...... 19 4.3 Feature Variations Within the Countries in the Comparison ...... 20 5 Attempts to Find Solutions ...... 20 5.1 Flexible Definition ...... 20 5.2 Closeness to the Subject ...... 21 5.3 Principle of Openness ...... 21 5.4 Country-Specific Analysis Rather than Over-Hasty Comparisons ...... 22 References ...... 22

1 Selection of Countries for Comparison

The task of the international comparative study of the structure and organisation of continuing higher education was to compare the continuing education offered in Germany with the equivalent provision in four other European countries and the USA. The European countries chosen for comparison by the project leaders were Finland, the UK, Austria and France.

W. Muskens¨ (B) Carl von Ossietzky Universitat¨ Oldenburg, FK 1, Arbeitsbereich Weiterbildung und Bildungsmanagement (we.b), Ammerlander¨ Heerstraße 114–118, 26111 Oldenburg/Germany e-mail: [email protected]

M. Knust, A. Hanft (eds.), Continuing Higher Education and Lifelong Learning, 15 DOI 10.1007/978-1-4020-9676-1 2, C Springer Science+Business Media B.V. 2009 16 W. Muskens¨ and A. Hanft

Finland was chosen because it is notable for a system of nationwide continuing higher education based in higher education institutions that has been systematically expanded since as far back as the 1980s, and because, compared with other coun- tries, it accords particular importance to continuing higher education. By contrast, the UK (Great Britain and Northern Ireland) shows a much greater diversity in continuing higher education. There is considerable variation in the des- ignations used for the institutions offering continuing higher education, and within the higher education sector there are, in some cases, major differences between indi- vidual provisions. In addition, the existence of the “open university” with its inter- national operations means that the UK has a specific profile element for continuing higher education that sets it apart from other European countries. Austria was selected for the comparative study in order to have a second German- speaking country, in which the division into academically oriented universities and practically oriented Fachhochschulen (universities of applied science) is closely aligned to the tradition of higher education in German-speaking countries. The size of the country means that it is relatively easy to achieve an overview of the provision, making it particularly suitable for comprehensive analysis. Moreover, the Danube University, Krems, Austria is the only university for continuing higher education in the German-speaking area. In France, employers have been legally obliged to fund continuing education since 1971. This has considerably strengthened the position of continuing education in France and contributed to the fact that universities have also increased their provi- sion of continuing higher education. The choice of France as a comparison country made it possible both to analyse structural changes in the wake of regionalisation and increased autonomy of universities and to investigate the institutional linking of continuing higher education to research, study and teaching as part of professional- isation and recognition of informally acquired competencies.

2 Partially Independent Research Groups

The comparative study is based on extensive surveys and analyses of the provision of continuing higher education in the six countries. These analyses were carried out by separate research groups in Oldenburg (Finland and USA), Krems (Austria), Kassel (France), Bielefeld (Germany) and Nuremberg (Great Britain and Northern Ireland). The basic analytical criteria for the national studies were determined by a common list of guiding questions. The national groups used partly separate and partly common methods to investi- gate the guiding questions, for some of which a common questionnaire was drawn up. Each of the national groups had the option of using all or part of this question- naire to collect their data. Common expert hearings constituted another aspect of the collaboration between the national groups. This article deals with the methodological planning of the comparative study, which was common to all national groups. Details of the methodological procedures Design of the International Comparative Study 17 of individual research groups can be found at the beginning of the reports on the various comparison countries.

3 Three Levels of Analysis

The invitation to tender for this comparative study, issued by the German Federal Ministry for Education and Research, already included a large number of some- times complex areas for investigation, which appeared to be difficult to link together within one study. In addition, the wide variety of continuing education provisions offered by higher education institutions in the countries to be surveyed made it nec- essary to expand the survey beyond the task originally commissioned by adding a system level, in order to include the typical regulatory framework for each country, which in some cases had far-reaching implications on continuing higher education. As a first step, therefore, a system was drawn up for those parts of the subject areas of the study described as “analysis criteria” (see Table 1). Questions concerning the regulatory framework for continuing higher education and touching on the national function or social importance of continuing higher edu- cation apply to a country’s entire continuing education system as a whole. The anal- ysis of these subject areas requires consideration of the relevant political, legal and economic situation, and possibly their historical development within the individual countries in the survey. The integral factors to be analysed here usually influence all the provisions for continuing higher education within a country. Differentiated consideration of individual providers of continuing higher education can therefore be dispensed with where analysis at system level is concerned.

Table 1 Survey levels and analysis criteria

ANALYSIS CRITERIA

System level Institution level Programme level

Regulatory framework for Organisational structures and Ascertaining demand continuing higher management of continuing education education Function of continuing Quality assurance Provision for special target higher education groups – Public relations, marketing, Formal aspects of continuing advertising education, e.g., entrance requirements, recognition of prior learning – Funding continuing education Motivation and involvement of provisions staff in continuing education – Provision/forms of provision Collaboration with other institutions – Prospects for development Quantitative importance of continuing higher education 18 W. Muskens¨ and A. Hanft

Contrasted with these are questions concerning the organisational structure and management of continuing higher education, quality assurance, public relations and marketing, and the funding and form of the provisions. The answers to these ques- tions vary from one provider of continuing higher education to another. At best, evidence on which generalisations may be based can be found for specific groups of providers (e.g., for all research universities in a country). The analyses in this area, therefore, had to apply to all providers of continuing higher education or at least to a representative sample of these providers. We describe this group of questions as the “institution level”. The final group of questions called for a detailed analysis of the programmes offered by individual providers of continuing higher education. Within the frame- work of the time and financial resources of the comparative study, it was only pos- sible to carry out a few examples of this kind of analysis for some carefully selected institutions in each of the target countries. Here it was a matter of questions on how the providers of continuing higher education ascertained demand, the target groups of the provisions, the formal aspects of the continuing higher education (such as entry requirements or recognition of prior learning), the motivation and involve- ment of higher education teaching staff in continuing higher education, collabora- tions with other institutions and the quantitative importance of continuing education in the particular higher education institution.

4 Methodological Challenges

The special features of “continuing higher education” as a subject for investiga- tion confronted the project managers and national groups with a number of unusual methodological challenges. These will be outlined briefly below. After that, we will outline a few thoughts on the solutions to the problems, which form an important basis for the present comparative study.

4.1 Problems of Definition

The fact that an organisation such as the “European University Continuing Education Network (EUCEN)” is celebrating 15 years of existence this year creates the impression that “University Continuing Education – UCE” or “continuing higher education” represents a standardised form of educational provision that is widespread in many countries. After all, higher education institutions and continu- ing education associations from around 40 countries (including all the target coun- tries for the comparative study) are members of EUCEN. However, it was apparent right from the first common meetings of the various working groups for the country studies that it is not possible to agree on a standard definition of “continuing higher education” for the countries concerned. These def- Design of the International Comparative Study 19 inition problems are not of a superficial nature and generally raise the question of whether the proposed subject for comparison actually exists. For example, though postgraduate studies and continuing higher education stud- ies in Germany are easily distinguishable because of a difference in fee systems, no such dividing line exists in other countries (e.g., the UK), where fees have to be paid for all types of courses. If the “German definition boundary” is applied to the UK, all courses beyond basic undergraduate studies will be classed as continuing higher education. However, that will then cause the subject of the investigation to shift from continuing higher education to a comparison of higher education systems. On the other hand, if all full-length courses of study are left out of the definition of continu- ing higher education, the subject of the investigation in Germany will be reduced to provisions for short-term continuing education and thus a central research question (from the point of view of continuing higher education courses) will be left out of the survey topic right from the start. “Continuing higher education” is obviously a phenomenon that cannot be limited by a single unambiguous set of criteria. Certain criteria for distinguishing continuing higher education from other forms of (academic) education make sense in some countries but not in others. However, if the things that are to be compared are not the same but only similar, the significance of direct comparison of individual analysis criteria will be considerably reduced.

4.2 Interdependence of the Subjects of the Three Levels of Analysis

The subjects for investigation at the three levels of analysis are not independent in terms of content:

• The way in which continuing higher education is integrated into a country’s edu- cation system influences demand, and consequently the provision and the form of this provision at institutional level. Continuing higher education is also in com- petition both with other (public and private) continuing education and with basic undergraduate courses at higher education institutions. • Legal regulatory frameworks limit the possible structures for the organisation of continuing higher education. The formal aspects of continuing education (access, admission, allowances, crediting, etc.) are also frequently regulated by national or local laws and regulations. • Political decisions at system level affect the extent to which continuing higher education is funded from public sources (or, for instance, by compulsory contributions from companies). The method of funding in turn affects the demand for intensive public relations and marketing of the continuing higher education provisions. 20 W. Muskens¨ and A. Hanft

• The degree of autonomy and self-image of higher education institutions has an influence on the provision and extent of continuing higher education. The target groups and content of continuing education may be prescribed at institution level.

The interdependence of the levels of analysis increases the difficulty of directly comparing individual analysis criteria across the countries, or considerably reduces its significance.

4.3 Feature Variations Within the Countries in the Comparison

In this comparative study, it was only possible to gather complete statistics on a country’s total continuing education provision for a few countries and selected analysis criteria. All other collections of statistics relied on more or less representa- tive samples. In consequence, general conclusions concerning all the higher education institu- tions or continuing education provisions of a country based on results from these samples can be problematic because

• the sample is small, • it cannot be fully guaranteed that a sample is representative (e.g., because insti- tutions offering a wide range of continuing education are particularly generous in coming forward with information), and finally • the data for the analysis criteria within a country turn out to be extremely varied, i.e., if there is a great diversity of continuing higher education.

It must be assumed that the kind of diverse distribution of continuing higher edu- cation mentioned above applies to most of the countries considered in this study. This means it is more difficult to draw general conclusions about a country’s total provision from the results of samples.

5 Attempts to Find Solutions

5.1 Flexible Definition

The lack of fixed boundaries for a phenomenon, as described above for continu- ing higher education or “UCE”, does not mean that the subject necessarily defies limitation, description or analysis. A large number of well-researched phenomena are distinguished from one another and described using flexible definitions. The procedure followed in the present comparative study to allow more flexibility in the definition of continuing higher education involved the project managers first determining a definition of continuing higher education geared to the situation in Germany. The national groups then had to work out their own definitions for their Design of the International Comparative Study 21 respective countries in accordance with this description and explain where it was necessary to differ from the predetermined definition. This procedure made it pos- sible on the one hand to determine a common focal point for defining the phe- nomenon, while on the other hand allowing the necessary flexibility in the definition.

5.2 Closeness to the Subject

Mayring (1996) mentions the closeness of the researcher to the subject as one of the general quality criteria for qualitative research. This closeness to the subject is achieved, among other ways, by going “into the field”, i.e., into the immediate area of the subject. For the present comparative study, “closeness to the subject” particularly meant personal contact with those responsible for continuing higher education in their respective countries. This contact came about through visits to higher education institutions in the countries concerned, contributions from experts from those coun- tries to the expert workshops and especially through the direct involvement of experts in continuing higher education (from Germany and Austria) and researchers from the target countries (Austria and France) in carrying out the national studies. The division of the research work into country groups was also done with the intention to include researchers with experience in each of the countries in the study and thus achieving greater closeness to the subject.

5.3 Principle of Openness

Complex, interdependent research subjects require flexible methodology. It was, therefore, not possible to establish, when drawing up the guiding questions,

• whether it was possible to answer all the guiding questions for all the target countries with a reasonable amount of effort, • whether the guiding questions missed important aspects or contextual conditions for the analysis of continuing higher education in any of the countries and • which method of data collection would be best suited to answer a particular guid- ing question.

Strauss and Corbin (1996) emphasise the importance of open, flexible research methodology that can, if necessary, be adapted to the phenomenon and the research situation. In order to achieve this essential openness in the methodology, it was left to the national groups

• to pursue further themes and questions relevant to the target country, in addition to the prescribed guiding questions • to decide for themselves the method of data collection for each level of analysis from a prescribed selection of possible methods and • to answer or include in the data collection optional guiding questions. 22 W. Muskens¨ and A. Hanft

According to Glaser and Strauss (1998), openness of methodology also includes the simultaneity of data analysis and collection. If an empirical study does not fol- low the strict sequence “planning, data collection, analysis and interpretation”, but includes several successive or overlapping phases of data collection, analysis and interpretation, in which the first results influence the sampling and methodology of later data collection, then a successive approach to a complex and/or unknown research subject can be achieved. An attempt was made to make such a procedure work through flexible planning of data collection.

5.4 Country-Specific Analysis Rather than Over-Hasty Comparisons

The education system of a country is a complex system, connected to various other systems (including politics, economy, geography, etc.). These relationships are so strong that some of the research subjects in this (and other) comparative studies and questions should only ever be compared with one another in the light of the relevant systems. For example, if it is noted that a particular desirable target figure would be lower in one country than in the comparison countries, we must not jump to the conclusion that these particular parameters need to be changed. We should instead ask why this target figure varies in the different countries, what contextual variables it is affected by and what other target figures will in turn depend on the parameters that are being compared. An understanding of the mutual effect and interdependence of the various analy- sis criteria on the different levels within the individual countries may lead to a better understanding of the contextual conditions, structure and organisation of continu- ing higher education in Germany. Implications for action can and should, therefore, be made possible not by comparing individual analysis criteria, but by an integral understanding of continuing higher education in an entire country.

References

Glaser, B., & Strauss, A. (1998). Grounded theory – Strategien qualitativer Forschung.Bern: Huber. Mayring, P. (1996). Einfuhrung¨ in die qualitative Sozialforschung – Eine Anleitung zu qualitativem Denken (3rd ed.). Weinheim: Psychologie Verlags Union. Strauss, A., & Corbin, J. (1996). Grounded Theory: Grundlagen qualitativer Sozialforschung. Weinheim: Beltz. Comparative Overview of Study Results

Anke Hanft and Michaela Knust

Contents

1 Introduction ...... 24 2SystemLevel...... 24 2.1 Education and Higher Education Policy Framework for Continuing Education 24 2.2 How Accessible Are Higher Education Institutions in the Age of Lifelong Learning? ...... 36 3 Institution Level ...... 38 3.1 Organisation, Management and Regulation of Continuing Higher Education . 38 3.2 Is Continuing Higher Education Organised Centrally or Via Individual Faculties? ...... 44 3.3 Specific Aspects of Continuing Higher Education: Quality Assurance, Marketing and Funding ...... 45 3.4 Profile Development and Continuing Higher Education Providers’ Perception of Their Profession ...... 50 3.5 Institutional Lifelong Learning Policy ...... 53 4 Programme Level ...... 55 4.1 Course Structure ...... 55 4.2 New Types of Learning ...... 59 4.3 Specific Partnership Arrangements with the Business Community ...... 61 5 Implications ...... 63 5.1 Adapting the Framework to Lifelong Learning ...... 63 5.2 Professionalising Lifelong Learning ...... 63 5.3 Opening Up New Markets ...... 66 References ...... 68

A. Hanft (B) Carl von Ossietzky Universitat¨ Oldenburg, FK 1, Arbeitsbereich Weiterbildung und Bildungsmanagement (we.b), Ammerlander¨ Heerstraße 114–118, 26111 Oldenburg, Germany e-mail: [email protected]

M. Knust, A. Hanft (eds.), Continuing Higher Education and Lifelong Learning, 23 DOI 10.1007/978-1-4020-9676-1 3, C Springer Science+Business Media B.V. 2009 24 A. Hanft and M. Knust

1 Introduction

This overview presents a direct comparison of the key results of the individual coun- try studies that appear subsequently in this volume. It involves examining the three levels that form the basis of the study (system level, institution level and programme level), and groups together thematically linked issues arising from the findings into overarching themes.

2SystemLevel

2.1 Education and Higher Education Policy Framework for Continuing Education

The following observations on the education and higher education policy framework for continuing higher education are based on the answers to all the main questions about the system level. One fundamental problem faced by comparative interna- tional education research is the range of different terms used to define the field of continuing education and adult learning (Bourgeois et al., 1999, p. 64). Terms such as “lifelong learning (LL)”, “adult education (AE)”, “continuing education (CE)”, “continuing higher education (CHE)”, “university continuing education (UCE)” or “continuing professional development (CPD)” are often used interchangeably by English speakers, and even where the differences between them are defined, the boundaries between the terms are blurred. Even within Germany, there is no con- sensus among the individual federal states regarding what exactly is covered by the term “wissenschaftliche Weiterbildung” (academic higher education). It is clear that the continued education of graduates, which is often seen as the main facet of continuing higher education in German-speaking countries, only con- stitutes one aspect of continuing higher education in the wider international context, where the field is understood in a much broader and above all more pragmatic way. Another factor that is likely to hinder its development is the understanding of continuing education that continues to predominate in several higher educa- tion publications as “a return to organised learning after a period of work”. This understanding is based on an unnecessarily narrow definition of continuing edu- cation, and is not really compatible with a lifelong learning1 approach. Conse- quently, we feel that it is important for German-speaking countries to adapt their understanding so that it is closer to the internationally accepted definition, and we,

1Our understanding of “lifelong learning” is in line with the EU Memorandum’s commitment to guarantee wide-ranging access to learning in order to enable qualifications to be obtained and updated. Among other things, this includes improving methods for evaluating participa- tion in and success of learning, particularly non-formal and informal learning (Commission of the European Communities: A Memorandum on Lifelong Learning. Brussels, 30.10.2000 SEK (2000) 1832, p. 4, http://www.bologna-berlin2003.de/pdf/MemorandumDe.pdf#search=%22EU- Memorandum%20lebenslanges%20Lernen%22). Comparative Overview of Study Results 25 therefore, recommend the use of the terms “Hochschulweiterbildung” (continuing higher education) or “lebenslanges Lernen an Hochschulen” (lifelong learning at higher education institutions) instead of “wissenschaftliche Weiterbildung” (aca- demic continuing education). The various ways that these terminological concepts are used and the different frameworks that will be described in more detail below make it unsurprising that there is no single definition of continuing higher education that covers all the coun- tries included in this study. In Europe, continuing education, in the narrow sense of the term, has tradi- tionally been understood mainly to refer to continuing professional development (Tight, 1996). The European Continuing Education Network (EUCEN) chose a very broad definition as a basis for creating a common understanding of contin- uing higher education: “Any form of education, vocational or general, resumed after an interval following continuous initial education. This may include: educa- tion for full-time mature students (those starting an undergraduate course at the age of twenty-one or over, and other courses at the age of twenty-five or over); liberal adult education; part-time degrees and diplomas; post-experience vocational edu- cation courses, including staff development; and open access courses” (EUCEN, 1997, p. 3). Osborne et al. (2004, p. 139) offer a somewhat more specific definition of what they term “university continuing education” (UCE): “The provision that is encompassed by UCE in many countries is of course much more than continu- ing professional development, and includes second chance education, education for leisure and social development, University of the Third Age, technology transfer, part-time education, open and distance education and work-based learning.” The chapter on methodology already explained that the lack of a clear defini- tion of continuing higher education does not necessarily preclude a comparative description and analysis of different countries. Nevertheless, the specific context of each country should be constantly borne in mind when interpreting the results of the study. Before describing the particular national situations in terms of their macro- and micro-economic frameworks and the different roles played by continuing higher education, we start with a comparison of the definitions of continuing higher edu- cation in the comparator countries of this study. These observations will be divided into three categories that were already used as the basis for defining continuing higher education in the application for this study: target groups, providers, and courses and programmes.

2.1.1 Target Groups It should be stated from the outset that all the definitions of the target groups for continuing higher education will place significant emphasis on students either being in employment or having work experience, and being of a certain age. In many countries, the target groups of continuing higher education are not restricted purely to graduates, as might be suggested by a narrow interpretation of the term, since their programmes adopt a lifelong learning based approach geared towards access to higher education, higher education studies and continuing higher education for 26 A. Hanft and M. Knust adults. As such, continuing education of graduates constitutes only one aspect of what they do. Continuing higher education in Germany is aimed at two categories: gradu- ates currently in employment or with professional experience, and individuals in employment or with professional experience who have acquired university admis- sion qualifications either by traditional or by non-traditional routes. Almost 57% of respondents stated that graduates were the target group for at least three-quarters of all the programmes run by the institution concerned. However, graduates currently seeking work are not regarded as a target group. In Finland, continuing higher education is provided predominantly for people with professional experience. A Finnish expert2 observes that as a rule, those taking continuing higher education courses in Finland already have a Masters degree, it being unusual to leave university in Finland before attaining this academic level. The target group in France consists of adults who have left the initial education system. From a purely legal point of view, no distinction is drawn between workers and the unemployed. Continuing education programmes tend to focus on workers, however, given the nature of the French system whereby companies are under a legal obligation to fund continuing education. Special institutions for older learn- ers, known as “universites´ inter-ages”ˆ or “universites´ du troisieme` age”,ˆ have been established in certain regions. While continuing higher education courses do also target job seekers, the proportion of people in this group has fallen in recent years as the proportion of working people has risen. This trend results partly from regional funding priorities. Furthermore, there are different priorities in the selection of target groups. For instance, people with social and economic difficulties may constitute a special target group. Other courses are specifically intended for engineers and senior managers in large companies. In the UK, the boundaries between basic academic education and continuing education within universities are fuzzy, and the more common distinction is between full- and part-time or younger (<18 years) and older (18–21 years) students. To this extent, continuing education courses are targeted at students on standard Bachelors courses, students who have only come to a university or further education college later in life, and returning graduates. A trend towards a stronger focus on non-EU students can also be observed. In Austria, Masters courses tend to be specifically targeted at graduates, whereas continuing higher education and short courses also target non-graduates. However, a fundamental requirement for non-graduates to be admitted is that they should have the appropriate amount and level of work experience. In the case of short courses, the general public constitutes a further target group for higher education institutions, although this group only accounts for a small percentage of all students compared with the percentage of graduates.

2 Dr. Jyri Manninen, Director of Research, Palmenia Centre for Continuing Education, University of Helsinki. Comparative Overview of Study Results 27

Danube University Krems places particular emphasis on ensuring that its tar- get groups are connected to the profession in question. It is, therefore, no surprise that, for example, 100% of students from professions such as law, medicine or psy- chotherapy are graduates, whereas nursing staff in management positions who come to the university to do continuing education courses, or people in relatively new pro- fessions such as IT and security do not have to be graduates. Indeed, sometimes they cannot have a degree, as none exists for their profession. Finally, USA institutions focus on students with some experience of college or already holding an academic qualification, who are in work or have work experi- ence, and who have a general qualification for entrance into higher education. In this regard, continuing education provision takes particular account of non-traditional students. This group includes working adults, financially independent and part-time students.3 By offering specially tailored programmes, continuing education targets companies as well as individuals. In the USA, continuing higher education is also aimed at other specific groups. Examples include schoolchildren, for whom special reading programmes are devised; the security forces, providing additional training for working in a law enforcement context; older people, and “high professionals”. Special leadership pro- grammes aimed at the latter group are organised by the highly renowned research universities such as MIT or the University of Pennsylvania’s Wharton School.

2.1.2 Providers It should first of all be pointed out that apart from Austria (Danube University Krems) and France (Centre National des Arts et Metiers´ (CNAM) and Ecole´ Nationale d’Administration (ENA)), none of the countries in the study have any universities or other higher education institutions that focus explicitly on continuing education. Continuing higher education is instead provided by a variety of different public and private institutions and non-profit or for-profit organisations. In the study of Germany, the institutions examined included all universities (state and private), Universities of Applied Science (Fachhochschulen) and art and music academies. Other providers of continuing higher education such as research insti- tutions or corporate universities were subject to separate analysis (cf. the study on Corporate Universities and Research Associations in this volume). The providers of continuing higher education in Finland are found in the tertiary sector. In addition to the 20 public universities, this also includes 29 polytechnics, although the latter provide adult and continuing education at a lower academic level. The open university, acting as a virtual network of all 20 universities, also provides continuing higher education, but similarly at a lower academic level.

3 American education policy uses a more precise system of classifying non-traditional students. Details of the various criteria a person must fulfil to be included in this group can be found in the USA country study (in this volume). 28 A. Hanft and M. Knust

In France, continuing higher education is offered by public, semi-public and private sector establishments. The law stipulates that programmes of study leading to diplomas and certificates may be offered only by tertiary institutions (i.e. univer- sities, university institutes of technology and similar institutions, independent engi- neering colleges and the CNAM). However, a range of other establishments likewise offer continuing education at an academic level. One interesting anomaly by com- parison with the other countries investigated is the fact that the level of continuing education is defined exclusively by the diploma acquired, and not by the institution of delivery. This means that it is even possible to obtain an academic qualification through the validation of skills acquired in a non-academic context, provided that these skills reach the appropriate level and are certified. In the UK, continuing higher education is provided by 131 universities and colleges of further education but in particular by the post 1992 universities, the Open University, Birkbeck College (University of London) and Kellogg College, Cambridge, which are geared primarily to older or non-traditional students. The older (pre 1992) universities often have centres of/for continuing education, offering “liberal education” – leisure courses offering learning for pleasure and fulfilment. Departments, schools and units also offer conventional Bachelors and Masters courses. Finally, adult colleges and some religious communities also provide con- tinuing education programmes. In Austria, the principal providers of continuing higher education are the univer- sities. Continuing higher education is still at the development stage in universities of the arts and medical universities. Meanwhile, universities of applied science (Fach- hochschulen) have only been allowed to provide continuing higher education in the form of Bachelors and Masters courses since 2003. The study on continuing higher education in Austria included state universities, private universities and universi- ties of applied science. Universities do not officially provide any extra-occupational courses of study that, for example, distinguish between full-time and part-time stu- dents. However, the universities of applied science have been working intensively to develop this area for some years now. Danube University Krems is focussed exclusively on continuing education provision, and as such constitutes a unique case within the overall study. In the USA, the majority of the 4071 universities and similar institutions currently operating offer continuing higher education. Doctoral institutions and Masters colleges have specialised in the postgraduate field, while Baccalaure- ate Colleges, specialised institutions and associate’s colleges tend to cover the undergraduate domain, although continuing higher education is offered at these institutions too. The Masters and doctoral universities – akin to German universi- ties – offer research-based undergraduate and continuing education programmes. In the USA context, a difficult distinction needs to be drawn concerning the commu- nity colleges; these belong in the same category as associate’s or two-year colleges, but are also regarded throughout the country as providers of continuing higher education. Programmes offered by these colleges tend to be primarily work-related training activities and cannot be classified as continuing higher education. For this reason, they have not been considered in the present study. Alongside the Comparative Overview of Study Results 29 institutions already mentioned, the “for-profit” higher education institutions are also notable for having specialised in providing programmes for working people and other non-traditional students.

2.1.3 Courses and Programmes Overall, it can be said that the boundaries between regular studies and continuing education are becoming perceptibly blurred, a phenomenon that is especially notice- able in countries such as the UK, France and the USA. A further point is that contin- uing higher education courses for which tuition fees are charged are found in all the countries in the study except France. Under the current French system, continuing higher education is generally either free of charge for students, or in many cases is paid for by employers. With the exception of Germany, the majority of courses pro- vided in the countries in the study tend to be longer in duration and usually lead to a certificate or diploma, but not to a degree qualification. In Germany, shorter courses are currently still the norm, although the future trend is expected to be towards an increase in longer courses leading to certificates. In both Germany and Finland, it is customary not to include postgraduate and Masters courses under the heading of continuing higher education. In Germany, continuing higher education includes short courses (<40 hours) with or without a certificate of attendance, for which tuition fees are charged, longer courses (>40 hours) leading to a final certificate and all non-consecutive continuing education courses leading to an academic degree. Qualifications that are regarded as an integral part of full academic training (for example, medical or legal studies) are not regarded as continuing higher education; nor are courses for teachers. Continuing higher education in Finland encompasses non-credit courses that charge fees (with or without the award of a certificate of attendance or other cer- tificate) and credit-bearing Bachelors and Masters degrees. A further distinction is made between continuing higher education (CHE) and continuing scientific educa- tion (CSE) programmes, the latter being strongly geared towards research, while the former tend to be vocational. Continuing higher education in France encompasses courses leading to diplomas, courses leading to certificates but not diplomas and skills-enhancement courses. Pri- ority is attached, on the one hand, to a vocational orientation and, on the other, to short or general continuing education programmes. In the UK, the boundaries between basic academic education and continuing edu- cation within universities are fuzzy, and the more common distinction is between full- and part-time programmes or between younger and older students (see above). Portfolios of course provision range from short courses, pre-entry courses and access courses (with or without assessment) via longer credit courses to full Bach- elors, Masters or PhD programmes. The majority of such courses charge fees, but under some circumstances the universities receive financial support from the govern- ment for providing continuing education (credit courses attended by EU students). Continuing higher education in Austria consists of fee-paying short formats (that may or may not lead to a certificate of completion), university continuing education 30 A. Hanft and M. Knust courses (leading to the title “Academic...” followed by the name of the profes- sion or to a final examination certificate) and Masters courses leading to the stan- dard internationally recognised Masters degrees. A further type of course that still exists, although it is being phased out, is the “university-style course” (Lehrgang universitaren¨ Charakters) that is provided by non-university educational institutions in partnership with university lecturers subject to approval by the Federal Ministry for Education, Science and Culture. These courses offer university-level education, but no new ones are being set up. Particular hallmarks of the programme portfolio in the USA are the fact that tuition fees are payable across the board, and that the spectrum of continuing edu- cation opportunities on offer is remarkably broad, ranging from full-time to part- time programmes, and from short activities conferring a completion certificate to longer credit or certificate programmes and full-blown degree programmes. It must be noted that many of the programmes running at the various continuing education institutions under the headings of continuing higher education, continuing profes- sional development or adult education, and which can basically be categorised as belonging to the tertiary sector, do not lead to an academic qualification, focusing instead on the non-credit domain and programmes that confer a certificate. Now that we have set out the meaning of continuing higher education as applied in this study, the following sections outline the specific operating environment and functions of continuing higher education in each country.

2.1.4 Specific National Contexts The following description of the different national contexts of continuing higher education will concentrate solely on those factors in each country that have had a relevant impact on the development of the field or may do so in the future. In overall terms, it is clear that there are two factors common to all the countries in the study that point to the importance of expanding continuing higher education activities. The first is the significant growth of the service sector, which requires a knowledge- based workforce and constant updating of employees’ skills so that they remain able to do their jobs and stay competitive. The second is that in a society with a rapidly ageing population, we cannot rely solely on the supply of young employees coming through to provide the knowledge needed to drive innovation, for example. It is essential also to provide the older generation with the appropriate continuing education in order to ensure that they too can contribute the necessary innovation and skills. It should, however, be remembered that the ageing of the population is forecast to be less severe in the USA than in Europe, owing to US immigration policy. In addition to the above, there is a range of other factors in the countries in the study that could be expected to lead to a growth in demand for continuing higher education provision. These include the following:

• a policy of tackling low economic growth by developing a more highly skilled workforce (this does not apply to Finland and the USA), Comparative Overview of Study Results 31

• a growing demand for graduates and people with continuing education qualifi- cations, since the employment opportunities for low-skilled workers are few and far between, if not non-existent (this is very clearly alluded to in the study on continuing higher education in Germany), • the expectation that over the course of the next few decades people will be work- ing predominantly with knowledge and will, therefore, need to undertake con- stant continuing education activities (particular emphasis is given to this point in the US country study) (Maehl, 2004).

In addition to the factors already mentioned, levels of consumption by private house- holds in Germany have been generally weak in recent years. During the course of the German study, it was discovered that continuing higher education is largely directed at private individuals and not so much at companies, and therefore weak levels of household consumption could be interpreted as a prob- lem when it comes to future demand for continuing education.4 In addition, higher education spending has lagged behind demand for education over the last 20 years, with investment of public funds flowing mainly into expanding and restructuring basic research and teaching. Financial resources for developing and implement- ing continuing higher education, however, usually have to come from other public sources or third parties – at least until programmes are capable of funding them- selves from tuition fees and charges. This still represents an obstacle to higher edu- cation institutions when it comes to developing and expanding continuing education. There is legislation governing higher education institutions at both central and Lander¨ level. Although the latest amendment to the Framework Law on Higher Education gives continuing education the same status as research and basic under- graduate teaching, the Lander¨ have considerable freedom with regard to levels of tuition fees/charges, remuneration of teachers or setting up of new courses of study (accreditation prior to set-up vs. set-up with later binding accreditation, etc.). In this context, it should be noted that continuing education courses are subject to the same statutory regulatory framework as basic undergraduate courses. The special charac- teristics of continuing higher education are often not (yet) (adequately) taken into account by legislation. As far as partnerships between higher education institutions, public institutions and private companies are concerned, there are many references to these in the laws on higher education. The institutions have the right to set up their own private insti- tutions as spin-offs or to take shares in private institutions, but such formalised forms of co-operation are still extremely rare. Finland and the USA occupy the top two positions in the ranking contained in the Global Competitiveness Report 2005/06 (Lopez-Claros, 2005). This report uses a range of indicators to ascertain the Growth Competitiveness Index (GCI), which takes into account the quality of a country’s macroeconomic structures, its public institutions and the development of new technologies. Increasingly the GCI includes

4 Even if a statistical link cannot be derived from the figures available. 32 A. Hanft and M. Knust factors such as investment in human capital, modernisation of the education system and the number of people entering courses of study. The assumption here is that these factors will have a positive impact on a country’s future growth. It is partic- ularly important to underline the fact that, by international comparison, Finland is the absolute leader in the Higher Education and Training category within the Global Index (an extension of the GCI). Another specific feature of Finland is its sabbatical system, which allows Finnish employees to take between 3 and 12 months’ leave of absence from work for other activities. During this period, which many Finns use to further their education, employees receive around 40% of their pay from their employer. This system thus helps to promote continuing education in Finland. Another noteworthy aspect is the political objective of generating budget sur- pluses to enable the state to fulfil its responsibilities in meeting the challenges of an ageing population (Lopez-Claros, 2005, p. XIV). The Ministry of Education con- siders continuing higher education as part of adult education. Half of all continu- ing higher education programmes are provided by the universities, which are also responsible for the further development of continuing higher education provision. Similar to their counterparts in France, the UK and Austria, higher education insti- tutions are relatively autonomous when it comes to organising continuing education. It is interesting to note that there are more students in continuing higher edu- cation, including the Finnish Open University, than attend traditional universities. The fall in UCE participant numbers between 1998 and 2003 was attributable to improvements on the labour market and cuts in funding for continuing higher edu- cation. However, since 2003 this downward trend has been reversed, and the number of participants is now increasing at a substantial rate (>10%). In France, legislation passed as long ago as 1968 made continuing education a fundamental duty of universities. In 1984, continuing education programmes at uni- versities were put on a par with undergraduate education and research. Nevertheless, the delivery of continuing education was seen by universities as a merely marginal activity until the end of the 1980s. Only once the Ministry of Education accorded the universities greater autonomy, in the early 1990s, did they strengthen their com- mitment in the field of continuing higher education. Since then, universities have in addition been responsible for developing procedures for the validation of vocational skills: around the turn of the millennium, this became the main challenge in the development of continuing higher education. The slight stagnation of continuing education at universities can perhaps be explained by the strong take-up of oppor- tunities to obtain a partial or even a full diploma on the basis of work experience. Recently (since 2000), legislation has been enacted in support of greater individual- isation of continuing education and the validation of previously acquired skills. Under the 1971 Act (conge´ individuel de formation), continuing higher educa- tion is part of vocational continuing education and companies are obliged to finance continuing education for their employees. This is a unique situation when compared with the other countries surveyed, since no such obligation to fund continuing edu- cation exists in any of the other comparator countries. The above-mentioned Act also provides for a steering body to be established in every university. Under sup- port contracts drawn up between the Ministry and the universities, the latter receive Comparative Overview of Study Results 33 the financial resources required to create a continuing education department. This is another particularly noteworthy element of support for continuing higher education, especially when compared with Germany. The UK’s education policy follows that of the USA in opting for a high level of university deregulation: British universities enjoy autonomous status. However, unlike the USA, the UK does regulate universities’ competition through measures such as legal frameworks for quality assurance (the UK’s qualification framework, benchmarks, institutional audits and so on) and for funding. What marks out the situation in the UK is that the universities are required to have formal and chargeable agreements with the independent Quality Assurance Agency and to publish audit and inspection results. Universities must comply with specific quality standards if they are to receive accreditation, which in turn is a condition for state funding. State funding reflects differences in cost-intensiveness between subject areas and can be used to promote policy objectives, such as widening participation. It is also restricted to EU students. The Open University, set up in 1969, played and continues to play a crucial part in developing and implementing the concept of “lifelong learning” in the UK. Polytechnics were set up on the basis of the Robbins Report to meet the growing demand for vocational, professional and industry-based courses. In 1991, the polytechnics were granted university status. These initiatives notwithstanding, the UK is one of the most strongly deregulated and privatised economies in the world, which has had an impact on university freedom and on how continuing higher education has evolved. There are positive and negative aspects to the situation in Austria. On the positive side, the OECD Country Note states that Austria has a high standard of train- ing, a high number of students who complete Secondary II level, a strong empha- sis on initial vocational training, well-developed adult learning provisions and a wide range of up-skilling opportunities. However, the negative factors include a pronounced demarcation between the systems for continuing professional devel- opment and the formal education system, and also between the different parts of the education system itself. Furthermore, access for non-traditional students is dif- ficult, the prevailing approach is provider and supply-oriented, and there is a lack of overarching strategies and co-ordinating bodies (BMBWK (Federal Ministry for Education Science and Culture), 2004). In addition, the links between the higher education sector and continuing professional development provision are rare, with very few higher education institutions developing corporate programmes. In this respect, the current situation in Austria is similar to that of Germany and differs from the other countries included in the study, where there is a lot more activity in the field of corporate programmes. As has already been mentioned, the 1993 University Organisation Act gave universities greater freedom with regard to continuing higher education. The 2002 Universities Act granted the universities full legal autonomy, meaning that each university can now establish its own statutes and frameworks for continuing higher education. Universities of Applied Science also now have a legal framework similar to that for universities that enables them to provide continuing education courses as well. 34 A. Hanft and M. Knust

Basically, the higher education system in the USA is highly decentralised; there are no uniform national or state-level provisions governing the design of the higher education system. A high degree of deregulation and variety are thus prominent features of continuing higher education in the country. As a rule, designing and managing continuing higher education is the responsibility of the higher education institution itself, and it is primarily the doctoral/research universities, Associate’s Colleges and Masters Colleges that offer continuing education at this level. Less than 40% of the specialised institutions offer programmes of this sort, and in the case of the Baccalaureate Colleges the figure falls below 30%. Moreover, it is also to be noted that institutions with fewer students generally offer less continuing education than institutions with high student numbers (Pusser et al., 2005, p. 30). As in the other countries in the comparative study, the development and charac- teristics of continuing education programmes in the USA are closely bound up with national demographics. The USA expects a continuous rise in its population over the coming decades, primarily as a result of American immigration policy. Demand for advanced continuing education in the tertiary sector has risen by more than a quarter in the past 25 years; in numerical terms, this translates to an increase of 3.2 million students. In the USA as a whole, potential demand for continuing higher education must be regarded as very high: more than 57% of the American popula- tion are qualified for entrance to higher education, but do not hold a higher educa- tion qualification. Over the past 20 years, demand for qualifications has increased enormously at for-profit institutions in particular. An increase of 23% was already observed between 1985 and 1995. In the years since then (up to 2001), the num- ber of qualifications obtained at the for-profits has risen by 120%, with the highest increase being observed at the four-year (for-profit) institutions.

2.1.5 Role of Continuing Higher Education In Germany, continuing higher education is expected to contribute towards develop- ing innovative processes in industry and education. From an economic point of view, it is supposed to help improve levels of education and qualification, and at an indi- vidual level its role is to respond to the citizens’ personal educational aspirations. Vocational training has a specific role in Finland. During a period of high unemployment at the start of recession in the 1990s, vocational training delivered in co-operation with private companies already underwent major expansion. In our view, this situation worked to the benefit of continuing higher education even after the Ministry of Labour withdrew broad funding in the wake of economic recovery. Open University programmes are often components of vocational qualifications. In addition, unemployed academics can access careers guidance and special pro- grammes5 to help them re-integrate into work; these are also available to academics who have immigrated from abroad.

5 Available for professions in the following areas: medicine, languages, teaching, chemistry and environment, library and information services, mathematics and statistics and computer science. Comparative Overview of Study Results 35

In France, lifelong learning was enshrined in legislation more than 30 years ago. Continuing education is defined as one aspect of the individual right to edu- cation, while education is described in the Education Code as the number one national priority. Continuing education is pursued for various reasons: to acquire skills, to adjust to the world of work, because of a change of job or imminent entry into employment, to attain a diploma, for the validation of a qualification, or owing to a cultural, sporting or personal interest. Continuing higher education, therefore, serves several purposes: as a link between the education system and the labour market, as a universal expression of lifelong learning in combination with the validation of vocational and informal skills, or else as a means of accessing the formal university system, obtaining career advancement or as human resource development. The key functions of university education – and also, by extension, of continuing higher education – in the UK are to fuel economic growth, to improve social cohe- sion and to provide a framework for personal development. A linear correlation is assumed between high-quality education on the one hand and enhanced economic growth on the other, an assumption that lay behind the decision to increase the pro- portion of all 18–30-year olds in higher education to 50% by 2010. Improving social cohesion is the government’s chosen way of combating social inequality. Indeed, since the 1990s, the UK has been implementing a series of initiatives designed to widen participation in higher education. The need for personal development, by contrast, is catered for primarily by Russell Group universities (through their extra- mural departments) by means of a range of courses aimed at the leisure learner; the elite universities in particular offer a range of summer courses with a cultural or subject focus and cultural events; these are aimed primarily at international students or the institutions’ alumni. In Austria, continuing higher education serves as a “gateway” mainly for professions where academic qualifications have not yet been developed. In prin- ciple, continuing higher education offers improved access in terms of recognition of knowledge and skills acquired outside university. Currently, higher education institutions’ efforts to promote lifelong learning are focussed almost exclusively on continuing higher education courses, and very little progress has been made with regard to recognition of prior learning. Overall, it can be said that higher education institutions continue to do very little as far as validating previous work experience acquired outside university is concerned, not least because there is still a lack of binding standards and criteria for recognising non-formal and informal learning. In the USA, university-level higher education essentially serves four functions: mandatory continuing education (for practitioners of certain professions, such as doctors, teachers, engineers, etc.), human capital development (as a key policy issue to ensure economic resilience in the face of international competition), per- sonal career development and personal interest (e.g. “personal enrichment courses” specifically aimed at older people). In the USA, post-high-school continuing edu- cation is basically considered to be the surest way for an individual to increase his long-term earning potential (UCEA, 2004, p. 48). 36 A. Hanft and M. Knust

2.2 How Accessible Are Higher Education Institutions in the Age of Lifelong Learning?

The question of how open higher education institutions are relates to the extent to which they are prepared, particularly in the field of continuing higher education, to open up access to their services to non-graduates or people with little previous expe- rience of higher education and to recognise their skills. There are major differences between the countries in the study. The German and Austrian higher education sys- tems are the least accessible for non-graduates or people with little previous experi- ence of higher education. Meanwhile, access is easiest in France and the UK, where there is a fluid transition between vocational training and continuing education, and unlike in Germany and Austria, it is no longer really possible to identify a boundary between the two. This openness is accompanied by an extremely active commitment to recognis- ing formally and informally acquired skills for the purposes of higher education or continuing education courses. In France, this policy is taken so far that it is even pos- sible for full degrees to be awarded to people who possess the relevant competences to the required level. In Finland, on the other hand, recognition of competences is virtually non-existent. In the USA, meanwhile, the situation regarding recognition of formally and informally acquired knowledge varies depending on the higher edu- cation institution. According to the experts, smaller and medium-sized universities are extremely keen to recognise skills that have been acquired outside the higher education system, whereas they are only recognised by about one in five of the larger universities. In Germany the admission regulations of higher education institutions usually represent a selection instrument that enables them to perpetuate their tradition of exclusivity. This applies in particular to Bachelors courses, where there are virtually no specific provisions on offer for adult students who are in employment, but it also applies to Masters courses, where universities shut themselves off from holders of Bachelors degrees from non-university courses. Access to the higher education system is made considerably more difficult for those who are able and willing to take part in continuing higher education but cannot fit into the existing full-time structures involved. Even in the past, this reluctance, compared with other systems, to open up access to continuing education courses was described as a typical characteristic of the German-speaking higher education system (Hanft & Pechar, 2005, p. 52; Luthje¨ & Wolter, 2005, p. 72; Schuetze & Wolter, 2003, p. 183). In addition to the question of access and recognition of prior learning, the same also applies to the transition between different education systems, and this directly affects continuing education and its competitiveness. In Finland, access to continuing higher education is extremely broad. Indeed, the number of people in continuing education (including the Open University) exceeds the number of those taking basic degrees. For instance, the University of Helsinki has 38,000 undergraduate students but around 60,000 students in continuing higher education and on Open University courses. In reality, hardly anyone leaves higher Comparative Overview of Study Results 37 education without a Masters degree, it being unusual to leave with only a Bachelors- level degree. The removal of the separation between work and study is a characteristic fea- ture of the system in France. As previously mentioned, the validation of experience acquired in a non-university setting facilitates access to the university system in principle, although there are also some elite establishments that set great store by exclusivity and accept only graduates of the grandes ecoles´ and senior civil servants. As will be clear from the preceding section, the boundaries between initial and continuing education in the UK are blurred. This means that the issue of whether the continuing education system is open or closed is less relevant than in the case of the other countries in this study. Universities are increasingly expected to extend their “widening participation” programmes, with the result that, far from being a closed elite system, the UK’s universities are becoming players in an open system in which as many people as possible have an opportunity to undergo continuing edu- cation, training and skilling. The Open University in particular provides openings into higher education since most of its courses have no formal entry requirements beyond a minimum age. Only one-third of all Open University students already have a degree. By means of financial support and subject initiatives, the UK is trying to widen participation in higher education: the funding councils offer special fund- ing for universities that recruit those from poor and disadvantaged backgrounds, for example, and universities offer bursaries and a range of access courses and other “pre-entry initiatives”. In Austria, the higher education system is fundamentally far less open. Current practice regarding Assessment of Prior Learning (APL) is extremely restrictive, particularly as far as regular studies are concerned, something that needs to be viewed in the context of the debate surrounding open access to higher education. It is continuing higher education, and in particular university courses and courses at universities of applied science, that are seen as a “gateway” for non-graduates. Nevertheless, some universities do provide events aimed at opening up higher education to the general public, for example, summer universities, lecture series, round table lectures, workshops and seminars. In the USA, the boundaries between traditional faculty (undergraduate) teach- ing and the programmes offered by continuing education institutions are fluid. Pro- grammes in the non-credit domain do not generally require students to have a prior academic education, and the same is true of Bachelors degree programmes and degree-completion programmes. In the case of credit activities, certificate and degree programmes, on the other hand, a Bachelors and sometimes even a Masters degree is often a prerequisite. Many programmes claim to operate on an “open enrol- ment” basis, and in this regard American continuing education institutions are cer- tainly openly accessible to client groups that have no prior experience of university or college education. In reality, however, the majority of participants in both work- related activities and courses aimed at personal development will already have a relevant college qualification. Of the institutions surveyed, more than half (13 insti- tutions) stated that at least three-fourth of the participants already had an academic qualification. 38 A. Hanft and M. Knust

Consideration of prior experience and learning varies widely. More than half of the (large) institutions surveyed indicated that, at best, it is sometimes taken into account. In the case of those (large) institutions where informal learning is taken into account (around 20%), methods of assessing such learning vary, but include stan- dard tests, individual portfolio assessment, or – and in this regard the USA differs from the other countries in this comparative study – use of professional agencies (e.g. the Council for Adult Experiential Learning (CAEL)) that translate previously acquired competencies and college experience into credit points and academic qual- ifications.

3 Institution Level

3.1 Organisation, Management and Regulation of Continuing Higher Education

The following section will examine the organisation and management of continuing higher education in the different countries in this study, before moving on to inves- tigate the issue of teaching staff and their motivation to participate in continuing education activities.

3.1.1 Organisation and Management of Continuing Higher Education On the whole, continuing higher education is characterised by a wide variety of organisational structures, and therefore it is only possible to pick out a few gen- eral trends. Continuing higher education in Germany, Finland, France and Austria is largely organised and run centrally, while in the UK recent years have seen a growing trend towards decentralisation. In the USA, it is possible to identify four idealised organisational structures; however these are complemented by a wide range of hybrid structures, ultimately leading to the impression that there are as many different organisational structures as there are continuing education providers. In general, it can be said that higher education institutions often provide contin- uing higher education both centrally and on a decentralised basis at the same time. Another characteristic present in all the countries in this study is that there are very few regulations concerning how continuing higher education should be structured, and in some countries (especially the UK, France and the USA) higher education institutions have a very high degree of autonomy in this regard. As a rule, management of continuing higher education in the countries compared is carried out by academic staff on a full-time or part-time basis. The different areas of continuing higher education normally report to the relevant vice-chancellor’s office. Even if managing directors are employed, responsibility for strategic matters remains in the hands of the institution’s central management. Particularly in Aus- tria, there are also signs of a trend towards hiving off continuing education activ- ities in the form of private companies that are subsidiaries of the university. One Comparative Overview of Study Results 39 feature common to all the countries compared is that continuing higher education courses leading to an academic qualification are increasingly tending to be organ- ised and run on a decentralised basis by the individual faculties. Since we feel that the issue of co-operation between the faculties and the central continuing higher education units is particularly important, this topic will be revisited in a separate Section 3.2. As already mentioned, both the questionnaire survey and the Internet search established that continuing higher education programmes in Germany are in most cases run by central institutions, operational units or sections. Taken together, they account for almost two-thirds of all programmes. Slightly more than a quarter of respondents said that they had a full-time manager in charge of continuing higher education. Just under 20% had a member of the aca- demic staff in charge, with a reduction of teaching load, and in a similar proportion of cases the staff member had no such reduction. In the latter case, the individu- als concerned often had to look after continuing higher education as an additional task to their research and teaching responsibilities. From this, one can conclude that there is a need for a greater degree of professionalisation in Germany when it comes to full-time managers of continuing higher education. Of the countries included in this comparative study, Finland is the most cen- tralised one. Continuing higher education is largely organised by the Centres for Continuing Education (CCEs) found in every university. With growing pressure to find external funding, faculties are increasingly seeking to provide continuing education. Often the CCEs work in very close co-operation with the faculties: at Palmenia CCE, for instance, there are regular meetings to ascertain what types of continuing education are needed and identify possible subject areas for new contin- uing education programmes. Individual higher education institutions in France are overseen by the Ministry of Education, yet they have extensive autonomy when it comes to organising their activities in the field of continuing higher education. Indeed, responsibility for continuing higher education lies with the universities and other higher education institutions themselves. Even though continuing education activities are often run by a central department within the university, four different forms of organisation can be identified in total: centralised, autonomous, split and mixed. Coordination between the various higher education institutions and the CNAM is provided for by law. The grandes ecoles´ have created their own network for the co-ordination of continuing education. As a rule, the continuing education unit is run by an indi- vidual university lecturer, who in some cases assumes this duty in addition to his research and teaching commitments, whereas in others it is a full-time occupation. It should be noted that huge differences exist in this regard, both in terms of man- agerial know-how and experience (e.g. regarding how to access additional fund- ing through public calls for tender) and in terms of authority exercised within the university. Osborne systematises the organisational forms to be found in the UK along a spectrum. At one end of this spectrum, many higher education institutions have decentralised administration, teaching and research but co-ordinate these 40 A. Hanft and M. Knust areas themselves. As interest in and demand for adult education has grown, this model has increasingly been broadened to offer Masters programmes, PhDs and other continuing education courses. At the other end of the spectrum are centres of/for continuing education that function outside the faculty structure and simply administer and provide support functions for the education carried out within the faculties. As the state funding model has changed over recent years, continuing higher edu- cation has become increasingly decentralised and now runs from within academic departments, divisions or units and within subject areas. Most of these centres, units or divisions have no particular legal status but simply form part of the organisa- tion of their university. Only a small proportion (around 11%) of universities have managing directors for their continuing education programmes; both administrative and academic leadership is instead provided by academics, often without reduction of their teaching load. Because continuing education is fully integrated with other teaching, however, this does not imply that the management of continuing education is less professional than that of other provisions. In the UK, basic and continuing higher education are not regarded as separate activities as they are in Germany, for example, and efforts to integrate teaching into a concept of lifelong learning are illustrated by the network initiatives described in that country study. In Austria, continuing higher education is characterised by a wide variety of organisational structures, with the majority of higher education institutions employ- ing more than one structure in parallel, and this diversification of structures is on the increase. While it is true that the organisation of continuing higher education units is often designed on the basis of central service centres, decentralised structures within the individual faculties and departments also exist. It is particularly com- mon for organisation and management to be dealt with by the faculty or individual department in the case of courses for which tuition fees are charged. Economics and business studies courses are especially likely to be run, marketed and organ- ised using organisational structures that are separate from the university, either as spin-offs or joint ventures, and often in the form of private companies. As well as the wide range of organisational structures, there are also various ways of regulating the management of these organisational units. In most cases, a member of the academic staff is responsible for operational management, while strategic management is usu- ally dealt with by vice-chancellors. Managing directors are only used in a few cases and tend to be responsible for operational rather than strategic management. Staffing levels for continuing higher education are rather low in terms of full-time equiva- lent positions. The way university-level higher education is organised in the USA can be described using the metaphor “organizational anarchy” applied to universities by Cohen in the 1970s. Goals pursued, organisational procedures and staff partici- pation vary enormously from one institution to another. The decision to become active in continuing higher education is prompted first and foremost by economic considerations and is not, as in the case of the German higher education system for example, motivated to a greater or lesser extent by the desire to fulfil a legal obligation. Earning income from fees and making a profit are the priorities, and in Comparative Overview of Study Results 41 this regard higher education institutions have developed considerable creativity in shaping provisions to achieve this. The organisational setting of continuing higher education also reflects this. Continuing higher education is conducted by units that are institutionally part of the parent university or college. Correspondingly, they are managed predominantly by a dean, a vice-president or a provost. A total of four basic forms of organisation can be identified:

• Administrative service units (providing no programmes themselves; handling administrative matters), • Academic centre (offering autonomous programmes, but not degree pro- grammes), • Part of a faculty (focusing on “non-traditional students”, these offer programmes that do not generally lead to an academic qualification) – this type is found notably at the doctoral and research universities, • Self-sufficient college or university for continuing education (offering credit and non-credit programmes, certificate courses and academic qualifications) – this type is found especially at the Masters and doctoral universities.

In the literature reviewed for the USA country study, there are indications that the degree of autonomy enjoyed by continuing higher education institutions in the USA has increased over time. Moreover, the study showed that the majority of higher education institutions have several units offering programmes of continuing higher education.

3.1.2 Teaching Staff and Motivation to Participate in Continuing Higher Education As far as teaching staff is concerned, we can distinguish between in-house and exter- nal staff on the one hand, and different qualification levels on the other:

• Germany and the USA are at opposite ends of the spectrum with regard to the first of the above aspects. In Germany, the trend is to use mainly in-house lecturers, whereas in the USA the proportion of external lecturers is particularly high, and only the Doctoral Universities use a large number of their own in-house teaching staff. Finland, France and the UK use both in-house and external lecturers, with the ratio varying in each respective country depending on the higher education institution and course in question. • As far as the second aspect is concerned, it is noticeable that Germany and Austria are very strongly focussed on using professors and lecturers, although it should be pointed out that in Austria they work in conjunction with a variety of different practitioners as lecturers. It is very rare for either of these two coun- tries to appoint individuals as teachers if they do not have a degree. The situation is rather different in the UK, where teaching is mainly undertaken by research assistants and tutors, and it is rare for teaching staff to be required to have a PhD or professorship. In the USA, professional know-how is the key factor. Lecturers 42 A. Hanft and M. Knust

must at least possess the same qualification level that is awarded on the course they are teaching, and this is also true of any academic qualifications awarded on continuing higher education courses. Higher numbers of academic lecturers are only used on courses with a particularly strong academic focus.

As far as the majority of the countries in the study are concerned, it is hard not to be critical regarding the issue of motivation to participate in continuing higher educa- tion, since some degree of personal motivation is essential in all cases. Motivation can be either financial or academic, e.g. because involvement offers the chance to work with professionals from the field in question, access to innovative insights or access to new (third-party) projects. There can be no doubt that the strongest financial incentives exist in the USA, where there is a comprehensive range of addi- tional remuneration options depending on teachers’ qualifications and the content of the course they are teaching. The ability to offer financial incentives in Germany and Austria is complicated by the fact that professors and lecturers are subject to legislation on teaching and research, which limits the time they can commit to con- tinuing higher education. Furthermore, at least in Germany, there are sometimes specific regulations in individual federal states that cap extra payments for this kind of work. The remainder of this section will take a look at some of the other specific characteristics of the countries in the study. Professors and lecturers in Germany who are involved in continuing education usually do so on a part-time basis. They have the option of having their activities in this field recognised as part of their teaching load, but as the main focus of contin- uing education is often in subject areas in which teaching capacity is already fully utilised (e.g. economics, social sciences, humanities, health studies or engineering), this seldom happens. The new pay scales introduced in higher education in Germany now permit the possibility of receiving extra payments, and this can apply to contin- uing education activities. Compared with the previous system, the new model is a more open one, but its potential has not hitherto been fully utilised by higher educa- tion institutions. The reason for this may be that teachers are reluctant to change to the new pay scale or are inadequately informed about the new system and the rights and obligations it entails. In Finland, it is possible for professors involved in continuing higher education to receive additional pay over and above their normal salary. The level is not limited by law. The CCEs also have considerable experience in sourcing external funding so that collaborative projects can be launched between higher education teachers and CCEs – which offer an additional incentive to become involved in continuing higher education. In addition to these extrinsic incentives, there are also intrinsic ones in Finland in the sense that engaging in continuing higher education projects and attracting external funding enhances ones professional and entrepreneurial reputation. In France, the government has laid down particular formulas and criteria enabling individual higher education institutions to establish departments performing the administrative and academic duties involved in continuing higher education. Con- tinuing education has been included as an indicator in the system of agreements on Comparative Overview of Study Results 43 objectives between the Ministry of Education and universities. Lecturers who are normally engaged in undergraduate education may have their salary topped up or receive an appropriate amount of overtime pay; visiting lecturers are recruited by the university on short-term (teaching) contracts. The hours of instruction provided in the context of continuing higher education are paid for out of the government’s continuing education budget (if the lecturers are on the staff of the university and their salary is entirely used up for initial education). It is moreover possible for them to receive allowances for certain supplementary work in the field of contin- uing higher education. These additional payments are funded by higher education institutions out of the revenues generated by continuing education. As noted above, it is usual in the UK for teaching to be delivered by academics below professorial level (i.e. those with a first or higher degree themselves) rather than by professors from the same or another higher education institution; fewer than one-third of programmes have professorial-level staff teaching on almost all courses. This represents a major contrast with other European countries in the study. In more than half of all cases, these academics work for the institution providing the course; in just under a third of cases, they work for other institutions. Centres of/for continuing higher education also make use of a pool of freelancers (visiting lecturers or non-established teachers) to deliver teaching. In most cases, continuing education responsibilities form part of the regular workload of university teachers and such activities are, therefore, not remunerated separately, nor is there any incentive to develop provision. As in Germany, professors and lecturers make up the bulk of teaching staff in Austria. Both in-house and external academics as well as practitioners teach courses. At Danube University Krems, people who work in the field of consultancy are also involved in teaching as a result of the continuing higher education courses’ focus on innovative change. It appears that in Austria remuneration is not the main incentive for people to be committed to continuing higher education teaching, even though fees are to some extent adjusted depending on the course being taught and separate allowances are available to compensate course directors for their additional work. Despite this, it is often the case that in-house staff involved in continuing education need a high degree of self-motivation. The continuing education teaching load of staff at Danube University Krems forms part of the standard duties associated with their position, and as such they do not receive any additional remuneration for it. Fees for external lecturers are negotiated individually. In the USA, so-called “adjunct faculty” are frequently employed on a part-time, fixed-term contract basis, particularly in the non-credit domain. More than half of the respondents stated that at least 75% of their teaching staff were outsourced. In four out of five cases, teaching on continuing education programmes is not part of the regular teaching load. The primary motivating factor for external teaching staff to become involved in continuing education is generally financial, but for some teachers, the opportunity to work with adults and professionals is also a criterion. Separate remuneration is given for continuing higher education activities according to specially formulated salary scales, depending on the individual’s academic and professional qualifications. 44 A. Hanft and M. Knust

3.2 Is Continuing Higher Education Organised Centrally or Via Individual Faculties?

The question of how continuing higher education activities are divided up between central functions and individual faculties, and whether there may be a shift towards continuing higher education provision in the faculties was not one of the main ques- tions that this study intended to tackle, and consequently no direct questions were asked about this topic. However, as it turned out, this trend was repeatedly described in some of the country studies, and as such it merits its own section. The first thing that was established is that in all the countries in the study, contin- uing higher education is not provided exclusively by a single central or decentralised organisation within higher education institutions, but that it is in fact also offered by other parts of the institution. It also became clear that the relationship between the faculties and central continuing education units is not necessarily all about produc- tive co-operation but can also be characterised by competition between the two. This is particularly true of part-time courses, which in most cases tend to be organised and run by the faculties. The situation in the individual countries is as follows. In Germany, part-time courses for which tuition fees are charged are mainly pro- vided by faculties and departments that have used the opportunity offered by the move towards Bachelors and Masters courses to set up financially lucrative continu- ing education courses. The traditional system whereby continuing higher education tasks were always exclusively in the hands of the unit responsible for providing the courses is thus beginning to change. Within the universities, one can observe a trend towards long-term programmes leading to an academic degree being put in the hands of the faculties, while other (in some cases credited) programmes that do not lead to the award of a degree are mainly provided by the centralised bodies. As mentioned above, continuing higher education in Finland is predominantly provided by the CCEs; even so, subject departments and institutes are also active in providing continuing higher education, not least because they can generate addi- tional income from fees. Consequently, CCEs and subject departments in Finland do not always work in co-operation with each other, but are often in direct competition. As this may damage the overall development of continuing education at university level, university authorities are seeking to counter this tendency by ensuring that all continuing education programmes are provided centrally by the CCEs. It is striking that in the UK, many continuing education departments are currently being dismantled and that it is now primarily the Russell Group universities that continue to offer such a profile. Changes over recent years to the central funding regime have resulted in decentralisation of continuing education within universi- ties; management of workplace-based learning as well as its content is now usually the responsibility of faculties and departments. Specialised support functions, such as administrative roles, are, by contrast, usually provided by centres or centralised units. As a rule, the organisational structures at higher education institutions in Austria are extremely heterogeneous. Some institutions have created or are creating only central continuing education units, while others are already considering new Comparative Overview of Study Results 45 organisational structures (e.g. spin-offs). However, it is clear that where part-time courses exist, their design and management are often decentralised to the respec- tive faculty or department, while the central organisation tends to concentrate on providing support functions such as administration. As the continuing education business is often regarded as a “cash cow” in the USA, many faculties are keen to provide programmes in this area as a means of at least cross-subsidising their other degree programmes. As a result, a certain degree of competition can be perceived among the various continuing education institu- tions in the USA. It is not possible, however, to identify any clear trend towards centralisation or decentralisation.

3.3 Specific Aspects of Continuing Higher Education: Quality Assurance, Marketing and Funding

3.3.1 Quality Assurance and Development Varying degrees of emphasis are attributed to quality assurance and development in the different countries, making this perhaps the area with the widest-ranging results in the whole study. Although it is true that the quality of continuing higher education is generally considered to be very important, there are different opin- ions regarding which concrete measures should be taken to ensure quality and what approach should be adopted as regards demonstrating quality to an external audience. On the one hand, it is noticeable that very comprehensive quality assur- ance activities are undertaken at the operational level, for example, seminar evalua- tions and student satisfaction surveys, and it appears that continuing education units are significantly more active in this respect than the faculties. On the other hand, unless they apply right across the whole higher education institution, it seems that institutional quality assurance measures such as accreditation and certification are regarded as less important than on the non-university continuing education market. Continuing higher education occupies the space in between the continuing educa- tion and higher education systems, and as such takes its lead from the general con- tinuing education market as far as the operational aspects of quality assurance are concerned, while at the same time benefiting at an institutional level from the quality assurance certificates of the respective higher education institution. Overall, quality assurance in the countries compared, therefore, comprises a mixture of internal and external, ex-post and ex-ante, customer-based, course-based and organisation-based measures. All countries attach considerable importance to customer-based quality assur- ance, e.g. teaching and seminar evaluations, student surveys or complaints analy- ses, but this is particularly the case in the USA, owing to that country’s especially pronounced market orientation. In contrast, organisation-based institutional quality assurance only receives sig- nificant attention in certain countries, notably the USA, Austria and Finland. All higher education institutions in Finland are obliged to carry out internal and external 46 A. Hanft and M. Knust evaluations. The results of these evaluations are used when objectives are negoti- ated by the higher education institutions with the Ministry of Education and also when setting budgets. Furthermore, the results are shared with other higher educa- tion institutions, allowing benchmarking to be undertaken. Austrian higher educa- tion institutions have a statutory obligation to develop quality management systems for their entire portfolio of services, including continuing higher education, but they have considerable freedom as to how they go about it. Quality assurance measures for continuing higher education courses can range from lecture evaluations to the establishment of process-oriented quality assurance measures. According to one of the French interviewees, there is strong opposition to such a wide-ranging approach, since there is a feeling that it risks confusing the global requirement for quality with process quality, and people have reservations about applying continuing education quality and evaluation systems to undergraduate courses. German experts are cur- rently also still rather cautious about the value and consequences of organisation- based quality assurance measures. While regular evaluations and accreditations have become increasingly common in recent years for research and teaching, and external quality assessments (peer reviews) are now the norm, it appears that this is not the case as far as continuing higher education is concerned, except for the course-based accreditation of part-time courses. While organisation-based quality assurance sys- tems such as EFQM, ISO or LQW are now established on the open continuing education market, there has been very limited uptake of them by higher education institutions.

3.3.2 Marketing All the countries in the study take advantage of the whole gamut of methods for providing individuals and companies with information about the courses that they run. These include information on the higher education institution’s own web site, flyers, brochures and publishing of editorial contributions. In addition, presentations at fairs and exhibitions that are open to the public, and direct contact with customers via direct mailing and word-of-mouth. Little or no use is made of Internet banners in any of the countries in the study, since institutions tend to be concerned that their own courses’ reputation could be damaged by appearing side by side with those of less well-known providers. There are clear differences between countries’ preferred communication strate- gies, the most significant of which are outlined below. Germany and Austria are increasingly adopting a “pull advertising” approach, using their own web sites to provide information about their courses. It should be noted that, specifically in Germany, there is significant variation in the quality and completeness of the information provided (e.g. there is a lack of information about access requirements, fees and charges, qualifications awarded, workload, etc.), as well as with regard to user-friendliness (sometimes it can be hard to find individual course web sites because they are buried in an over-complex site structure). This can often make it very difficult to perform a specific search for information. In Austria, the presence of continuing higher education on higher education institutions’ web Comparative Overview of Study Results 47 sites has grown steadily over the past few years. More and more institutions now have a direct link from their home page to their continuing higher education courses. Austria’s higher education institutions also do a lot of course presentations at edu- cation fairs, particularly for Masters courses but also for university continuing edu- cation courses. In Finland, every continuing higher education course provided by every university is included in an on-line database. In terms of marketing, the USA uses not only the “pull” method, but also quite purposefully includes “push” methods, most notably in the form of direct mail- ing campaigns, to present their own programmes to the targeted groups. This again demonstrates the highly business-oriented field of action of university-level higher education in the USA; the provider does not wait (primarily) for action on the part of the individuals targeted, to take steps himself to obtain information, e.g. by downloading material from the Internet, but takes its advertising pitch to the target groups. Alongside a purely factual presentation of the information, as is pre- dominant in the majority of the other, European countries in the comparative study, the USA is notable for using emotions in its marketing. For example, an institution will present the career development of its own alumni in such a way as to arouse the desire for similar career development, or include prominent faculty members (e.g. well-known actors, sportspeople, managers etc. with positive associations) in its advertising pitch. In addition, word-of-mouth communication and maintaining contact with alumni are also an important factor for success in “sales promotion” both in the USA (especially at the research-oriented institutions) and in the UK and Austria. This culture of close ties between institution and alumni, in many cases involving financial donations to the institution in question, is found particularly in the USA, but is not prevalent in other European countries in the international com- parative study, and especially not in Germany. It is difficult to confirm one way or the other whether the higher education insti- tutions in the countries compared implement strategic and co-ordinated marketing policies that cover the full range of marketing options. In the specific cases of Germany and France, problems were alluded to regarding the development and implementation of such strategies, and it was suggested that on the whole market- ing measures within higher education institutions are poorly co-ordinated – if at all. Although no similar comments were recorded for the other countries in the study, we can assume that this situation is not entirely atypical, particularly for smaller continuing higher education providers. Marketing activities tend to concentrate on communication, and only rarely include a product, pricing and distribution policy that has been designed with marketing in mind. Danube University Krems was the only institution that was explicitly identified as undertaking co-ordinated marketing and public relations activities, with a central marketing department ensuring that these are consistent with the university’s corporate identity.

3.3.3 Funding All the countries in the study use a mixed funding approach, combining state funding, funding from the federal states or the regions, or funding from private 48 A. Hanft and M. Knust enterprises and individuals. However, there are in some cases significant differences in the proportion contributed by these different groups. Thus, a high percentage of the funding for continuing higher education courses in the UK comes from the national higher education funding bodies (in England this is the Higher Education Funding Council for England, HEFCE), whereas the main source of funds in the USA is private student fees. These two countries and Austria also obtain a higher percentage of their funding through sponsoring and fundraising than the other coun- tries in the study. France and the USA use the high degree of autonomy enjoyed by continuing higher education to implement a proactive pricing policy that involves, for example, offering discounts to various target groups. In the USA,itiscommonpracticeto offer discounts to companies (this is the most frequently cited group), members of the university’s staff or senior citizens. On the other hand, inflexible fee scales mean that continuing higher education units in German universities are severely constrained with regard to their pricing policy. The following paragraphs take a closer look at some of the other specific characteristics of the different countries in the study. In Germany, only just under 11% of the funding for planning and developing new continuing education programmes is taken from university budgets. In most cases, start-up funding comes from reserves set aside from the tuition fees and charges made to participants in existing programmes (approximately 41%) and from the budgets of the continuing education units (approximately 28%). Imple- mentation costs usually/always have to be covered by tuition fee income and other charges (approximately 86%). In just over half of cases, income from tuition fees and charges also has to be used to pay overhead costs to the university. The level of tuition fees and charges for continuing education programmes varies; half of them cost under 295 and the other half between 295 and 62,450. More than 4/5 of respondents estimated that the university required cost coverage on the basis of full costs. However, more than half of respondents regarded it as unlikely that such full cost coverage was actually achieved. The pressure to cover full costs results in a narrowing down of continuing higher education provisions to a few commercially attractive programmes and reduces the scope for running programmes that may be educationally or socially desirable. One serious problem is seen as being the reluctance of universities to provide start-up funding or financial support for new continuing higher education programmes. If surplus income has to be used to pay overhead costs to the university, then the scope for innovative development is further narrowed. It is these factors above all that determine the speed and frequency with which programmes are developed. State funding of higher education in Finland has been steadily reduced over the past 10 years. Continuing higher education is thus viewed as an important source of funding. In Finland, most of the external funding obtained by higher education institutions is generated by the CCEs (e.g. income from tuition fees and charges but also from external funding projects etc.). Continuing higher education must be financially self-sufficient and in most cases makes a profit. On average, only 15% of continuing education at this level is state-funded. Comparative Overview of Study Results 49

In France, the state, companies and the regions are the main financial backers of vocational continuing education (of which academic continuing education is a part). More than 50% of continuing education delivered specifically by universities is funded by private participants, and there is evidence that this proportion is rising steadily. The average company devotes 3.3% of its wage bill to continuing education (the statutory requirement being 1.6%). The state pays for most of the continuing education undertaken by civil servants, the unemployment insurance fund finances relevant continuing education for job-seekers, and the regions foot the bill for voca- tional education for young people and their own staff. State funding was approximately 11% in 2002, but the share contributed by regional funding instruments varies considerably from one region to another. At engineering colleges in particular, companies and the OPCA (Organisme paritaire collecteur agree)´ finance more than half of continuing education costs. Revenue from sponsorship plays a very minor role – if any – in the French continuing educa- tion scene, and is relevant only in the field of medical continuing education. Despite their high degree of autonomy, universities in the UK are dependent on the government and on the funding councils for their funding and have to meet the criteria for allocations of funding. For example, their success in recruiting stu- dents from non-traditional backgrounds (as measured by postcode) is one facet of extra funding given for widening participation initiatives. Alongside state subsidies, however, universities and further education colleges also receive income from spon- sorship, tuition fees,6 conference activity, donations and other “third-leg” activities, whose importance has grown as the financial pressure on universities in the UK has increased. Universities receiving funding for continuing higher education have been required to convert their provisions to credit courses to enable the calculation for- mula for state funding to be simplified. As a result, universities credit-rated virtually all courses over the 1990s. The UK is remarkably market-oriented in terms of how tuition fees are set. Fees are usually calculated as a percentage of the full cost of a course (except for non- EU students, who always pay full-cost fees). It is striking that from the autumn of 2006, new legislation enabled fees to be trebled. Such a drastic rise was a problem particularly for the Open University, whose students do not qualify for student loans in the same way as students at other universities. In Austria, a range of different players are involved in funding the planning and development of new continuing higher education courses. The bulk of the funding comes from the higher education institution, the faculties and student fees. Danube University Krems occupies a unique position in the continuing education landscape, since it has to provide 75% of its own funding. By comparison, the proportion of self-financing at other universities is substantially lower.

6 The experts interviewed told us that only about one-third of the costs of course provision is coveredbytuitionfees. 50 A. Hanft and M. Knust

The cost of running courses usually has to be completely covered by revenue from fees, while fixed costs are partly funded out of the higher education insti- tution’s central budget. In some cases, overhead costs are deducted directly from tuition fee revenue by the higher education institution. Austria’s higher education institutions reckon that continuing higher education will have to recover all its costs fully in the future, but they are less confident that it will actually be possible to achieve this in practice. Government funding for the American higher education sector has declined con- tinuously in recent years. In addition, there is currently a squeeze on government funding for student support in the form of grants or low-interest loans. Declining government contributions have made it necessary to increase tuition fees, and for many American participants in continuing education this is a key reason why they have to work to be able to afford to participate. In addition to the focus on costs, unlike in Germany, factors relating to the market and competitiveness are taken into account when setting tuition fees. Around one- third of continuing education institutions thus set their fees primarily on the basis of existing market conditions (fees charged by competitors, pricing policy, general dynamics of student tuition fees etc.). The majority of the institutions studied were at least able to cover their costs; in many cases the institution actually managed to make a substantial surplus which, in more than half of the cases, flows back to the university administration. As far as the financing of new continuing higher education programmes is concerned, the majority of the institutions surveyed bore the costs themselves. There are also cases, however (e.g. University of Denver), where the university management manifests a considerable degree of entrepreneurial spirit, providing a kind of venture capital as start-up funding for promising programmes.

3.4 Profile Development and Continuing Higher Education Providers’ Perception of Their Profession

The final two parts of this section will look at the perception that people involved in continuing higher education have of their profession within the wider higher educa- tion institution (Section 3.4), and the extent to which continuing higher education is integrated into an overall lifelong learning strategy (Section 3.5). Our observations are based on comments made by respondents with regard to the higher education level, specifically concerning the topics of financial and staffing resources, motiva- tion and development prospects. One fundamental feature shared by all the countries in the study is that continu- ing higher education is developed and promoted specifically in (specialised) subject areas where the higher education institution stands out vis-a-vis` other providers because of its special competences or high levels of excellence. Consequently, fac- ulties with a strong research component and an excellent academic reputation are Comparative Overview of Study Results 51 often also very committed to continuing higher education. Furthermore, continuing higher education units themselves often acquire a good reputation as “laboratories” of learning innovation, and this can rub off on the regular studies provided by the institution. As such, this focus on excellence is closely linked to how people involved in continuing higher education perceive their profession. Particular empha- sis was placed on this aspect in the responses for France and the USA. It is also clear that the emphasis on professional self-perception, image and strate- gic development is greatest in Finland, the UK and the USA, as expressed, among other things, by the creation of innovative new business areas: • The Finnish CCEs, which can be found at every university, do not regard them- selves merely as providers of continuing higher education but rather as centres of competence for the planning, development and implementation of continu- ing education programmes. The high degree of professionalism is reflected in their staff, which includes instruction designers, programme planners and learn- ing advisors. Finland’s biggest CCE employs more than 250 people. • The lack of any clear differentiation between undergraduate teaching and con- tinuing education in the UK results in the departments/units/centres responsi- ble for continuing higher education regarding continuing higher education as part of their daily duties alongside all their other activities. New specialisa- tions and business areas have been opened up in the field of assessment of prior learning. • In the USA, providers of continuing higher education have for years operated in a highly flexible, efficient, market- and competition-oriented fashion, in some cases generating considerable profit margins (between 10% and 50%). Great creativity is shown in developing new products, including those that go beyond the traditional seminar-based approach (e.g. study travel with academic support). During the interviews with experts conducted as part of this study, it became clear that many higher education institutions are also keen to increase and enhance the professionalism of their continuing education operations.

One particular problem related to expansion and position of continuing higher edu- cation in Germany is the availability of funding either from the university budget or by the federal states. In almost 70% of all cases, adequate funding is only some- times/never available for planning and developing new programmes. Even when the necessary motivation and ideas exist, realisation often fails due to a lack of seed- funding. Continuing higher education is not regarded as important for the strategic positioning of universities, and any resources available for investment tend to flow into other areas, like undergraduate education and research. There are, however, signs of a change in thinking that might be to the benefit of future expansion of continuing higher education: in some federal states, continuing higher education is being incorporated into agreements on objectives concluded by the federal state and the universities, and income from continuing higher education activities is being included as third-party funding when it comes to indicator-based budgeting. 52 A. Hanft and M. Knust

Continuing education, which in France became the third duty of universi- ties alongside research and undergraduate teaching under the 1984 Act, has been included as an indicator in agreements on objectives between the Ministries and the institutions concerned. Commitment to continuing education, among other things, helps to determine the allocation and amount of funding. Thus the continuing higher education sector is theoretically ranked on a par with research and undergraduate teaching. In practice, however, it is apparent that lecturers’ involvement in continu- ing higher education has no positive effect, or only a slight one, on their academic careers. Their reputations are determined primarily by research activities. Although it is not stated explicitly, the authors of this summary suspect that this is an alto- gether typical problem in the other comparator countries too. Only in Finland were favourable comments made about the possibility of improving one’s reputation by contributing to continuing higher education (although even there it was more a case of one’s entrepreneurial rather than one’s academic reputation). The people involved in continuing higher education in Austria currently perceive their roles to be somewhat marginalised. In this respect, the situation has strong parallels with Germany, where continuing higher education is also forced to eke out a meagre existence as a niche activity compared to research and regular studies (Stifterverband fur¨ die deutsche Wissenschaft e.V., 2003, p. 10; Wolter, 2004, p. 22). Nevertheless, there is also a trend towards professionalization, associated with fur- ther diversification of organisational structures. This is exemplified by the setting up of a Management School at one of the universities in the study, the foundation of a Continuing Education Centre at another university, and the launch of a new Con- tinuing Education Academy at a further university. Furthermore, some universities are considering hiving off their continuing higher education activities in the form of organisations that are affiliated to the university but are legally independent, such as private companies. A particular feature of American continuing higher education institutions is the speed and flexibility with which new programmes are developed in response to an identified demand. Some institutions – particularly self-sufficient colleges or uni- versities for continuing education, due to their special structure – are in a position to develop new programmes in a fraction of the time it would take if the univer- sity management or the faculties were to do it themselves. One representative of this strategy is George Washington University, for example, which stands out in the continuing higher education sector as a result of its highly professionalised human resource management. Rapid decision-making and strong customer relation- ship management are key activities at this institution. A clear tension is apparent in the USA, however, that will affect the future ori- entation of continuing higher education. On the one hand (analogously to France), university continuing education is considered to be an area of innovation and exper- imentation, enabling novel programmes and teaching/learning technologies to be developed and evaluated. On the other hand, it is expected to earn funds that can be used to cross-subsidise other areas of the parent institution’s activities (research and undergraduate teaching). The balance between profit-seeking and quality-seeking is the subject of much controversy in the USA. Comparative Overview of Study Results 53

3.5 Institutional Lifelong Learning Policy

The issue of integrating continuing higher education into a comprehensive lifelong learning strategy supported by the higher education institutions at a system level is best understood by looking at the way in which the Bologna process has been imple- mented (e.g. modularisation, lifelong accumulation of credits, co-ordinated consec- utive Bachelors and Masters structures geared towards continuing higher education) and the commitment to ensuring that students continue to participate in continuing higher education continuously and for as long as possible over the course of their working lives. In Germany, legislation was passed as early as 1998 recognising continuing higher education as an area of activity with equal status to undergraduate teach- ing and research. The study on continuing higher education in Germany indicates, however, that even today – 10 years on – the vast majority of universities have not yet developed a lifelong learning strategy that is properly coordinated, scientifically based and market/need-oriented, with programmes building on one another and the possibility of transfer between undergraduate teaching and continuing education on the one hand, and on the other hand between universities and other education providers. This is indicated also by the fact that compared with other countries, there is still little recognition of prior learning acquired outside university. Only just under half of respondents regarded it as likely that part-time Bachelors courses for which tuition fees are charged would be introduced. Bachelors degrees are strikingly underrepresented (4.91%) amongst academic degrees awarded at the end of con- tinuing higher education courses. Moreover, only just over a third of cases indicate that there is an increase in the number of continuing education Masters courses for which tuition fees are charged. This is surprising, given that in the current change to Bachelors/Masters courses it is intended that only 30–50% of (consecutive) Bache- lors graduates will usually transfer onto (consecutive) Masters courses. The question would need to be investigated as to how universities will react to the current increase in demand – observable above all in the USA – for part-time Bachelors studies for those in work. Another question would be how universities aim to provide continuing education for graduates with Bachelors degrees who return to university after a period of professional life, given that most capacity is currently being devoted to developing consecutive Masters courses (usually dominated by face-to-face teaching) and continuing education has been put on the back burner. In Finland, a high degree of modularisation constitutes the cornerstone of a co- ordinated strategy for lifelong learning. At some universities, the integration of con- tinuing education into the overall lifelong learning strategy is already apparent. Helsinki University of Technology, for instance, is introducing co-ordination (i.e. interchangeability and course accreditation etc.) between (undergraduate) Bache- lors and Masters degrees offered by faculties on the one hand, and the Masters pro- grammes delivered by affiliated CCEs on the other. Continuing higher education in France is essentially regarded as a component of vocational education. The vocational continuing education system, to which 54 A. Hanft and M. Knust universities also contribute, is in effect designed as a system of lifelong learning in that companies devote a share of their wage bill to it. Access to the university sys- tem, as well as the permeability which is crucial to such a model, do exist in France, even though co-ordination of the various continuing higher education courses within universities – e.g. in the form of increased modularisation of study programmes – is not a major issue. British universities’ ethos is to attempt to forge a long-term relationship with students. The Open University (OU) is a specialised lifelong learning institution within the UK, whose mission is to focus more sharply than other higher education institutions on vocational education and continuing education. A flexible modular structure means that students can follow individual, credit-bearing courses that build up knowledge and understanding within or around complementary subject areas. The OU was, indeed, a pioneer of modular credit accumulation schemes in the UK, although other universities have now adopted modular structures to enable students to accumulate academic credit points. Lifelong learning has acquired a status in the UK that differs from that in other countries, such as Germany. Specialised networks and lobby groups working in this area include the National Institute of Adult Continuing Education (NIACE), the Forum for the Advancement of Continuing Education (FACE), the Universities Association for Lifelong Learning (UALL) and the Lifelong Learning Networks (LLNs); these all support or develop initiatives to make it easier for students to gain access to or re-enter university or college education. Lifelong learning is promoted by, among other measures, modularisation, a close relationship between study and the workplace, and a focus on the needs of older students. Continuing higher education in Austria has as yet not been integrated into the Bologna structures as part of the second cycle. As has already been described, Aus- trian higher education institutions generally have a rather conservative understand- ing of continuing higher education that draws a strict distinction between vocational training and continuing education. The upshot is that at the moment, there is still no real integration with lifelong learning. Nevertheless, there are some isolated cases where people are working towards this integration. At the University of Graz, for example, they are working on an overall strategy known as “University Continuing Education – A Partner for Life”, where continuing education is integrated into a comprehensive programme with various target groups. The idea of lifelong learning is firmly enshrined in the USA higher education system and put into practice by many universities and colleges via a multitude of educational programmes. The manner and extent to which individual programmes are integrated into a self-contained lifelong learning plan depends, however, on the nature of the higher education institution in question. Implementation of an inte- grated, holistic plan is difficult because American universities may offer very differ- ent levels of education: some higher education institutions, for example, only offer Associate’s or Bachelors degrees, while others focus exclusively on graduate edu- cation. This is why the arrangements in place between different higher education institutions regarding assessment of prior learning are important. With a few excep- tions, largely confined to the elite research universities, there is usually no prob- lem between different higher education institutions as regards transferring academic Comparative Overview of Study Results 55 grades and certificates obtained previously to advanced programmes. Credit pro- grammes can thus be integrated into a lifelong learning plan. The picture is rather different in the case of non-credit programmes, which continue to account for a large share of continuing higher education at American universities and colleges. Due to their short shelf-life and the fact that they do not count towards advanced degree programmes, non-credit activities are not so easy for an institution to include in its overarching lifelong learning plan.

4 Programme Level

4.1 Course Structure

4.1.1 Number of Courses, Subject Matter, Duration and Access Requirements The first common trend is that courses are already increasingly being awarded ECTS points in order to enable mutual recognition as part of an integrated lifelong learn- ing strategy. The second is that there are currently signs of a move towards longer courses leading to a certificate or academic qualification. The following paragraphs describe the specific conditions in the individual countries. In Germany the evidence is that – both in percentage and absolute figures – it is the universities that run the majority of continuing education programmes rather than the universities of applied science or the art and music academies. However, partly for historical reasons (e.g. early establishment of CCE in Lower Saxony and Bremen) provisions are unevenly distributed amongst the federal states. In principle, the size of the higher education institution in Germany has little influence on the number of programmes on offer. Indeed, there are prestigious universities with a strong research tradition that have little or no involvement in continuing higher education at all. This distinguishes Germany from the other countries in the comparative study. When it comes to the larger institutions that are active in the field of continuing higher education, what is striking is the rela- tively wide-ranging portfolio on offer – which may be a result of the large number of different departments. In the majority of cases, the content of continuing higher education is determined by the main academic focus of the institution concerned, the chief areas being management, social, health and cultural studies, technology and education. At present, the majority of programmes tend to be relatively short in duration – in other words up to 40 teaching hours (almost 80% of all programmes). In reply to the question about development prospects, more than 97% of respondents expected demand for programmes leading to a qualification to increase in the future. A rise in the number of part-time Masters courses was predicted by more than 94%, and in the case of part-time Bachelors courses, by more than half of respondents. This is remarkable, given that Bachelors courses designed explicitly for employed persons are currently being blocked by policymakers in many federal states even if continu- ing higher education institutions have registered a demand for such courses. 56 A. Hanft and M. Knust

The situation in Germany with regard to admission requirements for continuing higher education programmes is by no means clear. The Internet search revealed that only in just over a third of programmes were any details of admission requirements provided – which means, conversely, that in nearly two-thirds of cases no such infor- mation was forthcoming. This is highly unsatisfactory, given that, for individuals in particular, the Internet (search engines and the homepages of higher education insti- tutions) is the preferred method of finding out about continuing higher education provisions (Knust 2006, p. 108). In those cases where information on admission requirements was available, it was discovered that approximately 46% called for a university degree. In combina- tion with the low level of activity in the area of assessment of prior learning men- tioned above, individuals who have acquired competences outside the university are seldom included in this target group. Only in just over 6% of cases did such profes- sional experience play a role. Once again, these results confirm the relative lack of openness of the German higher education system compared with other countries in this comparative study, in particular the UK, France and the USA. In Finland, continuing higher education is offered by all institutions covered in the study, and has a strong international dimension. Besides courses purely in Finnish, many are offered in English. At one of the Business Schools, this interna- tional dimension is reflected not only in course content, but also in the recruitment of teaching staff. They come not only from Finland, but also from other European countries (principally the UK, France and the Netherlands) and the USA, Canada and Australia. The length of programmes varies enormously. The last few years, however, have seen a strong increase in the number of long-term programmes. Since in reality hardly anyone leaves higher education without a basic Masters degree, continuing higher education courses often build on this level of achievement. It should be borne in mind, however, that such courses are only part of the overall programme offered by CCEs. In France, continuing education programmes are identical to initial education programmes in most cases. In other words, the development of special provisions for continuing higher education is a rarity. Universities basically offer the disci- plines in which they excel. A decision taken nationally to apply ECTS credit points to university diplomas is currently being put into practice at universities. A funda- mental distinction is made between short courses, which are provided specifically for companies or administrations and have an average duration of 25 h, on the one hand, and, on the other, long courses leading to a university diploma with or without ministerial accreditation and study programmes leading to a national diploma. Access conditions are partially laid down by law in France. For instance, the minimum legal requirement for admission to a course of study leading to a national diploma is at least 2 years’ work experience plus the baccalaureat.´ Universities do however possess a good deal of latitude to establish their own access criteria. These often include a candidate’s justification of his career plan, the availability of suffi- cient funding and appropriate motivation. The provision at the 131 higher education institutions in the UK offering con- tinuing higher education is very varied in terms of both breadth and depth of Comparative Overview of Study Results 57 programmes. It is striking, however, that increasing numbers of part-time Bache- lors and Masters programmes are coming on stream as well as a growing number of Continuing Professional Development (CPD) courses. There is already a particular emphasis on degree-level courses and, in the view of the interviewees, this is likely to intensify. It is also likely that vocationally oriented postgraduate studies, work- based courses and open-access courses will increasingly be validated and added to the current provisions. Work experience and the accreditation of prior (experiential) learning is a major criterion in the UK for access to university education, as is clear from our analysis of the results of an on-line search of continuing higher education provision. In the cases we looked at, a first degree was required only for a “higher” degree (a Masters degree), for example. In Austria, the average number of continuing higher education courses (univer- sity and Masters courses) ranges from one to five (this was the case for half of the respondents), with a significant number of institutions (approximately 20%) offer- ing between six and ten. Statistically, Danube University Krems offers the widest range of courses, with 148 in total (39 university continuing education courses and 86 Masters courses), owing to the fact that it specialises exclusively in continuing higher education. In terms of subject matter, courses mainly focus on the key sub- jects specialised in by the institution that provides them. This is particularly true of the multidisciplinary universities, but also applies to the universities of the arts and the universities of applied science. As far as course duration is concerned, a slight trend towards an increase in the number of longer courses was identified, although many of the respondents also believed that there were unlikely to be any major changes in course duration. It was generally felt that the number of Masters courses is likely to increase, to the detriment of continuing education courses leading to the title of “Academic” followed by the name of the profession. There is also an expectation that in the future continuing higher education will be increasingly defined in terms of ECTS credit points. In terms of formal access requirements, graduates comprise the highest percent- age of participants in all formats of continuing higher education in Austria. While the proportion of non-graduates on university courses and in short formats is fairly high (approximately a third), the number of non-graduates on Masters courses is negligible. In the USA, non-credit programmes geared towards the needs of the regional economy are developed most notably by community colleges. Doctoral and research universities, on the other hand, tend to develop more credit activities and degree programmes. Of all the credit activities, certificate programmes are the most widespread. There has been a strong increase in provision of certificate and credit programmes since the 1990s in general. Certificate programmes are even considered to be one of the fastest-growing types of activity in continuing higher education in the USA. The subject areas covered depend on the one hand on the available competencies and knowledge resources at the given institution, but also on forecasts concerning market developments. The most popular subject areas in which credit programmes 58 A. Hanft and M. Knust are offered in the context of continuing higher education in the USA are teaching, management/business/marketing and the humanities and social sciences. Four-year institutions in particular concentrate on these areas, whereas only very few of the 2-year institutions do so (tending instead to focus on health and nursing sciences, computer and information technology, and on technical and mechanical subjects). In the case of non-credit programmes, 4-year institutions concentrate on the humanities and social sciences and on management/business/marketing. A steady increase can be observed in the number of continuing education pro- grammes leading to an academic qualification. These include Associate’s, Bach- elors, Masters and PhD degrees. According to the literature, this increase is due to developments in the national economy and the labour market in the USA (e.g. growing labour market demand for graduates with a Bachelors degree). The major- ity of programmes are heavily work-oriented, and in this respect the primary target group at which institutions aim their programmes consists of employed people and individuals with relevant work experiences. For many continuing higher education activities, participants are not required to hold a first academic degree.

4.1.2 Academic Versus Vocational Orientation The degree of academic emphasis in continuing higher education courses can be expressed by the kind of teaching staff employed, the type of examinations or the course content. It is clear that there are differences in the importance attached to the academic side across the countries in the study. In Germany, France and Austria, it is regarded as particularly important for continuing higher education courses to be taught by members of the academic staff in order to guarantee a high aca- demic standard. Almost two-thirds of the respondents in the German survey said that the academic level was equivalent to that of a regular study course on at least three-quarters of all continuing education courses. Even when the course is not taught by a professor, at least one of the teachers usually has a PhD. In France, academic standards are ensured by the fact that the same examination conditions apply to continuing higher education as to undergraduate studies, the courses are taught by the same teachers, and in some cases the same qualifications are also awarded. Things are rather different in the UK and the USA. High academic standards are ensured through the teaching staff employed, course content and examination conditions, but at the same time much greater emphasis is placed on vocational orientation. Practitioners with the relevant professional experience are frequently used in the USA. Compared with undergraduate studies, academic content plays a secondary role in continuing education in the USA, and the quality standards of undergraduate studies only need to be matched by courses that lead to an academic degree. Conversely, vocational orientation is exceptionally important in the UK and the USA. The same is true of France, where continuing higher education forms part of the continuing professional development system, and is therefore bound to have a strong vocational orientation by definition. Among other things, this is shown by Comparative Overview of Study Results 59 the fact that continuing higher education qualifications are included in a national register of vocational qualifications. This is not to say that the vocational side does not play a significant role in Germany and Austria, indeed its importance is expected to increase still further in the future. It is simply that, in a head-to-head comparison with the countries mentioned above, it has not received quite the same level of atten- tion in terms of implementation, although it is true that in Austria practitioners from outside the university often collaborate in teaching courses. The vocational content is provided in different ways, e.g. through course content, the teaching staff employed (practitioners instead of or as well as academic lectur- ers), the methodological and didactic design (part-time vs. full-time courses), the strong emphasis on encouraging students to reflect on what they have learned, and the transferability of learning to the professional environment.

4.1.3 Identifying the Needs of Target Groups The countries in the study place varying degrees of emphasis on the issue of need- based course development. In Germany (e.g. Stifterverband, 2003) and Austria, a provider-centred approach tends to be the norm. The Austrian country study points out that when it comes to developing and running courses, the prevailing trend is for the focus to be on the institution as service provider. Nevertheless, the interviewees also stated that demand-led needs assessment is becoming increasingly important. Lecturers use the relevant contemporary social issues and needs as the basis for developing new courses, and needs are also communicated to the universities by third parties such as partners, people who have completed their courses and other groups. There is clearly an awareness that needs assessments are necessary, but work still needs to be done on the implementation side. The situation is very different in the countries where continuing education providers adopt a more market-oriented approach, notably Finland and the USA, where courses are particularly demand-led. Part of the reason for this may be the need to self-finance a high percentage of the costs of courses through tuition fees. Extensive use of market research is often made in order to implement this demand- led approach in the USA (in some cases, reports compiled by market research agen- cies that specialise in higher education are also used). However, the USA also leads the way in terms of creating demand, with some institutions taking proactive steps to generate a demand for continuing higher education. The approach is simple: if there is no demand for our services, then if the worst comes to the worst we’ll create it. US higher education institutions seem to have an almost inexhaustible supply of creative approaches to achieving this end.

4.2 New Types of Learning

While e-learning has been introduced in all the countries in the study, there are con- siderable differences regarding the extent to which it is used, not just between coun- tries but also between individual continuing education providers within a country. 60 A. Hanft and M. Knust

Note that contrary to the widespread expert opinion that the market opportunities offered by e-learning are especially important in the field of continuing education, the appraisal of Internet-based learning in the majority of the countries in the study tends to be rather critical. While a need for e-learning is recognised, it is felt that this should form part of a blended learning approach rather than focussing exclusively on e-learning. The situation in the different countries is discussed further. While in the case of short programmes (<40 h) in Germany, face-to-face teaching predominates, e-learning or blended learning are more important for longer courses. Nevertheless, such “new forms of teaching/learning” are usually not used in more than a quarter of all cases. This is surprising, given that in recent years considerable funding has been made available by the state government and the federal states for the development of Internet-supported learning design, with many of the projects supported focusing not only on undergraduate studies but also on continuing higher education. Even if no data are available, it can be presumed that there was not any explicit involvement of internal continuing education units in the planning and implementa- tion of these projects, and the business models or course structures were designed more for undergraduate studies than for the highly competitive continuing educa- tion market. The separation of undergraduate studies and continuing higher educa- tion that has hitherto characterised the German higher education system could be another reason for this unsatisfactory degree of transfer. Long-term and degree-level programmes in Finland in particular include peri- ods of self-directed learning – with the use of new media – as a matter of course, and Finnish higher education institutions have a fairly long tradition in this respect (Markkula, 2004). Many CCEs have their own departments or units to provide professional services (support, installation, implementation etc.) for those taking e-learning courses. Information about the use of e-learning in France is quite contradictory. According to the literature examined by the authors of the study of continuing higher education in France, every second French university already offers e-learning pro- grammes. Yet the 13 interviewees questioned in the course of the study stated over- whelmingly that e-learning is still a marginal phenomenon at present. The intro- duction and use of learning platforms and e-learning-based programmes are mainly opposed on grounds of cost, but doubts are also expressed about administration and management. Another problem is thought likely to be the loss of opportunities to socialise and exchange ideas with other learners if face-to-face teaching/learning arrangements were to be supplemented or replaced by e-learning. Similar concerns were also expressed by the Austrian experts. Our attempt to assess the use of e-learning technologies in the UK (through on- line surveys, Internet searches and analysis of secondary sources) was unsuccessful. Only a very small proportion of continuing higher education units (around 10%) had their own learning management system and only about the same proportion (12%) used a similar system provided from outside the higher education institution. In more than three quarters of all cases, the university’s own learning management system was used for continuing higher education. Comparative Overview of Study Results 61

There are only a few isolated e-learning initiatives in the realm of continuing higher education in Austria. It cannot be said that e-learning has yet become estab- lished as a means of distributing teaching materials. The comments of one inter- viewee to the effect that for many participants, it is precisely the opportunity to have face-to-face exchanges that adds significant value to continuing higher educa- tion echoed the reluctance to adopt e-learning found in France. Danube University Krems in particular sees blended learning as a promising approach to teaching and learning and is working on putting these methods into practice. As expected, the Internet has become a key component of university and college infrastructure in the USA. A growing number of higher education institutions are working with e-learning technologies, deploying them also, indeed especially, in continuing higher education. Observation reveals, however, that the extent to which e-learning-based technolo- gies are used at individual institutions varies. The present study found that more than 97% of certificate programmes available in on-line format came from just a quarter of the institutions. The picture was similar in the case of Masters programmes. In this regard, it should be noted that in the USA there are specialised providers that have focused on this delivery format, but there are also numerous other providers of continuing higher education that tend to use conventional delivery formats instead. Via their library services, American universities offer a special on-line support service that does not exist in the same form in the other countries included in the comparative study. This facilitates searching for articles and journals, and inter- library lending, a service that is of particular benefit to students unable to borrow the literature they need on site. At the University of Maryland, this service is particularly extensive; students are able to access all 90 university databases on-line, and half of these databases provide access to full-text material.

4.3 Specific Partnership Arrangements with the Business Community

There is a clear difference between Germany and Austria and the other countries on the issue of co-operation with the business sector. Partnerships with businesses or corporate universities are relatively uncommon for German and Austrian higher or continuing education institutions. On the other hand, partnerships with their own or other institutions’ faculties and with in-house or external lecturers are common. But there are hardly any specific corporate programmes that are run as partnerships between these institutions either in Germany (cf. study on continuing higher educa- tion in Germany in this volume) or Austria. The considerable potential offered to higher education institutions by the in- company continuing education market as part of the overall continuing educa- tion market is barely being tapped at all, and service provision structures are geared mainly towards individuals rather than companies. The other countries in the study constantly stressed the huge importance of “tailored programmes” devel- 62 A. Hanft and M. Knust oped specifically for businesses, and felt that there is still considerable potential for further growth in this area, owing to the current popularity of outsourcing among private enterprises. Continuing higher education providers in Germany and Austria, on the other hand, appear to be rather reluctant to get involved in this market. As for the other countries in the study, the situation is as discussed further. In Finland, a large proportion of external funding comes from continuing educa- tion commissioned by private companies. Almost 30% of all continuing education courses in 2004 were provided as commissioned training. Co-operation with pri- vate companies is an essential means of obtaining additional funding in Finland. At Palmenia CCE, for instance, it was observed that demand for special corporate programmes – tailor-made for individual companies – is strongly on the increase. A new trend observable in Finland is the outsourcing of professional develop- ment training for employees of large companies. Nokia, for instance, has com- missioned executive training and management courses from the Helsinki School of Economics. Such developments open up new growth prospects for the Finnish CCEs. As some programmes offered by CCEs have a strong international dimension, not only in course content but also course venues, corporate clients who have taken an introductory module in Finland can then take additional modules delivered directly in the workplace in their own country. The partners with which French continuing education departments co-operate include large companies, the network of grandes ecoles,´ public authorities at national and regional level, research institutes, other universities and faculties, as well as sectoral organisations such as chambers of industry and commerce. There are many links in the UK between universities, businesses, local author- ities and professional bodies; in some cases, these are co-ordinated by faculties or by specialised units/departments, such as Knowledge Transfer Departments or Business Units. Short courses in particular represent a specialised continuing edu- cation opportunity for businesses. In some subject areas, Masters programmes are designed in collaboration with business or for their specific needs. Another mode of study popular with business is what are known as “sandwich courses”, where workplace-based practice alternates with academic study. In some parts of the UK (e.g. London), there are also consortia of universities working with industry partners to boost the local or regional economy. In the USA, co-operative arrangements between higher education institutions and the business sector have increased significantly in recent years (Cervero, 2000, p. 6). More than half of the institutions surveyed indicated that they were active in this area (credit and non-credit programmes). In addition, a large proportion of continuing education programmes provided by business enterprises for their professional and middle/senior management employees are developed on a co-operative basis with continuing education institutions at universities and conducted as in-house activi- ties by the companies. In this regard, the prevailing culture of co-operation between the business sector and universities in the USA differs from that in Germany, where businesses tend to turn to consultancy firms, independent trainers, in-house manage- ment personnel and business schools to meet this demand. Comparative Overview of Study Results 63

5 Implications

The findings of this study point to the fact that, in comparison with other countries, neither the higher education policy nor the organisational framework for continu- ing higher education in Germany have achieved the transition to a lifelong learn- ing approach. In order to integrate lifelong learning as a fundamental principle of the organisational structure of education provision (Wissenschaftsrat, 2006, p. 65), it would seem advisable to review and adapt the existing structures established by statute or guidelines (e.g. issued by the Kultusministerkonferenz (KMK) – the German Standing Conference of Education Ministers). The results of this study have implications for higher education policy and the management of higher education institutions. These can be grouped into the follow- ing three key areas:

• adapting the framework to lifelong learning, • professionalising lifelong learning, • opening up new markets.

5.1 Adapting the Framework to Lifelong Learning

Three key points need to be addressed in this regard:

• Part-time studies need to be fully integrated into the higher education system, from Bachelors degrees through Masters courses right up to PhDs. This will require a review of the KMK’s recommendations that restrict continuing higher education to Masters courses in this area. • Non-traditional learners’ needs should be taken into account, e.g. by – recognition of prior (experiential) learning for the purposes of higher educa- tion courses, – making it easier to move between vocational training and higher education and/or – promoting continuing professional development for university graduates. • Incentives should be created to promote lifelong learning, e.g. – tax incentives, – financial support from the state or – financial support from businesses.

5.2 Professionalising Lifelong Learning

The key requirement for achieving a more professional approach to lifelong learn- ing is the development of a comprehensive lifelong learning strategy for the entire 64 A. Hanft and M. Knust higher education institution. Among other things, this would require the institution’s management to commit to include continuing higher education in its agreements on objectives, profile development etc. It should also be noted that in spite of the substantial progress made in recent years, there is still a need for more professional management of higher education institutions. We have identified five especially important aspects concerning both the strategic and operational levels:

• The development of business models to enable sustainable funding and running even of courses that do not cover all their own costs. When devising business models, in addition to marketing and quality assurance it is also necessary to pay particular attention to pricing policy and the use of different pricing structures for individuals and/or groups. This would involve offering appropriate incen- tives to people from lower income groups who possess the relevant competence levels, or to companies that have staff with the requisite skills who apply for con- tinuing higher education courses and, therefore, fill more and more places each year on continuing education courses with highly qualified students. There is no legal reason why price differentiation could not be used in this way, though in many cases it would require the higher education institutions’ own fee scales to be adapted. • Marketing and promotion. At the moment, continuing higher education market- ing concentrates almost exclusively on promotion by providing information on the institution’s own web site and in press releases. In comparison with the other areas of service marketing (price, product, people, processes, place and physical facilities, e.g. Meffert & Bruhn, 2003, p. 356), promotion is, therefore, over- represented on the one hand, while at the same time suffering from particular weaknesses, as highlighted in the study on continuing higher education in Germany. The lack of essential information to facilitate selection of specific courses, and the fact that searching for the relevant information tends to be a rather convoluted process are hardly factors that will help to attract students in what is already a highly competitive market. • Quality assurance and development. A greater focus on process-oriented quality assurance will require a substantial amount of effort, since it involves identifying and restructuring processes. Nevertheless, it would make an important contribu- tion to quality management that is not covered by the processes that are currently in place in the majority of institutions, such as accreditations and evaluations. Course accreditations are intended to provide ex-ante quality assurance for teach- ing (Akkreditierungsrat, 2004). However, they are not designed to find solutions to existing problems at the higher education institution in question (Knust, 2006, p. 239). Meanwhile, evaluations are intended to provide an ex-post analysis of courses and programmes. However, all these evaluations can do is reflect the issues that are in the “line of visibility” (Shostack, 1984, p. 134) of the stu- dents on the course. They do not evaluate the background processes within the institution. Particularly if higher education institutions wish to co-operate more closely with business enterprises, process-oriented quality assurance will become Comparative Overview of Study Results 65

increasingly important as a means of guaranteeing service standards with regard to professionalism, flexibility and promptness, for example. • Human resource management (HRM). Professionalisation of HRM will require particular attention to be paid to the aspects of autonomy and centralisation of administration. At the moment, the managers of continuing higher education units are often severely constrained in their capacity to act independently. Their autonomy needs to be expanded so that it resembles the autonomy enjoyed by the managing directors of a company, thus enabling decisions to be taken rapidly and flexibly in what is a highly volatile marketplace. In order for continuing higher education activities to be run sustainably, efficiently and effectively, administra- tion of all the courses provided by a single institution should be as centralised as possible. Not only would this make it possible to take advantage of synergies between courses, it would also allow a knowledge base for dealing with different target groups to be built up and perfected over the course of time, without this knowledge being lost as a result of the inevitably high turnover of academic staff at the institution. • Management of the interface between administration and science. Finally, in view of the new markets that are emerging in continuing higher education, there is a need to optimise the management of the relationship between the faculties and the central administration. In order to prevent processes within the higher education institution from clashing or inefficiencies from arising, clear remits need to be agreed between the institution’s management and the relevant fac- ulties, departments and continuing education units, sections or offices, particu- larly with regard to management of part-time courses. This will serve to prevent rivalries from arising and eliminate duplication in planning, development and implementation.

While even under the current circumstances there are ways in which management structures could be improved, it will be necessary to undertake a review of the higher education policy framework in order for the full potential to be realised. Among other things, this would affect quality assurance that is regulated by course accred- itations in Germany, a fact that acts as an impediment to the widespread adoption of the process-oriented audits and certification that are used in the non-university continuing education market. There is still much room for improvement in the field of quality management, especially as far as European framework regulations are concerned. Current public sector employment law, law on salaries and legislation on sec- ondary employment constitute further significant obstacles to a more professional management. This applies, for example, to current pay regulations that do not offer enough flexibility for performance-based salaries, and also to contracts for academic staff which are usually set up for limited periods, thus preventing the development of professional support structures at the intersection between the academic and admin- istrative spheres. The new regulatory models are often not flexible enough to respond to the market conditions confronting continuing higher education. One consequence of the current 66 A. Hanft and M. Knust regulatory framework is the trend observed in some higher education institutions towards spinning-off continuing higher education activities into organisations that are separate legal entities. The result is that the higher education institution misses out on the considerable potential success of the spun-off courses, and that any profits go to the new legally independent company and not to the university. As such, it would seem important to consider whether it would be possible to confer a greater degree of autonomy on the organisations within higher education institutions that are forced to compete on the open market. These regulations could be endorsed by agreements on objectives between the relevant Ministries of Education and the universities. Ensuring the coherent integra- tion of continuing higher education through the establishment of specific upper and lower goals that are properly integrated with the overall objectives for the institution as a whole would also enable continuing higher education to increase its profile and find a way out of its current peripheral position within universities.

5.3 Opening Up New Markets

As far as opening up new markets is concerned, the key issue is to find out which are the areas where universities currently have continuing higher education activities, and which are the areas where they are currently under-represented, but which would be feasible for them to expand into (Fig. 1). In this respect, there are three key markets where German universities currently have a much weaker presence than their counterparts in many of the other countries in the study:

• courses conferring credits, specifically in the realm of continuing higher education, • courses not leading to credits, specifically aimed at corporate clients, in the shape of corporate, tailored or executive programmes and continuing profes- sional development and • expansion of the current range of PUSH and PUR courses, e.g. in the context of children’s universities, lecture series, courses for senior citizens, research trips or activities in science centres.

Compared with the other countries in the study, it is noticeable that German higher education institutions and their continuing education organisations have yet to make almost any inroads into the corporate continuing education market. Germany’s higher education institutions are failing to gain a slice of the financially attractive corporate, customised or executive programme market, because, as explained in the study on corporate universities in this volume, they are not creative enough in their approach to identifying market niches, they do not actively seek out potential part- ners, and they lack a sufficiently international outlook to adequately meet the needs of corporate customers. As a result, companies often choose to work with Business Schools or freelance training consultants instead. It is, therefore, up to the higher Comparative Overview of Study Results 67

Higher education policy framework

Lifelong Learning – (new) markets for higher education institutions

Programmes PUSH Programmes leading not leading und PUR to credits to credits programmes

Provision Provision Provision ProvisionProvision focusing on focusing on focusing on focusingfocusing on on

Traditional Non- Knowledge TeachingTeaching students traditional transfer / CPD academicacademic andand students and in- researchresearch skills skills company toto societysocietysocienty training

•BA •Degree-•Degree - • Tailored •• Study Study and and •MA courses programmes researchresearch •MBA (BA, MA, •Executive tripstrips MBA) programmes ••Science Science •Non-degree- •CPD centrescentres courses (continuing(continuing ••Children‘s Children’s (e.g. professionalprofessional universitiesuniversities individual development)development) •• Senior Senior modules or citizens’citizens‘ courses) coursescourses

Fig. 1 Lifelong learning markets for higher education institutions education institutions and their continuing education services to start sending out the right signals. One competitive advantage enjoyed by higher education institutions over other continuing education providers is that they are able to award degrees. However, this potential has as yet hardly been exploited at all as far as partnerships with corporate training and continuing education departments are concerned. One key higher education policy factor that needs to be looked at is how other countries, specifically France and Finland, help their higher education institutions to open up new markets, particularly in terms of addressing the needs of corporate customers. In France, continuing higher education forms an integral part of con- tinuing professional development, and companies contribute part of their payroll to promoting in-service education. This continuing education policy benefits both sides, since companies gain a highly skilled workforce while the continuing educa- 68 A. Hanft and M. Knust tion providers are able to develop and provide courses to meet their needs. While it seems that in France businesses and higher education institutions are more prepared to work together, German companies have proven very reluctant to co-operate with state universities, as explained in the section on corporate universities and research institutes in this volume. An equally interesting approach is provided by the politically backed sabbaticals system in Finland, where employees have the opportunity to take up to 12 months off work in order to take, for example, a continuing education course, while contin- uing to be paid part of their salary. The fact that this system is partly funded by the state shows a clear commitment to encouraging continuing higher education and co- operation between businesses and higher education institutions. Furthermore, state- funded schemes explicitly designed to promote joint development of corporate pro- grammes between companies and higher education institutions could provide the impetus needed to open up the corporate market.

References

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Peter Faulstich, Gernot Graeßner, Ursula Bade-Becker and Bianca Gorys

Contents

1 Study Design ...... 72 2SystemLevel...... 74 2.1 Issues Related to Specific Lander¨ ...... 74 2.2 Continuing Higher Education Framework ...... 75 2.3 The Role of Continuing Higher Education ...... 84 3 Institution Level ...... 88 3.1 Data ...... 88 3.2 Organisational Structures and Management of Continuing Higher Education . 92 3.3 Quality Assurance ...... 98 3.4 Marketing ...... 100 3.5 Funding of Continuing Higher Education ...... 101 3.6 Future Prospects ...... 107 4 Programme Level ...... 110 4.1 Participating Universities and Volume of Courses ...... 110 4.2 Course Structure ...... 111 4.3 Formal Aspects of Continuing Education ...... 121 4.4 Partnerships ...... 125 5 Current Situation and Future Prospects for Continuing Higher Education ..... 126 5.1 Current Situation ...... 126 5.2 Quality Assurance Systems ...... 128 5.3 Future Prospects for Continuing Education ...... 129 5.4 Future Prospects for Continuing Higher Education ...... 130 5.5 General Trends and Ambivalent Consequences ...... 132 6 Profiles of Institutions ...... 133

P. Faulstich (B) Universitat¨ Hamburg, Fachbereich Erziehungswissenschaft, Sektion 3: Berufliche Bildung und lebenslanges Lernen, Lehrstuhl fur¨ Erwachsenenbildung, Joseph-Carlebach-Platz 1 (Binderstr. 34), 20146 Hamburg/Germany e-mail: [email protected]

M. Knust, A. Hanft (eds.), Continuing Higher Education and Lifelong Learning, 71 DOI 10.1007/978-1-4020-9676-1 4, C Springer Science+Business Media B.V. 2009 72 P. Faulstich et al.

6.1 Steinbeis-Hochschule, Berlin ...... 133 6.2 Technische Hochschule, Kaiserslautern ...... 134 6.3 Fachhochschule Konstanz ...... 136 6.4 European Business School ...... 138 References ...... 139

1 Study Design

This study consists of a summary and evaluation of information not previously available to this extent in the Federal Republic of Germany. The results of the study presented here – based on a combination of an on-line survey (rate of return approx- imately 35%, cf. Section 3.1), an Internet search in which 7029 continuing educa- tion courses on offer were analysed and interviews with national and international experts – provide a representative picture of the continuing education landscape in Germany. The results reflect the current situation regarding continuing higher education and point to possible future developments – in particular in the context of the Bologna process. As such, the study can provide a source of valuable information to higher education institutions for their future planning. At the same time, it serves to con- tradict the idea that the institutions have so far done little to change the orientation of their continuing education provisions – indeed the results indicate the opposite. This may encourage education policy makers to focus even more than in the past on continuing higher education. The results of the German country study are based on information and data col- lected via five different routes:

1. At the system level, the various concepts and terms used in the field of con- tinuing higher education were examined and the specific situation and statutory framework in the various federal Lander¨ were taken into account. This section of the report was based on a comprehensive analysis of the literature available and research into statistical data and studies. 2. At the university and programme level, the situation of continuing higher education in Germany was examined with the help of a questionnaire devel- oped by the project leadership in collaboration with the individual sub-studies.1 During the period concerned (20 January to 31 March 2006), the institutional members of the Deutsche Gesellschaft fur¨ Wissenschaftliche Weiterbildung und Fernstudium e.V. (DGWF) were approached and asked to take part in the study. In addition, higher education institutions listed in the catalogue of the

1 The survey was drawn up on-line using the GrafStat programme and put on to the Internet with password protection. The webpage also contained further important information, e.g. an explana- tion of the aims of the study, who was responsible for the survey and how it was being conducted. All those involved in the project were also named and further Internet pages were linked into the comparative study. Continuing Higher Education in Germany 73

Conference of University Rectors (Hochschulrektorenkonferenz (HRK)2 were approached and asked to pass on information about the survey to those individu- als or departments responsible for continuing higher education. 3. Parallel to the survey, a wide range of information about the institutional and provision levels was also acquired by means of an Internet search involving an analysis of certain pre-selected aspects of continuing education or depart- ments, institutions and provisions. After guidelines for the Internet search had been developed in coordination with the overall project leaders, the study of 333 higher education institutions listed in the HRK catalogue was carried out between 2 January and 31 March 2006. 4. In the case of a selection of higher education institutions, specific organisational structures and provisions were focused on. In August 2006, personal interviews (by telephone and in written form) were carried out with those responsible for continuing education in these institutions. The information they provided was supplemented with information from the Internet. 5. On 17 and 18 November 2005, the Office for Continuing Higher Education of the University of Bielefeld organised a symposium for experts in the field. Discus- sions in the working groups were recorded and the written results were used in the discussions within the project. They proved invaluable for interpreting many of the study’s results.3

Parallel to the survey, an Internet search was carried out with the aim of covering not only full-blown courses leading to the award of a degree or certificate but also those that do not do so (including one-off events). The scope was confined to provisions aimed mainly at employed persons and involving payment of tuition fees. In other words, the analysis was not intended to cover post-initial degree courses for which no tuition fees are payable. In order to specify the general sub-goals contained in the project description, guideline questions were developed that were also used as the basis for the Internet search. It was decided not to order any brochures by post, as the information available on the Internet turned out to be more comprehensive than any printed material that was available. Even so, certain complications arose as a result of the way the provisions were presented on the Internet. In addition to many examples of user-friendly web pages with excellently presented contents, there were also cases where the continuing education provisions were almost impos- sible to find. The quality of information on offer also varied widely. Sometimes important information, for example on tuition fees and other charges, qualifications, admission requirements and duration of courses, was missing. And in other cases the information failed to identify the provider and the legal basis for the provisions on offer. In addition, it became necessary to introduce further specification of infor- mation and to considerably expand the coded responses. Both these factors made the research process considerably more difficult. On the other hand, the data derived

2 URL: http://www.hrk.de (as of: 12.01.2006). 3 A summary of the results can be found in Graeßner (2006a). 74 P. Faulstich et al. from the Internet search offered a good basis for creating a realistic picture of how continuing higher education in Germany is presented to the public.

2SystemLevel

At this level, the general system of continuing higher education in Germany was analysed and the overall framework described.

2.1 Issues Related to Specific Lander¬

Interpretation of the concept of continuing higher education varies amongst the federal Lander¨ (which are responsible for this area) and this is reflected in their legislation. There are, for example, issues of definition related to various types of top-up courses and postgraduate studies. The concept of continuing education courses (weiterbildendes Studium) is in competition with the concept of ‘post- graduate studies’ (weiterfuhrendes¨ Studium). In this field, the term ‘contact study’ (Kontaktstudium) is used, partly as a legal term and partly as a marketing label. There are also definition problems when it comes to target groups. Thus, for exam- ple, continuing professional development for teachers is usually not regarded as con- tinuing higher education. And internal professional development of academic staff is normally seen as the domain of university teaching rather than continuing educa- tion. Where further qualifications are provided as part of full, professional academic training leading on from a first degree, this is also not regarded as part of continu- ing education. This applies, for example, to continuing professional development of doctors wishing to train as consultants. As part of the Bologna reforms, a clearer differentiation emerges: all Masters degrees not allocated to the consecutive model can be defined as continuing educa- tion. There is, however, still disagreement as to whether Bachelors courses explicitly targeted at a specific profession and designed for that target group can be recog- nised as continuing education courses. This is a question that has to be resolved by the education policy makers. But problems of definition remain, as the provisions offered sometimes do not clearly define target groups, legal forms and, in some cases, the certification involved.

2.1.1 Comprehensive Definitions of Continuing Higher Education In its report on take-up of continuing higher education, the Standing Conference of Ministers of Education and Cultural Affairs (KMK) defines continuing education as ‘the continuation or recommencing of organised learning after completing an initial phase of education and usually following a period of gainful employment or family duties, where the educational provisions taken up are of university level in terms of subject-matter and teaching. (...) Continuing higher education usually builds on professional experience but does not necessarily require a university degree’ (Kul- tusministerkonferenz, 2001, p. 2). This definition is also taken up by the DGWF Continuing Higher Education in Germany 75

(German Association for University and Continuing and Distance Education) as the body responsible for the promotion, co-ordination and representation in Germany and internationally of continuing and distance education provided by universities and other higher education institutions (DGWF, 2005b, p. 2). In the joint recommendation on continuing higher education published by the HRK, the Confederation of German Employers’ Associations (Bundesvereinigung der Deutschen Arbeitgeberverbande¨ – BDA) and the Association of German Cham- bers of Industry and Commerce (Deutscher Industrie- und Handelskammertag – DIHK) in May 2003 it was stated (HRK, BDA & DIHK, 2003, p. 6): ‘According to Section 12 of the Higher Education Act (Hochschulrahmengesetz – HRG) continu- ing higher education covers courses that

• are taken after an initial professional qualification has been acquired (alternative access routes should be taken into account) and • follow a period of professional activity and • are prepared appropriately for the target group in terms of content and didactic method and take into account the specific time requirements of working persons’.

It emerges that the definitions mentioned above only differ marginally and the KMK definition is the more all-embracing: While HRK, BDA and DIHK require a profes- sional occupation as a condition of taking up continuing higher education, the KMK also includes individuals who can demonstrate that they have spent a period of time on family duties (Bade-Becker, 2005, p. 8).

2.2 Continuing Higher Education Framework

2.2.1 Qualification and Levels of Qualification In all sectors of industry, but particularly in the services sector, an upward shift in individual levels of qualification is expected. Globalisation and international competition are set to force a high-wage country like Germany ‘to concentrate in the international division of labour on knowledge-intensive areas of the economy’ (Konsortium Bildungsberichterstattung, 2006, p. 14; Wissenschaftsrat, 2006a, p. 12). This will generate a need for well/highly qualified, flexible individuals who will usually have received a university education. These people are an important factor when companies are deciding where to locate and invest, and, on the other hand, the levels of qualification of employees, in addition to influencing corpo- rate decisions, also determine the innovativeness and performance of the compa- nies themselves. This generates a constant need for know-how and employees with initial and further higher education qualifications (Plunnecke¨ & Stettes, 2006, p. 2; Willich & Minks, 2004, p. 4). This view is shared by the German government’s advisory body on higher education, science and research, the Wissenschaftsrat (2006b, p. 21) in its recom- mendations on the future role of the universities: ‘The Bologna process is all about 76 P. Faulstich et al. life-long learning. Even if students initially leave university with a first qualification – a Bachelors degree – the rapid changes occurring in the world of work, demo- graphic trends and increasing levels of immigration will result in increased demand for continuing higher education. Many university leavers will return to higher edu- cation after a few years in order to acquire further qualifications.’

2.2.2 Unemployment and University Qualifications In its recommendations on expansion of the higher education system in response to labour market and demographic developments, the Wissenschaftsrat (2006a, p. 14) confirms a positive pattern in terms of employment of university graduates that con- trasts with general unemployment trends – even during periods of low or even nega- tive economic growth. Thus, for example, between 1975 and 2004 – a period during which the number of people in work only went up by 14% – graduate employment in western Germany increased by a factor of almost three. ‘Despite this strong expan- sion, unemployment amongst graduates has only slightly increased, and for a long time now has been significantly lower than amongst other groups. This applies to both men and women and equally to East and West. Even the high unemployment rate of recent years has not changed this pattern. In 2004, the unemployment rate amongst graduates, at 3.5% in the West, was – as it had been for decades – signif- icantly lower than amongst all those with lower levels of qualification. And even at 6% in the East, it was far below the levels for other groups’ (Wissenschaftsrat, 2006a, p. 14).

2.2.3 High Education Funding/Capacity Development After examining the relevant indicators related to funding and capacity development of higher education institutions in Germany, the Wissenschaftsrat (2006a, p. 49) confirmed that these are largely stagnating. The main burden of higher education funding – 88% of expenditure (EUR 17.9 billion per annum) – is carried by the Lander,¨ with the remaining 12% met by central government. About 56% of this total expenditure can be allocated to teaching.4 In recent years, (public) spending on higher education institutions increased steadily in both nominal and real terms, even though the rate of growth has slowed recently. Basic spending5 on research and teaching, expressed as a percentage of GDP, is today significantly lower than in 1975. ‘Spending went up again in the early 90s following reunification, but has recently declined again. (...) The proportion of income from private sources was

4 On the methodology, see Hetmeier (1995, p. 53); Statistisches Bundesamt Fachserie 11, Reihe 4.3.2 ‘Monetare¨ hochschulstatistische Kennzahlen (2002)’, p. 9. – quoted after: Wissenschaftsrat (2006a, p. 50). 5 Basic spending is defined as expenditure in a particular area minus the income generated by that area. It shows the expenditure on a particular area that has to be drawn from general budgetary resources (tax revenue, redistribution of resources between federal Lander,¨ borrowing and reserves) (Bundestag, 2000, p. 4; Klemm, 2005, p. 11; Statistisches Bundesamt, 2002). Continuing Higher Education in Germany 77 and remains small. Thus the higher education institutions have not succeeded in maintaining their share of rising social prosperity’ (Wissenschaftsrat, 2006a, p. 50).

2.2.4 Legal/Political Environment At central government level, continuing higher education is largely determined by the Higher Education Framework Law (Hochschulrahmengesetz – HRG) – which continues to apply despite the removal of legislative powers from central govern- ment in this area as a result of federalism reforms in 2006 – as well as legislation on employment and secondary employment. When it comes to continuing educa- tion provisions, the requirements of the German Social Security Code II and III apply in the case of measures supported by the employment agencies. For certain forms of distance learning, the Law on Protection of Distance Learning (Fernunter- richtschutzgesetz) also has to be taken into account. If continuing higher education is provided by private institutions operating in close collaboration with higher edu- cation institutions, the general legal requirements applicable to the particular legal form of the institution concerned (Law on Associations, Law on Limited Compa- nies) apply. Particular attention has to be paid to possible legal relationships between co-operation partners, for example in terms of tax legislation, budgetary law, com- pany law, labour law or even liability law. In these areas, there is a considerable need for clarification. The 1998 amendment to the Higher Education Framework Law resulted in a significant redefinition and upgrading of the status of continuing higher education. While under Section 21 of the old version of the HRG, higher education institutions were supposed merely to develop and provide possibilities of continuing education, following amendment of the law, Section 2 HRG(1) describes this as a core task of higher education institutions, alongside research, teaching and study: ‘The task of higher education institutions is to foster and develop science and the arts through research, teaching, study and continuing education in a free, democratic and social state governed by the rule of law. They prepare individuals for vocational activities that require the application of academic knowledge and methods or artistic ability.’ Section 12 of the Higher Education Framework Law, which contains regula- tions on postgraduate studies, is also relevant for the continuing education of gradu- ates. According to this, additional, supplementary and postgraduate courses can be offered in order to provide further academic or vocational qualifications or to supply an opportunity to study a subject in greater depth, in particular with a view to train young scientists and artists. According to the definition of the Higher Education Framework Law (postgraduate courses + continuing education courses = continu- ing studies), there is a clear demarcation here, but on the other hand it is possible for postgraduate studies to be offered in the form of continuing studies. In Section 43, the HRG defines the task of university teachers as independently carrying out their duties in their subject area according to their contract, within the framework of the particular role in science and art, research, teaching and continuing education incumbent upon their university. The amendment to the German Basic 78 P. Faulstich et al.

Law (constitution) that came into force on 1 September 2006 (reform of federalism) puts responsibility for remuneration in the hands of the individual federal Lander.¨ The law does not lay down any rights for participants or requirements for them to receive support. These can, however, result from the type of programme involved (e.g. according to Social Code (SGB) Book III, EU programmes) or through the receipt of specific grants (German Academic Exchange Service (DAAD)). In indi- vidual cases, tuition fees and other payments can be partly or wholly waived if certain conditions are met. There is no evidence of the existence of a grant sys- tem specifically for continuing education, although in individual cases companies, or sometimes also providers of continuing higher education, offer support on an individual basis (Graeßner, 2006a, p. 48). A legal opinion published in 1990 by Mestmacker¨ and Veelken and entitled ‘Competition in continuing education at universities’ had a significant influence on the conditions for continuing higher education. This examined the extent to which competition law should be applied to continuing higher education provisions offered by state higher education institutions. The conclusion was unambiguous: higher education institutions are obliged to remain faithful to their profile, i.e. ‘There is a consensus that the higher education institutions may only offer academic continuing education (principle of faithfulness to profile or a link to other tasks of the institutions). A situation of competition therefore only exists with regard to other providers of continuing higher education’ (Mestmacker¨ & Veelken, 1990, p. 8). This underlined the fact that higher education institutions can only operate in their specific segment of the continuing education market and that there is a need for a binding definition of what is to be understood by the term ‘continuing higher education’. Such a definition has, as yet, not been forthcoming in formal legal terms so that – with only slight exaggeration – it can be said that one can currently define continuing higher education as being what higher education institutions are institutionally responsible for. A second, important element in the legal opinion deals with the question of the extent to which the higher education institutions have to bow to the law of the market by charging appropriate prices: ‘Inasmuch as continuing higher education courses represent a marketable good, the higher education institutions, by offering contin- uing education, are participating in general economic transactions’ (Mestmacker¨ & Veelken, 1990, p. 51). In other words, higher education institutions are not allowed to operate ‘dumping prices’ in the case of competition from comparable courses, but must rather set their prices on the basis of commercially justifiable criteria.

Statutory Basis in the Lander¨ Continuing higher education is seen as one of the core tasks of higher education institutions. Higher education laws in the federal Lander¨ are based on the Federal Government’s framework legislation but vary very much in how they flesh out its provisions. The differences emerge clearly in the general definition of continuing education and also in the question of how the various types of continuing education, Continuing Higher Education in Germany 79 forms of co-operation, access, status of participants, fees and charges and certifica- tion are regulated. The legislation of the federal Lander¨ not only reflects conformity with the HRG but also – with clearly differing focus from one Land to the next – a desire to rein- terpret and organise the core task of providing continuing education on a new basis. The main reform task facing higher education institutions in terms of their teach- ing programmes is currently the introduction of Bachelors/Masters structures as part of the Bologna process. The aim here is to bring continuing higher education into line with the consecutive tripartite (Bachelors-Masters-Postgraduate) model intro- duced by Bologna. The ‘Joint Structural Requirements for the Accreditation of Bachelors and Masters Courses’ (Kultusministerkonferenz, 2005a) provide clear definitions. The Bachelors (BA) is the initial undergraduate degree providing voca- tional qualifications, and this is followed by the Masters (MA) as a further vocational qualification. The content of consecutive BA and MA courses build on each other, whereas this is not the case for non-consecutive MA courses. As far as continuing education is concerned, ‘Continuing education Masters courses require an appropri- ate university degree plus appropriate practical vocational experience, usually of not less than one year. The content of the Masters course should take into account voca- tional experience and build on this. When a continuing education Masters course is being planned, the university should describe the relationship between voca- tional qualification and course. The demands made by continuing education Masters courses match those of consecutive Masters courses and lead to the same level of qualification and the same rights. Equivalence of requirements should be established during the accreditation process’ (Kultusministerkonferenz, 2005a, p. 7). Currently the universities have not yet completed the task of balancing the rela- tionship between consecutive, non-consecutive and continuing education courses.

Forms of Continuing Education6 Continuing education assumes many different forms according to the particular interpretation of the concept by the various federal Lander.¨ There is little agree- ment as to what the term continuing education means. A number of different terms are used in the Land laws on the higher education sector: continuing education courses, continuing education studies, contact studies, additional studies, supple- mentary studies and follow-on postgraduate studies (Aufbaustudium). The last three of these match the HRK concept of ‘postgraduate studies’ and should not, strictly speaking, be regarded as continuing education. With the introduction of staged courses of study, additional, supplementary and follow-on postgraduate studies are likely to become obsolete. There are considerable differences in the forms of pro- visions offered to interested parties. Continuing higher education can, for example, be offered as a full course of studies, in which case it is subject in principle to the

6 More detailed information on the legislation mentioned in the following sections can be found in Graeßner (2006a). 80 P. Faulstich et al. same regulations as basic undergraduate studies – ranging from entrance qualifica- tion requirements to accreditation processes, inclusion in capacity figures and the award of an academic degree at the end (e.g. Diploma, BA, MA). This situation is reflected in the legislation of the Lander.¨

Co-operation The idea of higher education institutions co-operating in the field of continuing edu- cation can be found in many different laws. According to tradition, this means col- laboration with providers of adult education, companies and trade unions. In the 1990s in particular, the call for co-operation was understood to mean concluding agreements with institutions that organised continuing education close to the higher education institutions or on their behalf. In line with the 2001 recommendation of the KMK and in particular against the background of the various different options for public or private provision of continuing education, the idea of co-operation has now been revived. Since 1996, a different form of co-operation has existed in the form of the Distance Learning Centre (Zentralstelle fur¨ Fernstudien) jointly set up by the three Lander¨ of Hessen, Rhineland-Palatinate and Saarland as a central aca- demic institution belonging to Rhineland-Palatinate and based in Koblenz. Forms of co-operation are also under discussion in Baden-Wurttemberg¨ (Section 31 LHG) that would allow higher education institutions to provide ‘contact studies’ classes together with other continuing education institutions – including those outside the higher education sector – on the basis of co-operation agreements.

Target Groups and Access to Continuing Higher Education Continuing higher education involves a broad range of target groups. Provisions are aimed not only at individuals living in a university’s catchment area but also at more precisely defined participants who are in possession of specific qualifications. The higher education institutions’ target groups thus range from ‘all interested per- sons’ via socially defined groups (women, senior citizens, so-called ‘dropouts’ etc.), particular professional and occupational groups (in companies, associations or the public sector) right down to a more narrowly defined circle of graduates of the par- ticular higher education institution concerned. Technology also makes it possible for continuing higher education to focus increasingly on internationally defined target groups. Under current legislation on access to higher education institutions, it is usually graduate applicants or those who have gained the required experience in jobs or else- where who are admitted. However the Lander¨ differ in their approach to application of these regulations.

Status of Participants Participants in continuing higher education programmes are usually defined as having the status of ‘observers’ or ‘guest students’ (Gasthorer),¨ which means that in most of thefederalLandertheydonotenjoythesocialconcessionsenjoyedbyregularstudents.¨ Continuing Higher Education in Germany 81

On the other hand, they are granted access to the usual facilities (library, canteen etc.). Legal liability issues are also covered, at least when the university is providing the continuing education courses. If participation agreements are signed with continuing education associations or other providers, who usually make use of the institution’s facilities, thentheregulations for theselegal forms largelyapply. This is tosomeextent reflected in the relevant participation or co-operation agreements.

Tuition Fees and Charges With only a few exceptions, tuition fees or other charges are payable for continuing higher education. In addition to this, there is some public funding, e.g. in the case of pilot schemes or as a result of special agreements under which companies take over the costs for individual participants or entire programmes. There is also part- funding from the higher education institutions’ own budgetary resources, which to a greater or lesser extent are incorporated when calculating the fees/charges. Mixed funding is typical in almost all cases. Amongst other things, it should be noted that continuing higher education applies to funding models appropriate for the particular market. However it is also the task of continuing higher education to offer provisions that are not (yet) ripe for the market – be it because their relationship to research and development precludes this or because educational policy requires it. As far as fees and charges for continuing education are concerned, Land-level legislation on higher education institutions varies considerably from high levels of regulation, with requirements as to how income is to be used, right down to a great degree of freedom for institutions to decide such matters for themselves. Where there is a requirement for ‘costs to be covered’, it is not clear how this is to be under- stood. In recent years, the picture has changed somewhat, with the vast majority of higher education institutions retaining their income from continuing education. All in all, it can be said that the basis for funding continuing education courses still differs so much from Land to Land – and in some cases even from institution to institution – that one cannot really speak of comparable ‘starting conditions’ in the market for (academic) continuing education. There is, however, a clear trend towards more and more higher education institutions having to – and being able to – regulate the setting of continuing education fees and charges themselves.

Certification Compared with undergraduate teaching, which is largely determined by ministe- rial and statutory requirements, certification of continuing education is largely non- standardised. The award of academic degrees was possible but rare in the past. However, in recent years, partly in connection with the process of Europeanization and international discussion of quality standards, there has been a trend towards for- malisation of certificates. However, standardisation is not yet in sight, and the result is that a wide range of different forms of certification is available for similar pro- visions and achievements, varying from simple attendance certificates and reports right down to formal qualifications and titles. In this context, the activities of the 82 P. Faulstich et al.

Accreditation Council (Akkreditierungsrat) are of significance. This was created by the KMK on 3 December 1998 and has now assumed the legal status of a foun- dation. It concerns itself, particularly in the context of international comparability, with accreditation of BA and MA courses (Akkreditierungsrat, 2000). The range of possibilities is reflected in the legislation of the various Lander.¨ Despite the extremely varied legal and political environment resulting from the specific characteristics of the individual Lander¨ and individual institutions’ room to manoeuvre, it can be said that there is scope for institutions to offer continuing education as a third pillar of their activities.

2.2.5 Social and Cultural Framework Demographic Trends Forecasts by the Federal Office of Statistics (Statistisches Bundesamt) dating from the year 2003 indicate that Germany is going to experience a considerable shift in the proportion of older and younger people in the population. It is predicted that by the year 2050, half the population will be over the age of 48, and a third over the age of 60 (Statistisches Bundesamt, 2003, p. 1). In its recommendations on expansion of the higher education system in response to labour market and demographic developments, the Wissenschaftsrat draws the conclusion that there will be a need for massive efforts ‘to maintain and expand the qualifications of the growing number of older members of the working population. Higher education institutions can make an important contribution here by providing continuing higher education’ (Wissenschaftsrat, 2006a, p. 62).

Take-Up of Continuing Education In its reporting system Weiterbildung IX, the Federal Ministry of Education and Research (BMBF, 2005, p. 12) confirms an overall figure of 41% for participation in formalised continuing education in the year 2003 – a drop of 2% compared with the year 2000. The long-term trend is that participation in continuing education in Germany, following a steady rise between 1985 and 1997, has been declining since 2000 for the first time (Konsortium Bildungsberichterstattung, 2006, p. 136). The pro- portion of individuals participating in continuing education rises according to levels of vocational qualification (Konsortium Bildungsberichterstattung, 2006, p. 125).

Graduates: Take-Up of Continuing Education in General In a study carried out by the University Information System (Willich et al., 2002, p. 5), 1993 graduates were questioned about vocational continuing education 5 years after they passed their exams. According to the study, a good three-quarters of those questioned participated in vocational continuing education within the first 5 years of graduating. More than 80% of those in ‘normal employment’ (full-time, unlimited contract) took at least one formal continuing education course during the first 5 years after graduation. By contrast, companies showed relatively little interest in the con- tinuing education of graduates in part-time jobs and on short-term contracts (Willich Continuing Higher Education in Germany 83 et al., 2002, p. 19). Company commitment to continuing education increased with the level of the post involved and the size of the company.

Graduates: Take-Up of Continuing Higher Education In a special evaluation of the University Information System’s survey of 1993 and 1997 graduates 5 years on, one of the aspects examined was their participation in continuing higher education. The results were as follows: 10% of 1997 graduates did not take any further or continuing education courses in the first 5 years after graduation, 65% participated in continuing education without any involvement of higher education institutions, 4% claimed to have exclusively participated in higher education level courses and a further 21% said they had participated in courses at higher education institutions and also courses run by other providers (Willich & Minks, 2004, p. 10). Among middle managers and employees on normal full-time contracts in manufacturing and the secondary services sector, an above-average pro- portion took non-higher education courses, and they were correspondingly under- represented on the higher education courses (Willich & Minks, 2004, p. 28). The role of higher education institutions in providing further qualifications for such groups of persons is looked at from a different perspective in a separate study in this volume that examines more closely the surrounding environment of the other players such as corporate universities or research institutes (see study on corporate universities and research institutions in this book). All in all, the general data on the social–cultural environment indicates that this broad field of action has not yet been fully exhausted by the higher education institu- tions, and there is probably a need for more continuing higher education provisions, especially for graduates but also for individuals without formal higher education qualifications.

2.2.6 Technical Environment Development of the technical environment is crucial if the goal of the Lisbon Decla- ration – to make the European Union the most competitive and dynamic knowledge- based society in the world by the end of 2010 – is to be achieved (Europaische¨ Kommission, 2001, p. 6). This includes, in particular, promoting e-learning by a variety of initiatives and action plans such as the ‘eEurope’ initiative. The EU’s important eLearning initiative7 ‘seeks to mobilise the educational and cultural com- munities, as well as the economic and social players in Europe, in order to speed up changes in the education and training systems for Europe’s move to a knowledge- based society’ (Kommission der Europaischen¨ Gemeinschaften, 2000, p. 4). The initiative has four main lines of action: to equip educational institutions with the necessary technical infrastructure (including multimedia PCs, Internet access etc.),

7 E-learning: term used to refer to all forms of electronically supported learning system (including online and satellite-supported systems, learning via interactive TV, CD-ROM, video, etc.). Increas- ingly, though, the term is used to refer exclusively to Internet or Intranet-based learning (Fischer et al., 2003, p. 18). 84 P. Faulstich et al. to promote innovative educational models in all areas of initial and further edu- cation, to develop multimedia services and contents, and to develop and network centres for acquiring knowledge (Kommission der Europaischen¨ Gemeinschaften, 2000, p. 8). Internet: Levels of Access and Educational Activities Amongst private households in Germany, levels of Internet access – a technical pre- requisite for making use of e-learning – have risen steadily in recent years, but the country still only occupies the middle ground in European rankings (Kommission der Europaischen¨ Gemeinschaften, 2003, p. 43). The figure for levels of access was 54.6% in 2005 (Statistisches Bundesamt, 2006). Regular surveys carried out by the Federal Office of Statistics on the use of information and communications technol- ogy in private households in 2004 (Statistisches Bundesamt, 2005, p. 20; 2006, p. 33) (in this case: use of the Internet during the first quarter of 2004) reveal that 36% of male Internet users were utilising the media for the purpose of continu- ing education for private reasons and 22% for professional reasons. Usage levels amongst women were somewhat lower: 33% were using the Internet for the pur- pose of continuing education for private reasons and 18% for professional reasons. Broken down according to school qualifications, individuals with university-level qualifications clearly predominated: 47% were using the medium for the purpose of continuing education for private reasons and 34% for professional reasons. On the basis of this general data, the conclusion can be reached that the technical preconditions exist for the development of user-oriented continuing higher educa- tion provisions using on-line learning environments.

2.3 The Role of Continuing Higher Education

2.3.1 Continuing Higher Education in the Context of the Education System as a Whole Amongst the various providers of continuing education, continuing higher education plays a relatively minor role in quantitative terms, but an important one in terms of quality. Employers, trade unions and professional associations have been calling for some time for higher education to become more involved in continuing education (Bredl et al., 2006, p. 90; HRK et al., 2003). The justification of continuing higher education is derived in particular from the changes that have occurred in socioeco- nomic structures. ‘Amongst the most pressing arguments are the development of a global knowledge-based society, the rapid changes occurring in the world of work through scientific and technological progress and calls for lifelong learning. There is a need to adjust to society’s need for qualifications but also for individuals to develop their skills’ (Bredl et al., 2006, p. 26). Continuing higher education thus has an important innovative aspect to it (Wolter, 2004, p. 17): it is not just about transfer of academic learning but also serves as an appropriate testing-ground when it comes to the confrontation of scientific develop- ments with ‘up-to-date’ educational and training requirements. Continuing higher Continuing Higher Education in Germany 85 education is, amongst other things, a seismograph for whether and how the higher education institutions and their partners in industry and other sectors of society are capable of recognising problems and combining what they can offer in such a way as to further the required developments. Current problems can, for example, be summed up with concepts such as transformation, skills development, self-directed and lifelong learning, learning culture, media competence etc. Occupation-related and also general educational aspects provide the background for the particular character of the courses provided. Continuing education at higher- education level faces a variety of different target groups and partners (Graeßner, 2006a, p. 3):

• The higher education institutions turn to individual participants when they are developing their own courses aimed directly at the public at large.8 • As partners of industry/companies, the higher education institutions play a role when they are developing programmes aimed at the workforce – usually middle and top management. • As partners of adult education and continuing education institutions across the full range of possible providers, they ensure, amongst other things, transfer of staff and programs. • Collaboration with social sector organisations is often based on a need for con- tinuing education that arises in these organisations but can be most efficiently covered with the help of external institutions. • Together with higher education, continuing higher education is also rooted in the concept of lifelong learning.9 As is stated in the Prague Declaration of European Higher Education Ministers of the 19 May 2001: ‘Lifelong learning is an essen- tial element of the European Higher Education Area. In the future Europe, built upon a knowledge-based society and economy, lifelong learning strategies are necessary to face the challenges of competitiveness and the use of new technolo- gies and to improve social cohesion, equal opportunities and the quality of life’ (HochschulministerInnen, 2001, p. 2).

The topic of lifelong learning is, however, not currently a high priority on the higher education policy agenda (Wolter, 2004, p. 29; 2006, p. 91). In its recommendations on lifelong learning, the Wissenschaftsrat (2006b, p. 65) therefore states: ‘Academic continuing education must become a core task for higher education institutions in

8 These include “senior citizens’ studies”, which are of considerable importance for higher educa- tion institutions. This study does not focus on these as they are not usually defined as being carried out parallel to an individual’s professional career. An overview on the nature and extent of such provisions can be found in Saub (2001). 9 Lifelong learning is characterised by an extension of the learning process to cover the entire life- cycle, a variety of different places of learning involved and an individualisation of the learning process. The European Commission (Europaische¨ Kommission, 2001, p. 9) defines lifelong learn- ing as “all learning undertaken throughout life with the aim of improving knowledge, skills and competences within a personal, civic, social and/or employment-related perspective.” 86 P. Faulstich et al. the future. To achieve this, demand-led and market-oriented continuing education must be established as an important pillar alongside initial education; the change to phased course structures in higher education must be carried out in such a way that the advantages are also used for the benefit of lifelong learning.’ The Wissenschaftsrat (2006b, p. 65) comes out in favour of ‘opening up courses more for graduates with work experience and also for those currently in employ- ment, and broadening the spectrum of continuing education provisions with these target groups in mind. (...) Demand-led and market-oriented continuing educa- tion provisions that can also include tailor-made programs for corporate customers should be firmly established at universities alongside undergraduate courses. Con- tinuing higher education should, however, not be regarded as an area that is separate from ‘normal’ university studies. Lifelong and in-service learning must in future become a guiding principle for the organisation of courses at universities (...)’. This demand for continuing higher education to be made a central task for higher education institutions has been taken up against the background of an ageing work- ing population and the rising pace of innovation in virtually all sectors of the econ- omy (Wissenschaftsrat, 2006a, p. 79). In addition, Germany – partly in view of demographic developments – should be concerned to recruit well-qualified immi- grants and also retain well-qualified Germans in the country. The potential repre- sented by highly qualified migrants for maintaining levels of qualification has been neglected in the past, but given current demographic developments, they represent an important resource. In order to maintain demand for university higher education places at a high level, the Wissenschaftsrat therefore regards international higher education marketing and programs designed for the needs of target groups to be of great importance (Wissenschaftsrat, 2006b, p. 22). All in all, it could be said that continuing education at higher education insti- tutions makes an important social contribution towards supporting innovative pro- cesses in the economy and the educational sector; in economic terms, it serves to maintain and improve levels of education and qualification, and in individual terms it helps meet the personal educational aspirations of the population at large. In future, it will be important, in the context of lifelong learning, to make these functions even more transparent and to link them with one another. Interpretations of the role of lifelong learning in society differ: Schuetze differentiates between a social policy- emancipatory model, a non-utilitarian, cultural model, a liberal, post-modern model and a human capital model (Schuetze, 2005, p. 63), that to some extent complement each other and to some extent virtually exclude each other with regard to contin- uing higher education. Discussion of the basis for funding lifelong learning is still largely unresolved in the case of continuing higher education (Timmermann, 2004, p. 108).

2.3.2 The Role of Continuing Higher Education in Relation to Training/Education and Employment Systems Against a background of the creation of a single European education area by the year 2010 (cf. Section 2.2.6), likely demographic developments (cf. Section 2.2.5) Continuing Higher Education in Germany 87 and the growing demands being made on the working population in terms of qual- ifications (cf. Section 2.2.1), calls are being made to improve the permeability and co-ordination of initial and further vocational education structures. Germany, it is said, has to use all its reserves of talent to meet these challenges; educational routes outside the traditional system should not end in a cul-de-sac (BMBF, 2006, p. 19). Access to continuing higher education that does not lead to an academic degree is available in principle to all those who have acquired the necessary qualifications in their profession or in some other way; participation is usually not dependent on having fulfilled university admission requirements or having gained a first degree. But as conditions on the labour market become more difficult, continuing educa- tion provisions leading to a university qualification become increasingly attractive. For those admitted to university without a first degree, the choice is between a BA or a diploma course, but not an MA course. ‘In fact for more than 25 years there have existed (...) courses at Fachhochschulen which, in institutional terms, are basic courses of study leading to a first degree but from the point of view of the participants represent continuing education as they build on professional train- ing and experience and to some extent formally recognise these’ (BMBF, 2006, p. 480). Access to courses for those with no school qualification granting them university admission can be a problem, as the regulations for people with vocational quali- fications differ widely from one Land to another (Kultusministerkonferenz, 2002, 2006). Participation in continuing education Masters courses requires not only a university degree but also professional experience, usually of not less than 1 year (Kultusministerkonferenz, 2005a, p. 7). The Federal Ministry for Education and Research, therefore, requires as far as possible uniform national standards to be developed in collaboration with the Lander.¨ Existing legal obstacles to the recog- nition of professionally acquired skills have to be overcome. ‘The goal is to open universities up and reduce study time for this target group on the basis of qualifica- tions already acquired’ (BMBF, 2006, p. 10).

Framework of Qualifications for German Higher Education Institutions On 19 June 1999, ministers of education from 29 European countries agreed in the ‘Bologna Declaration’ to create a European Higher Education Area. This was to include the creation of a system of comprehensible and comparable academic qualifications. There was general agreement on the creation of a two-stage structure with BA and MA courses, quantitative requirements and individual basic principles (employability, internationalisation etc.). The next task was to reach a consensus on the qualification profiles of graduates and to agree on a general and comprehensible way of describing them (Kultusministerkonferenz, 2005b, p. 1). In their Berlin-Kommunique´ (2003, p. 4), the European education ministers came out in favour of creating ‘a framework of comparable and compatible qualifications for their higher education systems, which should seek to describe qualifications in terms of workload, level, learning outcomes, competencies and profile.’ They also undertook to create ‘an overarching framework of qualifications for the European 88 P. Faulstich et al.

Higher Education Area’. The framework of qualifications for German higher educa- tion institutions jointly drawn up by the HRK, KMK and BMBF (Federal Ministry for Education and Research) and agreed by the KMK on 21 April 2005, initially concentrated on higher education, but also included descriptions of interfaces with vocational training.10 The overall context of continuing higher education is influenced by the far- reaching changes occurring at global and, especially, European level. In terms of legislation, continuing higher education has a relatively large amount of room for manoeuvre, but this is crucially influenced by the current reforms taking place in higher education (competition for excellence; Bologna process), shifts in the labour market and the development of new structures for qualifications and skills. Higher education institutions react to these influences when they are weighing up the posi- tion of continuing education within their operations and bringing the profile of continuing education into line with that of the institution concerned (Wolter, 2005, p. 93).

3 Institution Level

Data about the higher education level was gathered in two ways: with a questionnaire-based survey and an Internet search for details of continuing edu- cation provisions offered by higher education institutions.

3.1 Data

In the case of the questionnaire-based survey, 93 sets of data relevant for our pur- poses were returned from 85 different German higher education institutions plus two further providers of continuing higher education. Two sets of data were sub- mitted anonymously. In addition, 23 higher education institutions reported that they did not offer any continuing education. Six higher education institutions stated that they were not participating in the survey for internal reasons. The overall return rate was 35.14%. The majority of responding institutions were universities (58.82%), with Fachhochschulen (universities of applied science) accounting for 38.82% and art and music academies for 2.35%.11 Of the 333 higher education institutions covered by the Internet search,55did not offer any continuing education, but the remaining 278 accounted for 7029 courses.12 These included provisions for professional development of non-academic

10 Detailed information about the framework of qualifications can be found in Kultusministerkon- ferenz (2005b). 11 Seven of the universities are church-run (state-recognised) and one of the universities and two of the Fachhochschulen are privately run (state-recognised). 12 Hereafter called “N” – the base to which the percentages are related in each case. There can be (downward) deviations from the 7029, for example when particular information was not to be Continuing Higher Education in Germany 89 staff inasmuch as the courses concerned were offered by continuing education departments or were otherwise identified. However, most higher education insti- tutions did not put such courses on the Internet, as they are usually aimed at internal customers. Moreover, their structure does not usually match the definition of con- tinuing higher education used in this study.

Which higher education institutions offer continuing education on the Internet?

The Internet search followed the HRK division of higher education institutions into universities, Fachhochschulen and art and music academies. The picture as shown in Table 1 emerged:

Table 1 Continuing education involvement according to category of institution (Internet search)

HEIs, incl. percentage Courses incl. percentage Category of HEI HEIs acc. to HRK of total in that category of total

Universities 117 105 (89.74%) 4040 (57.48%) Fachhochschulen 158 143 (90.51%) 2874 (40.89%) Art and music 58 30 (51.72%) 115 (1.64%) academies Total 333 278 7029

We can see from the table that 89.74% of the 117 universities identified by the HRK offer continuing education courses, and 90.51% of the 158 Fachhochschulen. And 115 courses offered by 30 different art and music academies were also found on the Internet.13 On average, universities in Germany offer some 38 continuing education courses, Fachhochschulen 20, while the average for art and music academies is four. Thus universities provide considerably more courses than the other higher education insti- tutions. However these figures refer to the total number of courses. If one differenti- ates provisions according to the length of courses and relates these to the institution type, then it emerges that the universities offer many more short courses on the Internet (up to 1 year in length) than the Fachhochschulen, whereas when it comes to medium-length courses (between 1 and 2 years), the number of courses offered by the two types of institution is roughly the same. In the case of longer courses (more found in all the provisions on offer that were analysed. The individual analyses (e.g. regarding marketing, quality assurance, funding etc.) always covered all provisions on offer – there was no sampling during the Internet search. 13 Evaluation of the results of both surveys presented here (i.e. survey and Internet search) was carried out using the statistical evaluation programme SPSS and the spreadsheet programme Excel. 90 P. Faulstich et al. than 2 years), the Fachhochschulen offer almost twice as many on the Internet as the universities. This would seem to indicate that programmes leading to qualifications are more common at Fachhochschulen than at universities.

What is the involvement of higher education institutions in continuing educa- tion in different federal Lander?¨

Continuing higher education is traditionally unevenly distributed across the var- ious federal Lander.¨ There are historical reasons for this: lower Saxony and Berlin set up (in some cases central) contact points for continuing higher education at a rel- atively early stage, with other Lander¨ following suit later on, especially during the 1970s and 1980s. The pattern in the new federal Lander¨ varied. The GDR had had clear structures for continuing education in the form of ‘directorates’, whose task was to co-operate with companies and also to organise distance learning. However the organisational approach was different to that of the Federal Republic. Following reunification, continuing higher education was reorganised, usually along the lines of the western Lander.¨ A breakdown according to Lander¨ of the courses advertised on the Internet14 reveals the main focus of activities. Apart from the legal framework and the willing- ness of individual universities to become involved in continuing education, factors such as educational structures, patterns of demand, regional economic structures, population density and also the particular profile of the universities all play a role in determining the quantity and variety of continuing education provisions. The Inter- net search identified Baden-Wurttemberg,¨ North-Rhine-Westphalia, Bavaria, Hes- sen and Lower Saxony as the federal Lander¨ with the most universities offering continuing education and a large number of different continuing higher education provisions (cf. Table 2). In Baden-Wurttemberg,¨ Fachhochschulen offer almost as many continuing edu- cation courses as universities. While in Nordrhein-Westfalen, Hessen and Lower Saxony universities in some cases offer many more courses than Fachhochschulen, the situation in Bavaria is the opposite, with almost 60% of courses provided by Fachhochschulen. The number of universities, Fachhochschulen and art and music academies offering continuing education varies strongly from one Land to the next, usually with more Fachhochschulen than universities. Baden-Wurttemberg¨ has the highest number of art and music academies. If we look at the average number of courses in relation to the number of higher education institutions offering continuing education per federal Land, then Bre- men, with an average of 68 courses per institution, comes out top by a large mar- gin, followed by Saxony-Anhalt (41), Berlin (38) and Lower Saxony (34). An average of 20–30 courses per institution are offered by Hamburg, Saxony, North-

14 The term ‘courses’ is used to refer usually to programmes of all types, including degree courses, but not to one-off events. Continuing Higher Education in Germany 91 ¨ ander Number of higher education institutions and courses according to federal L Universities Fachhochschulen Art/music academies Total Table 2 ¨ urttemberg 444 17 430 28 17 7 891 52 ¨ uringen 154 4 56 4 4 1 214 9 Federal LandNorth-Rhine WestphaliaBaden-W 647 Courses 18 Institutions Courses Institutions Courses 448 Institutions 21 Courses Institutions 8 2 1103 41 Lower SaxonyBerlinBavariaHessenSaxonyBremen 485Rhineland-PalatinateHamburgSaxony-Anhalt 10Th 164 296 265Schleswig-Holstein 413Brandenburg 196 6 5Mecklenburg Vorpommern 12 236 287Saarland 176 73 11 128 154 5Total 11 2 2 2 3 142 352 395 4 88 134 203 9 8 19 0 53 3 10 70 71 23 80 125 7 0 2 4040 7 1 4 0 53 4 5 4 10 113 105 7 3 5 0 5 2 3 721 13 0 0 1 4 2874 3 21 1 2 143 0 1 0 1 2 701 667 306 557 16 36 115 406 15 1 24 1 342 247 96 209 283 30 15 5 1 6 9 10 6 202 7029 9 84 278 4 92 P. Faulstich et al.

Rhine Westphalia, Thuringen,¨ Schleswig-Holstein, Hessen, Brandenburg, Saar- land and Rhineland-Palatinate. Universities in Bavaria, Baden-Wurttemberg¨ and Mecklenburg-Vorpommern offer fewer than 20 courses on average. These figures demonstrate the large fluctuations from one institution to another when it comes to the number of courses on offer. They also point to considerable differences between the various federal Lander,¨ although within each Land there is also great variation from one institution to the next.

3.2 Organisational Structures and Management of Continuing Higher Education

3.2.1 Organisational and Legal Form A study of the literature related to this area reveals a wide spectrum of contin- uing education tasks at higher education institutions that includes the provision of continuing education related to specific functions and occupations but also the establishment of communications with co-operation partners, particularly in the sur- rounding region, identification of patterns of demand, developmental programmes, organisation of teaching and the supplying of advice and information (Graeßner, 1994, p. 446). As the main target groups are outside higher education, it is nec- essary to have mechanisms ‘to help establish contact between the partners inside and outside universities, create the necessary organisational framework, identify needs and support marketing of continuing education provisions’ (Hochschulrek- torenkonferenz, 1993, p. 14). The majority of higher education institutions have such mechanisms, but these are integrated into or linked to the institution’s struc- tures in a wide variety of different ways – and this has a crucial impact on funding and influences the amount of room to manoeuvre that is available (Bade-Becker, 2005, p. 19). Higher education institutions often have differing types of organisation and insti- tution existing side-by-side (Schafer,¨ 2000, p. 21). Legal and financial constraints (especially regulations related to conditions of service and budgeting) have meant that in recent years external solutions have been sought on the basis of setting up associations, limited liability companies, affiliated institutes, academies and public limited companies that are organisationally separate but otherwise closely linked to and controlled by the higher education institution concerned (Graeßner, 1999, p. 503; Schafer,¨ 2000, p. 21; Wolter, 2004, p. 19). As far back as 1993, the HRK issued a recommendation that privately run continuing education institutions should be set up so that the higher education institutions could win more room to manoeuvre and access the continuing education market more easily (Hochschulrektorenkonferenz, 1993, p. 15). As Land legislation does not contain any special requirements for the organisation of continuing higher education, it was only to be expected that dif- ferent organisational and management structures would develop (Graeßner, 1994, p. 446; Herm et al., 2003, p. 36). This was empirically investigated: Continuing Higher Education in Germany 93

What organisational structures do the higher education institutions’ continu- ing education activities have?15

The commonest organisational structure for continuing higher education (in each case more than 17%) is an academic centre, central unit or department/section run by the central administration, followed by affiliated institutes, external insti- tutions, co-ordination units or parts of a faculty or department (in each case less than 10%). Almost 15% operate other types of organisational structure (mainly as associations).

What is the legal basis for continuing education provisions?16

Almost two-thirds of the continuing education units are legally part of the higher education institution (63.96%), almost a fifth operate in the form of an association (19.82%) and in each case less than 5% as limited companies or non-profit limited companies. Less than 1% are public limited companies. And 7.21% of respondents indicated that their continuing education activities assumed different legal forms, e.g. operating within a faculty or as non-profit legally capable foundations. To sum up, more than two-thirds of the continuing education provisions exam- ined as part of the Internet research are offered within the framework of separate legal structures (central units, institutes or associations, limited companies) spe- cially set up for the purpose (N = 4369). A relatively minor role is played by exter- nal providers with few links to the higher education institutions. Almost 20% of courses are provided by faculties and departments. As these are research and teach- ing units, they are relevant above all in the case of courses leading to the award of a degree. On the basis of these figures, it would seem that the fear of continuing higher education becoming ‘established exclusively in the private sector’ (Schafer,¨ 2005, p. 124) unfounded – indeed there is considerable evidence of the existence of an ‘integrative model’ (Schafer,¨ 2005, p. 127) or an ‘intermediary model’ (Graeßner, 2006b, p. 147), in which continuing higher education assumes a new position in institutional terms.

Is continuing education for which fees are paid offered exclusively in the above-mentioned structures or is it also provided by other organizational units within the higher education institutions?17

15 All 93 respondents provided information about the way their area of continuing education was organised. This set of questions was designed to allow for multiple answers, and a total of 128 items were named. 16There were 111 items named by 92 continuing education units; multiple answers were possible. 94 P. Faulstich et al.

More than 39% of respondents stated that continuing education for which fees are paid is offered exclusively in the above-mentioned structures. Almost 61% stated that it is also offered by other organisational units within the higher education insti- tutions. These were, above all, the faculties and departments, but also included research units, associations and continuing education centres.

Who is responsible for organising and managing part-time courses for which fees are payable?18

It is mainly the faculties and departments that are responsible for organising and managing part-time courses for which fees are payable (43.17%) but also the con- tinuing education units themselves (38.13%). In 9.35% of cases, the responsibility lies elsewhere, for example in the hands of course leaders, associations and limited companies or affiliated or fully integrated institutes. A further 9.35% indicated no provision of part-time courses for which fees are payable.

3.2.2 Management Structures

Who is in charge of the universities’ continuing education units?19

The following categories were mentioned:

• A full-time manager – 27.83% of responses • An academic manager with reduction of other duties – 18.26% • An academic manager without reduction of other duties – 16.52% • A manager with further tasks within the institution – 11.3% • Other – 26.09% (e.g. full-time management, management by the administration or the vice-chancellor’s office).

To whom does the management report?20

18139 items named, multiple answers were possible. 1990 respondents named 115 items; multiple answers were possible. 2091 respondents named 145 items; multiple answers were possible. 17 N = 92. Continuing Higher Education in Germany 95

In more than half the cases, the continuing education unit has to report to the institution’s administration (52.41%); in 17.93% of cases it is answerable to the Senate; and in 14.48% it reports to an advisory council or a committee made up of departmental representatives. Only 2.76% have to report to a management board. In 12.41% of cases there is a duty to report to other bodies, for example an advisory council, a member’s assembly or a ministry. To sum up, the vast majority of the continuing higher education activities at higher education institutions are centrally organised, albeit in very different forms such as academic units, central operating units, sections of the central administra- tion or co-ordination units. In the case of central organisation, the initial and service role of continuing higher education for internal processes becomes clear. At the same time, this form of organisation makes continuing education more visible to target groups outside the institutions. The individual organisational and manage- ment forms do, however, vary greatly; the Bologna reforms clearly have not yet had an impact in this respect. In addition to these traditional forms of organisation, institutes and non- university organisations have developed, usually on a private basis, and appear to complement the central service providers rather than operating as alternatives. This underlines the function of continuing higher education as an intermediary between the various players. The institutes usually operate close to the higher education institutions and are, therefore, incorporated into their communicative context. This also comes out in the allocation of funding: it may be usual for the flow of fund- ing in higher education institutions to take different routes, but the central bodies have a strong position in organisational terms, as in more than a third of all cases continuing education for which tuition fees are payable is exclusively organised via them, even when the departments or faculties are responsible for the courses themselves. The reason for this is probably the fact that the central bodies have management structures that do not exist in the faculties in this form. At the leadership level, how- ever, the picture is more varied. The vast majority of central bodies are headed up by academics, though in some cases also by managers, who have other tasks within the university. This can promote links with the academic side of continuing education, but also brings a danger that management tasks are not adequately fulfilled. This impression is strengthened by the fact that continuing higher education is only sup- plied with a full-time business manager in slightly more than a quarter of all cases. There are two possible interpretations of such a situation. On the one hand, putting the task of managing the provisions in the hands of a university teacher sends out a message that academic rigour and close links to academic activities are regarded as important. On the other hand, there is a danger that the scope for action is not fully exploited when there is nobody available to take on overall management responsi- bilities on a full-time basis. All in all, it can be said that there is a great diversity of organisational struc- tures and management in the field of continuing higher education. The result is that it can at times appear rather less than transparent for interested individu- als and participants. In addition, the figures available inevitably point to a lack 96 P. Faulstich et al. of professionalism in the field of continuing higher education at universities. If professional management is only found in just over a quarter of cases, it is easy to imagine how much unexploited potential still exists in universities. Dedi- cated continuing education institutes, whether they are public or private, have for many decades depended on the professionalism of full-time managers, whereas the higher education institutions in many cases still make do with a semi-professional approach. Given the challenges faced by higher education institutions, the question arises as to ‘how continuing higher education can become an integral part of everyday activ- ities at higher education level’(Bredl et al., 2006, p. 90), especially also in terms of linking continuing education into the new consecutive degree course structures. Here, university management has to make crucial decisions aimed at achieving an appropriate degree of professionalism. Compared with this, the question of incorpo- rating continuing education structures in organisational terms is of secondary impor- tance and is likely to depend on the particular structure and profile of each higher education institution. Inasmuch as departments offer increased numbers of contin- uing education courses in future, the relationship of these research and teaching institutions to the central continuing education bodies will inevitably change. On the other hand, the central bodies have developed a considerable degree of man- agement and organisational competence that should enable them, within the scope available, to operate innovatively and to have a lasting impact. This competence can be incorporated into the new structures that are to be expected. In particular, they also have a tradition as service providers on the basis of many years of experience with the concept of customer-orientation.

3.2.3 Teaching Staff

Which teachers are involved in the continuing education courses on offer, and to what extent?

Figure 1 shows (results under the headings ‘in approx. three-quarters of cases’ and ‘in virtually all cases’ have been taken together) that it is largely in-house staff that is used for continuing higher education. More than half of the institutions (56.99%) use their own lecturers and professors, and more than a quarter (27.96%) their own junior lecturers. It is striking that external staff, particularly non-graduates, only play a tiny role (e.g. practitioners or trainers without a degree, but also lecturers and professors from other universities). It also emerges that practitioners with a degree are used to almost the same extent (23.65%) as academic staff from the higher education institution concerned. As far as the profile of teaching – crucially important from the point of view of the customer – is concerned, the figures provide a clear picture of functional aspects. On the one hand, the higher education institutions use their own staff, while on the Continuing Higher Education in Germany 97

100%

75%

50%

few courses 25% approx. a quarter approx. half approx. three-quarters virtually all 0%

Academic experts

Practitioners - graduates Junior lecturersJunior - in house lecturers - external Indep. trainer - graduates Practitioners - non graduates Indep. Trainer - non graduates Lecturers / professorsLecturers - in/ professors house - external

Fig. 1 Teaching staff

other hand they bring in specialists from other institutions and also use external practitioners. With this mixture, they try to establish a profile in the field of teaching but also send out a signal that they see themselves functioning as mediators between the academic and practical worlds. But clearly they are concerned to ensure the academic rigour of their courses by mainly using their own staff. This can also be seen from the current introduction of consecutive BA/MA courses, which is also taking place without any reference to the development of continuing education MA courses. It may turn out that the Bologna process is a ‘classic top-down process initiated by politicians, whereas the process of develop- ing and implementing continuing education courses at higher education institutions, despite statutory requirements, has always been more of a bottom-up process’ (Bredl et al., 2006, p. 40). To this extent, the higher education institutions are experienc- ing two contrasting trends. Those who are concerned with the Bologna reforms are promoters of continuing education more by chance, and vice versa. At the individ- ual level, there is usually considerable willingness to become involved in contin- uing education, with the degree of commitment dependent on the legal situation (teaching load, additional functions etc.) and also on how an institution organises its assessment system. Institutions only rarely succeed in making continuing educa- tion such an integral element of their academic activities that staff are encouraged to make themselves available virtually exclusively for continuing education duties. This is, however, the case at Konstanz Fachhochschule, which uses a graded system of incentives to involve about a third of its academic staff in continuing education. The same applies to the European Business School in Oestrich-Winkel. Here, too, a third of staff is involved in the institution’s continuing education activities. The incentives do not just consist of additional remuneration but also, for example, of allocation of third-party funding and start up funding for projects (cf. institution profiles in Chapter 6). 98 P. Faulstich et al.

3.3 Quality Assurance

The use of the type of quality management systems that are customary in the qua- ternary sector is rare, with higher education institutions tending to rely largely on customer satisfaction surveys. Accreditation procedures still play a relatively minor role as far as management systems are concerned, as at the time of our survey post- graduate MA courses were still being set up. This is also a result of the fact that dis- cussions of the quality of undergraduate courses and continuing education courses are only loosely connected. Accreditation processes, however, not only provide external and internal legit- imisation but also represent an excellent marketing instrument that can be used to establish an institution’s ‘unique selling proposition’ in a competitive continuing education market. Graduation – possibly anchored in the system of lifelong learn- ing in which prior learning skills can be combined with academic studies – creates a favourable market position. The results of the study show, however, that there is some reluctance to accept management-related quality systems such as EFQM, although they can help providers and programmes below the level of course accred- itation to establish a position on the market (Bredl et al., 2006, p. 83). The reasons for this reluctance may be related to higher education institutions’ claimed autonomy and freedom of teaching, but on the other hand may also be the result of a lack of resources. On the whole, however, higher education insti- tutions have internal accreditation processes in which the vice-chancellor’s office or individual faculties/departments are responsible for introducing and assessing provisions. In the context of the Bologna reforms, it could be expected that the quality debate will receive a new impetus, partly because of the didactic challenges involved, the need to redefine the relationship between the initial and further edu- cation, the encouragement of a culture of quality assessment and evaluation and – above all – the international transfer of experience (Frohlich¨ & Jutte,¨ 2004, p. 12). Two aspects of quality assurance were raised in the questionnaire: on the one hand, customer-related quality assurance and on the other, organisation-related systems.

What type of quality assurance is carried out on continuing education provisions?

More than three-quarters of respondents stated that the types of customer-related quality assurance methods mentioned in the questionnaire are all used (with the exception of transfer of what had been learned) (Fig. 2). More specifically (results under the headings ‘in approx. three-quarters of cases’ and ‘in virtually all cases’ have been taken together), almost 71% of respondents use systematic course evalua- tions in the form of questionnaires. Almost a third (63.44%) carry out a satisfaction survey at the end of the course (e.g. assessment on points, general evaluation) and rather more than 61% analyse participants’ complaints. Continuing Higher Education in Germany 99

100%

75%

few courses approx. a quarter 50% approx. half approx. three-quarters virtually all

25%

0% at end syst. Exams Transfer Analysis of other questionnaire learning complaints

Fig. 2 Customer-oriented quality assurance

What organisation-related quality assurance systems are used?

It is striking that, in contrast to the above, organisation-related quality assurance systems seem to be regarded as less important – less than a quarter of respondents provided replies. More specifically (results under the headings ‘in approx. three- quarters of cases’ and ‘in virtually all cases’ have been taken together) the results were as follows:

• Just under a quarter of respondents (24.74%) stated that quality assurance sys- tems other than the ones laid down are used. These include quality assurance on the basis of internal procedures (13 cases) – e.g. through participation in quality circles and quality audits – involvement in quality leagues and collaboration with individuals responsible for quality issues. • Almost 14% of respondents stated that accreditation is carried out for organisation-related quality assurance. • Just fewer than 6.5% stated that national or international quality seals such as EFQM or ISO 9000 are used for organisation-related quality assurance.

The Internet search revealed that there is little information available on possible accreditation. Fewer than 3% of courses offered on the Internet (199) provide details of accreditation. Where this is the case, the list is headed by FIBAA (24.12%), ZEvA (16.58%) and ZFU (15.58%). One can conclude on this topic that the usefulness and effectiveness of quality assurance with regard to continuing higher education has not yet come to the fore. This may have something to do with the fact that the fundamental independence of 100 P. Faulstich et al. higher education institutions means they are reluctant to submit to assessment by players outside the academic community. While academic reviews are commonplace and taken for granted, the institutions seem to have reservations about fitting into quality systems that are provided from the outside. It remains to be seen whether the impact, for example, of accreditation and also of new standards such as the European Qualification Framework will result in their becoming more receptive. This will undoubtedly be the case when the use- fulness of greater flexibility, for example with regard to previously acquired skills, becomes clear. One example of a practical approach to quality management based on co-operation between an institution and at outside agency can be found at the University of Bielefeld. This uses basic quality processes and is open to the specific developments taking place at any one time (Bade-Becker, 2004, p. 249). It is likely that the discussion about quality will intensify, particularly in the context of interna- tional developments involving the spread of courses leading to degree qualifications (Frohlich¨ & Jutte,¨ 2004, p. 9).

3.4 Marketing

What marketing measures were taken in 2005?

What is striking about the responses to this question is the fact that all higher edu- cation institutions make use of a wide range of measures for marketing. Of the 15 alternative measures mentioned in the question, nine are used by more than three-quarters of the respondents. The most commonly used marketing mea- sures (summarised results for the headings ‘for approx. three-quarters of courses/for virtually all courses’) are as follows:

• Almost all the respondents (93.55%) use their own website for making contact with customers. • More than 77% use flyers. • Just under 60% used PR work. • Approximately half of the respondents use advertising in Internet portals (50.54%) or press relations (48.38%). • And 43% of respondents use direct mailing.

Figure 3 shows that a wide range of options for marketing and PR work is used, but in many cases only to a limited extent. This may have something to do with the fact that systematic, product-related PR work in higher education institutions comes up against both staffing and financial constraints. It is also striking that measures involving direct interaction with potential tar- get groups such as, for example, information evenings, alumni events, open days or taster courses are used much less than the other measures. In principle, the Continuing Higher Education in Germany 101

100%

75%

few courses approx. a quarter 50% approx. half approx. three-quarters virtually all

25%

0%

Flyers other Posters Alumni Webseites ExhibitionsCompanies Open days Direct mailingInternet portal Press relation AdvertisementsInternet banner Taster courses Public positioning

Fig. 3 Use of marketing measures preference seems to be for an impersonal approach to potential customers/ participants rather than approaching them directly.

Who bears the main responsibility for marketing continuing higher education?21

Half of the respondents stated that continuing education itself bears responsibil- ity for marketing (50.31%). Otherwise responsibility is born the by the faculties and departments (19.63%) or the higher education institution’s press department (15.95%); 11.04% use ‘co-operating partners’.

3.5 Funding of Continuing Higher Education

Generally speaking, it appears that continuing higher education units usually have a high degree of autonomy above all in terms of drawing up their programme of provisions but also when it comes to funding issues. As far as the link to the institutional administration is concerned, there are usually procedures to ensure that the unit is embedded in the organisational context of the institution, but these take many different forms. It is, for example, possible for it to be directly answerable to the Rektor or Prorektor, or to operate as an operational or academic unit according to the institution’s statutes. At some institutions, continuing education is

21 Multiple answers were possible. 102 P. Faulstich et al. incorporated into target agreements. Inasmuch as it is part of a higher education institution, it is subject to the general public–service regulations governing that insti- tution and also to the budgetary regulations laid down by the Land. If the institution chooses to set up the unit as an association or a limited company under private law, then the relevant regulations for this type of body apply. This affects the question of whether outside capital can be used, how investments are (re-)financed etc., and also possible income surpluses and how they are used. The situation as regards staffing is similar. Usually it is the institution that largely influences the structure of the per- manent staff. In some cases, when the higher education institution is co-operating with an associated private company, this is done on the basis of an agency agree- ment. Funding of project-related posts depends on the commitment of the unit itself (Graeßner, 2006a, p. 11). When it comes to student admissions, on the one hand the relevant Land reg- ulations apply, and on the other hand the admission and examination regulations of the higher education institutions themselves. Sometimes admission is restricted for reasons of space as laid down in the institution’s general guidelines on space allocation. Within this framework, the continuing education units operate rela- tively autonomously, but they often come up against the limits when it comes to investment, development costs or funding bottlenecks (e.g. as a result of market developments). Here the public service structure and traditional attitudes can have a constrictive impact. Often the approach to the necessary investment and develop- ment costs is a short-term one, insufficient risk capital is made available, and when it comes to funding and investment a properly commercial approach is frequently lacking. In many cases, continuing education units within higher education insti- tutions have not been developed into commercial units operating on the basis of securely established procedures (Graeßner, 2006a, p. 11).

How is the development of new provisions funded?

Some 41% of respondents stated that the planning and development of new con- tinuing education provisions is largely funded from tuition fees. Just under 28% said that the funding comes from the continuing education unit’s budget. In approx- imately 10% of cases, the university budget provides the financial basis for con- tinuing education provisions (10.75%). At the bottom of the list come third-party resources, faculty budgets and sponsoring, which account for 7.53%, 6.45% and 3.23%, respectively.

Are reserves set aside from fee income/charges in order to plan new provi- sions?

Responses to this question were almost equally divided between 49.46% of respondents who confirmed that reserves are always – or in the majority of Continuing Higher Education in Germany 103 cases – built up from fee income and 44.09% who stated that this is seldom or never the case.

Are overheads covered by fee income/charges?

Here, too, there was a contrast between the majority (56.99%) who stated that over- heads are always or in most cases covered by fee income/charges and 35.49% who said that this is seldom or never the case.

Are the overheads payable to the institution covered by fee income/charges made for courses?

In this case, there was an almost equal division between those who have to pay overheads to the institution (48.39%) and those who do not (46.24%). In almost 9 out of 10 cases (88.89%, N = 45), the overheads payable to the institution are always or in most cases covered by tuition fee income/charges made for courses, and in rather less than 10% of cases this only seldom happens. As overheads payable to the universities have an impact on pricing, one can assume that those providers who do not have to make such payments to the universities have a competitive edge.

How are fees/charges calculated?

Thirty-two of the respondents (35.16%, N = 91) stated that the fees/charges are usually calculated on the basis of the operating costs plus overheads. In 10 cases, it is the operating costs alone that are taken as the basis for the calculation (10.99%), and in eight (8.79%) fees are set according to what the market will take. The majority of respondents stated that fees/charges are calculated on the basis of a mixed model (45.05%).

Who sets the level of fees/charges?22

While 45.58% stated that fees/charges are set by the continuing education unit itself, 23.13% are set by the institution’s procedures, 16.33% by the faculties and departments, and in 7.48% of cases fees and charges are subject to Land legislation. A further 7.48% named other bodies, for example the units responsible for providing the courses (six), the individuals involved (three) or co-operation partners (three).

22 This question was answered by 92 continuing education providers with a total of 147 items of information; multiple answers were possible. 104 P. Faulstich et al.

How functional do you judge the procedures for setting fees/charges by uni- versity management to be in terms of market requirements?

A majority of those surveyed (N = 77) regarded the procedures for setting fees and charges by the institution’s management as functional (very functional, 18.18%; quite functional, 53.25%), but more than a quarter of respondents regarded them as not functional (not very functional, 16.88%; not at all functional, 11.69%) in terms of market requirements. The assessment of those respondents from institutions where the management set the fees and charges was considerably more positive in this respect (N = 32): more than three-quarters of respondents (78.13%) regarded the procedures as quite functional or very functional, and only one in five (21.87%) judged them to be not very or not at all functional.

Are there any problems when setting fees/charges?

Half of the respondents (N = 88) did not see any problems when setting fees and charges. However about a quarter (27.27%) reported problems, with 14.77% men- tioning difficulties in granting fee reductions and discounts and 7.95% other prob- lems: the requirement to fully cover costs (two mentions), procedures in the case of non-payment, the need in some cases to pay VAT, predicting numbers of par- ticipants, internal accounting procedures in the case of customers from within the institution and expectation of being able to offer subsidised prices and scholarships.

How high are the fees/charges?

Information on fees and charges were found for more than 70% of the courses covered by the Internet search (N = 7.029). However in almost 30% of cases, no details of costs were given. This is somewhat disconcerting in the context of marketing efforts, as if an institution’s own web page is the most frequently used platform for making continuing education provisions available to the public (cf. Section 3.4) and certain basic information is missing; this can have a negative impact on potential target groups when they are considering which courses are most appropriate for their needs. The costs for continuing higher education courses range from zero to e62450. In 390 of the cases researched, it is explicitly stated that there are no fees or other charges. A quarter of courses both at university and Fachhochschulen cost up to a maximum of e4000. Above this, however, the funding structures begin to differ: a further quarter of university and Fachhochschule courses cost up to e8800 and e7500, respectively. For three-quarters of courses, the fees and charges are e15,088 (universities) and e11,000 (Fachhochschulen). The most expensive courses (e46,700 and e62,450) can be found at private universities. The most Continuing Higher Education in Germany 105 expensive courses at state universities and Fachhochschulen cost e32,000 and e35,000, respectively. Few continuing education courses (4.67%) receive additional funding, e.g. from the university, from third-party sources or through sponsoring. In this respect, there is no discernible difference between universities and Fachhochschulen.

Are members of the institution paid for teaching on courses?

The vast majority of respondents (81.31%, N = 91) stated that payment is made to teachers who are members of the institution: 38.46% negotiate the payments, 17.58% base them on an institutional scale and 25.27% have a different basis for establishing the level of remuneration. In most cases, fixed fees are laid down, e.g. by institutions’ pay scales or on the basis of the fees payable for part-time teaching (14 mentions).

How are levels of payment established for teachers who are not members of the university?

In the case of teachers who are not members of the institution, the fee is usually negotiated freely (59.78%, N = 92). In 19.57% of cases, the negotiation is on the basis of an institutional pay scale; 20.65% of respondents establish levels of pay- ment on a different basis – usually in the form of fixed fees, e.g. laid down in the pay scales of continuing education institutions or based on a teaching pay scale (in 11 cases). In five cases, a mixed approach is taken – for example negotiation within certain prescribed limits or a process in which fees are partly freely negotiated and partly laid down in accordance with the university’s pay scale.

Are resources available for investment in planning and developing new con- tinuing education provisions?

Very often there are no resources available for investment in developing new con- tinuing education provisions. Only 4.49% of respondents (N = 89) always have sufficient funding available and 25.84% said this is usually the case (Fig. 4). The majority of respondents, however, replied that sufficient funding for planning and developing new continuing education provisions is only sometimes (31.46%) or never (38.2%) available. The universities have a wide range of different funding models. Here it is impor- tant to differentiate between provisions that are exclusively refinanced via the market and those that are based on a mixed funding model that includes other sources, for example promotional subsidies. As there appears to be limited scope for building up reserves and in more than a third of responses overhead costs were described as seldom or never being covered 106 P. Faulstich et al.

40%

30%

20%

10%

0% always usually sometimes never

Fig. 4 Availability of funding by the charges made to participants, it can be assumed that only in a small num- ber of particularly favourable cases can continuing higher education cover its own costs. The implications of this are twofold: universities are apparently prepared to make resources available for continuing education when the latter appears to be suf- ficiently relevant, for example in terms of their image. It would appear that it is not just the financial aspect that is important for higher education institutions but also the fact that they value their task of providing continuing education sufficiently to continue to make provisions available despite the financial risks involved. If one looks at the detail, various disparities emerge, for example with regard to the question of paying overhead costs to the university or the basis for carrying out calculations. The particular way that these important factors are handled has a crucial impact on a university’s profile on the market, particularly when it is com- peting with other universities. This is exacerbated by extremely diverse approaches towards the payment of teaching staff. In only about 38% of cases fees are negotiated – the vast majority reported that fees are in some way or another regulated on the basis of existing scales. This would seem to indicate that the cost factor ‘fees’ on the one hand is clearly defined, thanks to the existence of scales when it comes to setting prices but, on the other hand, can be seen as inflexible when it comes to willingness to take on teaching tasks. In terms of funding continuing education and remunerating the teachers involved, the higher education institutions have a great deal of autonomy as a result of the restructuring that has occurred in recent years. When it comes to procedures such as the calculation of charges or fees, similarly large differences can be identified, but respondents described the processes involved as being, in principle, functional and relatively problem-free, with the exception of specific aspects such as fee reductions and discounts. Continuing Higher Education in Germany 107

The survey identified a considerable problem in terms of funding for investment in the planning and development of new continuing education provisions, partic- ularly against a background of stagnating higher education budgets (cf. Section 2.2.3), which offer little scope for innovation in this respect. Some 70% of respon- dents reported that funding for investment was seldom, never or only sometimes available, whereas some 30% reported that it was always or in most cases available in sufficient quantities. Even if implementation costs were always or largely covered by the income from fees and charges in six out of seven cases, there nevertheless seems to be a major structural problem when it comes to the funding of continu- ing higher education: start-up funding for new provisions remains an obstacle that is only overcome in half of all cases. It is to be feared that this aspect will have a negative impact on the organisation of continuing education courses that need con- siderable start-up funding.

3.6 Future Prospects

With the aid of the questionnaire, we were able to ask respondents for their assess- ment of the prospects for future development with regard to continuing education and the conditions under which it is provided. One important finding was the fact that the introduction of staged university studies is changing the significance of con- tinuing higher education.

What is the assessment of the future development of continuing education in universities?

A breakdown of the individual aspects reveals the following scenario (Fig. 5):

increasing provision of BA courses

increasing provision of MA courses increasing award of credits very likely likely easier recignition of unlikely competences very unlikely cannot say increasing importance of no response academic element

increasing importance of vocational orientation

growing demand for final certificate or degree

0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60%

Fig. 5 Prospects for development 108 P. Faulstich et al.

In almost all respects (provision of BA and MA courses, credit points etc., cf. Fig. 5) more than half the respondents predicted that an increase in importance is either likely or very likely. In particular when it came to vocational orientation and an emphasis on the qualifications, more than 90% of respondents were of this opinion. Almost half of the respondents (46.24%) were of the opinion that the introduc- tion of staged structures to university studies is likely or very likely to lead to an increase in the numbers of part-time BA courses for which tuition fees are charged, whereas only just over a third (34.41%) thought this unlikely or very unlikely.23 This surprising result would appear to indicate a trend. It is striking, however, that BA courses are de facto (with only a few exceptions) classified as part of consecu- tive studies – which poses an obstacle to introducing genuine targeting as part of a lifelong learning concept. In the case of MA courses, the assessment is rather clearer: almost 9 out of 10 respondents (87.10%) regarded this development as likely or very likely, with only 5.38% regarding it as unlikely or very unlikely. One important aspect in this con- text is the value attached to a continuing education Masters degree compared with a consecutive Masters. On this point, opinion is still split (Bredl et al., 2006, p. 73), and therefore this could well prove a point of conflict within higher education insti- tutions. Almost 9 out of 10 respondents (88.18%) regarded it as likely or very likely that credits will be increasingly attached to continuing education courses, whereas only 7.53% regarded this as unlikely or very unlikely. Also 61.29% thought that it is likely or very likely that professional skills will be recognised for access to university, with a quarter of respondents (25.8%) assessing this as being unlikely or very unlikely. Almost 7 out of 10 respondents (69.89%) thought likely or very likely that the academic basis for provisions will become more important, but one in five (21.5%) regarded this as unlikely or very unlikely. More than 9 out of 10 (93.55%) thought it very likely that provisions will become more vocationally oriented, whereas 5.38% saw this as unlikely or very unlikely. A similar picture emerges with regards to demand for courses leading to a certificate or a degree: 91.4% thought it likely or very likely that demand will increase, and a mere 5.38% thought it unlikely or very unlikely.

What is your assessment of statements on the budgetary situation of higher education institutions and the framework conditions for continuing higher education?

More than three-quarters of respondents (75.27%) were of the opinion that bud- getary constraints are likely or very likely to mean that universities will demand that costs are fully covered in future, whereas only 12.9% thought this unlikely or very unlikely. On the other hand, fewer than 4 out of 10 (37.64%) thought it very likely

23 In the case of this and following results, any shortfall from 100% is due to no response Continuing Higher Education in Germany 109 that their continuing education institutions would achieve full cost coverage, and almost half (49.46%) were sceptical or very sceptical. Forty-one people (44.09%) used the opportunity to identify other expected devel- opments at their university, in some cases going into considerable detail. The expec- tation, for example, is that the cost of certification and accreditation will increase and international quality seals will become increasingly important. The number of modularised courses will increase, and demand for short courses and courses lead- ing to a certificate will continue. The most important goal is regarded as extending the range of provisions, with the emphasis on academically well-founded, market- and needs-oriented provisions that encourage a culture of lifelong learning. Other trends identified included the creation of new courses of study for which tuition fees are charged, e-learning and quality assurance in continuing education. The impor- tant role of continuing education as an instrument for furthering an institution’s image and achieving transfer is, according to the respondents, set to increase. The expectation is that demand for continuing education Master’s courses will grow, as will demand for occupation-specific and individualised continuing education. With regard to target groups, a clearer focus on the 50+ market, companies and alumni is expected. The increasing importance of lifelong learning for continuing higher education was stressed. When it came to organisation, the respondents predicted far-reaching changes, although opinions differed on this point. In some cases, the prediction was that operations will be merged with those of other institutions (other universities), and in others a trend was perceived towards decentralisation and a more ‘elitist’ approach. The expectation was that demand for continuing higher education will combine with attempts by universities to reduce spending to result in structural adjustments aimed at relieving the university budget. As far as the continuing education market itself is concerned, respondents expected there to be increasing competition, a greater degree of market orientation and a consolidation of the market.

What developments can currently be observed in the universities?24

The main observation was that the number of part-time MA courses for which tuition fees are charged has risen (37.42%). Almost a quarter of the respondents (24.52%) said that credits are increasingly being attached to continuing education courses. In 14.19% of cases, it was observed that it is becoming easier for profes- sional skills to be recognised in for the purpose of university studies. Finally, 8.39% of respondents also reported an increase in the number of part-time BA courses with tuition fees. Twenty-four respondents reported a wide variety of different developments at their universities. In some cases, problems with financial aspects or with excessive emphasis on continuing education courses at the expense of other ones were described. The result was a lack of staff and at the same time insufficient

24 91 respondents answered this question with 155 items; multiple answers were possible. 110 P. Faulstich et al. incentives for developing new continuing education courses, difficulties in covering development costs and neglect of courses for special groups such as senior citizens. Individual mention was also made of an increase in courses leading to certificates or degrees and rising demand for these, an observable improvement in quality and pro- fessionalism in continuing education, slowly growing interest in continuing higher education on the part of lecturers and professors and an increase in certification and accreditation of provisions. The results permit the conclusion that the Bologna process is beginning to have an impact on the field of continuing higher education and this is likely to increase as undergraduate degrees are restructured. In particular, postgraduate courses need to be designed so that they can lead on from BA courses (Konsortium Bildungs- berichterstattung, 2006, p. 120).

4 Programme Level

On the level of provision, a number of different aspects in provisions for continuing higher education were examined: the volume of courses, structure of courses, formal aspects and also patterns of co-operation.

4.1 Participating Universities and Volume of Courses

The survey gathered data not only on the institutions concerned but also on the annual number of participants in the continuing higher education. In addition to this, it also gathered information on the staffing of continuing education. The results varied widely in terms of the number of courses on offer and the number of partici- pants involved.25 The data available only permit a cautious statement to be made as to whether institutions with large numbers of students usually run more continuing educa- tion courses than those with fewer students. However, the results show clearly that ‘small’ institutions with fewer than 4300 students run on average considerably fewer courses than ‘medium-sized’ ones with between 4300 and 13,500 students – which themselves offer fewer courses than ‘large’ institutions with 13,500 stu- dents or more. This pattern applies equally to short and longer courses so that the results would seem to indicate that the larger institutions also have a wider range of courses. This is not surprising, as such institutions also have a wider range of different departments. There are, however, some surprising discrepancies when it comes to the relation- ship between the courses on offer and the numbers of students. Thus, for example,

25 In order to facilitate evaluation, universities were divided into three roughly equal groups accord- ing to their size: universities (and the two other types of institution) with up to 4300, those with between 4300 and 13, 500 and those with between 13,000 and 40,000 students. Continuing Higher Education in Germany 111 one private Fachhochschule with fewer than 500 undergraduate students offers 100 short continuing education courses lasting between 10 and 40 h and five longer courses with more than 160 h teaching lasting up to 1 year. One of the church insti- tutions with a mere 200 students offers 14 short courses catering for 140 participants annually as well as one long course (probably a full-fledged degree course) for 12 participants. By way of contrast, there are some large institutions with almost 40,000 students that offer virtually no continuing higher education courses whatsoever. The conclu- sion one can draw is that the size of an institution is not necessarily indicative of its commitment to continuing education. If the figures are broken down according to the type of institution – university, Fachhochschule or art/music academy – then in all cases there are more short than long courses on offer on average (cf. Section 4.2.1). A comparison between univer- sities and Fachhochschulen is only possible for ‘small’ and ‘medium-sized’ insti- tutions, as no Fachhochschulen with more than 10,000 students took part in the survey. The results indicate that in the case of the smaller institutions there was no significant difference between universities and Fachhochschulen in the number of short and longer continuing education courses run in the year 2005. However, the Fachhochschulen with between 4000 and 10,000 students offered almost 1.7 times as many short and 2.8 times as many longer courses than the comparable universi- ties. As might be expected, the number of academic staff (professors and lecturers) correlates with the size of the institution (in terms of number of students). Staffing levels in the continuing higher education, particularly when the funding comes from the institution, appeared to be relatively low. Only in individual cases are three or more management or lecturing posts (full-time equivalent) allocated to continuing higher education. The data on management of continuing education (cf. Section 3.2.2) already indicated that managers are not usually full-time but also have other responsibilities and tasks. The same pattern would seem to apply to staffing in gen- eral. The data collected did not indicate any statistical relationship between the size of the institution and the staffing levels in the field of continuing education.

4.2 Course Structure

4.2.1 Duration and Timing

How many courses are long-term and short-term?26 Have the relative propor- tions changed in the past three years?

26 In the questionnaire used, short courses were defined as those lasting up to 40 h, and long courses were those of more than 40 h duration. 112 P. Faulstich et al.

A total of 41.77% of respondents (N = 79) stated that there has been a change in the proportion of long and short courses over the last 3 years in favour of longer ones, but 17.72% said the opposite has been the case, with day and weekend courses replacing longer ones. Higher education institutions are in something of a dilemma in this respect: by their very nature, courses designed to lead to quality results (cer- tificates, degrees) cannot be short term. To this extent, courses that the institutions can defend on the grounds that they lead to certificates or degrees or are innova- tive do not meet market requirements, as they take more time than potential stu- dents can afford. On the other hand, short- and medium-term courses are of interest even for higher education institutions if they can reach the relevant target groups with the necessary skills and knowledge. Our research shows that the institutions have found ways of fitting their aims into a flexible time structure. Amongst other things, modularisation plays a role and offers new scope with regard to timing of provisions. As part of the Internet search, 4701 courses were identified in which the duration was detailed in terms of actual hours or number of classes. Figure 6 shows that almost 8 out of 10 courses (79.79%) can be classified as ‘short’ (≤40 hrs.) and only just over 2 out of 10 (20.21%) as ‘long’ (>40 h.). The results in terms of the duration of courses in years correspond to the answers to the previous question about the number of hours involved; 84.76% of courses on which details were available (N = 6555) were designed to run over a period of less than a year; 11.08% of courses took more than 1 year and up to 2 years, while 3.13% took more than 2 years. This shows that, especially when it comes to designing longer courses leading to graduation, the time available to target groups needs to be taken into account. The length of courses is an indication of patterns of demand: on the one hand, potential students are keen to complete their continuing education as quickly as pos- sible within a limited period of time – which points to short- or medium-duration courses. On the other hand, those interested in achieving certificates or degrees are aware that this takes time and they may have to devote between 1 and 2 years to

50%

40%

30%

20%

10%

Fig. 6 Relationship between 0% short and long courses < 10 hrs. 11–40 hrs. 41–160 hrs. > 160 hrs. Continuing Higher Education in Germany 113 the task. The Bologna reforms offer various possibilities here by allowing the pos- sibility of Masters courses with 60 credits (requiring 1 year’s full-time study) or up to 120 credits (2 years’ full-time), although some German federal states such as Lower Saxony take a critical view of such ‘mini’ Masters courses with 60 credits. One interesting possibility that would be in the interests of employed persons is the option of far-reaching modularisation and flexibilisation of courses, as is common practice in the USA (see country study for the USA in this book; Faulstich et al., 1991). In 2005, some four times as many short courses took place as long once. However the majority of respondents were of the opinion that over the last 3 years, there had been a development towards longer courses. It is possible that there is a dichotomy developing here, with a trend towards shorter duration in the case of courses not leading to any qualification, but a movement towards longer courses in the case of those leading to a qualification. Modularisation and regulations on recognition of qualifications could be used to mediate between these two poles from the point of view of participants.

Are courses full-time, part-time or a combination of both?

The basis on which courses are organised plays a role when individuals with professional or family commitments are deciding whether to enrol. Compatibility with family and work is an important goal when continuing education provisions are being planned. The survey results show that the question of compatibility of study and family-professional life is taken into account when continuing education courses are being organised. Continuing education is primarily aimed at individuals for whom the normal courses at university (weekly classes lasting 90 min, fixed teaching term etc.) are not suitable for professional or private reasons. The timing of courses has to take into account the requirements of participants if continuing education provisions are to be properly responsive to demand. The results of the Internet search confirm this: more than 9 out of 10 courses (90.74%, N = 6535) operate on a part-time basis and thus enable individuals to study parallel to their work. Only 7.68% of courses are run exclusively on a full-time basis, and 1.58% are a mixture of both. It is difficult to say whether further flexibilisation of these time structures is feasible. This pattern is maintained even when provisions are broken down according to universities, Fachhochschulen and art/music academies: almost 60% of university courses leading to a degree (N = 193) operate on a part-time basis and 12% on a combination of part-time and full-time study. Fachhochschulen offer almost three- quarters of their continuing education courses on a part-time basis (N = 306), and less than 4% on an optional basis. In the case of art and music academies, the number of continuing education courses is low (N = 17), but of these more than half are part-time courses. 114 P. Faulstich et al.

4.2.2 E-Learning German higher education institutions traditionally offer courses that are taught on a face-to-face basis. The experience with distance learning gathered in the GDR was not utilised following reunification. The result was that, apart from a few contin- uing education centres that had been doing pioneering work in this field since the 1970s, distance learning was not part of the culture of continuing education pro- vision at higher education institutions. Hagen Distance University saw its role as being a centre for development that included the field of continuing higher educa- tion courses. Since the 1990s, however, there has been a considerable increase in the number of distance learning courses on offer. This is partly due to technological developments but also a result of policies that have encouraged traditional universi- ties to open up to distance learning, e-learning and a mixture of taught courses and distance learning characterised as ‘blended learning’.

What are the relative proportions of on-line teaching, face-to-face teaching and blended learning?

In 2005, short courses were predominantly based on face-to-face teaching: more than 90% of courses took this form (90.98%, ≤10 h; 97.49%, ≤40 h). In the case of longer courses, the same applied:

• More than 80% of courses (84.04%) lasting for between 40 and 160 h were based on face-to-face teaching, with a mere 14.08% using blended learning. • Two-thirds of courses lasting up to a year (>160 h) were based on face-to-face teaching (67.57%), and about a quarter used blended learning (25.68%). • More than two-thirds of courses lasting longer than a year (>160 h) were based on face-to-face teaching (70.39%), and again about a quarter used blended learn- ing (26.26%).

The results of the Internet search revealed a similar picture: almost 90% of courses (89.72%; N = 6.771) exclusively used face-to-face teaching, 2.5% were designed on the basis of distance learning (partly on-line) and 7.78% used blended learning. This shows that the vast majority of continuing higher education courses is still based on face-to-face learning and complementary forms using distance learning or electronic media have not yet become commonplace.

Do the continuing education institutions have an e-learning platform/on-line learning management system?27

27 N = 89. Continuing Higher Education in Germany 115

More than 40% of institutions (42.7%) do not have any learning management sys- tem (LMS), but more than 11% operate their own LMS, almost a quarter used the university’s LMS (24.72%) and about one in five (21.35%) an external LMS. As the survey also revealed that in 2005 the majority of courses used face-to-face teaching, it would appear surprising that more than half of all continuing education insti- tutions use an LMS. The idea here would seem to be to use synergies or benefit from renting a system, as acquisition of one’s own LMS is only likely to be worth- while if it is intensively used (Hagenhoff, 2002, p. 40; Knust, 2006, p. 220). The LMS chiefly used were WebCT (seven cases), Moodle (six cases) and Clix (four cases).28

Are further education institutions supported by external service providers when it comes to pedagogical aspects of media and technology?

Respondents were split on this point, with about half (N = 90) (55.56%) reply- ing in the affirmative and half in the negative (44.44%). When external support is provided, then this is largely achieved through the creation of a new unit within the institution or by building up inter-institutional centres of competence (approxi- mately 16% in each case). It is essential to create optimum learning environments in order to achieve suc- cessful learning, time management and cost control. This includes using the new media and current forms of blended learning. Continuing higher education can look back on co-operation with a large number of higher education institutions in this field. Many of the players active in this area are members of the Distance Learn- ing Working Group (Arbeitsgruppe Fernstudium) within the DGWF and actively involved in discussing the role and further development of distance learning in the field of continuing higher education, especially matters related to accreditation. In their institutions, these players offer a wide range of high-quality study courses using the new media. However, the overall findings of this study indicate that tradi- tional, face-to-face forms of learning still predominate. One institution that is very active in the field of distance learning is the Technische Hochschule Kaiserlautern, which is described in Section 6.2.

4.2.3 Course Content

How do the continuing education units providers select the focus of their course content?29

28 N = 44. 29Ninety-three people answered this question with a total of 264 items; multiple answers were possible. The percentages in bold print always refer to the proportion of all items. 116 P. Faulstich et al.

The method of selecting the continuing education course content can be broken down as follows: • On the basis of the main academic focus of the institution concerned (30.3%). There was little difference between universities and Fachhochschulen on this point, with about 9 out of 10 respondents (87.04% universities; 90.91% FH) stat- ing that they select course content on the basis of the main academic focus of the institution concerned (N = 80 – 47 universities; 30 FH; 1 art/music academy; 1 other; 1 anonymous). • On the basis of forecast demand on the labour market (23.86%). A direct com- parison of the universities and Fachhochschulen taking part in the study reveals that universities are more likely to select course content on the basis of forecast demand (66.67%) than Fachhochschulen (42.59%) (N = 63: 36 universities; 23 FH; 1 art/music academy; 2 others; 1 anonymous). • On the basis of demand from interested individuals and companies (23.11%). Here the universities are more likely to select course content in response to demand from individuals and companies (72.22%) than Fachhochschulen (60.61%) (N = 61: 39 universities; 20 FH; 1 art/music academy; 1 other). • On the basis of topical issues in society (12.5%). In this case, university providers are more likely to take topical issues in society as their starting point (44.44%) than Fachhochschulen (27.27%) (N = 33: 24 universities; 9 FH). • On the basis of available (start-up) funding (7.2%). Relatively few respondents claimed to base course content, amongst other things, on the availability of (start- up) funding (N = 19: 9 universities; 9 FH; 1 art/music academy), but in this case the Fachhochschulen (27.27%) are more than likely to do so than the universities (16.67%). • Other aspects (N = 8: 5 universities; 1 FH; 2 art/music academies) mentioned included identified needs and available competences. Analysis of this question reveals that selection of course content is mainly made on the basis of the particular academic focus of the institution concerned. In other words, continuing higher education largely concentrates on marketing the existing strengths of an institution – which is logical enough, given the need for universities to focus on a ‘unique selling point’ (in addition to the possibility of graduation) in a highly competitive market. What is interesting is the clear differentiation when it comes to selecting course content on the basis of market demand, individual or company demand or topical issues in society. Here the universities seem to be more strongly demand-oriented than the Fachhochschulen (or at least this is perceived to be the case from an internal perspective).

What are the three most important subject areas or themes within the range of courses offered by continuing education institutions?30

30N = 84 with 224 items; multiple answers were possible. Continuing Higher Education in Germany 117

S/G Med. 2,23% 2,23% Publ. Management: 10 Special 2,23% HR/organisational Psy 6,70% 2,68% development: 10 Man. E/T 25,00% Economics: 9 3,13% Business studies: 9 Coaching, training: 6 Qualif. Topics for 4,46% Management: 4 academic PR, Marketing: 3 Law 5,36% continuing Project management: 3 education Quality management: 2 Educ. Eng. 9,82% 19,64% Early years, S/C/H teaching: 11 16,52% Engineering: 26 General educ., IT/EDP: 12 adult educ.: 7 Environmental Higher educ. engineering: 6 teaching: 3 Social sciences: 16 Multimedia Cultural studies: 13 didactics: 1 Health sciences: 8

Fig. 7 Subject areas and themes of courses in percentages, and breakdown of actual numbers

A wide variety of different areas were named, but these can be organised into 12 main clusters, with management, engineering and social science/cultural stud- ies/health studies emerging as the three most important areas (cf. Fig. 7):

• Management (N = 56). Management, together with human resources and organ- isational development, predominated. • Engineering (N = 44). There is a focus on engineering in areas such as technology, architecture, construction, information technology/electronic data- processing and environmental technology • Social science/cultural studies/health sciences (N = 37).

The field of Education (N = 22) covers early years, teacher training, general and adult education and didactics. The Law cluster (N = 12) covers specific legal themes. Other clusters are illustrated in Fig. 7.31 Other (N = 15) covers citations of individual topics including training of young academics and special subjects such as local public transport.

31 These clusters are key competences [S], ethics and theology [ET], psychology [Psy], geography, history and politics [G], medicine [M] and special courses for senior citizens and guest observers [S/G]. 118 P. Faulstich et al.

4.2.4 Academic and Vocational Orientation of Courses

In what way are courses academically oriented?

With regard to academic orientation, more than 9 out of 10 respondents (92.48%) stated that they use teachers who are graduates. This confirms the observation that continuing higher education is defined by the status of its teaching staff. A closer look reveals the following picture (summarised results for the headings ‘for approx. three-quarters of courses/for virtually all courses’):

• In almost two-thirds of cases, lecturers and professors are used as teachers (62.37%). • More than half of the respondents use teachers with doctoral qualifications (52.68%). • In only 3.23% of cases are non-graduate teachers used.

As far as the other headings are concerned (cf. Fig. 8), in more than half of all cases (56.90%) continuing education courses are aimed at graduates. It is, therefore, no surprise that in almost two-thirds of cases the standards of continuing education are equivalent to undergraduate degree level teaching (64.51%).

To what extent are courses vocationally oriented?

An analysis of the existing data indicates (merging the results for the headings ‘in approx. three-quarters of cases’ and ‘in virtually all cases’ cf. Fig. 9) that

100%

75%

few courses approx. a quarter 50% approx. half approx. three-quarter virtually all

25%

0% Univ. lecturer/ Acad. no acad. Doctorate Accreditation Standard Academic Academic Target group prof. Degree Degree basic work originality graduates teaching

Fig. 8 Academic orientation of courses Continuing Higher Education in Germany 119

100%

75%

few courses approx. a quarter 50% approx. half approx. three-quarter virtually all

25%

0% Vocationally oriented Didactic design Content Practicioners Others

Fig. 9 Vocational orientation of courses vocational orientation is mentioned as an important feature in almost 8 out of 10 cases (79.57%). It can, therefore, be concluded that when the higher education institutions are planning continuing education provisions, this aspect is regarded as highly relevant in addition academic orientation (cf. preceding paragraph). Vocational orientation of courses can be seen in particular when it comes to course content (79.57%) and their didactic design (64.52%). Section 4.2.1 already discussed the fact that the organisation of part-time courses also indicates a degree of vocational orientation, as students who are also working during the course of study are not able to adapt to the usual timetable for undergraduate degree courses. On the other hand, recruitment of practitioners plays a relatively minor role in ensuring vocational orientation (43.01%).

4.2.5 Target Groups

Whom are the short courses aimed at?

In the case of short courses (≤40 h), it is striking that in more than two-thirds of cases the focus is on ‘specific occupational groups with an academic education’ (43.01%). Another important target group is alumni of the institution concerned (25.81%) and graduate members of the public (12.09%). Other target groups are only of marginal significance (cf. Fig. 10).

Whom are the longer courses aimed at? 120 P. Faulstich et al.

100%

75%

none 50% less than a third one to two third more than two thirds

25%

0% With No previous Alumni / Lecturers / Junior Non-acad. Societal Women Broad public previous acad. graduates professors lecturers staff groups with acad. acad. education education education

Fig. 10 Target groups for short courses

If one looks at the main target groups for the longer (>40 h) courses (i.e. in ‘more than two-thirds of cases’) then it is striking that to a greater extent than in the case of short courses, ‘specific occupational groups with an academic education’ are the main focus (58.06%). At 21.51%, alumni are also an important target group, but other groups are only of marginal importance. The parallel Internet search32 of target groups shows a rather more differenti- ated picture (N = 6636): the main group, at 37.22%, remains specific occupational groups, but without any requirement for previous academic qualifications. This is highly relevant, inasmuch as most statutory regulations – and also the statements made by important players in the world of educational policy-making – focus above all on graduates as the main target group.33 But at 15.99%, specific target groups with previous academic qualifications account for less than half the above category; 16.15% of courses are aimed at academic staff from the higher education institution

32 It should be noted here, however, that this proved to be problematic for two reasons: on the one hand the institutions are aiming their provisions at a wide variety of different target groups that are difficult to assess statistically. On the other hand, the statements on target groups are in some cases difficult to interpret. This is true, for example, with regard to the question of prior academic qualifications, which in some cases is explicitly detailed but in others is defined in terms of professional groups, in which case it is unclear whether prior academic education is included. Social criteria (women, senior citizens) are unspecified in terms of prior education. Many of the courses are also aimed at such a wide range of target groups that further research (which was not possible) by e-mail or telephone would have been required to clarify the situation. Nevertheless, a pragmatic approach and internal discussion enabled a coding of target groups to be achieved that at least points to trends in continuing higher education and is sufficient for the purpose of answering the questions asked in the project. 33 On this see, for example, the laws on higher education in Bavaria, Art. 43 (6), North-Rhine Westphalia, Section 62 (1) or Rhineland-Palatinate, Section 35 (1). Continuing Higher Education in Germany 121 concerned or from another institution – an indication that higher education and con- tinuing higher education are closely related. Graduates from the higher education institution concerned – alumni – are only explicitly targeted in 3.6% of cases. The tiny proportion of unemployed persons (0.11%) makes it clear that the higher edu- cation institutions are not the place for the unemployed to find programmes specifi- cally aimed at their needs. All in all, both the survey and the Internet research demonstrate that higher edu- cation institutions are largely aiming their courses at individuals with an academic education, although those without academic qualifications are also mentioned in the range of courses available. Alumni are included as a target group, but only to a surprisingly small extent. Only approximately a quarter of short courses are aimed at this group, and in the case of longer courses the figure is one-fifth. The Internet research only identified specific mention of alumni in 3.6% of cases (in other words, higher education institutions in Germany are currently making little effort to build up a long-term relationship with their own graduates). This seemed unusual, given that such institutions possess specific knowledge about the educational background of such people and, therefore, are in a good position to contact them directly and supply them with interesting information about the courses on offer. There is scope here for an additional study to analyse this more closely, as it is different from the situation of other countries in this comparative study.

4.3 Formal Aspects of Continuing Education

On the supply side, formal aspects of continuing education such as entrance require- ments, recognition of previous knowledge and experience, allocation of credits and the certificates/degrees awarded were examined as part of the Internet search.

4.3.1 Entrance Requirements

What entrance requirements have to be met?

The results of the Internet search provided more detailed information on the entrance requirements for continuing higher education courses. On the one hand, access is regulated by statutory requirements, while on the other hand it is affected by statutes (e.g. course and examination regulations). These are by no means standardised in Germany (cf. Section 2.2.4). For potential course participants, the question of entrance requirements is by no means transparent. On the whole a degree is required, but this can also be replaced by qualifications acquired during work- ing life – and in some cases by other means. Even in formal terms, interpretations can differ. How, for example, are qualifications acquired during working life iden- tified? Often the regulations are based on the length of professional experience (a few months up to 4 years). In addition to the duration, ‘relevance’ is also used as a 122 P. Faulstich et al. criterion. Qualifications acquired ‘by other means’ (informally, for example includ- ing family or voluntary work) are often met with considerable scepticism on the part of the higher education institutions. The admissions regulations represent a selection instrument that enables higher education institutions to perpetuate their old tradition of exclusivity, which goes against the principle of opening course access to individuals who are in a position and have the motivation to participate in continuing higher education. The results of the Internet search show a very varied picture. Only for 37.59% of the 7029 courses is it possible to identify information about admission require- ments34 – a fact that seems extraordinary, as institutional websites are a favoured channel for distributing information to target groups (cf. Section 3.4). In 396 cases no admission requirements are explicitly called for (14.99%). By contrast, for 2246 courses several criteria are often laid down that had to be met if an individual is to be admitted to a course (e.g. a higher school leaving certificate, language skills, computer knowledge, vocational training, vocational experience or success in tests). In more than 46% of cases (N = 2246) a degree is a requirement. But in some cases, this can be replaced, for example by a higher school leaving certificate in combina- tion with vocational training and vocational experience, or by specific regulations establishing an exception. As might be expected, in the case of continuing education degree courses, much value is attached to certain requirements that a participant has to fulfil. In 489 of the 591 courses of study examined (i.e. in almost 83% of cases), a first degree is required. In addition, with only a few exceptions, further qualifications are required (usually professional experience, language skills and/or success in an entrance examination). An appropriate school leaving certificate (usually combined with a vocational qualification and/or job experience) is the key to access to some 10% of courses. Only in a few cases (1.4%) is a higher school leaving qualification explic- itly ranked above the non-traditional route (i.e. vocational qualification and diverse job experience).

4.3.2 Recognition of Prior Experience Only few of the 7029 courses analysed contained information about the possibil- ity of recognising prior experience. This would seem to indicate that few potential participants have so far raised the issue, or that the programs on offer from higher education institutions are currently designed to virtually exclude the possibility of such recognition. However, in 89.37% of courses (N = 254) prior experience (in two

34 In 4387 of the courses researched no information on admission requirements was provided, which of course does not mean that restrictions do not apply. They are, however, not detailed on the website concerned. In Section 3.5, it was already stated that in many cases the websites did not carry information (e.g. on levels of tuition fees/charges) that is likely to be important to individuals in coming to a decision. Similarly, information about admission requirements was missing in more than 60% of cases. Continuing Higher Education in Germany 123 cases including informally acquired experience) is recognised. However a require- ment for formal qualifications still predominates. Questions of recognition do not just play a role in the case of longer courses leading to the award of a degree. In terms of course duration, it emerges that amongst the 150 courses lasting up to a year, prior knowledge is recognised in 124 cases (82.67%) – again including informal knowledge in one case. In 26 cases (17.33%), it is not possible for prior knowledge to be recognised. For courses lasting between 1 and 2 years, prior knowledge is recognised in 79 cases (100%). And in the case of courses lasting more than 2 years, recognition is given in 24 cases (96%). Here, too, there is one case where informally acquired knowledge is recognised.

4.3.3 Credits and Qualifications During the course of our Internet research, a total of 1126 courses were identified for which information about the credit system was supplied (16.02%). In the case of these courses, credits are awarded 391 times (34.72%) – 382 times according to the ECTS system and nine times according to other systems. By contrast, in 735 cases (65.28%) it was explicitly stated that no credits are awarded. This no doubt has much to do with the fact that at present the universities are largely busy with organising consecutive courses of study and only when this process is over will they begin to extend the credit system to cover their continuing education courses – above all those leading to a degree. In the case of the 591 continuing education courses leading to an academic degree that were analysed, up to 280 credits are awarded, depending on the content of the course. Against a background of gener- ally sparse information regarding course credits, the Fachhochschulen came out on top, accounting for 60.4% of courses for which credits are awarded, compared with 37.8% for universities and 1.8% for art and music academies (N = 222). A total of 2757 courses were identified for which details of the qualifications they lead to were available on the Internet. In 126 cases (4.57%) information was pro- vided that the course did not lead to a qualification. In 21.44% of cases, courses lead to a graduate degree, in 44.32% of cases university certificates are awarded and in 26.62% of cases, certificates of attendance. In just over 3% of cases, participants can acquire another, non-academic qualification, e.g. a title35 or a title with a certificate (cf. Table 3). The results of the Internet search with regard to the question about learning assessment were combined with the form of final examination:

• In most cases, certificates are awarded on the basis of a final piece of written work (37.13%) or an examination (25.75%). Alternatively tests or an oral examination are used (7.49% in each case).

35 The term “title” does not mean an academic title but rather a non-academic title such as “Estate Planner” that is awarded by the institution or faculty following successful completion of continuing education. 124 P. Faulstich et al.

Table 3 Qualifications

Frequency Percentage Valid percentage

Valid Attendance certificate 734 10.44 26.62 Certificate 1222 17.39 44.32 Title 73 1.04 2.65 Academic degree 591 8.41 21.44 Title and certificate 11 0.16 0.40 No qualification 126 1.79 4.57 Total 2757 39.22 100 Missing No details 4272 60.78 Total 7029 100

• For graduation, a written dissertation is required in more than three quarters of cases (76.70%), an additional oral examination in the case of 44 courses (9.07%), and for 13 courses (2.68%) a written examination is required. • The final examination plays a subsidiary role when it comes to awarding titles. • In the case of certificates of attendance, a reference to final examinations is made for 24 courses (20 times tests; four times written exams).

The degrees from the 591 courses of study examined as part of the Internet research can be broken down as follows (cf. Table 4). More than three-quarters of all degrees (459) awarded for continuing education courses are Masters (77.66%); 96 courses (16.24%) have not yet adapted to the new structures and leads to a diploma or ‘Mag- ister’.36 The predominant form of Masters degree is the MBA, followed by M.A. and M.Sc. There are already 29 continuing education Bachelors courses although these are not actually catered for by the requirements laid down by the KMK (Kultusmin- isterkonferenz, 2005a). In at least half of all cases – more than three-quarters in the case of MBA and M. Eng. – the degree is awarded without any additional description. In other words, courses that offer continuing education in a specific thematic direction are still in a minority. This explains why companies make little use of continuing higher educa- tion at higher education level but do use the services of business schools or other independent training providers. The study on ‘Corporate Universities’ in this vol- ume looks specifically at this issue and identifies a clear lack of interest amongst such customers in the general management courses that offer little thematic special- isation (see study on corporate universities and research institutions in this book). The question of co-operation between corporate universities and other higher edu- cation institutions will be looked at briefly in the next section.

36 In Germany a “Magister” degree is awarded following a course of study of at least two sub- jects. “A Magister degree is awarded at the end of a course of academic study that is not oriented towards a particular profession” (Universitat¨ Kassel Abteilung Studium und Lehre (ed.), 2006, p. 1, emphasis in original). In the course of the Bologna reforms, courses leading to a Magister are increasingly being closed. Continuing Higher Education in Germany 125

Table 4 Degrees awarded

Proportion of Of which: without total no. of additional Of which: with additional Title of university degree qualifications description description

Master of Business 145 (24.53%) 112 (77.24%) 33 (22.76%) e.g.: in Administration (MBA) Healthcare Industries; in Logistics Management Master of Arts (M.A.) 98 (16.58%) 52 (53.06%) 46 (46.94%) e.g.: in Social Work; in Diversity Management Master of Science (M.Sc.) 94 (15.91%) 53 (56.38%) 41 (43.62%) e.g.: in Applied Multimedia; in Physiotherapy Master of Engineering 32 (5.41%) 25 (78.13%) 7 (21.88%) e.g.: in (M.Eng.) Photonics; in Applied Computational Mechanics Master of Laws (M.LL.) 12 (2.03%) 6 (50%) 6 (50%) e.g.: in Taxation; in Economics Master (without further 78 (13.2%) – – information) Bachelors (without further 29 (4.91%) – – info.) Diploma (without further 83 (14.04%) – – info.) Magister 13 (2.2%) – – No details 7 (1.18%) – – Total 591 (100%) – –

4.4 Partnerships

What partnerships are involved in planning and implementing academic and continuing education provisions?

The main partnerships when it comes to continuing higher education provisions are with faculties/departments (55.91%) and higher education teachers (47.31%). All other forms of partnership, for example with other providers of continuing education, companies, associations, corporate universities etc. must be regarded as marginal. These findings are confirmed by the results of the Internet search, which allow a quantitative but not a qualitative assessment: in the case of 31 courses it was stated that there were no partnerships involved. For 2643 courses, on the other hand, information was provided about the existence of partnerships, although often no details of what these consisted of were provided. Higher education institutions co- operate primarily with each other (56.67%). More than a fifth (22.37%) of courses 126 P. Faulstich et al. are offered in co-operation with other institutions, 11.09% within international part- nerships (mainly with higher education institutions abroad), whereas co-operation with companies (5.56%) and associations (4.31%) only represent a small propor- tion of the total. This shows that – at least as far as presentation in the Internet is concerned – higher education institutions very much work amongst themselves with few links to their surrounding environment. Although it cannot be said that there are no links to industry and associations, formalised partnerships play a minor role.

5 Current Situation and Future Prospects for Continuing Higher Education

5.1 Current Situation

At the institutional and provision level, the picture can be summed up as follows: the task of continuing higher education is generally recognised, but the manner in which it is realised varies considerably. The structure and organisation of contin- uing higher education are largely decoupled from the research and teaching tasks of the institutions concerned. The higher education institutions have various bodies, usually centralised ones, for implementing continuing education. Usually responsi- ble to the institution’s management, they carry out organisational and management tasks vis-a-vis` the faculties and departments. This includes the initiation of innova- tive processes in the field of continuing education. In addition to these internal units, continuing higher education is also carried out, usually on a complementary basis, by other bodies (associations and limited companies) that are frequently closely linked to the institution’s management and other decision-making bodies. One new area is that of continuing education degree courses (Masters and, to a lesser extent, Bachelors), whose relationship to consecutive courses of study is at present being sounded out. When it comes to teaching, the institutions largely use their own staff, thereby using their academic profile to help market their courses. To this extent, they mainly use internal processes for quality assessment of non- degree courses, whereas in the case of degree courses the usual accreditation pro- cesses are involved. For marketing, they use the scope offered by the Internet, but otherwise traditional PR and advertising techniques. It should, however, be said that despite the frequency with which the Internet is used, important information rele- vant for individuals’ enrolment decisions (for example, admission requirements or tuition fees/charges) is very often missing. Approaches to the funding of continuing education vary, typically involving a mix of tuition fees/charges and subsidies. Full cost recovery is generally regarded as not being feasible, even if it is seen as likely to be demanded in the future. The reasons for this are to be found not so much in market conditions as in the restrictions that continuing higher education is still sub- ject to and, not least, in the lack of scope to use reserves or other institutional funds for investment in the field. In addition to this, continuing higher education also has Continuing Higher Education in Germany 127 a social role to play, offering courses that are not, by their nature, ‘marketable’. The question of conditions for funding in the area of non-consecutive courses of study has not yet been clarified. However there is a perceived scope for further development of continuing higher education specifically in this area without non- degree programs having to be relinquished. Indeed, modularisation of courses and the recognition of ‘prior learning’ can offer the possibility of finding new access routes and new ways of networking provisions. There is some evidence that this can result in a split structure of provisions, with short , non-degree courses in mod- ular form and, on the other hand, courses lasting between 1 and 2 years that lead to the award of a degree. In the German higher education system, there are only a few cases of complete modularisation with courses of flexible duration. The higher education institutions currently mainly prefer courses based on face-to-face teach- ing that are offered on a part-time basis, enabling participants to combine them with their family or professional obligations. The content of these courses is largely academic in nature, but adequate incorporation of practical aspects is achieved by involving appropriate teaching staff. Access requirements are usually designed to target the courses primarily at individuals with an academic education but to also make it possible for others to take part as well. There is, of course, no clear answer to the question of what direction continuing higher education in the Federal Republic of Germany is going to develop in. It is only possible to make a provisional assessment.37 The background to this is the fact that there is currently a wide range of diverging trends and contradictory processes. Continuing higher education operates at the interface between the market-oriented continuing education system and the strongly supply-led higher education system. The legal position (cf. Section 2.2.4) is that continuing education is a core task for the higher education institutions in Germany. It is one of the structural principles of teaching and research transfer (DGWF, 2005a, p. 4). The following questions can be discussed at the level of the system:

• What place does continuing higher education occupy in the continuing and higher education systems, against a background of demographic and social change? • In what direction is it going to evolve, against a background of lifelong learning? • Is its main focus in the future going to be on degree programs or short courses?

37 On November 17 and 18, 2005, to mark the twentieth anniversary of the Continuing higher edu- cation Contact Centre at Bielefeld University, a meeting of experts was held on current problems related to continuing higher education in Germany. The meeting took place in connection with the projects “Management of Continuing Education Courses (MaweSt)” and the “International Com- parative Study on the Structure and Organisation of Continuing Education at Higher Education Institutions”. After a number of leading questions were raised, a moderated discussion took place during which the experts discussed major trends, problem areas, strengths and weaknesses, as well as future developments in continuing higher education (Graeβner, 2006a). 128 P. Faulstich et al.

If we are to identify the trends and prospects for continuing higher education, then we have to determine the cross-cutting regulatory mechanisms affecting the link between the political system and social part-systems – in this case, the continuing and higher education system. Second, we need to look more closely at the continu- ing education part-system and the processes of reorganisation occurring in it. Third, we can then summarise the main trends with regard to the higher education system, fourthly relate the development of continuing and higher education to the prospects for continuing higher education, and, fifthly, gain an overview of the diverging part- processes involved.

5.2 Quality Assurance Systems

The framework within which continuing higher education operates is increasingly changing. A combination of demographic (cf. Section 2.2.5) and technological (cf. Section 2.2.6) developments is exacerbating the political problems generated by globalisation of the economy. The scope for government action is becoming increas- ingly restricted. For about a decade, it has been possible to observe a development in the relationship between policy-makers and part-systems within society that is increasingly moving away from the idea of centralised, synoptic planning. In view of the ongoing financial crisis that the state finds itself in, the necessary resources are no longer available to implement political regulation through planned control. In addition to the problem of resources, the high degree of complexity and lack of transparency in many areas means that many of the problems are difficult both to grasp and to solve. This has made it increasingly difficult to indulge in forward planning and has resulted in post-hoc evaluation of results and processes being used as a regulation mechanism. Evaluation means an assessment of the quality of developments and results, and for this, of course, criteria are required. Quality management can, therefore, generally be regarded as a process aimed at increasing the probability that a product is good. In the context of the higher education and continuing education system, this takes the form of accreditation and certification systems. This regulation strategy also specifically affects continuing higher education (Akkreditierungsrat, 2001). In its terms of reference drawn up for BA/MA courses on 20 June 2001, the Accreditation Council first focused on the consecutively struc- tured basic undergraduate degree courses and at the same time pointed to the need for further steps to be taken: ‘With regard to the possibility of lifelong learning, it is to be expected that there will be increasing provisions made for continuing education courses leading to an academic degree that in principle should meet the same academic standards as basic undergraduate degrees. Nevertheless there is a need to collaborate with the professional sphere to discuss and modify standards and criteria – and, where necessary, develop new ones’ (Akkreditierungsrat, 2001). After it was re-formed in 2003, the Accreditation Council turned its attention even more to the issue of quality assurance and set up a separate working group for this purpose. Continuing Higher Education in Germany 129

The change of the legal status of the Accreditation Council to a foundation ini- tially interrupted this process. However, according to the Council’s statistics, 33 con- tinuing education courses leading to a Masters degree have already been accredited (as of 1 August, 2006). The accreditation agencies – e.g. FIBAA, ZEvA or ACQUIN – carry out the process although no binding standards are as yet in existence. A num- ber of ‘continuing education courses leading to the award of a bachelors degree’ have also been accredited. All this has happened in reaction to increasing expan- sion of higher education institutions’ involvement in continuing education and the first signs of a reorganisation of the relationship between basic undergraduate and continuing education courses in the context of the discussion about ‘lifelong learn- ing’. With their continuing education courses, the higher education institutions find themselves in an intermediate position between the higher education and the contin- uing education system. But the lines between the systems are becoming increasingly blurred. As a result, there is a need to more clearly define the institutional profile of the courses on offer at university level.

5.3 Future Prospects for Continuing Education

Continuing higher education only accounts for a small part of the general continu- ing education system. It is nevertheless difficult to achieve an overview of its current status and possible future development. Existing reports drawn up for central gov- ernment and the Lander¨ (BMBF, 2005; Faulstich & Vespermann, 2002) only con- tain sparse statistical evidence: in the most recent report on continuing education (Weiterbildung IX), covering the year 2003, the proportion of participants attending continuing education courses at higher education institutions is put at 2%. The structures of continuing education tend to be ‘soft’. The entire continuing education system, including continuing higher education, is going through a period of transition – of ‘moderate systematisation’ (Faulstich et al., 1991). What is pos- itive is the great degree of flexibility displayed, but on the downside this leads to a high degree of instability as well. In particular, the available scope in terms of funding has been reduced in recent years, and the result has been a change in the courses on offer. Pressure on providers has increased, partly because the Federal Labour Agency has drastically cut funding, and partly because employers are also cutting back on their spending on continuing education pending economic recov- ery. In addition, government funding – including funding for higher education – has been frozen or cut. The result is three trends – an attempt to increase the efficiency of ‘measures’ by shortening them, a greater emphasis on technology and more sophis- ticated marketing strategies.

5.3.1 Programme Efficiency The main focus – even of continuing higher education providers – is on programmes with vocationally relevant content (cf. Section 4.2.3). The aim is to ensure that, as far as possible, courses are ‘tailored’ to the needs of participants. This means 130 P. Faulstich et al. that courses with a social, political or cultural content are more difficult to run. At the same time, there is a move towards greater time efficiency (cf. Section 4.2.1), courses becoming shorter and being scheduled outside working hours.

5.3.2 Technology Increasing use of the Internet (cf. Section 2.2.6) has boosted the use of computer- aided learning and unleashed a flood of e-learning provisions, although this is now declining somewhat. These forms of learning are used above all in courses put on for companies in order to reduce absence from the workplace and the costs of releasing employees. Nevertheless, face-to-face classroom teaching still predominates. But particularly in the case of longer courses, forms of blended learning are increasingly being used (cf. Section 4.2.2).

5.3.3 Marketing Strategies Continuing education institutions are increasingly operating as providers on a spe- cific services market, and have become accustomed to using commercial manage- ment and marketing instruments (cf. Section 3.4). In order to position themselves on the market, they resort to demand development techniques, PR work and advertising strategies.

5.4 Future Prospects for Continuing Higher Education

Against this background, the higher education policy-making bodies in Germany – the KMK, HRK and Science Council – have repeatedly stressed the relevance of and positive prospects for continuing higher education. Most recently, on the 27 January 2006, the Wissenschaftsrat, as a consultative body that has an impor- tant influence on the higher education developments in Germany, published two recommendations in which it assigns an important role to continuing higher edu- cation. Its ‘Recommendations on the future role of higher education institutions in the science system (Wissenschaftsrat, 2006b) support the idea of structural change in the higher education system. In line with the Bologna process, the Wissenschaft- srat explicitly supports the change to Bachelors and Masters structures, because it sees this as offering an improvement in the quality of higher education. Logically enough, its ‘recommendations’ contained important statements on continuing higher education. It is particularly important that continuing higher education should not be regarded as an additional area of activity but should be completely incorporated into the reorganisation of courses of study. ‘Continuing higher education must not be regarded as an area that is separate from normal activities. Lifelong and part-time learning for those in employment must become a basic principle according to which higher education institutions organise their courses, if they are to meet the need for a changed approach to education, with greater individualisation of educational and professional biographies and a growing need for additional qualifications on the Continuing Higher Education in Germany 131 labour market’ (Wissenschaftsrat, 2006b, p. 65). It is assumed that this will have a positive impact on higher education institutions:

• Course reform. Inasmuch as Master courses are set up and people in employ- ment are able to return to higher education, early take-up of employment follow- ing acquisition of a Bachelors degree will no longer mean having to forego any further academic qualification (...). • Knowledge and technology transfer from higher education to companies.New knowledge acquired by company employees during the course of continuing higher education enables a transfer of academic expertise to take place between higher education and companies (...). • Quality of teaching. Through offering continuing education courses, higher edu- cation institutions systematically acquire institutional and individual contacts with the world of work. The fact that students will bring their prior practical experience with them into the classroom also results in a transfer of knowledge into the higher education institutions, and this could result in the basic undergrad- uate teaching also becoming more strongly oriented towards the labour market and its requirements in terms of qualifications (...). • Funding of higher education institutions. ‘By expanding continuing education, higher education institutions can tap into new sources of income’ (Wissenschaft- srat, 2006b, p. 66).

The Wissenschaftsrat has called on the federal Lander¨ to remove existing restric- tions in terms of budgets, terms of service and remuneration structures. It should be possible for individuals’ teaching input on continuing education courses to be included in their normal teaching load – and it should also be recognised as an important element in their professional reputation and career. The necessary addi- tional staffing required for continuing education provisions should be co-financed through tuition fees (Wissenschaftsrat, 2006b, p. 68). With its ‘Recommendations on the expansion of the higher education system in line with labour market and demographic developments’, the Wissenschaftsrat (2006a) goes beyond theoretical considerations and details the resources required to ensure the future of the higher education system. Academic institutions and the Lander¨ are recommended to mas- sively strengthen their activities in the field of continuing higher education and to position themselves at an early stage on the growing market for quality-assured pro- visions. Their attention is drawn to the fact that they have fallen behind private and foreign providers in this respect. In view of a likely decline in the number of students towards the middle of the next decade, there is, according to the Wissenschaftsrat, a danger that demand for higher education will drop below the levels that would be socially desirable (Wissenschaftsrat, 2006a, p. 80). ‘It is therefore important that the government should take on responsibility in this area. On the demand side, it will be necessary to develop funding concepts that combine financial contributions from participants and employers with state support (whether in the form of tax relief or subsidies) into attractive funding packages’ (Wissenschaftsrat, 2006a, p. 81). The basic message coming from the Wissenschaft- 132 P. Faulstich et al. srat is the following: ‘Higher education needs to be opened up to lifelong learning. Continuing higher education will be one of the central tasks of higher education institutions over the next few years. An ageing working population combined with the accelerating pace of innovation in almost all areas of knowledge mean that it is necessary to offer the workforce ongoing continuing education, retraining and new opportunities for acquiring qualifications. The transfer of knowledge between the academic world and industry will in future not be able to rely solely on young grad- uates entering the workforce. One question that remains to be answered is whether and in what way companies, with their ageing workforces, will be able to succeed in maintaining a high level of innovativeness and creativity. But without a concerted effort to improve levels of training, they will not succeed. Individuals also have a huge need for continuing education as a result of shorter training times and raising of the age of retirement’ (Wissenschaftsrat, 2006a, p. 79). It is important to note that in its scenarios related to the additional capacity required, the Wissenschaftsrat includes medium-term expansion of continuing edu- cation provisions. Its calculations are based on an annual expansion of continuing education capacity by 0.5% between 2005 and 2013 and 1% between 2014 and 2020. This would mean that by 2020, 11.5% more student places will have to be on offer (Wissenschaftsrat, 2006a, p. 81). The Wissenschaftsrat explicitly points out that the required additional capacity will not be needed on a temporary basis but rather will largely be a permanent requirement. ‘The plan must be for long-term expansion over the next few years. Instead of mainly employing additional tempo- rary staff it could prove sensible to invest in the didactic qualification of permanent teaching staff’ (Wissenschaftsrat, 2006a, p. 82).

5.5 General Trends and Ambivalent Consequences

From the point of view of the continuing education institutions and staff, implemen- tation of the Wissenschaftsrat’s recommendations would provide a good framework for further development of this area in the future. However, if one looks at the vari- ous trends in continuing education and higher education institutions, one can iden- tify a variety of different tendencies, some of which are contradictory. The Bologna process has triggered a number of different developments in higher education with- out it being possible to clearly determine their long-term implications. Assessments differ: ‘The Bologna process is an (...) opportunity for continuing higher education. Reorganisation of structures offer unhoped-for scope for creating links between the initial and continuing education. At the very least in the context of discussions about Masters programmes it is no longer possible to systematically justify their separa- tion. It will be taken for granted that individuals return to higher education to take a continuing education course after a period of working in employment (...) The Bologna process represents a (...) risk. Freedom of study and teaching is a central element in the traditions of western universities. This is now threatened by stan- dardisation of core structures and a trend towards courses that are becoming more school-like in terms of structure and organisation’ (DGWF, 2005a, p. 2). Continuing Higher Education in Germany 133

Modularisation proves an obstacle to the necessary flexibilisation of continuing education provisions. Strict ‘tailoring’ of the courses offered is likely to put too heavy a burden on higher education institutions, as they are not in a position to fine-tune their provisions to the needs of the labour market. ‘The risks will increase because parallel to the Bologna process new management structures are being intro- duced and calls are being made for the pursuit of excellence and development of an elite’ (DGWF, 2005a, p. 2). The Bologna process represents a challenge. Given these contradictory trends, there are strategies that must be used to structure the range of diversity and different systems. There could be a place here for ‘moderate systematisation’ (Faulstich et al., 1991) that steers a course between market regula- tion and higher education institutions’ claims to autonomy. This is the context in which the developments in continuing higher education taking place in terms of institutions and courses should be seen.

6 Profiles of Institutions

It proved difficult to select institutions to typify those in the study (described in short profiles below), since a large number are involved in progressive activities in the field of continuing education, all with interesting and innovative organisational structures, programmes, and teaching and learning models.

6.1 Steinbeis-Hochschule, Berlin

Federal Land: Berlin Type of HEI: University Funding: private but state-recognised; Steinbeis Foundation for Economic Development Student numbers: 2000

The Steinbeis-Hochschule, Berlin (SHB) was set up in 1998 as a private but state-recognised university to provide vocationally integrated and work-based pro- grammes of study for students and businesses, culminating in state-recognised qualifications. It operates via more than 70 accredited institutes, known as ‘trans- fer institutes’. Its course provision ranges from certificate courses to BA and MA programmes and even PhDs. The SHB is a subsidiary of the Steinbeis Foundation and makes no call on public funding. Its funding basis makes it particularly important that the courses it pro- vides are tailored as closely as possible to the needs of its target student group. The SHB’s mission statement stresses that it puts into practice the integration of theory and practice stressed by training and continuing education experts. Courses reflect- 134 P. Faulstich et al. ing the German ‘dual model’ of training (where students combine academic study with practical experience) offer students the chance to develop projects in the initial stages of their training; these projects are designed and carried out in collabora- tion with partner companies, giving students the opportunity to apply in a practical setting the academic input they have received in the academic setting. The SHB’s course provision includes 3-year courses leading to Bachelors of Business Administration (BBA), Bachelors of Science (BSc), Bachelors of Arts (BA) and Bachelors of Engineering (BEng) awards. At Masters level, 1- or 2-year courses lead to Master of Business and Engineering (MBE), Master of Business Administration (MBA), and Master of Science (MSc) qualifications. SHB’s mission is to prepare those in employment for international challenges, to equip them to initiate projects and team-work, to develop competitive strategies and to create new business models and implement technologies. The SHB’s programmes are intended to provide not only solid training but also direct practical relevance and effective, project-based knowledge- and technology-transfer. To achieve this, the university’s programmes are flexible and geared to market needs.

6.2 Technische Hochschule, Kaiserslautern

Federal Land: Rhineland-Palatinate Type of HEI: Hochschule Funding: state-funded Student numbers: 9400

The Technische Hochschule Kaiserlautern has been involved in continuing edu- cation since 1992 through its central academic unit, the Zentrum fur¨ Fernstudien und universitare¨ Weiterbildung (Centre for Distance Learning and University Con- tinuing Education) or ZFUW, which offers a broad range of distance learning opportunities within the continuing higher education field. The provision is aimed primarily at those who are working but also at unemployed people who already have a university-level qualification and are interested in further study in the sub- ject areas on offer as a means of gaining (further) qualifications. In autumn 2005, more than 2300 students were registered with the ZFUW from all over Germany and neighbouring countries, making it one of the leading providers of postgraduate distance education in Germany. Before the ZFUW was set up, Kaiserslautern University offered virtually all its courses only in attendance mode and mostly at undergraduate level. The creation of the ZFUW, which initially acted as a regional study centre of the Fernuniversitat¨ Hagen (Hagen Distance University), changed this. The Technische Hochschule is now widely regarded as being ‘Kaiserslautern Distance University’ and the ZFUW is an integral part of the university itself. As a result, in developing and designing its Continuing Higher Education in Germany 135 programmes, it always strives to embed in continuing education activities the know- how developed in the faculties. All continuing education programmes offered by the ZFUW are, therefore, led by a subject area or a representative of a subject area. The ZFUW builds on a very dynamic continuing education market, and programme planning is based on market monitoring, trend analysis, discipline-specific agenda- setting scenarios and the views of subject experts. This makes it both supply- and demand-oriented, with a firm emphasis on the end-user applicability of curricula and qualifications. Although the programmes are firmly based in key subject areas and skills clusters within the university, it is clear that continuing education is developing a remark- able dynamic of its own. In terms of its basic structure, the Technische Hochschule Kaiserslautern is a technical and scientific university, suggesting that postgraduate as well as undergraduate teaching is available only in these subject areas. In practice, however, the most successful programmes run by the institution are in the manage- ment and human resources – that is, in areas that do not necessarily form part of the Technische Hochschule’s core portfolio. It would normally be very unusual for a university to be able to put on programmes outside its own core areas of expertise, which demonstrates one of the strengths of continuing education by distance learn- ing: the close involvement of outside experts has enabled the institution to broaden its core areas in a way that it could not do outside the distance learning model. As a result, continuing education by distance learning not only helps meet the need for further education but also enables the institution to enhance and broaden its profile in areas in which it was previously largely or wholly uninvolved. The extent to which the staff are involved in continuing education activities, designing teaching materials and providing face-to-face teaching varies from one academic to another. There is no particular incentive in the form of workload relief, but involvement is attractive to many staff because of the specialised nature of the students, the opportunity to make new professional contacts and the benefit to the institution’s reputation. The basic shape of continuing education by distance learning at the Technische Hochschule Kaiserslautern is well-established: all programmes, some of which lead to an accredited MA, run for either two or four semesters, and teaching is based on what are known as Studienbriefe – printed material compiled by single authors in line with good distance learning practice and designed specifically for self-directed study. The pedagogical model followed by the institution is that of ‘guided self-study’ (angeleitetes Selbststudium): teaching materials have been designed and produced for self-study but contain learning outcomes, guidance and exercises that the student must cover by predefined deadlines. Student support comprises the full range of ICT solutions, including telephone, fax, email, and on-line fora and seminars led and moderated by experienced subject experts. All students enrolled on a distance learning programme at the ZFUW are required to attend sessions at the end of each semester; these usually take place at Kaiserlautern University. This combination of guided self-study and face-to-face teaching reflects the centre’s belief that a face-to- face element is an integral part of the way teaching and learning should be organised. 136 P. Faulstich et al.

Two institutions have collaborated in the case of one specific distance learning course, starting with an initial idea and the search for a suitable partner to help implement it. Co-operation arrangements have been consolidated and extended to cement the collaboration, resulting in a formal agreement between the two institu- tions. Over the past 10 years, the ZFUW has developed not only postgraduate distance learning courses but also a wide variety of short courses and continuing education programmes alongside conference activities. However, distance learning courses are the key focus of the work of the centre and reflect the institution’s wide range of subject expertise.

6.3 Fachhochschule Konstanz

Federal Land: Baden-Wurttemberg¨ Type of HEI: Fachhochschule Funding: state-funded, GmbH Student numbers: 3660

The Hochschule fur¨ Technik, Wirtschaft und Gestaltung Konstanz (HTWG) com- prises six faculties (Architecture and Design, Civil Engineering, Electrical Engi- neering and Information Technology, Mechanical Engineering, Economic and Social Sciences) and two institutes of continuing higher education – the Lake Con- stance Business School (LCBS) and the Technische Akademie Konstanz gGmbH (TAK). The Fachhochschule normally puts on programmes only in those subject areas in which it has particular expertise. Development of programmes is proactive and market-oriented: staff anticipate the subject areas that are likely to be relevant in professional practice over a 3–5-year timeframe and draw up curricula and courses to cover them. This is seen as the key role in the provision of continuing higher edu- cation and requires far-reaching knowledge of social and economic developments and of links with practice. Demand-oriented ‘product development’ takes place only where businesses or industry sectors make a specific approach to the university, and courses developed in collaboration with businesses always comply with current aca- demic standards. Around one-third of the teaching staff are actively involved in continuing edu- cation, while the remaining two-thirds focus more on basic education, research, or consultancy and knowledge transfer activities. A differential incentive system for faculties and teaching staff encourages involvement in continuing education: teach- ing staff benefit from the income from continuing education in terms either of extra resources for infrastructure improvements or of pump-priming for projects within the university budget. They may also choose to work on continuing education pro- grammes over and above their normal teaching load and to be paid at market rates. Continuing Higher Education in Germany 137

The staff also come into contact with business practice in the form of external dis- sertations, other assignments and business placements both in Germany and abroad, which greatly benefits undergraduate teaching. Faculties use the experience gained from continuing education to enhance this provision, particularly with regard to developing new courses for emerging occupational profiles. The excellent support and infrastructure for continuing education within the Fachhochschule means that teaching staff are actively committed to the courses provided by their own institution and work for other institutions only within formal collaboration arrangements. Staff at the Hochschule set up the Technische Akademie Konstanz e.V. in 1986 as a non-profit organization (gemeinnutziger¨ Verein) to provide continuing edu- cation in collaboration with the Fachhochschule Konstanz, aimed in particular at engineers and other experts and managerial staff in industrial or business practice. On 30 June 2000, the Hochschule Konstanz made use of changes in higher educa- tion legislation in Germany to set up its own continuing education corporation, the Technische Akademie Konstanz gGmbH (TAK), in consultation with the Baden- Wurttemberg¨ Education and Science Ministry. The Hochschule is the sole share- holder. Along with the Rheinisch-Westfalische¨ Technische Hochschule in Aachen, which did something similar at the same time, the Fachhochschule Konstanz became the first state-funded university in Germany to provide knowledge transfer through its own company – that is, to offer academic knowledge in the form of continuing higher education at market rates. Aimed at technical experts and managers in industry and commerce, most of whom have a first degree and at least 2–5 years’ employment experience, the courses provide teaching, updating and consolidation of technical expertise in the com- puter science (IT), engineering and management areas. Vocational application of this expertise is supported by teaching in what are known as ‘soft skills’, in which, for example, individuals’ working practices, communication abilities and manage- ment skills can be ‘professionalised’. New skills are taught by means of micro- curricula on specific areas, which broaden and deepen students’ existing subject qualifications and which lead to the award of an HTWG certificate. Its in-house training programme also enables TAK to offer to individual businesses any teaching or award that is publicly available. In 2004, the Fachhochschule Konstanz won the Stifterverband fur¨ die deutsche Wissenschaft award of ‘best Germany university in the field of continuing educa- tion’. Areas particularly praised by the judges included its clear and demand-led strategy, its innovative management and its high level of collaboration with industry. A further initiative, dating back to 1992, saw university staff also founding the Studienzentrum Schloss Langenrain GmbH as an associated institute of continuing higher education. This institute works in collaboration with the university to provide wide-ranging continuing higher education curricula in the form of contact studies for people in employment leading to university certificates and of MA courses. The main focus of its work over the coming years will be to establish the LCBS’s provi- sion as a premium-brand university Business School. TAK also intends to establish itself as a key player in the sandwich course, certificate and postgraduate market. 138 P. Faulstich et al.

6.4 European Business School

Federal Land: Hessen Type of HEI: Hochschule Funding: private but state-recognised; foundation status Student numbers: 1040

The European Business School (EBS) in Oestrich-Winkel/Rheingau was set up in 1971, making it the oldest private business school with university status in Ger- many. Its main activity is the academic training and professional development of managers. The EBS is a non-profit limited company (gGmbH) and is recognised by the Federal Land of Hessen as a university. It awards BA and MA degrees and is also entitled to award first and second doctorates. Its sole shareholder is a public founda- tion representing companies, entrepreneurs and organisations. EBS gGmbH’s busi- ness operations are headed by an academic manager (the university’s Rektor) and a business manager (its Kanzler). The organisation’s Board is its supreme supervisory body. Suggestions for new programmes are discussed with potential clients and/or rep- resentatives of target groups and in some cases are jointly developed with these groups before internal accreditation. All Executive Masters programmes also require external accreditation, however. Professorial and other staff are very keen to be involved with continuing higher education. Around two-thirds of university teachers at the EBS are involved in con- tinuing education programmes and around one-third are involved in development work in the continuing higher education field. Involvement in continuing education is either included in the general teaching load or paid separately. Those defined as ‘active continuing education providers’ are paid by results. It is rare for university teachers to undertake continuing education duties at other HEIs, since there is already wide scope for them to become involved in such activities at their own. All continuing education activities are organised under the auspices of EBS Executive Education GmbH, a wholly owned subsidiary. EBS’s continuing edu- cation provision is overseen by a Pro-Rektor and focuses on a number of areas: purchasing, logistics and supply chain management, finance, healthcare, general management, innovation and performance management, and real estate. Continuing education programmes in these areas are designed and delivered by the appropriate institute or academic department in conjunction with EBS Executive Education GmbH. This means that there is a close link between undergraduate teaching, research and continuing education work, which includes seminars for businesses and part-time or postgraduate courses and Executive Masters programmes. From 2007, EBS Executive Education GmbH has also been offering language training in English, French, Spanish, Chinese and Japanese. Continuing Higher Education in Germany 139

One of the special features of EBS Executive Education GmbH’s programmes is the integration between theory and practice that is achieved by the teaching staff and close links with companies. Relationships with alumni are another important way in which continuing education is offered. As well as working with the clients for its company programmes, the univer- sity also collaborates with many sponsors and other stakeholders, who have funded Foundation Chairs or applied research projects. Collaboration with other universi- ties takes the form mostly of arrangements on the Executive Masters programmes, ranging from joint qualifications to placements at partner universities abroad. Such collaborative arrangements result particularly from the university’s extensive inter- national networks (currently encompassing some 140 universities) and from per- sonal contacts and pro-active approaches. All collaborative arrangements are, how- ever, backed up by formal agreements.

References

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Laws

Bund: Hochschulrahmengesetz (HRG) vom 26.01.1976 (BGBl. I p. 185), neu gefasst durch Bekan- ntmachung vom 19.01.1999 I 18; zuletzt geandert¨ durch Art. 28 G vom 08.08.2002 I 1467, http://www.bmbf.de/pub/hrg 20020815.pdf, consulted: 12.03.2007. Baden-Wurttemberg:¨ Gesetz uber¨ die Universitaten¨ und Berufsakademien in Baden-Wurttemberg¨ (Landeshochschulgesetz – LHG) vom 09.12.2004 (GBl. 1/2005, p. 1), geandert¨ am 01.12.2005 (GBl. 17/2005, p. 706), http://www.leu.bw.schule.de/bild/LHG-BW.pdf, consulted: 12.03.2007. Bayern: Bayerisches Hochschulgesetz (BayHSchG) vom 23.05.2006, http://www.stmwfk. bayern.de/downloads/hs hochschulgesetz hschg gvbl102006.pdf, consulted: 12.03.2007. Berlin: Gesetz uber¨ die Universitaten¨ im Land Berlin (Berliner Hochschulgesetz – BerlHG), Fassung des Elften Anderungsgesetzes¨ vom 06.07.2006, http://www.berlin.de/sen/ wissenschaft/recht/gesetze/, consulted: 12.03.2007. Brandenburg: Gesetz uber¨ die Universitaten¨ des Landes Brandenburg (Brandenburgisches Hochschulgesetz – BbgHG), Fassung der Bekanntmachung vom 06.07.2004 (GVBl. I p. 394), geandert¨ durch Art. 1 des Gesetzes vom 23.11.2005 (GVBl. I p. 254), http://www.brandenburg. de/cms/media.php/lbm1.a.1494.de/hochschulgesetz2005.pdf, consulted: 12.03.2007. Bremen: Bremisches Hochschulgesetz (BremHG), Fassung der Bekanntmachung vom 11.07.2003 (Brem.GBl. p. 295), http://www.bildung.bremen.de/sfb/wissen/hochschulgesetz.pdf, consulted: 12.03.2007. Hamburg: Hamburgisches Hochschulgesetz (HmbHG) vom 18.07.2001, erlassen als Art. 1 des Gesetzes vom 18.07.2001 (HmbGVBl. 2001, p. 171), zuletzt geandert¨ durch Gesetz vom 14.12.2005, HmbGVBl. 2005, p. 491, http://hh.juris.de/hh/gesamt/HSchulG HA. htm#HSchulG HA G24, consulted: 12.03.2007. Hessen: Hessisches Hochschulgesetz unter Berucksichtigung¨ des Dritten Gesetzes zur Anderung¨ des Hessischen Hochschulgesetzes und anderer Gesetze vom 20. Dezember 2004 (GVBl. Continuing Higher Education in Germany 143

I p. 466), Fassung vom 18.12.2006 (GBl. I p. 713), http://www.hmwk.hessen.de/irj/ MWK Internet?id=9e660823-b038-9901-44b9-461bf5aa60df, consulted: 12.03.2007. Mecklenburg-Vorpommern : Gesetz uber¨ die Universitaten¨ des Landes Mecklenburg-Vorpommern (Landeshochschulgesetz–LHG M-V) vom 05.07.2002 (GVOBl. M-V p. 398) geandert¨ durch Art. 1 des Gesetzes vom 05.06.2002 (GVOBl. M-V p. 331), Art. 27 des Gesetzes vom 19.12.2005 (GVOBl. M-V p. 640), Art. 1 des Gesetzes vom 02.02.2006 (GVOBl. M-V p. 30) und Art. 19 des Gesetzes vom 10.06.2006 (GVOBl. M-V p. 539), http://www.kultus-mv.de/ sites/bibo/gesetze/lhg2002.pdf, consulted: 12.03.2007. Niedersachsen: Niedersachsisches¨ Hochschulgesetz (NHG) vom 24.06.2002 (Nds. GVBl. p. 286 VORIS 22210) zuletzt geandert¨ durch Art. 1 des Gesetzes vom 21.11.2006 (Nds. GVBl. p. 538), http://cdl.niedersachsen.de/blob/images/C29981538 L20.pdf, consulted: 12.03.2007. Nordrhein-Westfalen: Hochschulfreiheitsgesetz (HFG) vom 31.10.2006 (GVBl. NRW – Nr. 30 p. 474), http://www.innovation.nrw.de/Universitaten¨ in NRW/Recht/HFG.pdf, consulted: 12.03.2007. Rheinland-Pfalz: Hochschulgesetz (HSchG) in der Fassung vom 21.07.2003, http://www. hochschulverband.de/cms/fileadmin/pdf/hsg/rpf.pdf, consulted: 12.03.2007. Saarland: Gesetz Nr. 1556 uber¨ die Universitat¨ des Saarlandes (Universitatsgesetz-UG)¨ vom 23.06.2004 (Amtsbl. p. 1782), http://www.hochschulverband.de/cms/fileadmin/pdf/hsg/ saarland.pdf, consulted: 12.03.2007. Sachsen: Gesetz uber¨ die Universitaten¨ im Freistaat Sachsen (Sachsisches¨ Hochschulge- setz – SachsHG)¨ vom 11.06.1999, rechtsbereinigt mit Stand vom 31.01.2006, http://www.smwk.de/de/bf/ministerium/gesetze/272.htm, consulted: 12.03.2007. Sachsen-Anhalt: Hochschulgesetz des Landes Sachsen-Anhalt (HSG LSA) vom 05.05.2004 (GVBl. 2004, p. 255), http://www.hochschulverband.de/cms/fileadmin/pdf/hsg/sachsen- anhalt.pdf, consulted: 12.03.2007. Schleswig-Holstein: Gesetz uber¨ die Universitaten¨ und das Universitatsklinikum¨ Schleswig- Holstein (Hochschulgesetz – HSG) vom 04.05.2000 (GVOBl. 2000, p. 416) zuletzt geandert¨ durch Gesetz vom 10.12.2004, GVOBl. 2004, p. 477, http://sh.juris.de/sh/gesamt/ HschulG SH 2000.htm, consulted: 12.03.2007. Thuringen:¨ Thuringer¨ Hochschulgesetz (ThurHG)¨ vom 21.12.2006 (GVBl. 18/2006 p. 601), http:// www.thueringen.de/imperia/md/content/tkm/hochschule/thuerhg.pdf, consulted: 12.03.2007. Continuing Higher Education in Finland

Olaf Zawacki-Richter and Alexandra Reith

Contents

1 Introduction ...... 146 1.1 Study Design ...... 146 1.2 Demographic, Topographic and Economic Data ...... 147 2SystemLevel...... 148 2.1 Definition of Continuing Higher Education ...... 148 2.2 Continuing Higher Education Framework ...... 151 2.3 Providers of Continuing Higher Education ...... 154 2.4 The Role of Continuing Higher Education ...... 159 3 Institution Level ...... 160 3.1 Organisational Structures and Management of Continuing Higher Education . 160 3.2 Quality Assurance ...... 164 3.3 Public Relations, Marketing and Advertising ...... 167 3.4 Funding of Continuing Higher Education ...... 167 3.5 Future Prospects ...... 169 4 Course Provision: University of Helsinki ...... 172 4.1 Continuing Education Courses at the University of Helsinki ...... 172 4.2 Marketing and Public Relations ...... 173 4.3 Co-operation ...... 173 References ...... 173

O. Zawacki-Richter (B) FernUniversitat¨ in Hagen, Faculty of Cultural Studies and Social Sciences Institute of Educational Science and Media Research Professorship of Educational Technology, Universitatsstr.¨ 11 58097 Hagen/Germany e-mail: [email protected]

M. Knust, A. Hanft (eds.), Continuing Higher Education and Lifelong Learning, 145 DOI 10.1007/978-1-4020-9676-1 5, C Springer Science+Business Media B.V. 2009 146 O. Zawacki-Richter and A. Reith

1 Introduction

1.1 Study Design

Data relating to continuing higher education in Finland was obtained from all 20 higher education institutions (cf. Section 2.3.1). The analysis of the system level considers the overall framework and the role of continuing higher education in Finland. Here the focus is particularly on institu- tional aspects such as the autonomy of providers and the degree to which continuing education units are integrated into institutions of higher education. The section on higher education examines the organisational structures and man- agement of continuing education and its quantitative significance at higher edu- cation level, continuing education programmes, the forms they take and funding, quality assurance aspects, public relations, marketing concepts, advertising, support structures for new media, motivating and involving academic staff and prospects for the development of continuing higher education. In the section on programmes, areas considered include identifying needs, tai- loring programmes to the target audience, courses for specific target groups, and formal aspects of continuing education such as entry requirements, recognition of prior knowledge and co-operation projects. The requisite data were initially gathered from a secondary analysis of academic literature, websites of higher education institutions and brochures from course providers. In addition, a written survey on continuing higher education was carried out using an on-line questionnaire and involving all higher education institutions in Finland. Five specific continuing education programmes at three Finnish higher education institutions were examined as case studies. In addition, experts were con- sulted and a hearing of experts took place.

1.1.1 Secondary Analysis The starting point for the structural analysis was a number of policy documents pub- lished by the Finnish Ministry of Education (Opetusministerio)¨ on the development of continuing higher education (Ministry of Education, 1997; 1998a,b; 2002). Lit- erature on comparative educational research covering Finland was also consulted, notably studies by Hellbom et al. (1999), Jarvis (1996), Osborne et al. (2004), Osborne (2003), Taylor (2001) and Tuomi (1997). In addition, websites of higher education institutions and brochures from course providers were analysed for data on institutions and providers offering continuing higher education. Especially useful here was the KOTA Database (http://www.minedu.fi/OPM/ Koulutus/yliopistokoulutus/tilastoja/index.html?lang=en) of the Finnish Ministry of Education, which provided up-to-date information on funding for continuing education programmes, participant numbers and types of course. Statistics Finland (http://www.stat.fi/index en.html) was a source of general data on the Finnish school and higher education system. Continuing Higher Education in Finland 147

1.1.2 Questionnaire A questionnaire was employed that focused on the principal issues relevant to higher education and course provision. From 1–7 March 2006, people in prominent positions in continuing education centres at the 20 Finnish universities were informed about the comparative study on the structure and organisation of continuing higher education, and asked to complete the on-line questionnaire for the Finland Country Report. However, a low rate of response meant that it was only possible to carry out a qualitative evaluation of the data provided and to use it to substantiate the findings of the primary research undertaken, particularly in the case studies on course provision. As it turned out, most of the detailed questions were clarified in consultation with individual experts, mainly at the hearing.

1.1.3 Hearing of Experts Established experts on continuing higher education were invited to take part in a hearing of experts organised by the University of Oldenburg. Prof. Kauko Ham¨ al¨ ainen,¨ Director of the Palmenia Centre for Continuing Education at the University of Helsinki, attended for the purposes of the report on Finland (http://www.helsinki.fi/palmenia/english/). The Palmenia Centre is the largest and the foremost centre for continuing higher education in Finland. The hearing of experts, held on 21 and 22 June 2006 in Hanover, provided access to information not otherwise available, e.g. on subjects such as the internal funding of continuing education provisions and incentives for university staff to become involved in the development and delivery of continuing higher education.

1.2 Demographic, Topographic and Economic Data

With a surface area of approximately 338,000 km2, the Republic of Finland (Suomen Tasavalta in Finnish) is almost as large as the Federal Republic of Germany. Around 10% of its area is covered by more than 188,000 lakes. As the northernmost country of the European Union, Finland forms a bridge between the Scandinavian peninsula of Norway and Sweden and the North Russian lowlands. The capital Helsinki on the southern coast lies only 80 km across the Gulf of Finland from Tallinn, the capital of Estonia (Bohn, 2005). Finland has a population of 5.2 million, with a very low average population den- sity of around 15 inhabitants per km2. Most of the population, however, is concen- trated in the southern part of Finland, the area that in the past was called “cultural Finland” to distinguish it from “natural Finland” (Bohn, 2005). A total of 67% of the population lives in the urban centres. The six largest cities are Helsinki (560,000), Espoo (227,000), Tampere (203,000), Vantaa (185,000), Turku (174,000) and Oulu (124,000). Thus, for instance, the population density in the province of Uusima including the provincial capital amounts to some 121.5 inhabitants per km2. 148 O. Zawacki-Richter and A. Reith

At the end of 2005, the population as a whole consisted of 2,572,350 males and 2,683,230 females (http://www.stat.fi/tup/suoluk/suoluk vaesto en.html, as of 30.3.2006). Ageing of the population is already clearly apparent: compared with 1990, in 2004 the proportion of 0–14 year olds fell from 19.3% to 17.5%. The 15– 64 year age group declined from 67.2% to 66.7%. In contrast, the proportion of those over 65 years increased from 13.5% to 15.9% (ibid., 25 April 2005). Table 1 predicts the impact of this trend over the coming decades.

Table 1 Demographic forecast at 21 February 2005 Unit 2010 2020 2030 2040 Population 1000 5310 5412 5443 5367 0–14 years % 16 16 16 15 15–64 years % 66 61 58 58 65 years % 17 23 26 27

The official languages in Finland are Finnish, mother tongue of 91.3% of the population, and Swedish, spoken by 5.4%. The Sami (Lapp) language is the mother tongue of a minority of around 1700 people in Lapland and is also recognised as a language of communication in state agencies. Also 85.6% of the population belongs to the established church, the Evangelical Lutheran Church, while around 1% is Orthodox. In terms of its economy, Finland enjoyed virtually continuous growth from the 1950s onwards. The collapse of the Soviet Union and the consequent loss of a major market interrupted this trend, and Finland turned more to Europe as a result. Even before this, Finland had been increasingly opening up towards Western Europe: it participated as a member of the Nordic Inter-parliamentary Committee and in 1955 joined the Nordic Council and the United Nations. In 1960–61 EFTA (the European Free Trade Association) admitted Finland as an associate member, and the country became a full member in 1986. In 1995, Finland acceded to the European Union. The economic crisis of the early 1990s triggered a change in the structure of industry. Companies that were small and weak went out of business, while the ones that remained were those that were successful in introducing rationalisation. The price of the recovery that began in 1993 was extremely high unemployment. From the mid-1990s, unemployment fell slowly but steadily from 15.4% (1995) to 9.8% (2000). Since 2001, it has been around 9% (http://www.stat.fi/tup/suoluk/ suoluk tyoelama en.html#Unemployment, as of 2006/03/08).

2SystemLevel

2.1 Definition of Continuing Higher Education

The present study focuses on (a) non-credit courses and programmes (possibly lead- ing to the award of a certificate of attendance or other certificate); (b) credit Bach- elors degrees and courses and (c) Masters degrees and courses. All of these differ from other university-level courses in that they are targeted at people who are work- Continuing Higher Education in Finland 149 ing or have professional experience, and charge tuition fees. Thus postgraduate stud- ies, supplementary courses and top-up courses are not classified as continuing higher education, since they do not meet all the above-mentioned criteria (cf. Muskens¨ and Hanft Chapter 2 in this book). Nevertheless, in order to evaluate the data in the chapter on the structure and organisation of continuing higher education in Finland, and to interpret correctly the information provided by the experts, it is necessary first of all to consider what continuing higher education specifically means in Finland. The development of lifelong learning has blurred the boundaries between formal and informal learning. In the Finnish context, lifelong learning is an umbrella term for adult education and continuing education (Hellbom et al. 1999) (Fig 1). On the other hand, adult education covers continuing education and Open University (OU) courses (see Section 2.3.3):

“Strictly speaking, only continuing education and Open University are regarded as adult education provided by the universities. The definition is mostly administrative, because Open University is a very popular form of study among young people. [...] The basic degrees of universities are the same for adults and young people and thus students complete the same studies irrespective of their age. Therefore, the whole university is an “adult education institution” in practice.” (Manninen & Engblom, 2004, p. 123)

Continuing higher education fits into university-level adult education in Finland as follows (Manninen & Engblom, 2004, p. 124):

• Open University – open to all age groups, no entrance requirements; • University of the Third Age – for retired people, part of Open University system; • Continuing education – short courses and long programmes, open learning centres, including labour market training for unemployed university grad- uates and professionals.

Adult Education

Continuing OU Fig. 1 Continuing education Education teaching and OU teaching as components of adult education 150 O. Zawacki-Richter and A. Reith

Despite the broad definition of continuing higher education underpinning this study, which also includes continuing education courses at Masters level for people in work, Dr. Jyri Manninen (Director of Research, Palmenia Centre for Continuing Education, University of Helsinki) states that in Finland these courses are not considered as continuing higher education (Manninen, e-mail conversation on 24 February 2006):

• “Continuing education participants are still mainly at least Masters (there are some “professional” Bachelors like kindergarten teachers, who might be participants as well, but for them there is no Masters degree available unless they change to general education); • Masters programmes are mainly provided by departments, and these are NOT continuing education (because the Master is still considered as a basic degree). However, we have a few Masters programmes tailor-made for people who are working, and want to get a new Masters degree; these are usually new openings like “web-based communication”, and they are always accepted and partly organised with departments”.

Furthermore, this expert also makes a further distinction between continuing higher education (CHE) and continuing scientific education (CSE) (Manninen, e-mail of 24 February 2006):

• “CHE: professional development programmes, short or longer courses, giving additional professional and scientific qualifications; paid for by par- ticipants, employers or by state funds etc.; organised by Continuing Edu- cation Centres (like Palmenia in Helsinki); • CSE: leads to PhD-degree, very research and theory oriented; can take place in doctoral programmes/schools, where a group of students is selected and paid “peanuts” = minimum salary to do full-time studies for 3 years; the other alternative is to be an “individual” PhD-student, usually studying part-time or sometimes with a grant. These CSE studies are organised by faculties and departments, and free of charge.”

Following on from the hearing of experts, Ham¨ al¨ ainen¨ again makes specific refer- ence to this Finnish peculiarity (Ham¨ al¨ ainen,¨ e-mail of 3 July 2006):

“Something we discussed already [...] was that our way of defining contin- uing education is different compared to most other countries. The main rea- son is that most of our students take Masters degrees at universities and do not finish their studies at Bachelors level. So we don’t need to organise spe- Continuing Higher Education in Finland 151

cial training for adults to become Masters. We have also Open University in most universities, which organises parts of degree studies, and these stud- ies are open to anybody. This is not included in the concept of continuing education.”

2.2 Continuing Higher Education Framework

2.2.1 (Macro-)Economic Framework In the Global Competitiveness Report 2005–2006 (Lopez-Claros, 2005) of the World Economic Forum (WEF), a world-wide comparison of the competitiveness of 117 countries, Finland occupied the number one position ahead of USA, as in the previous year. Germany, on the other hand, dropped two places from 13th to 15th. Based on a variety of indicators in the Growth Competitiveness Index (GCI), this ranking takes into account the quality of a country’s macro-economic structures, its public institutions and the development of new technologies. Finland and the USA have ranked first and second since 1998. In 2005, gross domestic product in Finland amounted to 30,005 Euros per capita.1 Finland’s outstanding position today is attributable to its exceptional powers of innovation. The country also possesses an excellent institutional framework char- acterised by its law-abiding nature, very low levels of corruption, transparency and openness to international trade. Also noteworthy is the political objective of achiev- ing budget surpluses to enable the state to fulfil its responsibilities in meeting the challenges of an ageing population (Lopez-Claros, 2005, p. XIV). In January 2006, manufacturing performance was 3.3% up on the previous year (Statistics Finland, 2006).2 Four areas are of prime importance for exports: electronics and electrical engineering account for 27.5% of exports – Finland is particularly well-known for its information and communication technologies and automation sector; this area is closely followed at 27.1% by the export of iron ore and products of the metal- working industry, then by forestry and the traditional paper and cellulose industry, today accounting for 26.5%. The fourth largest sector is the chemical industry.3 While at the beginning of the 1950s over 40% of the population still made a living from agriculture and forestry, today agriculture has become practically irrelevant economically. Nevertheless, agricultural production enables Finland to retain a high degree of self-sufficiency. In contrast, since the 1980s the service sector has assumed

1 http://www.stat.fi/til/vtp/2004/vtp 2004 2005-07-14 tie 001 en.html (accessed on 13 October 2006). 2 http://www.stat.fi/til/ktkk/2006/01/ktkk 2006 01 2006-03-21 tie 001 en.html, at 31.03.06 (acc- essed on 13 October 2006). 3 http://virtual.finland.fi/netcomm/news/showarticle.asp?intNWSAID=28308 (accessed on 13 October 2006). 152 O. Zawacki-Richter and A. Reith vast economic significance. According to the TAT Group, for instance, over 60% of the gross national product is now generated by services.4 Tourism is another major factor in the economy. Fifty-five per cent of Finland’s trading partners, for both exports and imports, are located in countries of the European Union. In percentage terms, Germany is the top trading partner for both exports and imports.5 Foreign investors show a high propensity to invest in Finland. Market lead- ers in the information and communication technologies sector such as ICL, IBM, Siemens, Hewlett Packard, Ericsson and Lotus maintain research institutes, co- operate with Finnish companies and have taken over small firms. For its part, Finland transfers capital abroad by establishing production units, for example (http://www.finnfacts.com). Whilst from 2001 to 2005 Finnish investment abroad showed moderate growth from 59.3 to 63.1 billion Euros, foreign investment in Fin- land rose from 27.3 to 44.8 billion Euros (at 20 March 2006).6 Besides the above-mentioned factors that are influenced by the state framework and the market behaviour of large companies such as Nokia, the “hard” indicators in the Global Competitiveness Report increasingly include investment in human capital, modernisation of the education system and the number of people beginning courses of study (Lopez-Claros, 2005, p. XIII). The underlying assumption is that these indicators reflect the future growth potential of a country as well as its capacity to develop and apply new technologies, to attain ambitious quality standards and to assert itself on international markets (ibid., p. XXI). After all, state-of-the-art technologies and research and development require not only know-how, but also a highly qualified workforce. One of the nine pillars of the Global Index (an extension of the GCI) found in Table 2 (Lopez-Claros, 2005, p. XXIII) is higher education and training. Here Finland is the absolute leader. Moreover, with investment of 3.5% of gross domestic product in research and development, globally Finland is second only to its neigh- bour Sweden.7

2.2.2 Political Framework Finland is a parliamentary republic. The single-chamber parliament, with 200 mem- bers directly elected for 4 years, constitutes the highest legislative body, which adopts the state budget and oversees the executive bodies and administration. The Finnish Ministry of Education (Opetusministerio)¨ is responsible for educa- tion, science, culture, sport and youth policy as well as international co-operation

4 http://www.finnfacts.fi/english/economy/indicators/general.html (accessed on 13 October 06). 5 http://www.stat.fi/tup/suoluk/suoluk kotimaankauppa en.html, Foreign Trade, at 17.5.06 (acce- ssed on 13 October 2006). 6 Provisional data for 2005. 7 http://www.stat.fi/til/tkke/2005/tkke 2005 2006-10-04 tie 001 en.html, at 4.10.2006 (accessed on 13 October 2006). Continuing Higher Education in Finland 153 Global competitiveness index Health and primary Higher education Market Technological Business Table 2 Country Institutions Infrastructure Macro-economy education and training efficiency readiness sophistication Innovation SingaporeDenmarkChile 1Japan 2FinlandUnited States 27 16 26 5 3 1 34 8 9 10 9 16 1 62 93 10 69 23 25 47 10 1 8 3 42 2 16 1 4 5 24 16 1 12 1 2 36 17 12 5 20 4 31 12 1 3 9 10 41 4 2 1 154 O. Zawacki-Richter and A. Reith in these fields. Areas of responsibility are divided between the Minister of Educa- tion and Research, currently Antti Kalliomaki,¨ and the Minister of Culture, Tanja Karpela, whose remit includes financial support for students. The entire administra- tion of the Ministry of Education is in the hands of a Secretary of State, Markku Linna. Every 4 years, a review is undertaken of the whole of the Finnish educa- tion system with the aim of achieving further quality improvements (Ministry of Education, 2005). Year 2003 saw the publication of a strategic plan, Strategy 2015 (Ministry of Education 2003), in which the then Minister of Education and Research and Minis- ter of Culture set out what they considered to be the principal challenges for the long term and strategies to meet them. They identified the following key areas (Ministry of Education, 2003):

Key areas: • securing educational and cultural equality, • promoting intellectual growth and learning, • increasing opportunities for participation, • supporting the educational, cultural and economic competitiveness of Finnish society, • diversifying Finland’s international influence, and • improving performance in the Ministry of Education sector.

One of the priorities of the Ministry of Education is the implementation of the development guidelines contained in the current Development Plan for Education and University Research for 2003–2008 (Ministry of Education 2005). As regards continuing higher education, the Ministry of Education considers higher educa- tion as part of adult education and gives the universities responsibility for devel- oping it further: “University extension education will be primarily targeted at the graduate population and developed according to the basic mission of each uni- versity” (ibid., p. 51). However, while it is true that Open University courses are designed to become a route towards studies culminating in a degree, on the other hand the desired improvements in access are to be achieved not by the universities but through the network of liberal adult education institutions.

2.3 Providers of Continuing Higher Education

The providers of continuing higher education are found in the tertiary sector of the Finnish education system, consisting of the universities and polytechnics (ter- tiary education as defined in the International Standard Classification of Education, ISCED 5) (Fig 2). Continuing Higher Education in Finland 155

Doctorates Work experience

5 Master’s Polytechnic 4 degrees Master’s Work experience 3 Bachelor’s Polytechnic 2 degrees Bachelor’s 1 (Universities) Further specialist vocational qualifications 3 Upper Vocational 2 secondary qualifications school 1 Work experience

10 9 Compulsory schooling (9 yrs.) 8 7 6 5 Basic Education 4 3 2 1 Preschool

Fig. 2 The Finnish education system8

2.3.1 Universities Finland has 20 public university-level institutions (Table 3), all of which provide continuing higher education. Ten of the universities are multidisciplinary, while the other ten specialise in specific subject areas (technology, economics and art): The number of university institutions is remarkably high compared with Finland’s relatively small population of around 5.2 million (cf. Section 1.2). The Military Academy, which comes under the Ministry of Defence, enjoys special status as an additional university institution within the education system.

2.3.2 Polytechnics A dual system of higher education was introduced in Finland in 1991. In a pilot phase, a network of polytechnics was established to supplement university educa- tion: “This reform was intended to simplify the vocational education system and to

8http://www.minedu.fi/minedu/education/education system.htm (accessed on 17 January 2007). 156 O. Zawacki-Richter and A. Reith

Table 3 Finnish university-level institutions

General Universities Technical Universities University of Helsinki Helsinki University of Technology University of Joensuu Lappeenranta University of Technology University of Jyvaskyl¨ a¨ Tampere University of Technology University of Kuopio University of Lapland University of Oulu University of Tampere University of Turku University of Vaasa Abo˚ Akademi University

Schools of Economics Art Schools Helsinki School of Economics Academy of Fine Arts, Helsinki Swedish School of Economics and Business Sibelius Academy, Helsinki Administration, Helsinki Theatre Academy, Helsinki Turku School of Economics and Business University of Art and Design, Helsinki Administration

set up a distinct non-university sector of HE, originally offering undergraduate level provision only” (Haapanen, 2003, p. 128). Today there are 29 polytechnics, most of them multidisciplinary institutions. Comparable to the Fachhochschulen in Germany, the polytechnics offer voca- tional courses as preparation for entering work (Bachelors level). Polytechnics are also involved in adult education and continuing education, but at sub-academic level: “Polytechnics are a fairly large organiser of additional vocational training and they also organise short-term continuing education (CE)” (Manninen & Engblom, 2004, p. 122).

2.3.3 Open University/Finnish Virtual Open University A key feature of open learning is open access to courses regardless of school-leaving qualifications or age. Unlike the Open University in the UK or the Fernuniversitat¨ in Hagen, the Finnish Open University is not a discrete institution, but a network of the 20 universities in Finland that facilitates open and distance learning programmes. As well as universities, other institutions such as adult education centres and vocational schools are also involved in providing Open University courses (Tuomisto, 1992, p. 297.):

“There is no separate Open University as an institution in Finland, but uni- versities organise Open University teaching (leading to qualifications in sin- gle subjects) in co-operation with adult education centres, folk high schools, Continuing Higher Education in Finland 157

summer universities, study circle centres, vocational schools and the Finnish Broadcasting Company.”

While Open University continuing education programmes are below academic level, individual courses can count towards degrees from regular universities (the so-called Open University Degree Channel). However, few make use of this pos- sibility: “In 2002 a total of 696 students were accepted for degree programmes at universities on the basis of studies taken through the Open University [...]. This was around 70% of the target set for the year” (Manninen & Engblom 2004, p. 125). In the same year, 85,100 people took Open University courses. In 1998, the Finnish Virtual University was established (http://www. avoinyliopisto.fi), creating an Internet-based network for open and distance learning programmes (with centralised course guidance, media services, a joint e-learning platform etc.).

2.3.4 Student/Participant Numbers Taken together, the number of students in continuing higher education and in the Open University exceeds the number of students at regular universities. Fifty per cent of all continuing education is provided by the universities – between 2000 and 3000 courses annually (Parjanen, 2003). In 2002, 170,000 students were enrolled at regular universities, an increase of around 23% compared with 1996 (see Tables 4–6 and Fig 3).

Table 4 Development of student numbers in thousands

Year 1996 1998 2000 2002 2003 2004 2005

Degree students 138.2 147.3 157.2 170.0 n.d. 174.3 176.0 UCE students 108.9 133.6 121.2 88.6 83.7 87.6 94.1 OU students 74.9 77.5 80.0 85.1 82.9 82.3 80.0

Table 5 Numbers of students and courses in academic continuing education and the Finnish Open University

1997 1999 2000 2003 2005

UCE courses 4923 5382 4764 3636 3841 – short courses (5 days or less) 2389 2677 2495 1729 1650 – special studies∗ 56 600 485 272 372 – other courses 2478 2105 1784 1635 1819 Students 124,296 134,227 106,726 83,685 94,159 Course days (1 day: 6 classroom h) 69,137 66,642 46,918 41,788 35,029 Open university instruction students 74,440 77,522 83,106 82,918 80,058 158 O. Zawacki-Richter and A. Reith

Table 6 Number of students, continuing education (CE) courses and participants per university

University Degree students CE courses CE participants

Uhelsinki 38,303 1109 23,710 JyU 13,948 222 7468 Uoulu 16,076 138 3373 JoU 8198 186 5083 Uku 6125 97 3116 Utu 15,897 241 8719 Uta 15,377 212 4203 AA˚ 6929 254 5926 Uwasa 5039 75 2270 Ulapland 4622 194 2731 HelTech 14,585 482 13,328 TaTech 12,498 101 2897 LaTech 5524 104 2652 HelEc 4252 248 4846 SwedEc 2412 22 372 TuEc 2279 28 528 SibA 1531 24 565 TheA 407 20 439 UIAH 1816 84 1933 AcaArts 243 0 0 Total 176,061 3841 94,159

200000 180000 160000 140000 120000 Degree students 100000 UCE students 80000 OU students 60000 40000 20000 0 1994 1996 1998 2000 2002 2004 2006

Fig. 3 Development of student numbers9

The drop in the number of participants in continuing higher education between 1998 and 2003 (Ministry of Education, KOTA database 2005 and 2006) is attributable to an improvement in the labour market between 2000 and 2002 and generally to a cut in funding for continuing higher education (Manninen & Engblom, 2004).

9Manninen & Engblom 2004; Ministry of Education, KOTA-database 2005 and 2006. Continuing Higher Education in Finland 159

Since 2003, the downward trend in continuing higher education seems to have reversed. Approximately 4000 courses were taken by over 94,000 participants (up >10% compared with 2003) (see Table 5; Ministry of Education, KOTA 2006 (∗ signifies from 1998 onwards)). The proportion of longer continuing education courses has risen considerably (Ministry of Education, 2006): “The proportion of specialisation in course provision has risen particularly fast, showing that long-term continuing education enjoys greater popularity” (p. 21). According to Ulla Makel¨ ainen¨ of the Ministry of Education (e-mail conversation on 27 June 2006), “special studies” mean the following: “Special studies are profes- sional courses (in continuing education, at minimum 30 credits ECTS) provided by higher education institutions – in this case universities. Special studies are meant for students who already have taken a Masters degree (or have equivalent knowledge) and are willing to upgrade and update vocational or professional skills. Students are given a certificate when finishing special studies. As a rule, adult education, especially special studies, has close links with working life and the labour market. [...] Most of the (accredited) courses are from the field of health care and social services.” The University of Helsinki is the largest university, with 38,303 students, and has 23,710 participants attending 1109 continuing education courses. Continuing edu- cation provision is particularly well developed at the Helsinki School of Economics, where the number of those in continuing higher education exceeds those taking tra- ditional studies. The department of Executive Education has been transferred to the School’s own private company, now called HSE Executive Education Ltd. The smallest institution is the Academy of Fine Arts in Helsinki with just 243 students, which does not offer continuing education courses (KOTA database, 2005).

2.4 The Role of Continuing Higher Education

Continuing higher education in Finland has traditionally encompassed the fol- lowing activities (Haapanen, 2003, p. 142): “Professional continuing education; leadership and management; organisational development; employment training; Open University services; regional development projects; the development of learn- ing materials; research and publication; conference services; and career coun- selling”. In the period of very high unemployment during the recession of the early 1990s, employment training delivered in conjunction with employers and enter- prises became substantially more important. Unemployment has now stabilised at 8–9%, standing at 8.6% in February 2006 (Statistics Finland, http://www.stat.fi). Special continuing education courses for the unemployed are provided for academics, for example. Additionally there are “integration programmes” for academics who have immigrated from abroad. These programmes are mainly offered for the following professions and subjects (Prof. Ham¨ al¨ ainen,¨ statement at hearing of experts 2006): medical doctors, language and 160 O. Zawacki-Richter and A. Reith maths teachers etc., chemistry and environment, library and information services, mathematics and statistics, computer science. In addition, special academic career guidance is provided for these groups.

3 Institution Level

3.1 Organisational Structures and Management of Continuing Higher Education

In examining the organisational structures for the provision of continuing higher education, it is useful to refer to organisational models that are commonly used in an international context. Brennan (2000, p. 52) first of all distinguishes four models for embedding university continuing education (UCE):

“A: UCE delivery through a separate department, centre, or company, with or without expertise brought in from subject departments; B: UCE delivery as above and by a range of subject departments with a num- ber of functions for UCE, e.g. development, monitoring, quality assurance, carried out by the UCE department; C: UCE delivery entirely devolved to subject departments but with strong cen- tral support through a range of functions, e.g. strategic leadership, develop- ment, monitoring, quality assurance, promotion; D: UCE delivery devolved to subject departments with little or no central support, co-ordination or monitoring.”

The widespread use of new information and communication technologies now makes it possible to set up inter-institutional collaboration and networks of expertise for continuing higher education (Brennan, 2000, p. 52):

“A fifth model is likely to become more common as the potential of learning technology is further exploited: E: UCE delivery through a consortium of institutions, each contributing par- ticular expertise towards collaborative UCE programmes.”

3.1.1 Centres for Continuing Education The so-called Centres for Continuing Education (CCEs) at the Finnish higher education institutions play an essential role for the development, organisation and implementation of continuing higher education. This established organisa- Continuing Higher Education in Finland 161 tional structure is closely linked with the long tradition of continuing higher education in Finland. The summer universities that took place in the early 20th century were a first step towards widening participation at Finnish universities. Prior to the Second World War, summer universities were held in Jyvaskyl¨ a¨ and Turku which focused mainly on continuing education for teachers (Osborne et al. 2004, p. 140). Summer universities also paved the way for the Open Univer- sity in Finland, and are still part of the Open University programme (Parjanen, 1997). The setting up of CCEs can be seen as the “second wave” of widening partici- pation at the universities in the early 1970s, and occurred at the same time as the establishment of new universities in the 1960s and 1970s. The expansion of con- tinuing education went hand-in-hand with the growing importance of adult edu- cation and lifelong learning in the 1980s (Osborne et al. 2004, p. 141): “Qual- ification requirements for working life had changed, updating of knowledge for people in employment became a challenge, the universities sought to create more active contacts with society, and government for its part had adopted ideas ema- nating from the traditions of adult education and continuing education”. Hence a majority of CCEs were founded in the 1980s. Today every Finnish university has at least one CCE. In 1990, the Centres joined forces to form the Continuing Educa- tion Network in Finland. The Network consists of a total of 34 CCEs within the 21 universities. A total of 1700 people are employed in the CCEs (Myllymaki,¨ 2006). The CCEs are not only continuing education providers, but also see themselves as centres of expertise for continuing higher education: “The activity of centres [...] can be described as a qualitative change from arranger of courses to expert in the planning, development and application of education. [...] continuing higher educa- tion [...] involves the production of a comprehensive service” (Osborne et al. 2004, p. 142). This also includes the design and delivery of open and distance learning and e-learning programmes. The CCEs are organisations within the universities with a largely independent administration. This organisational structure corresponds to Brennan’s model A (a centre for continuing higher education) (2000). With growing pressure to find external funding, subject departments are increasingly seeking to provide continu- ing higher education. Brennan (2000) identifies this as model B, whereby the centre devolves some activities to subject departments. Model B may have a number of advantages over model A: “...strategic deployment of funding, institutional repre- sentation, guaranteed access to the best expertise and flexibility in organising deliv- ery” (ibid., p. 68). In practice, however, this tends to result in competition rather than cooperation between CCEs and subject departments, which frequently hinders the successful provision of continuing higher education. Some universities have removed highly profitable continuing education courses from their general academic CE programme and devolved them to profit-making companies. An example of this is the Helsinki School of Economics, which delivers its MBA and management programmes (Executive Education) via its own private company, HSE Executive Education Ltd (HSEEE) (http://www.hseee.fi). 162 O. Zawacki-Richter and A. Reith

3.1.2 Incentives for Lecturers The incentives for university lecturers to become involved in developing and deliv- ering continuing higher education are of both an extrinsic and intrinsic nature (Ham¨ al¨ ainen,¨ 2006).

Extrinsic Incentives • Finnish legislation on public sector employment allows lecturers to receive unlimited additional remuneration for involvement in continuing education projects. However, there is also a risk that individuals in subject departments with high demand for continuing education (e.g. lawyers and medical doctors) will make excessive use of this flexibility. • Professional and efficient project management is provided, so lecturers can focus their attention exclusively on educational content. • The CCEs have considerable experience in attracting external funding. They can use international networks to initiate projects eligible for funding from the Euro- pean Union.

Intrinsic Incentives • Continuing education, along with research and teaching, is viewed as one of the core functions of Finnish universities. By taking part in continuing education projects and attracting the external funding that is often required, university lec- turers can add to their reputation. • Continuing education projects offer frequent opportunities for working in multi- disciplinary teams. • Many lecturers also appreciate the high levels of motivation and professional experience of students in continuing higher education.

3.1.3 Case Study: Palmenia Centre for Continuing Education (Helsinki) The organisational structure of a CCE and its range of functions will be described using the example of the largest CCE, the Palmenia Centre for Continuing Education at the University of Helsinki (Fig. 4). The Director of the Centre is Prof. Dr. Kauko Ham¨ al¨ ainen.¨ The following is based on statements by Professor Ham¨ al¨ ainen¨ and a number of documents, some unpublished, which he provided. The University was originally established in Turku in 1640 and in 1828 trans- ferred to Helsinki (the Finnish capital having moved from Turku to Helsinki in 1812). The University has 11 faculties and an annual budget of 475 million Euros. Helsinki has 38,000 undergraduates and around 60,000 students in continuing higher education and on Open University courses. The University of Helsinki has about 7300 employees, of whom 3500 are academic staff (researchers and lectur- ers). The University is spread across four campuses in Helsinki and additionally has 20 branches throughout Finland. Continuing Higher Education in Finland 163

Fig. 4 Organisational structure of the University of Helsinki10

Within the organisational structure of the University, a distinction is made between faculties, independent institutes and university companies. Given the large numbers of people taking continuing higher education courses, the Palmenia Centre for Continuing Education (CCE) plays a pivotal role as an organisation independent of the faculties. Nonetheless, the CCE works closely with the faculties in devel- oping continuing education programmes: “We try to work in close co-operation with faculties in planning and implementing courses, programmes and projects. In four of eleven faculties we have regular meetings with the representatives of faculties to analyse the possible topics for continuing education. Good coopera- tion at the University of Helsinki is e.g. with the faculties of pharmacy, medicine, behavioural sciences (teacher training) and natural sciences” (e-mail conversation, Kauko Ham¨ al¨ ainen,¨ 30 June 2004). With a staff of 260, the Palmenia CCE generates around 25 million Euros. At present it has over 16,000 people taking around 500 courses and continuing educa- tion programmes. Furthermore, the Centre hosts over 100 research and development projects, 20 of them international.11 The Palmenia CCE has activities in the following areas: continuing educa- tion, employment-oriented training, Master studies and conversion programmes for working life, applied research and development services, Palmenia Uniconf –

10Presentation by Ham¨ al¨ ainen,¨ 2005. 11 http://www.helsinki.fi/palmenia/english/statistics.htm (accessed on 14 April 2006). 164 O. Zawacki-Richter and A. Reith

Professional Conference services – and Palmenia Publishing. Continuing education is divided into four areas: training programmes from short courses to long-term spe- cialisation, continuing education for promoting employment, Masters studies and conversion programmes for working life and continuing education for enhancing graduate studies. Merely 15% of the total budget is funded by the state. Another 30% comes from fees for services and 45% from European Union grants. The remaining 10% is made up of funding from the municipality of Helsinki and other external funds. The CCE Director negotiates an agreement with the university Vice-Chancellor on the results to be achieved by the CCE. Within the university hierarchy, the posi- tion of CCE Director is on a par with that of Dean.

3.2 Quality Assurance

In Finland, quality assurance for higher education operates at three different lev- els (Eurydice, 2004b, p. 104): “national higher education policy, national evalu- ation and quality assurance for individual institutions.” The following considers quality assurance in higher education specifically with regard to continuing higher education. In 1995, an independent agency was established to evaluate the quality of research and teaching at Finnish higher education institutions: the Finnish Higher Education Evaluation Council (FINHEEC). This body is funded by the Ministry of Education. FINHEEC criteria for ascertaining quality fall into five sections (FINHEEC, http://www.kka.fi, accessed in June 2006):

Basic requirements

• The professional courses contribute to the essential functions of the higher education institution, and they are derived from the strategy of the univer- sity or polytechnic. • The professional courses are designed to deepen, broaden and develop the knowledge, skills and capabilities of the students acquired during the degree studies and needed in practical working life, also taking into account international developments in the field. • The title, marketing, diploma issued on completion of training and other material related to the professional courses shall correspond to the level and contents of the training and courses. • The higher education institution possesses sufficient financial resources to implement the professional courses. Continuing Higher Education in Finland 165

Business and working life orientation • National and regional aspects as well as training and development needs must be considered in the planning of professional courses. • Business and working life representatives contribute to the planning and implementation of the professional courses, also providing feedback. • The development project included in the training as well as a possible guided practical training period, performed principally outside the stu- dent’s own working unit, constitute an essential part of the professional course.

Training objectives, contents and process • The professional course has its own curriculum, containing information on the objectives, contents and scope of the training and modules of study, the workload required from the student in contact teaching and in self-directed study, the form and materials of study, the assessment criteria applied to the exams and other methods of passing the course, as well as the teachers. • The training has clearly defined objectives that are also expressed in terms of the knowledge and skills acquired by the student during this training. • The objectives and implementation of the professional courses are consis- tent with the published scope of the courses. • The contents, forms of teaching and study materials guarantee the attain- ment of the objectives of the professional courses. • In implementing the professional courses, the best contextual and peda- gogical knowledge and expertise are employed, also taking into account international developments in the field. • The studies aim to develop the skills and capabilities required by working communities, including interactive and cooperation skills. • The student selection procedure and criteria are appropriate and clearly stated. • Before starting their studies, students are aware of the nature of the course (e.g. structure, contents, literature, forms of exam or other methods to pass the course), i.e. it is possible for the student to have a complete picture of their study path at the beginning of the training. • If the higher education institution has previously delivered professional courses, the majority of students on such courses have completed their studies.

Pedagogical and practical arrangements

• The teachers are qualified and competent to deliver professional courses, and at least the teachers in charge have close contact with the higher edu- cation institution organising the courses. 166 O. Zawacki-Richter and A. Reith

• The professional courses are based on teaching, study and instruction methods that support adult learning. There are sufficient resources to pro- vide each student with a personal curriculum and to monitor their progress. • The higher education institution has a procedure that allows students to complete their studies after the end of the training period defined in the curriculum. • Teaching in a foreign language is used for legitimate reasons, and the lan- guage skills of both participants and teachers are ascertained in advance. • The teaching and learning environment is appropriate for training purposes and there are sufficient library services available. • If the professional courses are organised by several collaborating higher education institutions, the respective division of labour and terms of co- operation are clearly documented.

Quality assurance • The planning, administration and implementation process of the profes- sional courses is clearly documented and the roles and responsibilities of those contributing to the courses have been defined in detail. • The professional courses involve a systematic evaluation of the teaching and learning, and the students are encouraged to carry out self-assessment. • The higher education institution has documented procedures aiming at the continuous improvement of professional courses, as part of the compre- hensive quality assurance system of the institution.

FINHEEC evaluation results and recommendations form the basis for negotiations between the Ministry of Education and the higher education institutions (universities and polytechnics) on their funding and performance targets. Payment of a propor- tion of the budget is directly contingent upon evaluation results. This proportion is around 5% (Ham¨ al¨ ainen,¨ 2006). The views of students form an important part of self-evaluation. Opinions of international experts are gathered within a peer review process. International experts may be members of the Evaluation Council and are asked for their views in ques- tionnaires, interviews and seminars. FINHEEC promotes the embedding of evaluation systems in higher education by providing advisory services and financial support. Organisations exchange their individual evaluation reports to facilitate the setting of internal benchmarks and to create a transparent basis for decision-making, particularly the allocation of the bud- get. A future aim is to intensify international co-operation on evaluation and quality assurance in higher education, and here the European Association for Quality Assur- ance in Higher Education (ENQA) will have a particular part to play. The ENQA Continuing Higher Education in Finland 167

Secretariat is currently located at FINHEEC, and FINHEEC is also a member of the Nordic Quality Assurance Network in Higher Education. Evaluation results are also extremely important for course accreditation and for identifying centres of excellence for national league-tables. Indeed, FINHEEC is responsible for accrediting the continuing education programmes provided by the universities. FINHEEC manages the national register of all accredited courses of study.

3.3 Public Relations, Marketing and Advertising

Details of all continuing education courses can be found on an Internet platform, the Continuing Education Net Service (www.taydennyskoulutus.fi). Public relations, marketing concepts and advertising are subjects addressed in the section on pro- grammes.

3.4 Funding of Continuing Higher Education

Undergraduate and postgraduate programmes at Finnish higher education institu- tions are free of charge; however, there is a charge for continuing higher education courses. The total of all university budgets amounted to around 1.5 billion Euros in 2002, of which 36.5% came from external sources (Eurydice, 2004a). Most of this external funding was income from continuing higher education: “The centres for continuing education generate more than one-third of the total income from all commercial ser- vices provided by the universities” (Hellbom et al. 1999). Continuing higher educa- tion must be financially self-sufficient and in most cases makes a profit. According to Hanna-Riikka Myllymaki¨ (Secretary-General of the University Continuing Edu- cation Network in Finland) in an e-mail conversation on 30 June 2006, the annual turnover of all continuing education programmes is around 94 million Euros. Table 7 (Eurydice, 2004a) indicates the cost of the entire education system in 2002 totalling around 8.3 billion Euros: Year 1994 saw the introduction of budget negotiations between higher educa- tion institutions and the Ministry of Education based on “results agreements” and performance evaluations (Eurydice, 2004a):

“In recent years, the state administration has shifted from steering through legislation to steering by results, which is also the case in the steering of universities. In 1994 all universities adopted a system of performance-based budgeting. The universities and the Ministry of Education agree on appropri- ations in annual performance negotiations. Funds are allocated to universities as a lump sum, and they may independently decide on how to allocate them. 168 O. Zawacki-Richter and A. Reith

Table 7 Operating costs of the school system by Application MEUR % target in 2002 Pre-primary education12 234 2.8 Basic education 3012 36.1 General upper secondary education 551 6.6 Vocational education and training 1082 13 Apprenticeship training 109 1.3 Polytechnic education 656 7.9 University education and research13 1514 18.2 Other education 334 4 Administration 121 1.4 Student financial aid 727 8.7 Total 8339 100

Operating costs are covered by basic funding, supplementary funding for national duties, funding for national and regional programmes, project fund- ing to guarantee the progress of important research and education projects, as well as appropriations based on the university’s performance, all in accor- dance with what has been agreed in the performance negotiations. The criteria used in the evaluation of educational outcomes included centres of excellence, funds granted on the basis of quality factors, external funding for research, placement of students in the labour market, progress of their studies and innovation. The University Act of 1998 allows considerable devolution of decision- making, and there is now a process, which takes the form of results negotia- tions, at the end of which a results agreement is signed by the Ministry and each university. These agreements cover a three-year period and take the form of an agreement between universities and the Ministry of Education in rela- tion to the goals of each university; the agreement encompasses goals for adult education” (Osborne et al. 2004, p. 154.).

The financial crisis in higher education institutions triggered by the recession of the early 1990s put them under greater pressure to seek new sources of income. This is why they are generally strongly market-oriented, and this is nothing new for continuing higher education: “In Government and university strategies, UCE is generally defined as a business activity, which must be priced at market levels and must be profitable” (Haapanen, 2003, p. 134). Substantial pressure to attract external funding also creates tension between the CCEs and the faculties, the latter having

12Free pre-primary education of 6-year old children in day-care centres and comprehensive schools. 13Includes external research funding. Continuing Higher Education in Finland 169 discovered continuing higher education to be something of a cash cow and wishing to provide continuing education themselves: “More often than not, however, a con- tinuing higher education centre is seen as a competitor rather than as a collaborator within a university organisation [...]. This attitude may damage the development of continuing higher education as a whole” (ibid., p. 137). University authorities seek to counter this tendency, seeing a clear division of responsibilities between the CCEs and the academic departments as more efficient (Hellbom et al. 1999): “Strategic plans of the universities require that the division of labour within the universities be made more clear-cut and firm. Transferring continuing education to the academic departments would probably be detrimental to the client-centred and multidisciplinary approach, and, indeed, to the basic tasks of academic departments themselves”. Table 8 (Ministry of Education, KOTA database 2005) provides an overall view of the number of continuing education courses and participants by univer- sity and by type of funding. It clearly demonstrates that on average, the propor- tion of participants with state funding from either the Ministry of Education or the Ministry of Labour is only around 15%. This means that around 85% of con- tinuing education is funded by the participants themselves or their employers. A large proportion of external funding is generated by continuing education courses directly commissioned by private companies (i.e. commissioned training, courses on demand). These figures match those submitted by the Palmenia Centre for Continuing Edu- cation at the University of Helsinki, which receives only 15% state funding overall (cf. case example of Palmenia CCE).

3.5 Future Prospects

With regard to the Bologna Process (Witte & Otto, 2003, Maassen, 2004) and the European Union Lisbon Strategy (Rodrigues, 2003) and from a Finnish perspective, Myllymaki¨ (2006, p. 7) identifies the following development prospects and chal- lenges for the universities in general and for continuing higher education and adult education in particular:

“The role of university adult education must be enhanced with a view to per- forming the following basic tasks:

1. To develop and maintain mechanisms for the dissemination, transfer and internalisation of university-generated knowledge, and to develop and maintain knowledge management methods so as to enable the generation and use of new knowledge in all sectors of working life. 170 O. Zawacki-Richter and A. Reith ∗ 83.52 CE courses other fin. (%) ∗ 16.48 CE courses state fin. (%) ∗ 14 84.30 Particip. other fin. (%) ∗ −−−− Particip. state fin. (%) Particip. other funding CE courses other funding Particip. comm. tr. CE courses comm. tr. Particip. Min- Labour funding CE courses Min- Labour funding Particip. MinEdu funding Number of continuing education courses and participants by university and type of funding CE courses MinEdu funding Table 8 CE Particip. CE courses mean figure. ∗ ˚ AAUWasaULaplandHelTech 194 254TaTech 75LaTech 482HelEc 2731 5926 2270 101SwedEc 13,328 104TuEc 38 74 12 2897 248SibA 12 22 2652TheAUIAH 1501 4846 958 3 28 295AcaArts 852 372 1 24 20 25 28Total 12 12 84 528 19 48 0 1 565 12 439 287 559 1933 3841 4 509 62 317 5 6 18 0 94,159 2 0 58 87 1 5 71 4 379 66 50 210 0 0 982 1598 36 0 15 8543 1374 4 137 233 55 0 66 65 0 0 230 0 25 385 3 140 121 46 1015 2540 1497 0 3710 10,785 13 0 1478 472 1329 0 73 30.17 7 38 8.77 1132 37.35 99 35.42 1 69.83 166 78 0 91.23 23 1784 22,194 6 62.65 64.58 128 1808 40.16 2168 2100 6.43 3.38 25.77 8 32.00 20 31.80 0 999 59.84 13 64 0.45 59,712 93.57 96.62 74.23 68.00 68.20 188 17 15.70 57 99.55 208 7.92 12 33.47 0 4.84 36.36 335 0.96 92.08 846 66.53 95.16 339 37.17 63.64 0 99.04 4.55 8.20 4.55 62.83 28.57 95.45 91.80 0 95.45 25.00 71.43 4.76 10.00 75.00 95.24 90.00 University UhelsinkiJyU 1109UOuluJoU 23,710UKu 222 138Utu 70UTa 186 7468 3373 97 1522 241 5083 43 212 7 3116 47 8719 1 4203 777 3 311 53 741 23 10 4 10 1087 516 37 224 4 135 69 6517 9 0 15 111 49 476 30 162 172 0 14,930 2770 15 974 19 9.54 55 9 64 72 90.46 962 1140 1957 3852 10.55 171 1953 166 160 119 11.33 89.45 13.22 85 4081 6330 88.67 1850 86.78 14.33 0.79 2908 21.17 12.32 9.42 85.67 99.21 1.19 78.83 90.58 87.68 25.73 98.81 2.69 17.92 74.27 97.31 3.09 82.08 96.91 14 Continuing Higher Education in Finland 171

2. To develop and maintain professional development systematic based on collaboration between various education and training providers, so as to enable the provision of high-quality modular training for the various occupational groups in all sectors. 3. To process the knowledge people produce in their own universities and knowledge-generating institutions into a form suitable for practical pro- fessional use as teaching material, in a way that enables the various instructors and teaching support personnel to use it efficiently in their own work.”

Myllymaki¨ particularly highlights the modularisation of education and train- ing courses and the importance of co-operation between Finnish universities. She describes a multiuniversity Masters programme for the social and health sector, with five Finnish universities involved in development and delivery (see Fig. 5, Myllymaki,¨ 2006, p. 8). Ham¨ al¨ ainen¨ (2006) foresees growing demand for continuing higher education: “The need is growing: over 50% of the age group have higher education = agrow- ing number of potential participants!” This means that longer continuing education

University of Turku University of Tampere

Faculty of Law Experts from different universities Dept. of Nursing utilizing academic research Quality School of Public assurance unit networking between participants Health and experts Dept. of Social Policy 20 study weeks and Social Work 1–10 weeks modules

University of Kuopio University of Jyväskylä

Dept. of Social Work Faculty of Sports and Clients and Social Health Sciences Pedagogies

Dept. of Health Policy and Mgmnt. University of of Joensuu

Juristics for Social and Health Services

Fig. 5 An example of co-operation – a multiuniversity Masters programme for the social and health sector 172 O. Zawacki-Richter and A. Reith courses for people who are working will become increasingly important (“special studies”, cf. Section 2.3.4). A new trend described by Ham¨ al¨ ainen¨ (2006) is the outsourcing of professional development training for employees of large companies. He states that Nokia, for instance, has commissioned the Helsinki School of Economics to deliver execu- tive and management training courses. Such developments open up new growth prospects for university-based Centres for Continuing Education. Another peculiarity of Finland is the sabbatical system for employees: “At the beginning of the 1990s a common sabbatical system was created in Finland where anyone can take leave of absence – minimum three and maximum 12 months – from their job, and get about 40% of their salary. Social and other critical rights are retained and of course the right to come back any time” (Tiihonen, 2002, p. 6). Many employees use a sabbatical to further their educa- tion, and thus the sabbatical system can be said to promote continuing education in Finland.

4 Course Provision: University of Helsinki

Section 3.1.3 on higher education has already dealt with the embedding of the Palmenia Centre for Continuing Education in the organisational structure of the University of Helsinki, the functions of the Centre, its funding and management structures. The present section supplements the Palmenia case with data from course provider level obtained by means of the questionnaire. Additional examples drawn from the Helsinki School of Economics and the Helsinki University of Technology (TKK) are also available, specifically on the Dipoli Lifelong Learning Institute and the TKK Lahti Center. For reasons of space, they cannot be included here, but are available from the authors.

4.1 Continuing Education Courses at the University of Helsinki

In questionnaire responses, the Director and Planning Officer (Administration) of the Centre indicate that the Palmenia Centre for Continuing Education offers con- tinuing education courses in the following areas:

• Teaching, education and adult education • Social affairs and health • Communication • Implementation of information networks in education and working life • Languages and multicultural affairs • Regional development • Environment, natural resources and food science • Management and organisational development Continuing Higher Education in Finland 173

Demand for tailor-made continuing education programmes is strongly on the increase: close to 50% of the courses have been developed for specific companies and organisations. The content of these courses consists largely of management, lan- guages, information technology and cultural studies, but there is also a significant programme in hydrology. Within PhD programmes, there are three courses designed to prepare students for participating in such programmes. In addition, 14 distance-learning courses are available. The on-line phases make use of the technical infrastructure of the Univer- sity of Helsinki (e-learning), although the Palmenia Centre for Continuing Educa- tion also operates its own Internet-based learning platform (WebCT).

4.2 Marketing and Public Relations

Virtually all continuing education courses are publicised through advertisements in the printed media, by direct letter, information on the CCE website and adver- tisements on continuing education websites and databases. For around half of all continuing education courses, specific sections of the press are targeted and articles placed in publications for special interest groups. Around a quarter of courses are presented at trade fairs and in-company publicity events.

4.3 Co-operation

The CCE works in co-operation with the faculties of the University of Helsinki, and thus with individual university lecturers, for delivery of almost all its continuing education courses. Moreover, around a quarter of courses involve co-operation with other continu- ing education providers as well as private training institutes, companies, societies, government institutions, corporate universities and trade unions.

References

Bohn, I. (2005). Finnland – von den Anfangen¨ bis zur Gegenwart. Ingrid Bohn Pustet, Regensburg, 2005. Bourgeois, E., Duke, C., Luc-Guyot, J., & Merill, B. (1999). The Adult University. Buckingham. Brennan, M. (2000). Organisational Structures. In V. Mitchell (Ed.), European University Contin- uing Education – The Managers’ Handbook (pp. 51–104). Liege` Eurydice (2004a). The Education System in Finland, http://www.eurydice.org/Eurybase/ Application/init.htm, no date available; accessed on 2006/02/10. Eurydice (2004b). Focus on the Structure of Higher Education in Europe – National Trends in the Bologna Process, European Commission. Haapanen, E. (2003). University Continuing Education in Finland. In M. Osborne & E.Thomas (Eds.), Lifelong Learning in a Changing Continent – Continuing Education in the Universities of Europe, Leicester: National Institute of Aduld Continuing Education (England and Wales), pp. 125–152. 174 O. Zawacki-Richter and A. Reith

Ham¨ al¨ ainen,¨ K. (2006). Structure and Organisation of UCE in Finland – Comments. Paper pre- sented at the hearing of experts for the International Comparative Study on the Structure and Organisation of Continuing higher education, Hanover. Hellbom,K.,Kess,P.,Seppal¨ a,¨ K., & Tuomi, O. (1999). Finland, Report of Socrates Project Mak- ing it work: European Universities and Lifelong Learning.Tampere. Jarvis, P. (1996). Continuing Education in a late-modern or global Society: Towards a theoretical Framework for Comparative Analysis. Comparative Education, 32(2), 233–244. Lopez-Claros, A. (2005). Policies underpinning rising prosperity, Executive summary, http://www. weforum.org/pdf/Global Competitiveness Reports/Reports/GCR 05 06/Executive Summary, at 2006/06/10. Maassen, O. (2004). Die Bologna-Revolution, Frankfurt a. M., Frankfurt School Verlag. Manninen, J., & Engblom, T. (2004). Adults in Finnish Higher Education. In R. Mark, M. Pouget, & E. Thomas (Eds.), Adults in Higher Education – Learning from Experience in the New Europe, Oxford, pp. 121–132. Ministry of Education (1997). Joy of Learning – National Lifelong Learning Strategy. Helsinki. Ministry of Education (1998a). The Financing of Lifelong Learning. Finland’s Country Report for the OECD. Helsinki. Ministry of Education (1998b). Higher Education Policy in Finland. Helsinki. Ministry of Education (2002). Research – Targets, Priorities and Funding. Helsinki. Ministry of Education (2003). Strategic Plan 2015. Helsinki: Ministry of Eudcation. Ministry of Education (2005). Universities 2004 – Annual Report. Helsinki: Ministry of Education. Ministry of Education (2006). Universities 2005 – Annual Report. Helsinki. Myllymaki,¨ H.-R. (2006). University Continuing Education in a Globalising World – The Chal- lenges from Finnish Perspectives. Paper presented at the University Continuing Education Association (UCEA) 91st Annual Conference, San Diego. Osborne, M. (2003). A European Comparative Analysis of Policy and Practice in widening Partic- ipation to Lifelong Learning. European Journal of Education, 38(1), 5–24. Osborne, M., Sandberg, H., & Tuomi, O. (2004). A Comparison of Developments in University Continuing Education in Finland, the UK and Sweden. International Journal of Lifelong Edu- cation, 23(2), 137–158. Parjanen, L. (2003). Success for University Continuing Education through a shared Net Ser- vice. Paper presented at the International Conference on Network Universities and e-Learning, Valencia, Spain. Parjanen, L. (1997). Open University in Finland, Helsinki. Rodrigues, M. (2003). European Policies for a Knowledge Economy, Cheltenham. Statistics Finland (2006). Finland in Figures – Education, http://www.stat.fi/tup/suoluk/ suoluk koulutus en.html, at 2006/02/10. Taylor, R. (2001). Lifelong learning in Western Europe: Myth or Reality. Adult Education and Development, 56, 127–146. Tiihonen, P. (2002). Can Parliaments take part in the Innovation Process? Paper presented at the Workshop on Public Sector Innovation, Ottawa, http://www.innovation.cc/news/innovati-on- conference/tiihonen.pdf, at 10.06.2006. Tuomi, O. (1997). ‘Finland’ in European Continuing Education Network (EUCEN). In EUCEN (Ed.), Thematic Network in University Continuing Education – 1st Year Report, Liege.` Tuomisto, J. (1992). Finland. In: P. Jarvis (Ed.), Perspectives on Adult Education and Training in Europe, Leicester, pp. 287–304. Witte, J., & Otto, E. (2003). Der Bologna-Prozess. Wissenschaftsmanagement, 3/2003, pp. 29–33. Continuing Higher Education in France

Torsten Dunkel and Isabelle Le Mouillour

Contents

1 Introduction ...... 176 2SystemLevel...... 177 2.1 The Basic Conception of Continuing Education in France ...... 177 2.2 Continuing Higher Education ...... 180 2.3 Continuing Higher Education Providers ...... 181 2.4 Framework Conditions ...... 186 3 Institution Level ...... 190 3.1 Organisational Structures and Management of Continuing Higher Education . 190 3.2 Quality Assurance ...... 193 3.3 Publicity and Marketing ...... 194 3.4 Funding of Continuing Higher Education ...... 195 3.5 Participants ...... 199 4 Programme Level ...... 201 4.1 Courses ...... 201 4.2 Formal Aspects of Continuing Education ...... 203 4.3 Staff Motivation and Participation in Continuing Education ...... 204 4.4 Partnerships ...... 205 5 Profile of the Universite´ Lille I – SUDES ...... 205 5.1 Organisational Structure and Management ...... 206 5.2 Staff ...... 207 5.3 Provisions ...... 208 5.4 Development Prospects ...... 209 6 Conclusions and Challenges ...... 209 References ...... 212

T. Dunkel (B) CEDEFOP, Project Manager, Education/Training and the Labour Market, PO Box 22427, GR-551 02, Thessaloniki, Greece e-mail: [email protected]

M. Knust, A. Hanft (eds.), Continuing Higher Education and Lifelong Learning, 175 DOI 10.1007/978-1-4020-9676-1 6, C Springer Science+Business Media B.V. 2009 176 T. Dunkel and I. Le Mouillour

1 Introduction

Continuing higher education (FCU: formation continue universitaire) is firmly embedded in the French education system. It has evolved as a result of specific historical, legal and socio-cultural circumstances. Lifelong learning was enshrined in legislation more than 35 years ago, yet the tradition of lifelong learning dates back to the speech made by Condorcet before the Legislative Assembly in April 1792: “education (instruction) should not desert individuals once they leave school”; rather, “it should encompass all age groups” (Bournazel, 2005, p. 25). Continuing higher education is a specific sector of contin- uing education provision and, as such, is defined as a component of the individual right to education. This right to education is guaranteed for all so that everyone can further develop their personality, the level of their initial education and their contin- uing education, integrate into social and working life and exercise their civil rights and duties (citoyennete)´ (Bulletin Officiel, 2000). All in all, 28% of adults (aged under 56, after their initial education) participate in continuing education every year.1 In 73% of cases, this consists of a traineeship somewhere other than in the workplace; in 19% of cases continuing education takes place in the workplace, and in 2% of cases it is governed by an alternance contract. The French higher education system encompasses all programmes of study that begin after the baccalaureat,´ which is regarded as the first stage of higher educa- tion. The overwhelming majority of higher education institutions are public sec- tor establishments (EPSCP: Etablissement public a` caractere` scientifique, culturel et professionnel). As such, their duties and tasks are determined in law by the public sector regulations (Bulletin Officiel, 2000). These name continuing edu- cation as the second most important duty of the university system after basic degree programmes. Other duties and tasks include scientific and technical research, as well as the transfer of results, the dissemination of scientific and technical culture and information, and international co-operation (Art. L. 123-3 of the Code de l’education´ 2000). Participation in continuing higher education has a symbolic dimension: the attainment of a diploma at a grande ecole´ or university by persons who did not achieve one during their previous phase of education. This represents one of the particular characteristics of the French continuing education scene: universities are the only institutions that can offer programmes of study leading to a diploma or certificate. Nonetheless, public sector continuing higher education has just 300,000 participants, or less than 6% of all adults in continuing education, and just 4% of all continuing education provision leading to a licence or higher qualification (Filloque, 2006). This can be viewed as an indication of the need to develop continuing higher education in France.

1Here, continuing education is defined as a clearly identifiable period of education with particular educational objectives and teaching tools (DEP, 2003). Continuing Higher Education in France 177

The part of the study on “continuing higher education in France” involved the conduct of 13 interviews with experts (lasting between 60 and 120 min) and sec- ondary analysis of the key documentation of continuing education providers as well as of the national university evaluation reports, official statistical materials, legisla- tion and relevant studies on continuing higher education. Detailed studies of insti- tutions offering continuing higher education were made. The experts interviewed included academics conducting research in the field; persons involved in shaping continuing higher education in France from an education policy point of view (min- isterial level, Conference´ des universites);´ coordonnateurs, whose role affords a comparative overview of continuing higher education in their field; and individu- als who are responsible for continuing higher education in their institution (chief administrators or directors of the continuing higher education department). Following this introduction, the basic conception of continuing education and the nuances of continuing higher education are defined at systemic level in section two; the overall continuing education landscape and its frame of reference in France are also outlined. Section three discusses managerial, organisational and financial aspects of the university system. The level of provision is described in section four in terms of the formal, staffing and partnership aspects of the organisation of contin- uing education. Lastly, a few particular features will be highlighted using the case study of SUDES, the largest provider of continuing education by turnover. Some conclusions will be drawn and future prospects explored at the end of the chapter.

2SystemLevel

2.1 The Basic Conception of Continuing Education in France

2.1.1 From Continuing Education to Continuing Higher Education Continuing education can be regarded as following on from the education´ perma- nente movement of the 18th century. Institutionalised continuing education began in France with the founding of the CNAM (Conservatoire National des Arts et Metiers)´ in 1794. Since then, it has been promoted as a political goal and has at the same time developed into a market. Generally speaking, in France, “continuing education” designates all educational activities that take place after the abandonment or termination of initial education (Feutrie, 1998). Continuing education is devoted to adults and is unequivocally prac- tical in orientation; it deals with applied knowledge (savoirs appliques)´ (Bournazel, 2005, p. 23). No distinction is drawn between general and vocational continuing education, in that continuing education is always vocational. Ever since the voca- tional education Act of 1971, responsibility for the delivery of vocational continuing education has fallen to the government and the regions. continuing education has been a statutory obligation since that time. “The objectives of continuing education are: integration or reintegration of work- ers, preservation of their jobs, promotion of their skills and access to the various 178 T. Dunkel and I. Le Mouillour levels of vocational qualifications, and a contribution to economic, cultural and per- sonal development as well as to social advancement” (Centre Inffo, 2005). All con- tinuing education courses must set out clear aims, curricula, teaching methods and supervisory measures; evaluation of curricula and their outcomes is mandatory. The target groups are:

• people belonging to the working population, whether or not they are in employment; • people who have opted out of the initial education system and wish to become integrated into working life.

In the context of reforming the 1971 Act, a state secretariat for the rights of women and vocational education was created by the Prime Minister in 1999. Its report defines the right to lifelong education as a “collectively guaranteed transferable per- sonal right”:

• “personal right” means that everyone can claim at any time the rights they have acquired, and that they can individually negotiate and develop their continuing education project, so as to gain access to continuing education which corresponds both to their personal objectives and to the goals and strategies of their company, sector or local area; • “transferable right” means that the eligibility acquired in a given company is maintained in the event of occupational mobility; • “collectively guaranteed right” means that in order for the system to operate in practice, it has to function on the basis of a common administration and utili- sation of funds, but that individuals may also have different levels of eligibility depending on their personal circumstances (Eurydice, 2000, p. 85).

2.1.2 Nuances of Continuing Higher Education A diverse array of terms is used to describe continuing education in France, which corresponds to continuing higher education in Germany. Examples drawn from the interviews (Int.) provide evidence of this fact: In the case of Int. 1, continuing education above all means continuing education leading to diplomas, and in fact to national diplomas. It does not serve to update a person’s knowledge base. The list of diplomas cited in Int. 2 comprises national diplomas and university diplomas. Medical continuing education is provided in the form of short study programmes sanctioned by certificates. Int. 3 offers “formation permanente”. From a historical point of view, “forma- tion permanente” is the older term and is used when continuing education takes place at a person’s own initiative. “Formation continue”, on the other hand, is an occupational requirement. However, the differences between the two terms appear to be disappearing gradually. National statistics distinguish between formation ini- tiale, formation continue and formation en alternance. Int. 6 refers moreover to the Continuing Higher Education in France 179 learners engaged in formation permanente: they attend courses without having a defined status or being answerable to anyone. According to Int. 8, the significance of these terms is purely semantic, since the funding basis is identical. Int. 3 uses the expression formation continue universitaire for formation con- tinue, which is based on the universities’ resources and potential for research and higher education. The term formation tout au long de la vie arose in Int. 7 as a logical consequence of formation professionnelle continue in the European context. It covers skills devel- opment and the updating of individual knowledge on the one hand and, on the other, the responsibility of public authorities and companies to support individual learners. The distinction between initial education (formation initiale) and continuing edu- cation (formation continue) has been fading in recent years. The reason is that the entry routes into working life do not make it possible to draw a clear dividing-line for young people between phases of education and phases of work. Another important factor here is the introduction of procedures for the validation of prior experience (VAE – validation des acquis de l’experience).´ Moreover, different categories for the certification of continuing education courses are differentiated:

• courses leading to diplomas (formation diplomante);ˆ • courses leading to certificates but not to diplomas (formation certifiante, non- diplomante);ˆ • skills-enhancement courses (formation qualifiante or diplomanteˆ differ´ ee).´

In legal terms, formation diplomanteˆ leads to a diploma. This term “diploma” is reserved for instruction in the state sector. In order to be “diplomante”,ˆ a course of study must be listed in one of the occupational registers (repertoires´ professionnels). Examples of such courses include state diplomas (Bachelors (BA), Master (MA), etc.), state brevets, validated certificates and diplomas (e.g. awarded by the French Association for Adult Education – Association franc¸aise pour la formation des adultes – AFPA), certificates of vocational qualification (certificats de qualification professionnelle – CQP) and certain university diplomas (diplomeˆ universitaire – DU), which are listed in the Repertoire´ national des certifications professionnelles (RNCP – national register of vocational qualifications). As for courses leading to certificates but not to diplomas, every educational establishment may issue a certificate or attestation. Private educational establishments are currently attempting to introduce quality standards for vocational certification with the aid of the French Association for Adult Education (Hobsons, 2005, p. 39). Skills-enhancement courses are intended primarily for individuals who have “abandoned their initial education before or at the end of the first cycle of university studies, and people who have not acquired any recognised vocational qualifications and wish to resume their studies at a later date for the purpose of social advancement” (Art. 12 ANI of 20 September 2003). Such courses are still in the developmental stage at present (Dennery, 2005, p. 252). 180 T. Dunkel and I. Le Mouillour

Universities are the only institutions that can offer courses of study leading to diplomas or certificates: state qualifications (licences, masteres` or doctorats) or university diplomas (diplomesˆ d’universite´ – DU). DU are certificates created and accredited by universities in response to local or regional demand (Circulaire no. 5 of 12 April 1994 (RLR 430-2d)). They are issued for courses not covered by national diplomas. The duration of study is normally between 50 and 600 h. In addi- tion, inter-university diplomas (diplomesˆ inter-universite´ – DIU) have been estab- lished through partnerships between different universities. Certificated courses lasting 1–3 days may, for example, be provided in co- operation with ecoles´ de commerce et d’ingenieurs.´ The dividing line between study programmes sanctioned by diplomas and those sanctioned by certificates is becom- ing ever more blurred, since individual shorter modules may be combined into state qualifications and diplomas (Hobsons, 2005, p. 39).

2.2 Continuing Higher Education

The contract for this project identifies three dimensions of continuing higher education:

1. Target group The target groups for continuing higher education – as distinct from other continuing education provision – should above all be university graduates who are in work or have work experience, as well as other people in work or with work experience who obtain entitlement to university access by traditional or non-traditional means. 2. Institution The following should be considered as providers of continuing higher education – establishments within universities, establishments associated with universities, research institutes, academic societies and professional associations, as well as corporate universities. 3. Provision Only courses for which tuition fees are compulsory should be considered.

In France, there is no such construct as “continuing higher education”! It is organ- ised in accordance with the following dimensions in the French context:

1. Continuing education Emphasis is normally placed on the “vocational” orien- tation, without referring to “academic” competence. Continuing higher educa- tion in France is seen in relation to the definition of continuing education (see Section 2.1) and not in relation to university education. 2. Qualification The target qualification is important. A key criterion of continuing higher education in France is the award of a state-recognised diploma. Higher education institutions are virtually the only ones authorised to offer courses leading to diplomas or certificates (formations diplomantesˆ ou certifiantes). Continuing Higher Education in France 181

3. Validation The introduction of procedures for the validation of informal learn- ing has bolstered the significance of qualifications in recent years. The level of continuing education is defined solely by the qualification acquired, and not by the establishments at which the individual elements of competence were attained. An extreme case would be an academic qualification obtained through the validation of modules from what would be defined in Germany as “non- academic” continuing education provision. 4. Working population Continuing higher education is intended for the working population, irrespective of whether individuals are currently in employment. 5. Provider “Formation continue universitaire” is a generalisation. In the French context, providers of “university” or higher continuing education include a range of establishments that are not universities. 6. Compulsory tuition fees Continuing education courses are free of charge for the majority of participants. They are financed either by companies, through their obligation to contribute at least 1.5% of their wage bill (based on the funding rules contained in the 1971 Act) or else through national or regional public sector resources. Only a minority of participants are obliged to pay fees, and a distinction is made between registration fees and tuition fees. 7. Content No distinction is drawn between participants as far as content is con- cerned. In other words, both participants in initial education and those in con- tinuing education may take the same courses and modules and thereby aspire to the same qualification. 8. Core competence Continuing education departments act as administrative and managerial units. Their work increasingly focuses on counselling and supervis- ing participants. They are entrusted by universities with carrying out the proce- dure for validation of prior learning. 9. Provision The universities’ three roles in the field of continuing education are defined in relation to their provision: (1) courses leading to diplomas; (2) courses leading to certificates; and (3) courses provided at the request of com- panies. Different universities position themselves differently in these market segments. 10. Participants Only the status of continuing education participants distinguishes them from other participants. They may, for example, take classes mainly attended by undergraduate students.

This is the sense in which the term “continuing higher education” is used in this report.

2.3 Continuing Higher Education Providers

The French system of vocational continuing education is influenced by the tradi- tionally strong central government. Much continuing education provision is cir- cumscribed by statutory measurse (collective agreements, laws and decrees), which 182 T. Dunkel and I. Le Mouillour in many cases refer back to collective agreements between the social partners and the government. Depending on the status of individuals and the specific problems besetting them, the social partners and the government have developed different procedures: sandwich courses (formation en alternance), individual training leave (conge´ individuel de formation), professionalisation contracts and periods (contrats et periodes´ de professionalisation), and the individual right to training (droit indi- viduel a` la formation). The development of vocational continuing education has much to do with the legal obligation of companies to contribute to the funding of continuing education. Consequently, the French continuing education system is far more strongly geared to employees than to the unemployed. Identifying the need for continuing education is the task of the government, which increasingly delegates the task to the relevant regional authorities. Continuing education providers have a large amount of latitude in organising their provision; this has resulted in a highly competitive market with a plethora of providers. Any natural or legal person may offer programmes of study: all organisa- tions whose principal activity comprises adult education and continuing education (as set out in NAF 804C), other educational institutions, technical colleges and also other organisations which offer continuing education without it being their princi- pal activity. Providers must comply with certain obligations, including – pursuant to the social modernisation Act – sending a declaration´ d’activite´ to the govern- ment’s department of vocational education when signing their first training con- tract or agreement. Providers must send the department a pedagogical and finan- cial statement (bilan pedagogique´ et financier) once a year (Direction regionale,´ 2004). The total turnover of the market in vocational continuing education is esti- mated at e5.6 billion. The market consists of some 37,800 public and private educational establishments. And 16% (ca. 6000) of these providers account for 84% of the turnover (CR2I, 2005). Most of the public providers are public sec- tor educational institutions falling under the auspices of the Ministry of Edu- cation, Research and Technology; they offer initial as well as continuing edu- cation for adults. These institutions include universities, GRETA (GRoupements d’ETAblissements du second degre´ public), the CNAM and educational institutes under the supervision of other ministries. The semi-public sector includes educa- tional associations under ministerial supervision and educational establishments (chambres consulaires) of the chambers of industry and commerce, trade associ- ations and chambers of agriculture, and the AFPA (Association nationale pour la Formation Professionnelle des Adultes). The private sector, in which over 80% of the turnover is made, comprises various providers, e.g. non-profit associations, small training firms and companies providing in-house continuing education for their staff (CR2I, 2005). The experts confirm, first, that the market in continuing education is highly competitive (Int. 3; Int. 5; Int. 7; Int. 8, Int. 9, Int. 11, Int. 12). Although turnover has not risen in recent years, new activities have been developed especially in the field of validating prior experience. At the same time, continuing education has Continuing Higher Education in France 183 increasingly become an integral component of higher education. Second, the experts point out that the market in continuing higher education is declining (Int. 4; Int. 6). Validation of prior experience and the opening up of initial education programmes to all target groups are contributory factors. Furthermore, the demand for contin- uing higher education increasingly focuses on skills-enhancement courses, while the universities prefer – on grounds of cost – to offer courses leading to diplomas (Int. 6). A glance at the continuing education programmes actually delivered reveals that higher education institutions in France operate on the “vocational education market” just like all other private or public providers. By “higher education institutions” we mean universities, faculties, IUT (Instituts universitaires de technologie – univer- sity institutes of technology) and the affiliated engineering colleges; the Conserva- toire National des Arts et Metiers´ (CNAM – with its headquarters in Paris and its associated regional centres); the “assimilated institutions” (three technical universi- ties, three national polytechnic institutes, Sciences Po (political sciences), the Ecole Nationale d’Administration (ENA – national college for administration); the inde- pendent engineering colleges and other grandes ecoles.´ The first grandes ecoles´ to offer continuing education were the grandes ecoles´ de commerce (trade and indus- try). Their provision includes courses leading to diplomas (masteres` specialis´ es;´ MBA), short certificate courses, short degree programmes and company in-house continuing education programmes. The market in management continuing educa- tion for managers and company directors (ca. e360 million) is shared by three grandes ecoles,´ which between them account for 12.5% of the market (FNEGE, 2003). The engineering colleges (grandes ecoles´ d’ingenieurs)´ entered the con- tinuing education market at a comparatively late stage. The continuing education departments of 18 engineering colleges (including Ponts et Chaussees,´ Centrale Formation-ICTM, College` de Polytechnique, Enic Lille and Insa Lyon) co-operate with one another as members of the Club des grandes ecoles´ d’ingenieurs´ pour la formation continue (continuing education IFCO), founded in 1988 (Hobsons, 2005, p. 32). Strictly speaking, there are no higher education institutions in France specialis- ing in continuing higher education. The reason is that continuing higher education is regarded as an integral component of lifelong learning provision. At some estab- lishments, most of the tuition provided falls into the category of continuing higher education (BA/MA, or level III to I in the French context). On this premise, the “special” higher education institutions include the Conservatoire National des Arts et Metiers´ (CNAM), the Centre d’Etudes Superieures´ Industrielles (CESI) and the Ecole Nationale d’Administration (ENA). There are in addition other institutions offering continuing education, espe- cially continuing higher education. These are the Centre National d’Enseignement a` Distance (CNED, a distance learning college), the Centre National pour l’Amenagement´ des Structures des Exploitations Agricoles (CNASEA, a state vocational training establishment under the auspices of the Ministry of Agriculture and the Ministry of Vocational Education) and the GRoupements d’ETAblissements (275 GRETA – state school establishments at secondary level II, general, 184 T. Dunkel and I. Le Mouillour 2 ´ erieur et de la Recherche, 2005, p. 207. Legend: GRETA: GRoupement mill.) Number of participants Participant hours (in thousands) e Turnover (in 1999 2001 2002 1999 2001 2002 1999 2001 2002 ´ emique de Formation Continue. Continuing education activity, Ministry of Education, in 1999, 2001 and 2002 ´ ecoles 172.6 178.1 194.5 301,400 312,020 324,200 37,150 37,870 52,100 Table 1 ´ Education nationale; de l’Enseignement Sup ` ere de l’ Minist GRETA (& CAFOC)Higher ed. insts.– of those, universities/grandes 396.8 410.0 248.7 419.3 – 508,800 506,000 503,400 244.4 410,500 70,000 – 66,100 66,100 400,600 49,700 – 57,600 Total 645.5 – 663.7 919,300 – 904,000 119,700 – 123,700 2 d’ETAblissements; CAFOC: Centre Acad Continuing Higher Education in France 185 vocational or technical high schools), which co-operate in providing adult education. The Ministry of National Education (Ministere` de l’Education Nationale), through its administrative apparatus, is the nerve centre of the continuing education system. Its administration is divided up within individual regions into academies´ (administrative units), in order to facilitate the adaptation of education policy to the local context as well as co-operation with the local authorities (the municipalities for enseignement primaire, the departements´ for colleges` and the regions for lycees).´ Continuing education courses at higher education institutions attracted 325,000 participants (stagiaires) in 2002, 41% of them on study programmes leading to diplomas (formations diplomantes).ˆ This corresponds to 42 million participant hours, volumes of activity totalling e194 million and 17,800 decisions on the proce- dure for validating prior learning (Filloque, 2005). Table 2 shows the 10 universities with the highest continuing education turnover.

Table 2 Higher education institution by continuing ed. turnover (2002) (Grille 2005, p. 5)

Rank Higher education institution Turnover (e million)

1 Lille I 10.84 2 Paris XI 6.16 3Nantes 5.39 4 Lyon I 5.23 5IEPParis 4.77 6 Strasbourg I 4.32 7 Reims 4.23 8 Paris XII Val-de-Marne 4.17 9 Paris XIII 4.02 10 Grenoble II 3.98

The trend differs from one university to another. Fourteen universities saw their number of participants rise by more than 20% between 2001 and 2002. Some of the reasons for this are:

• the signature of annual agreements with large companies about continuing edu- cation for their staff or the delivery of short courses; • the inclusion in the statistics of the number of participants attending university institutes of technology; • an improvement in supervision (including the search for funding; attention to participants’ individual needs); • the provision of international continuing education programmes; • the reaction of the regions to changes in the curricula for engineers and senior managers (programmes ingenieurs´ et cadres superieurs´ – PICS), with preserva- tion of the level I and II certificates; • sixteen universities have recorded a 20% decline in their participant numbers, owing in most cases to the change in regional funding policy (Grille, 2005, p. 1). 186 T. Dunkel and I. Le Mouillour

The vast majority of continuing education programmes falls into the category of short or general continuing education courses. The proportion of courses leading to diplomas rose between 2000 and 2002. One in every four participants attend- ing a continuing education course studies for a national diploma. Another quarter of participants enrol for a short course (fewer than 100 h). A third quarter of par- ticipants pursue general cultural continuing education. A further 17% studies for a university diploma (DU), and the remainder enrols for skills-enhancement courses (more than 100 h). The universities awarded 33,500 continuing education diplomas in 2002 (20% more than in 2001). The details are given in Table 3. The creation of the vocational degree (licence professionnelle) in 1999 led to the conversion of validated university diplomas and other qualifications into national diplomas. Three of every 10 national diplomas awarded by universities in the context of continuing education are DESS (Diplomeˆ d’Enseignement Superieur´ Specialis´ e´ -level I diplomas); one in every six is a general licence or a vocational licence. Every fifth diploma is at level IV, which entitles the holder to embark on university studies without a baccalaureat.´

Table 3 Diplomas awarded in the field of continuing education at universities (table based on Grille, 2005, p. 3)

Category of diploma 2001 2002 Change 2001–2002 (in %)

National diploma 15,459 19,320 25.0 University diploma (DU) 12,620 14,180 12.4 Number of diplomas awarded 28,079 33,500 19.3

2.4 Framework Conditions

France invested e116.3 billion in its education system in 2004. This sum repre- sents 7.1% of GDP and e1870 per inhabitant. The breakdown was e30.6 billion for primary level, e52.7 billion for secondary level and e19.7 billion for higher education. The remaining e13.2 billion were allocated to continuing education and extra-curricular activities. This puts France in an average position among European countries, just ahead of Finland and Germany, where expenditure on education is slightly lower (Jeljoul et al., 2005, p. 1). From a historical point of view, the institutes for the social promotion of employ- ment (IPST: Institut de Promotion Social du Travail), along with the CNAM, were the first university bodies to become active in the field of continuing education, when they were founded within universities at the start of the 1950s. Their establish- ment followed on from a long tradition of auditeurs libres. When Pasteur was dean of the Faculty of Science in Lille, 150 registered students and 300 non-students or auditeurs attended courses at the faculty. Specific diplomas (brevets d’etudes´ specifiques)´ were created for these “voluntary” students or for people conducting Continuing Higher Education in France 187

“specific industrial research”. University access was possible without any particu- lar qualifications. Following the Debre´ Act of 1959, IPST were established at the science faculties in most university towns (Strasbourg, Toulouse, Marseille, Lille, etc.) over the next 15 years (Feutrie, 1998). These IPST still exist today: they have been integrated into the universities, although their statutes guarantee them a rel- ative degree of autonomy (Ministere` de l’Education´ nationale; de l’Enseignement Superieur´ et de la Recherche, 2005). The 1968 Framework Act on higher education (Loi d’orientation sur l’enseignement superieur)´ introduced continuing education as a fundamental duty (mission fondamentale) of universities for the first time: “Irrespective of age, social class and occupation, everyone should be put in a position to expand or renew their knowledge, so as to achieve advancement in accordance with their capabilities” (Loi d’orientation sur l’enseignement superieur,´ 1968). Under the 1971 Act, continuing higher education forms part of vocational con- tinuing education, and companies are obliged to provide financial support for the continuing education of their staff. Thus the stage was set for the development of continuing education in higher education institutions. The Act also provides for the establishment of a steering body (structure de concertation et de reflexion)´ in each university, and when setting up this body the Ministry endorsed an initial support contract, endowing the universities with resources for the creation of continuing education departments. These departments later became common continuing edu- cation services (Services communs de formation continue, 1985) which by now exist in all universities. Since 1975, each academie´ has appointed an official responsible for the devel- opment of continuing education in each of its institutions. Coordination at national level is ensured by the DAFCO (del´ egu´ e´ academique´ a` la formation continue). The Framework Act of 1984 went further in this direction, attributing to continuing edu- cation the same, important, status as initial education programmes and research. The Decree of 18 October 1985 on continuing education provision at higher education institutions governed by the Ministry of Education is regarded as the basis for the incorporation of continuing education into such institutions. That Decree is still in force today. The Decree of 24 March 1993 on adult continuing education within the public education sector makes it possible for the same cycle d’enseignement to be offered in initial education programmes as in continuing education curricula (Bournazel, 2005). The social modernisation Act of 2002 introduces two main themes in relation to continuing education: procedures for the validation of prior learning (VAE, valida- tion des acquis de l’experience)´ and the provision of ongoing vocational continuing education. In 2003 the social partners (trade unions and employers) reached an agreement on the individual right of employees to vocational/continuing education (DIF, droit individuel a` la formation). The agreement was signed on 19 September, 2003. It concerns the staff of private companies and determines the basic methods of fund- ing continuing education: employees are entitled to 20 h of continuing education per year, and these hours may be accumulated into 120 h over a 6-year period. The 188 T. Dunkel and I. Le Mouillour framework conditions for lifelong learning were enshrined in legislation in 2005 (Decree No. 2005-180, 24 February 2005), and soon afterwards a national coun- cil on vocational lifelong learning was established (Decree No. 2005-479, 4 April 2005). In summary, the development of continuing higher education can be broken down into the following phases (additional details from (Denantes, 2005, p. 72)):

• 1968–1974 – the government encourages universities to commit themselves to continuing education; • 1974–1981 – internal debate about continuing education at universities; • 1981–1989 – although continuing education is declared a duty of universities, it remains marginal; • 1989–1997 – the Ministry of Education strengthens the universities’ autonomy and helps to develop procedures for the validation of work experience (valida- tion des acquis professionnels – VAP) in continuing education; the universities become responsible for continuing education from now on; • 1997–2001 – implementation of VAP is a major challenge in the development of continuing higher education; • 2001–2006 – further individualisation of continuing education through statutory framework conditions (DIF), and implementation of the validation of prior expe- rience (validation des acquis de l’experience´ – VAE) at universities. Emphasis on vocational lifelong initial and continuing education, as well as on social dialogue.

Current developments in the field of continuing education relate to the following aspects.

1. Territory, contracting and autonomy The National Evaluation Committee (CNE, 2004) finds that the geographical dis- tribution of universities across the French territory, in a state of flux since 1985, has now stabilised. Universities have formed close relations with their surround- ing areas and now co-operate closely with the local authorities (as a result of carefully considered spatial planning by universities). Moreover, the decentrali- sation Acts of 1982 and 1983 incorporated the regional authorities into the con- tinuing education system, while the 5-year law which entered into force in 1993 gave the regions greater powers in administering youth vocational education and in defining their own continuing education policy. Coordination and harmonisa- tion of the two spheres (government and region) are ensured nationally by the Council for the coordination of regional programmes for training and vocational continuing education (Le Mouillour, 2002, p. 8). Since 1983, contracts between the government and the regions have served as instruments for the delivery of a multiannual investment plan (initially for 5 and then for 7 years). Such plans are produced jointly for most areas of public sector investment. National plans in the higher education sector such as U2000 (1990–95) and U3M (university for the Continuing Higher Education in France 189

third millennium 2000–06) have been harmonised with these contracts (Malan, 2005, p. 7).

2. Validation of prior experience The introduction of the procedure for the validation of prior experience (VAE) in 2002, which made it possible to award a partial or full diploma to persons whose work experience has enabled them to acquire the necessary skills, may perhaps explain the slight stagnation in continuing higher education. Validation of prior learning took place in 17,710 cases at universities and the CNAM in 2003; 80% of universities offer such procedures and have taken the requisite organisational and infrastructure-related measures. The final qualifications were granted in 30% of cases (ranging from BAs to doctorates); by contrast, the partial validation of prior experience for the purpose of awarding diplomas has declined (Le Roux, 2005, p. 4; Ministere` de l’Education´ nationale; de l’Enseignement Superieur´ et de la Recherche, 2005).

3. New financial arrangements (2006) The funding and budget allocation for continuing higher education courses are affected considerably by developments connected with the Organic Law on financial legislation (Loi Organique relative aux Lois de Finance – LOLF). The 2006 LOLF was accompanied by the introduction of target agreements for the various programmes. The target in the “formations superieures´ et recherche uni- versitaire” programme is to organise higher education as part of lifelong learning. The target indicators are (MINEFI, 2006b):

• continuing education graduates as a proportion of the total number of gradu- ates: 7% (2006), 10% (2010) – the number of VAE (2002 Decree) at univer- sities and the CNAM: 3200 (2006), 3700 (2010); • own resources deriving from service activities: e1024 million (2006), e1200 million (2010).

Another objective is to tailor university-level qualifications to the labour market and improve the education system so as to reduce drop-out rates. Specific require- ments have been formulated: the introduction of BAs and MAs at all universities; the attainment of a university qualification by 50% of each age cohort by 2010, and a reduction in the university drop-out rate to 15% (MINEFI, 2006a, p. 76). The tangible effects of the LOLF on the management of continuing education at public sector establishments are visible from the changes made to the rules on the funding of postes gages,´ 3 which represent a substantial proportion of the staff in continuing education units (Int.12).

3So-called postes gages´ are staff posts, which are on loan from the government and must be reim- bursed monthly. 190 T. Dunkel and I. Le Mouillour

3 Institution Level

3.1 Organisational Structures and Management of Continuing Higher Education

The government plays a major role in the education sector in France, yet it does not have a monopoly. Two forms of decentralisation operate in the higher education sector: functional decentralisation, which accords universities the status of indepen- dent legal persons, and territorial decentralisation, which gives the regions scope for planning and decision-making (Mallet et al., 2005). Since 1984, universities have been Etablissements Publics a` Caractere` Scientifique, Culturel et Professionnel (EPCSCP), i.e. legal persons, and they “enjoy pedagogical and academic, adminis- trative and financial autonomy” (Art. L. 711-1). The framework conditions and organisational structures for the “continuing edu- cation” sphere of operations for all public sector universities under the supervision of the Ministry of Education are laid down by Decree No. 85-118 (18 October 1985), but they are not binding. Article 3 of Decree No. 85-118 stipulates as follows: “Con- tinuing education activities are the responsibility either of each section of the uni- versity or of a specific department, or both. Should no specific department exist, they are the duty of the lecturing staff. For every continuing education activity there is a person with pedagogical responsibility, who is either an enseignant-chercheur, enseignant or researcher at the university”. The Decree provides for the possibility of establishing a common depart- ment for the development of formation permanente (“service commun chargedu´ developpement´ de la formation permanente”). The task of this department would be to coordinate the university’s continuing education activities pursuant to decisions taken by its board of governors (Art. 12, Art. 13, Decree No. 85-118). This com- mon department would have a budget of its own (Art. 9, Decree No. 85-118). The head of the common formation permanente department is appointed by the univer- sity council subject to the approval of the board of governors, and may be supported by an advisory body. The head of the common department has the following duties: to prepare the budget, to draw up continuing education agreements, to represent the president of the university in talks with vocational education providers, to take charge of the university’s external relations in this sphere and to perform adminis- trative activities and duties for the board of governors (Art. 15, Decree No. 85-118). These common departments are coordinated at academie´ level by appointed coordinators and at national level by the Higher Education Division (Direction de l’Enseignement Superieur)´ of the Ministry of Education. The common department is organised differently from one university to another. The information acquired from our interviewees enables us to distinguish the following four organisational models:

• Centralised organisation The common department organises and coordinates continuing education activity in its entirety; Continuing Higher Education in France 191

• Autonomous organisation The common department operates as an independent continuing education provider; contact with the university is limited; • Split organisation The common department does not control all of the university’s continuing education activity; for instance, university institutes of technology (IUT) and engineering colleges have gradually established their own continuing education departments; the centralisation of continuing education provision varies depending on the university; • A mixed pattern There are varying degrees of centralisation and decentralisation.

Another level of coordination takes place among the universities in the academie.´ Decree No. 85-118 and the Education Code (Code de l’education´ Article L714-2 – Ordinance No. 2000-549 of 15 June 2000) outline the possibility of there being a common formation permanente unit for more than one EPCSCP (“service commun a` plusieurs etablissements”).´ The IUT now have their own national coordination unit for continuing education provision. The grandes ecoles´ have founded a continuing education network. It emerged clearly from all the interviews that a university’s dynamism in the field of continuing higher education depends very largely on the personality of its pres- ident. The management of continuing education provision is normally undertaken by a university lecturer or engineer as a full-time occupation (Int. 1, Int. 2, Int. 3, Int. 4, Int. 6, Int. 12). He/she is assisted in most cases by a director of studies (whose principal workload consists of teaching commitments) or else by an administrator (Int. 4). The continuing education department is answerable to the university council (Int. 5, Int. 3, Int. 4, Int. 10), and continuing education matters are discussed by the university’s board of governors. The head of the continuing education department reports to the university management (all interviews). In the case of some contin- uing education departments, the members of the management committee sit on the university council (Int. 3), or else the director is at the same time vice president of the university (Int. 4, Int. 10). One particular feature to be taken into account by directors or managers of uni- versity continuing education departments is the role of the coordinator. The coor- dinator for the Paris Sud area, for example, is at the same time director of the IUT Cachan (Int. 2). He is in charge of all work in the field of continuing education (calls for tender, public funding etc.) throughout the entire university and is respon- sible for liaising with companies. He himself describes the role of coordinator as symbolic, without hierarchical power. The coordonnateur’s role is described as the search for an internal consensus between the university’s different organisational units (CNE, 2005, p. 40). Nevertheless, the continuing education department takes decisions about new continuing education provision and selects the teaching staff. It is answerable to the university and to the Ministry, in conformity with the public sector regulations. Management structures in the field of continuing education programmes are dif- ferent again in the grandes ecoles´ (Int. 13). The headship of the continuing edu- cation department (a member of continuing education IFCO) is often assumed by a professor at the grande ecole.´ Staffing depends on the volume of work: the 192 T. Dunkel and I. Le Mouillour administrative staff of a given grande ecole´ will vary between 3 and 15 in num- ber, even reaching as many as 30 at Ponts Formation Edition (Ecole Nationale des Ponts et Chaussees).´ Continuing education at the ENA (Int. 8) has been man- aged centrally since its merger with the European Studies Centre in Strasbourg in 2002. The director of the ENA oversees a general secretariat and four pedagogi- cal sections (initial education, continuing education, traineeships and international relations). Thus continuing education is put on a par with initial education. Contin- uing education administration at the CNAM involves 35 members of staff (Int. 7). The CNAM is headed up by a general administrator (administratrice gen´ erale);´ the chairperson of the board of governors is appointed by decree of the President of the Republic. Operations at the CNAM are guided by a strategic steering commit- tee, consisting of 15 individuals with business, university or scientific backgrounds (CNAM, 2006, p. 2). The recruitment and remuneration of continuing education staff are governed mainly by the Decrees of 6 June 1984 (Art. 3, 7, 9) and 18 October 1985. The lat- ter Decree furthermore governs the field of human resources management (admin- istrative and teaching staff) in relation to both recruitment and remuneration and allowances. At the proposal of a university’s president, its board of governors will allocate to continuing education at least as many posts as those established by the govern- ment for this purpose, along with financial resources for professional training of the funded personnel; additional university finance may be utilised to this end (Decree of 18 October 1985 – Art. 5). The university receives compensation out of the continuing education bud- get for the hours of instruction delivered. This applies to classes taught as part of the teaching commitment of government-funded staff (but not to classes paid for out of the funds granted by the government for continuing education). The compensation is laid down in Article 33 of the Act of 26 January 1984. Staff who are involved in drawing up and executing vocational continuing education contracts in addition to their statutory duties are entitled to remuneration within certain limits (established by the Education and Finance Ministries). This remu- neration is determined by the Ministry’s payments officer subject to a proposal from the person in charge of continuing education (Decree of 18 October 1985 – Art. 6). Staff who, over and above their main workload, are responsible either for organ- ising continuing education programmes or for financial and accounting work may receive an allowance for their additional duties. It is calculated on the basis of the university’s total annual volume of activity in the continuing education sector and according to a decision of the Finance and Education Ministries. The allowances are paid for out of the university’s continuing education revenue (Decree of 18 October 1985 – Art. 7). In most cases, continuing education departments do not have their own teaching staff. The continuing education teaching staff consists of university initial educa- tion lecturers, secondary school teachers, visiting lecturers and research institute staff. The visiting lecturers are recruited on short-term contracts (normally with the Continuing Higher Education in France 193 prospect of an extension) for areas not falling within the core competence of the university’s own teaching staff. The continuing education departments surveyed have between 4 and 35 staff. For example, the four staff of Int. 2 (two full-time employees – one for VAE and one for continuing education – as well as the coordinator, plus an administrator and a university lecturer, both half-time) are assisted by about 50 tutors and 21 administra- tive posts distributed across the entire university and its external partner institutions. The continuing education department of the person responsible for Int. 5 consists of 35 people, including three or four university posts; others are civil service posts on loan from the government which must be reimbursed to the government monthly (so-called postes gages).´ Their duties comprise pedagogical counselling and organ- isational support for the faculty teaching staff. The situation is different in the grandes ecoles.´ The continuing education admin- istration of Int. 8’s organisational unit consists of 35 people. The general conditions explained above apply (see the Decree of 6 June 1984). There are no full-time lec- turers but some 1500 part-time tutors every year. The units of instruction last 2 to 3 h, on a half-day or full-day basis; 70% of the teaching staff are employed as civil servants, 20% as university lecturers and 10% as staff advisers (Int. 8).

3.2 Quality Assurance

Quality assurance relates to two main addressees: learners or students, and external partners (financing institutions, ministerial authorities etc.). Our interviews demon- strate a need for the development of quality assurance in the field of continuing higher education, as well as a degree of scepticism about its introduction. Arguments put forward for resisting the development of a quality assurance system included the confusion between quality as an overall requirement and quality in the sense of the quality of processes (cf. ISO 9001), as well as fears that the evaluation system devel- oped for continuing education may be adopted for initial education. Quality assessment by learners is a widespread practice in quality assurance. In the case of Int. 1, the alumni association conducts an evaluation in the third year. Students receive a questionnaire once their continuing education is complete (Int. 6, Int. 8, Int. 10, Int. 13). However, in most cases there is no certainty that the findings of such surveys will be taken into account. The questionnaires are evaluated and handed over to the director of studies. It is difficult to keep track of the students after their continuing education (Int. 6). In addition to these one-off measures, quality is ensured by means of ongoing supervision and counselling for students. In the case of Int. 1, the director of studies meets student representatives once a month in order to hear their comments, difficul- ties and suggestions. He monitors students and job-seekers at the work experience stage and when they take up employment. Every third-year student is allocated a personal tutor for his/her diploma project. In the case of Int. 5, as for Int. 1, an “open door” policy is practised and all complaints are dealt with. Counselling takes the form of mentoring during the period of study (Int. 6). 194 T. Dunkel and I. Le Mouillour

Quality management with respect to other institutions involved in higher educa- tion is demonstrated by the use of quality standards and the introduction of quality charters. The progress made in introducing quality standards varies a good deal. Few universities have achieved ISO certification as yet, but the trend is upward (Int. 2). The organisational unit of Int. 2 is ISO-certified. As for Int. 3, Int. 8 and Int. 13, ISO certification is currently underway. ISO 9001 appears to be the common European standard in the field of quality assurance (Int. 2), and is seen as a positive signal to the outside world (Int. 6), especially to the FONGECIF (Fonds de Gestion du Conge´ Individuel de Formation – administrative fund for individual training leave). Another initiative is the conclusion of quality charters in co-operation with exter- nal partners. The quality charter between the continuing education unit and funding bodies contains for example information about the duration of administrative pro- cesses between the partners; it raises costs by 5% (Int. 5). Quality assurance can likewise be ensured through the qualifications awarded and through input selection. The award of national diplomas and recognised certificates (under the modernisation Act of 2004) guarantees quality (Int. 7). In the case of Int. 8, the accreditation of study programmes is the determining factor. Quality is guaranteed by the selection mechanisms upon entry into continuing education, since two-thirds of all students are graduates of grandes ecoles´ (Int. 8).

3.3 Publicity and Marketing

Many universities have difficulty with publicity work and marketing concepts. A few continuing education departments pursue a marketing-mix strategy just like com- panies (Lille I, Dauphine, Paris I, UTC, Grenoble, Strasbourg). The problems lie, for example, in coordinating publicity between the various continuing education departments and the university PR department (Int. 12). According to Int. 2, this area is “the most difficult and worst of all”. There is a real need for publicity, since companies often do not think of universities as providers of continuing higher edu- cation (Int. 2). Other establishments consider that the ROI (return on investment) is small when compared with the necessary investment (Int. 6). According to Int. 9, the Organisme Paritaire Collecteur Agre´e´ (OPCA) and the FONGECIF would be appropriate target groups for marketing work. Int. 3, by contrast, has four people employed on marketing (three engineers and an assistant). Advertising campaigns are co-ordinated with the university’s com- mon continuing education department. The individual continuing education sections within the university conduct only supplementary advertising (Int. 3, Int. 4). All cen- tral and decentralised continuing education departments have an Internet homepage. In the case of Int. 10, the homepage has replaced printed advertisements since 2005. Since an e-presence is becoming increasingly important as an advertising tool, there is now a need for accompanying measures such as a telephone inquiry response service (Int. 10). Direct mailing campaigns and advertisements in the printed media have brought little ROI, so Int.1 has abandoned that method. Int. 2 and Int. 4 do advertise in Continuing Higher Education in France 195 the print media but the efficiency is not assessed. Int. 3, Int. 5, Int. 6 and Int. 13 have conducted targeted advertising campaigns in the print media, especially when announcing new continuing education provision. Int. 1, Int. 8 and Int. 13 make printed advertising materials available (brochures, advice leaflets, course cata- logues). Printed advertisements include the production of joint catalogues (Int. 8) or partial catalogues for specific target groups (e.g. nursing staff – Int. 10). Most effective of all is word of mouth advertising (Int. 1). Firms come back to Int. 1 year after year and recommend their continuing education courses to others. Int. 1 is listed in firms’ official address books as a provider of continuing educa- tion. Int. 6 actively promotes all newly created continuing education courses. It is still traditional to attend the relevant exhibitions (national educational exhibition, continuing education exhibition etc. – Int. 1, Int. 3, Int. 4, Int. 5 and Int. 8). One particular marketing tool is keeping in touch with the regional councils (Conseils regionaux),´ OPCA and FONGECIF (Int. 3). Int. 5 has introduced an open day system. Int. 8 is a member of the “public sector universities” network. Higher education institutions belong to various networks (e.g. engineering colleges, mining colleges, university institutes of technology) and regularly distribute information material to their members (Int. 12).

3.4 Funding of Continuing Higher Education

The government, companies and the regions are the main financial backers of voca- tional continuing education in the broad sense of the term (e21 billion, ca. 1.8% of GDP). This sum includes pay, allowances and social security contributions for all those concerned. The average company gives 3.3% of its wage bill (the statu- tory requirement being 1.5%) to 97 joint employer/employee bodies accredited to collect the funds (OPCA). The progression of overall expenditure in the continuing education sector is shown in Tables 4 and 5.

Table 4 Progression of overall expenditure in the continuing education sector (incl. trainees) by source of funds (mill. euro) (Ministere` de l’Education´ nationale; de l’Enseignement Superieur´ et de la Recherche, 2005, p. 207)

Structure (%) 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 in 2002

Government 7795 7957 8303 8094 8085 7698 35.3 Regions 1990 2084 2105 2071 2066 2084 9.6 Other local authorities 21.2 22.1 22.9 23.5 23.6 23.9 0.1 Other administrations 2140 1747 1702 1531 1542 1719 7.9 with UNEDIC4 Companies 8266 8533 8934 9289 9605 9621 44.2 Households 436 498 535 531 599 629 2.9 Total 20,642 20,841 21,602 21,539 21,921 21,775 100

4UNEDIC = Union Nationale pour l’Emploi dans l’Industrie et le Commerce – unemployment insurance fund. 196 T. Dunkel and I. Le Mouillour

Table 5 Sources of funding for continuing higher education (2003, in mill. euro) in France (incl. Overseas Departments) (Ministere` de l’Education´ nationale; de l’Enseignement Superieur´ et de la Recherche, 2005, p. 213)5

Total Universities Other EPCSCP Total CNAM with and INP and EPA (1) 2002 (2) CNAM

Companies 44.39 7.29 51.68 6.96 58.65 including: – for the education of their 43.76 7.26 51.01 6.88 57.89 employees – for the education of the 0.63 0.04 0.67 0.09 0.76 unemployed OPCA 28.34 0.67 29.01 1.68 30.69 Private individuals/participant 45.05 2.11 47.16 7.15 54.31 contributions including: – contracts with private 34.54 1.28 35.82 2.33 38.14 individuals – contracts with trainees 10.51 0.83 11.35 4.82 16.17 Total private funding 117.78 10.07 127.85 15.79 143.65 Government and local authorities – for the continuing education 11.06 2.59 13.65 0.19 13.84 of their employees – for the continuing education of special target groups including: – from the EU institutions 2.78 0.16 2.94 0.24 3.18 – from the government 9.27 0.37 9.64 0.33 9.97 – from the regions 32.29 1.13 33.42 15.62 49.04 Other public sector resources 6.64 0.33 6.97 1.11 8.08 Total public sector funding 62.04 4.57 66.61 17.50 84.11 Other educational 5.52 2.19 7.71 1.13 8.84 establishments Other resources 7.31 0.66 7.97 2.84 10.82 Total 192.65 17.49 210.14 37.27 247.41

The continuing education turnover in higher education institutions totals more than e247 million (2003), of which universities account for 192.65 million. Their turnover increased by 6.1% in just 1 year. More than a third of the revenue from con- tinuing education originates from companies and OPCA, another third comes from public sector sources (regions and government) and 22% from participant contri- butions (Ministere` de l’Education´ nationale; de l’Enseignement Superieur´ et de la Recherche, 2005, p. 212).

537 IUT, grands etablissements´ and ecoles´ publiques ding´ enieurs´ responded in 2003 as opposed to 27 in 2002. EPCSCP = Etablissements´ publics a` caractere` scientifique, culturel et professionnel; EPA = Etablissements´ publics a` caractere` adminsitratif. Continuing Higher Education in France 197

Private funding represents almost 59% of university-level continuing education expenditure. The share of funding derived from participants rose by two percentage points between 2000 and 2002. Regional funding does not fully make up for the reduction in finance from government sources. State finance accounted for 11% of the total funding stream for continuing higher education in 2002 (with regional disparities), compared with 12.7% in 2000. Companies and the OPCA finance more than half (53.2%) of all continuing education expenditure at engineering colleges (Grille, 2005). The following comments by our interviewees on budgetary matters are interesting:

• (Int. 1) The budget for continuing education provision is financed out of gov- ernment and ministerial grants, as well as subsidies in the context of vocational education. The latter is possible since participants in vocational education and those in continuing education study together during the first year of the pro- gramme. This institution is in the public sector, and its financial objective is to balance expenditure and income. The director draws up a business plan for inter- nal guidance. • (Int. 3) The budget is calculated on the basis of actual costs, with an assessment of the share contributed by participants (Int. 4). The budget is approved by the university. The introduction of the new LOLF, which makes provision for the payment of professors and visiting lecturers, will change matters. This could lead to the closure of continuing education departments in small universities. • In the case of Int. 6, continuing education is self-financing. Registration fees are set by the Ministry (a national registration fee of e160), and tuition fees vary between e150 and e170. A continuing education course costs at least e500 altogether. These costs are normally borne by companies, the ASSEDIC (ASSo- ciation pour l’Emploi Dans l’Industrie et le Commerce) or the region – in 15% of cases by the individuals themselves. • No funds are paid directly by the university to the continuing education depart- ment (Int. 10). Staff paid by the government is made available to the continuing education department. The availability of premises constitutes a further contribu- tion. Continuing education programmes are funded out of own resources. Other funding streams come from the government and the regions under 4-year con- tracts (contrats quadriennaux).

The registration fees at public sector universities are set annually by a decree of the Ministry of National Education, Higher Education and Research. For the aca- demic year 2005–2006, they amounted to (Ministere` de l’Education Nationale, de l’Enseignement Superieur´ et de la Recherche 2006):

• for national diplomas, on programmes leading to a BA degree – e156; • for national diplomas, on programmes leading to an MA degree – e199; • for engineering diplomas – e473; • for doctorates – e305. 198 T. Dunkel and I. Le Mouillour

This ministerial decree applies to continuing higher education. Additional fees are charged, varying according to the institution:

• Continuing education is subject to payment, but the fees vary in accordance with the student’s profile. The registration fee (frais d’inscription) for the Mastere` specialis´ et´ el´ ecommunications´ et informatique mobiles is e55 and the tuition fees (frais de formation) e7500 for workers and e4500 for students or job- seekers. The tuition fees for an engineering diploma amount to e19,500 for a 3-year course (diplomeˆ d’ingenieur´ technique de l’industrie) (Int. 1). • While for an initial education programme the student must pay only the registra- tion fee, both the registration fee and the tuition fees are financed by third parties in the case of continuing education. The rules approving a continuing education study programme leading to the award of a university diploma specify that a financial balance should be achieved. This approval procedure is an internal uni- versity matter and is carried out by one of the three main bodies – the Centre pour les Etudes et la Vie Universitaire (continuing education VU) (Int. 2). • In the case of Int. 6, continuing education is self-financing. Registration fees are set by the Ministry (a national registration fee of e160), and tuition fees vary between e150 and e170. A continuing education course costs at least e500 altogether. These costs are normally borne by companies, the ASSEDIC or the region; and in 15% of cases by the individuals themselves. • Tuition fees vary according to the type of continuing education provision. In spe- cific instances, they are used as a source of funding to balance the budget; Int. 10 cannot give any indications concerning national diplomas. Int. 10 is currently undertaking an evaluation of the costs per participant of continuing education courses.

Sponsorship is relevant only in the field of medical continuing education. Accord- ing to our interviewees, in fact, sponsorship hardly exists at all in the continuing education sector in France. In most of the higher education institutions surveyed, the teaching staff for continuing education courses is the same as teaches on the initial education pro- gramme. These members of staff are only remunerated if their input is not covered by their salaries for initial education teaching work. In that case, they receive an allowance (indemnisation) or relief from teaching duties (decharge´ de cours). Fur- thermore, Decree No. 56-585 of 12 June 1956 (J.O. 1993) regulates the fees paid to civil servants and workers without civil service status who undertake teaching duties as a sideline or sit on examination boards. The decree sets out a calculation basis in relation to average pay. The remuneration is divided into three categories (Int. 7):

• The maximum rate is e98 per hour. • If two tutors take a class together, this amount is shared. • Where additional teachers are involved in preparation work, they receive a third of the sum. Continuing Higher Education in France 199

The sources of funding for the development of continuing education provision have already been described. Funding for the design of new continuing education courses is not itemised separately. One exception is mentioned by Int. 10, who has estab- lished a budget heading for the development of new continuing education courses as part of the work of the “ingeni´ erie´ de la formation” department.

3.5 Participants

In 2002, 325,000 people took part in continuing education at a higher education institution overseen by the Ministry of National Education, Higher Education and Research (Ministere` de l’Education nationale, de l’Enseignement superieur´ et de la Recherche). This figure rose to 393,040 in 2003. Not only did the number of par- ticipants increase, but so did the average duration of continuing education courses: 119 h in 2000, as opposed to 124 h in 2001 and 130 h in 2002. The average length of a continuing education course reached 153.10 h by 2003 (Grille, 2005; Ministere` de l’Education´ nationale; de l’Enseignement Superieur´ et de la Recherche, 2005). The number of continuing education participants at universities and National Polytechnic Institutes (INP) has risen by 3%; turnover by 9%. By contrast, the number of participants (–17%) and the turnover (–10%) at public sector engineering colleges is declining. This has to do with the change in the policy on regional sub- sidies. The programme for engineers and senior managerial staff (PICS), which enabled white-collar employees and senior technicians to obtain certification at lev- els I and II, was replaced in March 2002 by the regional target programme “cadres”. Several regions have chosen to support target groups IV and V (baccalaureat´ and CAP/BEP) under their regional development plans for vocational education. The proportion of unemployed people among participants in continuing higher education is falling, while the number of employed participants has risen by five percentage points. This change is partly attributable to the fact that the regional funding priority is continuing education for the lowest-skilled workers. The number of self-funded students at engineering colleges and other grandes ecoles´ is growing in comparison with the number of employees (Grille, 2005, p. 1). Statistically, the average duration of an continuing education programme at a uni- versity is 130 h. This period varies from 25 h for short courses to 285 h for courses leading to a national diploma (Grille, 2005, p. 3). In more detail, the average length of an academic university continuing education programme amounts to 400 h for a licence (BA), 1000 h for a Maˆıtrise en Sciences de Gestion (MSG) and 350 h for two semesters of a Master professionnel. Long continuing education courses extend over three academic years, with a total of 1400 h (320 in the first year; between 500 and 570 in the second and third years) (Hobsons, 2005, p. 29). Job-seekers represent 10.3% of participants. One in every two participants is a worker engaging in contin- uing higher education at his/her own initiative. One in every three is a worker whose continuing education is funded by his/her employer as part of a training plan (Min- isteredel’` Education´ nationale; de l’Enseignement Superieur´ et de la Recherche, 2005). 200 T. Dunkel and I. Le Mouillour ´ Education ` ere de l’ individual person who has registered for a continuing education = 6 Individual Alternance Self-employed, 68.31 623.38 351.59 100.51 691.99 222.37 150.50 151.23 Training plan training leave contract Workers Job-seekers Private individuals traders, artisans Total 104.39 366.09 487.35 153.24 290.00 106.49 111.48 141.18 151.50 546.60105.30 417.30 159.00 374.10 351.10 477.10 210.80 149.70 300.90 65.00 134.80 207.80 109.70 153.10 ´ erieur et de la Recherche, 2005, p. 213) continuing education courses financed by companies; private individual = Distribution of participants (in thousands) and participant hours at higher education institutions (in mill.) by category (2003) (Minist course (h) course (h) course (h) course (h) Legend: workers Universities, polytechnics and associated EPA No. of participantsParticipant hours (h)Average length of continuing ed. 86.65 9.05 12.36 4.53 4.80 2.34 103.81 15.91 32.17 9.33 155.93 16.60 21.01 2.34 312.92 44.18 Other EPSCP and autonomous EPA No. of participantsParticipant hoursAverage length of continuing ed. CNAM 2003 No. of participantsParticipant hours 8.32Average length of continuing ed. 0.57 0.36 0.23 8.35 1.27 0.31 0.11 0.05 8.99 0.03 0.90 0.52 0.17 0.60 0.07 2.22 8.57 0.49 1.36 2.94 1.03 55.70 0.00 11.74 0.02 11.74 1.17 1.78 0.08 68.38 14.21 All types of higher education institution No. of participantsParticipant hours (h)Average length of continuing ed. 103.32 10.88 12.77 4.78 5.28 2.52 121.37 18.17 35.63 10.72 213.85 28.84 22.19 2.43 393.04 60.17 6 course at his/her own initiative, i.e. self-funding. Table 6 nationale; de l’Enseignement Sup Continuing Higher Education in France 201

4 Programme Level

4.1 Courses

University-level provision of continuing education is usually depicted as falling into three categories, according to the resulting qualifications (Ministere` de l’Education´ nationale; de l’Enseignement Superieur´ et de la Recherche, 2005):

• Short courses for companies or authorities. These courses are presented in the brochure or else tailored to demand. Companies increasingly publish calls for tender, thus using competition in this segment of the market; • Long courses leading to a university qualification, with or without ministerial accreditation; • Study programmes leading to a national diploma. Here, participants may be mixed in with the corresponding initial education students or else given a specific curriculum.

Information about the use of e-learning in continuing higher education is contra- dictory. While some of the higher education institutions surveyed welcome the use of e-learning and others describe it as a marginal phenomenon, Grille (2005, p. 3) notes that it is offered by every second university. Forty-five universities state that they employ e-learning in connection with continuing education. It is used by 5749 participants in the context of 217 continuing education programmes with an average duration of 150 h. A somewhat different picture emerges from the establishments we interviewed. Little use is made of e-learning at five of the establishments surveyed, essentially on grounds of cost. The main obstacle lies in the fact that the Ministry does not recognise tutors’ input into e-learning as working time (only their duty to perform 116 h of class contact time). In the case of Int. 3, e-learning is used for refresher courses. Int. 3 shares a WebCT platform with the university. One course of study (DESS Ingeni´ erie´ de la formation) is delivered principally in the form of e-learning. In the medical field, e-learning is offered together with tutors and didactic support. At the continuing education IFCO ecoles,´ e-learning is designed to complement their traditional pro- vision (Int. 13). The university of Int. 5 offers a diploma and a training course via e-learning, yet Int. 5 is highly sceptical about its introduction. It would be possible to find funding for the first year, with the aid of a subsidy, but 20% of the initial budget for every subsequent year would have to be financed out of the proceeds from the previous year. Realistically, 10–15% could be obtained at best. Other anticipated difficulties relate to formalising the partnership (especially in terms of compatibility), coordi- nation and ownership rules. In addition, Int. 4 points out that participants in contin- uing higher education seek social contact with fellow learners and opportunities to exchange ideas, which e-learning does not provide. 202 T. Dunkel and I. Le Mouillour

In the case of Int. 6, the development of e-learning is contained in the deve- lopment plan for 2005–2008. However, difficulties are currently being encoun- tered as concerns set-up costs, administration and management. Two projects are testing the waters, the first being in the field of medicine and the second being video-conferencing for lawyers. For Int. 7, e-learning forms part of the provision. This includes equipping lecture theatres with multimedia facilities and developing e-learning platforms with 40 companies on the basis of Pleiade software. E-learning accounts for 30% of Int. 7’s provision, encompassing a target group from all over France. In 2004, 7700 continuing education participants opted for e-learning. E-learning courses are currently in their infancy at Int. 8, where it is pointed out that one advantage of continuing education is the mix of participants and offi- cials from various ministries. This advantage would disappear with e-learning. E-learning is mainly used in the teaching of languages and computing. One module of the “human resources in the public sector” programme is delivered on-line; it required substantial investment in terms of syllabus design and technical infrastruc- ture. Possible applications of e-learning technology are thought to include on-line supervision of learners, the creation of virtual communities and the preparation of continuing education seminars. The technical network is ACOLADE/UNIVERS: it is being trialled in French universities at present. Also in the pipeline are two Mas- ters degrees in public administration and risk management, in co-operation with universities and engineering colleges: these are to operate with on-line supervision. Continuing education courses are modelled on initial education programmes. The two are identical in most cases. The courses delivered by continuing education departments are not developed specifically for continuing higher education: univer- sities offer courses in their areas of excellence or fields of competence (“savoir- faire”) (Int. 1, Int. 3, Int. 9, Int. 10). One rarely finds a different picture (Int. 9). The provision of continuing higher education is devised with regard to four teaching and research priorities – business and management, employment and society, industrial science and technology, information and communications science and technology (Int. 7). In the case of Int. 3 and Int. 5, market research plays a role in detecting trends by means of contact with companies and alumni. On the one hand, continuing education leads to diplomas within the university sector or at higher education level, the award of which demands fulfilment of aca- demic criteria. Since the same diplomas are awarded for continuing education as for initial education, both the examination conditions and the teaching staff are the same as for initial education. On the other hand, continuing higher education forms part of the vocational continuing education system, and consequently the provision is by definition vocationally oriented. The vocational orientation is highlighted by the fact that the qualifications are included in the national register of vocational certificates; thus their “vocational orientation” is nationally accredited (Int. 2 espe- cially for university diplomas, Int. 3, Int. 7). For certain qualifications (e.g. licence professionnelle, maˆıtrise professionnelle), a certain number of businessmen/women are recruited as tutors (Int. 5, Int. 10). In addition to the information given about continuing education participants, spe- cific target groups were singled out by our interviewees. They reported that on the Continuing Higher Education in France 203 one hand, continuing education provision is geared to people with social and eco- nomic difficulties (Int. 4, Int. 5, Int. 7), which calls for intensive supervision, both technical and social. On the other hand, some continuing education courses are designed for professional groups. Int. 5, for instance, describes itself as the “grande ecole´ des grandes ecoles”,´ in that it admits only graduates of the grandes ecoles´ and senior civil servants; Int. 13 gears itself to engineers and managerial staff, most of whom are employed by large companies.

4.2 Formal Aspects of Continuing Education

4.2.1 Access Requirements and Admission Criteria In the case of Int. 1, participants in continuing higher education fall into three cate- gories: apprentices (apprentis), employees (salaries)´ and job-seekers. Added to this list, in the case of Int. 3, is the group of older learners attending the “Universitedu´ troisieme` age”,ˆ and, for Int. 4, the group comprising employees and job-seekers. The access requirements and admission criteria are mostly laid down by law at national level. These include the following: • Work experience Work experience of at least 2 years and the baccalaureat´ (Int. 1, 3, 4). Access requirements have been slightly eased thanks to the introduc- tion of the procedures for the validation of prior experience (Int. 3). Value is placed on the profile of the candidate in the case of Int. 8. As a rule, participants have studied for between 5 and 6 years after the baccalaureat,´ although the for- mal requirement is only 3 years. Int. 4 conducts selection tests and interviews in addition. • Occupational and financial situation. Directors of studies are responsible for recruitment; they assess the candidate’s motivation and financial circumstances. There are three scenarios: (1) the candidate receives external funding; (2) the can- didate does not receive any funding. He/she can, however, demonstrate a proper career plan and a corresponding need for formation permanente; or (3) the can- didate meets the access requirements but has no possibilities of funding and so cannot be admitted (Int. 2). Admission is based on a substantive dossier (rea- sons justifying the application, motivation), a financial dossier and a consultation about the person’s educational intentions (Int. 3). • Motivation is routinely assessed at the interview with the director of studies for continuing education (Int. 3). The staff of the continuing education department discuss the applicants’ future career plans with them and offer advice (Int. 5).

4.2.2 Credit Points and the Assessment of Learning Outcomes The application of ECTS to university diplomas was decided nationally and is cur- rently being implemented. Learning outcomes are assessed by means of a thesis as well as written and oral examinations (Int. 1, Int. 8). For national diplomas, the learning outcomes are assessed differently depending on the specialist discipline 204 T. Dunkel and I. Le Mouillour

(Int. 3). In the case of Int. 1, the thesis is accompanied by a practical project in a (industrial) company or the development of new computer systems. The assessment of learning outcomes in initial education is identical to that in continuing education programmes.

4.3 Staff Motivation and Participation in Continuing Education

Professors and lecturers are encouraged to become involved in continuing higher education in two main ways.

4.3.1 Financial Incentives The Decree of 1985 on the common continuing education department lays down the overall conditions for awarding financial allowances to those involved in continuing education. Two categories of persons may receive such allowances:

• The chief administrator (especially the head of the continuing education department) and the finance officer may receive allowances proportional to the department’s volume of activity; • Staff in charge of continuing education courses, directors of studies or anyone who helps to develop continuing education courses may receive so-called coor- dination allowances (indemnites´ de coordination) at the suggestion of the head of the continuing education department.

4.3.2 Academic Recognition Although the 1984 Act highlights continuing education as the universities’ third mission (alongside initial education and research), there is criticism of the fact that the involvement of teaching staff in continuing higher education does not reflect pos- itively on their academic career development. Indeed, it has scarcely any impact at all. Career advancement is primarily determined by research activity (Int. 9; Int. 12). Financial motivation is described by all our interviewees as a weak factor; one says that staff motivation barely exists at all (Int. 4). They all emphasise that staff motivation is a sensitive topic. There cannot be any pecuniary incentive (especially not in the public sector), and intrinsic motivation is low in view of the workload. One important motivating factor is the pursuit of innovation: access to new technologies and capital equipment etc. Tutors operating in the continuing education sector are paid on the basis of rates set annually by the Ministry (Int. 3). In certain cases, external lecturers (intervenants exterieurs)´ receive an additional sum (Int. 3). In the case of Int. 5, attempts are made to motivate colleagues mainly by arranging for co-operation and better working conditions (open days, information policy etc.). Tutors receive supervision and form a community within the university. Like permanent staff, they have direct contact with the continuing education department and access to support. They are involved in parallel activities of the continuing education department (e.g. VAE panels). Continuing Higher Education in France 205

It became clear from our interviews that – in terms of motivation – tutors fall into the following categories:

• those who act out of conviction – they believe in continuing education (Int. 2, 5, 6, 10); • pragmatists – they are interested in working with a range of target groups (espe- cially with mixed groups, i.e. initial education and continuing education partic- ipants) and in making contact with professional circles and the world of work (Int.1,2,3,6); • materialists – their interest lies in the overtime pay (Int. 2, 6); • those who act under compulsion – they have not fulfilled their teaching commit- ments in the context of initial education and are obliged to work in the continuing education sector (Int. 2); • innovators – continuing higher education is fertile ground for designing new courses and testing out new teaching methods (Int. 3, 10).

4.4 Partnerships

Continuing education departments enter into a number of partnerships with other organisations. These include the conference of continuing education departments, held annually. The partners and areas of co-operation referred to in our interviews were:

• large companies (Int. 1; Int. 3) – involvement in the continuing education depart- ment’s management board or board of studies; contractual agreements; • network of grandes ecoles´ (Int. 1; Int.13) – exchanges of experience; • national and regional public authorities (Int. 1; Int. 5) – financing of individual training leave at universities; • research institutes (Int. 1; Int. 3); • student associations (Int. 3); • universities and faculties (Int. 3; Int. 5; Int. 8; Int. 10) – development of joint continuing higher education courses, development of inter-university diplomas, inter-university co-operation; • sectoral organisations, chambers of industry and commerce (Int. 3; Int. 5) – estab- lishment of continuing education programmes based on the alternance system.

5 Profile of the Universite´ Lille I – SUDES

This profile depicts the structure and management of one continuing education department by way of a case study. It is based on two interviews, the bilan pedagogique´ financier and on-line research. The University of Science and Tech- nology, Lille 1, is one of the largest providers of continuing education in France and historically the first university to operate in this sector. Continuing education 206 T. Dunkel and I. Le Mouillour provision at the Universite´ Lille I arose as a result of a joint unofficial initiative; it accounts for approximately 10% of total continuing education turnover at uni- versities. The department’s turnover amounts to about e11 million for a volume of around 15,000 participants and 1,600,000 participant hours (2002). The stated aim of continuing education activity is “to enable everyone to take charge of their own personal and occupational development” (Feutrie, 2006). Lille 1 has devised three lines of action (Feutrie, 2006):

• to ease the transition between education and employment; • to use the provisions of the new vocational education/continuing education Act; • to monitor economic change in the Nord-Pas-de-Calais region.

SUDES describes its duties, in the sense of its corporate identity, as follows:

• Counselling and project development SUDES assists every adult in search of continuing higher education to construct his/her own project and design his/her educational trajectory in relation to his/her career plan. • Procedures for the validation of prior experience SUDES works on the assump- tion that everyone learns in the course of their work, in their social and family life and during all forms of activity. Consequently, a pool has been created to develop procedures for validating prior experience. • Customisation of learning paths The formation of individual projects, coupled with the validation of prior experience, means that individual learning paths must be devised with support from directors of studies at the university.

5.1 Organisational Structure and Management

Continuing higher education provision at the Universite´ Lille I arose as a result of a joint unofficial initiative. The common department for continuing higher education (SUDES) has existed since 1986 on the basis of the Decree of 1984. It is entrusted with the coordination of continuing education programmes at the Universite´ Lille I, as well as the organisation of provision in all parts of the university (faculties, uni- versity institute of technology, Polytech’Lille). The vice president of the university is responsible for continuing education, so activity in this sector is a key aspect of the institution’s strategy. This can be explained in historical terms by the contractual policy of the French Ministry of Education at the end of the 1980s. SUDES is organised into a guidance, information and documentation centre for adults (20 people), a skills audit centre, known as Option+, for master crafts- men/women and senior managers, a pool dealing with the procedure for validating prior experience (more than 1000 VAE applications every year), a contact point for the design of tailored courses for companies, an administrative and financial department, and various technical services. Depending on the volume of turnover, branches of SUDES are also opened up in the various higher education establish- ments of the Universite´ Lille I. Contact persons (academic tutors) are designated Continuing Higher Education in France 207 in all faculties, either by discipline or by category of qualification (Master, DUT or licence), so as to provide initial guidance about continuing higher education or VAE. SUDES is financially independent and runs as a company. It manages the finances for continuing higher education, a significant proportion of which consists of regional subsidies. The budget for continuing higher education is set annually by the university’s board of governors. The main sources of funding in order of volume are (1) the region, (2) the government, (3) companies and (4) the EU. Fees are set by agreement with the university’s board of governors. The individual faculties deliver the continuing higher education courses and receive their funding through SUDES. continuing education provision is financed out of the SUDES budget, and sometimes resources are made available by the university. Surpluses generated by continuing education programmes are distributed among the various organisational units of the university.

5.2 Staff

SUDES has 35 members of staff, including three or four university posts and other civil servant posts, which are loaned by the government and must be repaid to the government on a monthly basis (so-called postes gages).´ SUDES has no teaching personnel of its own but relies on the lecturing staff of the university. The

Table 7 Sources of revenue in euro (calendar year 2004) (SUDES, 2004)7

Revenue sources Euro

Companies For the continuing education of their staff (apart 2,140,864 from sandwich courses – alternance) OPCA Training plan 149,851 Individual training leave 1,276,490 Training insurance fund for non-salaried workers 16,666 Government Continuing education of civil servants 355,198 Target group: European institutions 441,200 Target group: government 940,285 Target group: regional councils 2,938,921 Other public sectors sources (ASSEDIC; FAS etc.) 568,270 Contract with individuals Self-funded continuing education for individuals 756,272 (Labour Code L920-13) Other sources Sale of teaching materials 148,760 Interest on the investment of funds for vocational 13,169 continuing education Extraordinary income 97,012 Other income from vocational continuing education 210,713 Total 10,053,671

7Legend: individual training leave: conge´ individuel de formation; regional councils: conseils regionaux´ ;OPCA:organismes paritaires collecteurs agre´es´ . 208 T. Dunkel and I. Le Mouillour teaching-related duties of SUDES include pedagogical guidance and organisational support for lecturers in the various faculties. The organisational model functions according to the “etat-major”´ principle. The lecturers are selected and form a com- munity. They are in regular contact with the academic tutors and take part in VAE panels. Staff motivation in the continuing education department is closely connected with its recruitment practices and working atmosphere. The personnel are recruited as part of the “continuing education” project with full disclosure of SUDES’ require- ments. The working atmosphere and methods are based on an open door policy and open communication. The director’s bonus is distributed among all colleagues (even including the cleaning lady).

5.3 Provisions

SUDES offers a diverse array of provision. It includes traditional lectures, dis- tance learning/e-learning, access to documentation and libraries, tutorials, self-study centres, etc. There are 1130 categories of qualifications (from the Diplomeˆ d’Acces` aux Etudes´ Universitaires (DAEU) to the doctorate), 24 different polytechnic diplo- mas and 229 qualifications from university institutes. This provision is geared to several types of participants. For vocationally oriented continuing education courses (up to licence or mastere` level), at least 50% of the tutors must be practitioners. Lille 1 opted many years ago

Table 8 Types of participant by method of application (calendar year 2004) (calculation based on SUDES, 2004)

Number of participants Number of hours in in cont. including continuing education graduates ed. centres Traineeships Total

Public and private sector employees

Training plan 4645 4107 259,565 37,557 297,122 Individual training 475 284 116,007 7215 123,222 leave (incl. civil servants) Job-seekers Under a support scheme 7871 6606 809,104 273 809,377 Others 78 54 13,191 4563 17,754 Individuals Own initiative 2088 1799 154,072 1443 155,515 Others Self-employed etc. 97 56 1550 1550 Total 15,254 12,906 1,353,489 51,051 1,404,540 Continuing Higher Education in France 209 to pursue a vocational orientation, regarding it as an opportunity to develop contin- uing education and the university. Another dimension of its vocational orientation is reflected in the delivery of continuing higher education to mixed groups (par- ticipants on diploma and skills-enhancement courses along with participants from continuing higher education and initial education). Participants with work experi- ence contribute their professional insights and make the tuition more practical, while classic students contribute tools of reflection and analysis. The university as a whole backs this vocational orientation, as is obvious from the way in which it makes avail- able and develops procedures and infrastructure for student support (skills audits, procedures for the validation of prior experience etc.).

5.4 Development Prospects

(1) Transition to LMD or BA/MA8 The BA/MA model was introduced at the Uni- versite´ Lille 1 in the academic year 2004. The process took 2 years, and so far the courses offered in the following subject areas have been converted: science and technology, business studies and social sciences (Feutrie, 2006). Continu- ing education provision is affected by the transition to the BA/MA structure. The work of the continuing education department in 2006 consists partly in the reorganisation of continuing education provision according to the BA/MA sys- tem: this includes reorganising the delivery of continuing education to adults as well as the award of credit points (ECTS). (2) Procedures for the validation of prior experience (VAE) SUDES runs VAE for the university. The academic tutors are at the same time mentors for candidates applying under VAE. Decisions about VAE are taken by panels every Friday, and the tutors are members of the panels. Their assessment is not made on purely academic grounds but also takes account of skills acquired. This is one of the challenges for the future. (3) Lifelong learning It has been decided to experiment with lifelong learning under the contract with the Ministry of Education for the years 2006–2009. This decision was taken with the approval of the university’s board of gover- nors. Thus lifelong learning is the number two priority in negotiations with the Ministry, coming after research and before initial education.

6 Conclusions and Challenges

In this study we have analysed continuing education provision in the French uni- versity system on the basis of secondary analyses and interviews with universities, university institutes of technology, grandes ecoles´ and the CNAM. We shall con- clude by summarising a few key characteristics and prospects for development.

8In French university jargon, LMD (licence – master – doctorat (corresponding to Bachelors- Master in Germany)) is used instead of BA/MA. 210 T. Dunkel and I. Le Mouillour

The educational policy visions and missions of continuing education establish- ments in the French university system are related to the concept of lifelong learning. This means “all forms of general, vocational and non-formal education, as well as informal learning throughout a person’s lifetime, which give rise to an improvement in knowledge, skills and competence in relation to personal, civic, social and/or employment-related goals, including the provision of advisory services” (Euro- pean Parliament, 2006, p. 50). The objectives of continuing education departments encompass the goals set out in the above definition of lifelong learning. The report of the Comite´ National d’Evaluation´ (CNE) for the Universite´ Paris Sud points out that “Within 10–15 years, a large part of the student body at the UniversiteParis´ Sud is likely to comprise participants in continuing education” (CNE, 2005, p. 42). Another indication of this development is the activity around the validation of prior learning from work and from other relevant individual activities, even though cer- tain obstacles visibly lie in the path of its implementation (work capacity, creation of guidance/supervisory structures, networks of experts etc.). Over and above the legal definition of continuing education and the listing of uni- versities’ duties, a clear connection between the education system and the employ- ment system is apparent: continuing higher education functions as an interface between the two. University continuing education provision is increasingly geared to demand from outside organisations: regional development authorities and com- panies, and individual learners as well. Continuing education is a tool to promote access to the labour market, especially in view of the internationalisation of the labour market. Another aspect is the role of continuing higher education (FCU) in corpo- rate human resources management and as an instrument of career advancement. For the majority of participants, FCU enables them to reach the next academic stage and pursue their career at a higher level. For certain participants, it is a matter of acquiring a first university degree after previously failing to do so. Finally, for companies, continuing higher education serves to lend university/ academic recognition to the value of their staff and hence provides an external insight into their human resources management. For individuals, university-level continuing education affords them an opportunity to acquire a qualification and update their academic knowledge. This is particularly apparent in the case of the DAEU (Diplomeˆ d’Acces` aux Etudes Universitaires), which is offered in the context of university-level continuing education and enables school dropouts to achieve university entrance. Approximately 13,000 people attain the DAEU every year. One noteworthy feature is the role of partnerships in connection with contin- uing higher education in France. These partnerships are formed between differ- ent national and international universities for the provision of multi-disciplinary continuing education programmes, but also with companies and regional author- ities. They arise not only owing to the respective institutions’ complemen- tary areas of academic excellence but also out of financial and administrative necessity. Continuing Higher Education in France 211

As far as the university level and the level of provision are concerned, we have outlined the basic structure and activities of continuing education departments in universities. These aspects are currently attracting increasing attention in France in educational policy terms, both from the regions and from the relevant min- istries. The critical report by the National Assembly (Assemblee´ Nationale, 2006) on continuing higher education, which investigated 14 universities, pointed out among other things that continuing education activity does not generally consti- tute a priority development for universities and is often rather underdeveloped. In the main, continuing education provision consists of “left-overs” from ini- tial education and is geared neither to need nor to target groups. Another find- ing of this report is that continuing education provision and its funding are not altogether transparent. These assertions confirm our own findings about the poor state of development with regard to course design, marketing and quality assur- ance. The report casts doubt on the ability of universities to improve continuing education and make it more effective. These misgivings are prompted by inade- quate monitoring of people who complete continuing education, the inability of continuing education to fulfil market expectations (no needs analysis, a small pro- portion of modular continuing education courses as compared with the integra- tion of continuing education courses into initial education programmes) and the lack of an evaluation culture (no self-assessment and rarely any evaluation by participants). The future challenges confronting the universities we surveyed are many and varied. In conclusion, we have identified the following forward-looking strategies, which could enhance the status of continuing education (Table 9).

Table 9 Prospects for the development of continuing higher education (compiled by ourselves on the basis of interviews)

Challenge Examples

Human resources policy Recruitment of new administrative and academic staff Promotions policy Readiness of technical and teaching staff to become involved in VAE Quality management Introduction of quality assurance into the various departments Provision Further modularisation and introduction of ECTS Attainment of legal status as a Bologna Process institution applying ECTS Access via procedures for the validation of prior experience Target group orientation Customer satisfaction Design of customised provision, tailoring of courses to social demand Development and expansion of selected units of study as e-learning Further restructuring and development of research activity Co-operation Development of an inter-ministerial and inter-disciplinary approach to the composition of participant groups Internationalisation and establishment of position as the European Academy for governance Regional project on the development of competence standards 212 T. Dunkel and I. Le Mouillour

Interviewees

Institution Person

ENSEA Mme Ficadiere` Paris Sud – IUT Cachan Mr Michailesco Universite´ Pierre et Marie Curie Mme Alquie IUT Creteil´ Mme Biard Universite´ Lille 1 Mr Feutrie Coordonnateur Creteil´ Mr Gonzalez Conservatoire National des Arts et Metiers–CNAM´ MrMoineau–MrSalmon Ecole Nationale d’Administration – ENA Mme Camet Researcher in the field of academic continuing ed. Mr Denantes Universite´ Claude Bernard (Lyon) Mme Leclerc Hobsons Mr Charvet Ministere` de l’Education Nationale Mr Hotyat Club des Grandes Ecoles d’Ingenieurs´ pour la Formation Continue Mme Gandolfi – continuing education IFCO

References

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Brigitte Geldermann and Susanne Schade

Contents

1 Study Design ...... 216 1.1 Survey of Provision ...... 216 1.2 Expert Interviews ...... 216 1.3 Online Survey ...... 216 2SystemLevel...... 217 2.1 Definition and Characteristics of Continuing Higher Education ...... 217 2.2 Continuing Higher Education Providers ...... 221 2.3 Continuing Higher Education Framework ...... 222 2.4 The Role of Continuing Higher Education ...... 222 3 Institution Level ...... 225 3.1 Organisational Structure and Management of Continuing Higher Education . 225 3.2 Profiles of Selected Universities ...... 228 3.3 Quality Assurance – Quality Through Transparency ...... 230 3.4 Funding of Continuing Higher Education ...... 231 3.5 Future Prospects ...... 237 4 Programme Level ...... 239 4.1 Courses ...... 239 4.2 Partnerships ...... 244 References ...... 245

B. Geldermann (B) e-mail: [email protected]

M. Knust, A. Hanft (eds.), Continuing Higher Education and Lifelong Learning, 215 DOI 10.1007/978-1-4020-9676-1 7, C Springer Science+Business Media B.V. 2009 216 B. Geldermann and S. Schade

1 Study Design

The findings reported here were obtained by means of literature and online searches, a survey of course provision, a series of interviews with experts and an online survey of representatives from British universities. The wide structural diversity of organisations offering continuing education in the UK can be understood only within the context of the interplay between deregulation and state regulation through the funding model and the legislative framework for quality assurance. Once the concept of ‘continuing higher education’ had been defined, therefore, the literature review focused on the funding model and quality assurance in the UK.

1.1 Survey of Provision

University websites were searched in two different ways for the course provision survey. First, a general search was undertaken, using specific key terms. Then a search was made by faculty or department for units or course information that sug- gested continuing higher education provision.

1.2 Expert Interviews

Interviews with the following seven experts were conducted in early February: Prof. Mike Osborne (University of Stirling), Prof. Jim Gallacher (Glasgow Caledonian University), Dr. Tom Steele (University of Glasgow), Prof. John Storan (Univer- sity of East London), Prof. Richard Taylor (University of Cambridge), Prof. Brenda Gourley (Vice-Chancellor, Open University) and Prof. John Brennan (Open Uni- versity). A further two were conducted in April, with Dr. Tim Herrick (Institute of Lifelong Learning, University of Sheffield) and Ann Barlow (Centre for Continuing Education, University of Manchester). The interviews were used to gather informa- tion on the importance and overall framework of continuing education within the individual universities as well as on specific organisational structures. The findings of these interviews are presented further under thematic headings.

1.3 Online Survey

The experts interviewed consistently stressed the decentralised organisation of both the range of provision and how it is marketed. The next stage was, therefore, to access a much larger sample by conducting an online survey of 700 staff in managerial posts at British universities. After telephone follow-up and a reminder, responses were obtained from 103 informants. The German version of the ques- tionnaire had been adapted to the specific nature of tertiary education in the UK to reflect the comparative aspect of the study; the term ‘continuing higher educa- tion’, which is impossible to define precisely in the UK (see below), was replaced Continuing Higher Education in the United Kingdom 217 by the formulation ‘opportunities for mature students’. The sample was stratified by type of higher education institution (HEI) (Russell Group, other pre-1992 uni- versity, post-1992 university and further education college), by region (England, Wales, Scotland and Northern Ireland) and by subject grouping. The questionnaire findings are grouped by theme below.

2SystemLevel

2.1 Definition and Characteristics of Continuing Higher Education

The concept of ‘continuing higher education’ has traditionally been defined in Germany as the ‘continuation or resumption of organised learning on completion of initial education and usually after entering employment or assuming family responsibilities; the courses followed are at university level in terms of content and of teaching and learning methodology’ (translated from Kultusministerkonferenz, 2001, p. 2). For an overview of similarities with current debates and reforms in continuing higher education in Germany, a number of terms needs to be considered, including ‘liberal education’, ‘(liberal) adult education’, ‘continuing vocational education’, ‘university continuing education (UCE)’, ‘lifelong learning in higher education’, ‘continuing professional development (CPD)’ and ‘widening participation’ (Henkel, 2001, p. 277; Kogan, 2000, p. 344; Osborne et al., 2004, p. 139).

2.1.1 Liberal Education – University Continuing Education Focusing on the history of adult education at British universities shows that these concepts have very different backgrounds, contexts and orientations, making it difficult to pin down precisely what they mean. One facet of continuing higher education in British universities is its direct descendancy from the liberal adult education offered in the 19th century, when the Zeitgeist included ideas such as learning for learning’s sake, training for working men and higher education for women (Osborne, 2003, Chapter 32). In the early part of the 20th century, organ- isations such as the Workers’ Educational Association (WEA), the Independent Labour Party and the Co-operative Party forged close links with universities to found extra-mural departments, which promoted study not only as a leisure activity but also as a factor in the development of civil society. The WEA received state funding and was responsible for setting subject areas and recruiting students, while the universities provided the teaching staff. This model remained popular up to the 1950s and early 1960s, predominantly in what are now Russell Group1 universities,

1The Russell Group includes 19 research-intensive universities in the UK. The Group was founded in 1994 at a meeting of the Vice-Chancellors and Principals of the institutions at London’s Hotel 218 B. Geldermann and S. Schade but declined in the 1970s when the basis for co-operation with the WEA changed. It survived, nonetheless, and can be seen today in some of what centres for/of continuing higher education or institutes for lifelong learning provide (Layer, 2005, p. 2; Osborne, 2003, Chapter 32). The change to funding arrangements in the early 1990s brought changes also to provision of courses. Institutions started offering credit courses, access courses and courses for disadvantaged groups alongside general courses under the liberal adult education umbrella. The new funding model meant that from the mid-1990s, funding for extra-mural provision or continuing higher education was subsumed under the universities’ block grant, a change that followed the funding councils’ requirement that courses be credit-bearing; all students should be able to accumulate credits towards academic qualifications (Kogan, 2000, p. 348). Some centres for/of continuing higher education were very creative in finding ways to integrate formal assessment of learning outcomes into teaching structures and to award credits. In many of the disciplines traditionally coming under the continuing education umbrella, however, the change in funding spelled closure for departments, since the funding available and the fee income were inadequate for the cost – in money and staff time – of accreditation. Nor was there any question of universities subsidising activities that did not enhance their profile. Some centres, however, moved into providing access arrangement under the ‘widening participa- tion’ agenda (see below). As universities’ provision changed, the concept of continuing education became established as extra-mural departments offering a limited understanding of adult education, encompassing what is known as ‘second chance education’, study as a leisure activity and social development along with technology transfer, open and distance education and workplace-based learning (Osborne, 2003). Not only has the concept of UCE undergone repeated change in the UK but the boundaries have blurred between initial higher education and continuing higher edu- cation in universities and further education colleges. Modular curricula and credit accumulation schemes mean that universities offer enormous flexibility and enable students’ particular needs – such as the pace, place and time of study and course content – to be reflected in continuing higher education and even on foundation courses (Kogan, 2000, p. 347).2

Russell. In 2003–2004, Russell Group universities attracted 60% of all research funding given to UK institutions (some £1.7 billion), awarded about 55% of all PhDs that year and taught more than 30% of all non-EU foreign students studying in the UK. In the 2001 Research Assess- ment Exercise (RAE), 78% of researchers with 5∗ ratings and 57% of those with 5 ratings worked for Russell Group universities (Russell Group, 2006). The Group represents its mem- bers’ interests with the Higher Education Funding Council for England (HEFCE) and the Depart- ment for Education and Skills (DfES); it is also consulted over changes to higher education regulations. 2By the early 1990s, 80% of universities had developed modular course structures, 85% already had or were planning to introduce a CAT (credit accumulation and transfer) scheme, more than 65% had semesterised and 70% were accrediting modules. Continuing Higher Education in the United Kingdom 219

This welter of concepts also emerged very clearly from the expert interviews we conducted. John Storan (University of East London – UEL) argued, for example, that concepts such as continuing higher education and lifelong learning are highly ambivalent in the British context: the boundaries of what is widely thought to con- stitute continuing higher education are constantly shifting and there is a wide range of factors influencing the way in which adult education is offered.

“There is no one meaning of continuing education or indeed lifelong learn- ing. Those words are full of confusion and ambiguity.”[...] We have not got the kind of boundaries and definitions as other European countries. [...] The boundaries and what counts as continuing education are contested and moveable and shifted [...] Politics, the way universities are organised, policy drivers [...] there is a whole set of factors that affect post-compulsory adult education opportunities.” (Int. Storan)

Other respondents expressed the view that the concept of continuing higher edu- cation is defined by its practice within individual departments; since departments have substantial autonomy, their understanding of continuing higher education is informed by local decisions. Respondents also stressed the lack of a single definition of continuing higher education: mature students returning to university often have to adapt to the study conditions of their younger fellow-students, we were told, although some institu- tions (in particular, Cambridge colleges) give preference to mature students. There is frequently no specific provision for continuing higher education, but continuing professional development (CPD) provision exists in some disciplines, such as law and medicine. Interviewees also frequently commented that there is no systematic distinction in the UK between students on continuing higher education courses and other students, such as undergraduates, and that their respective numbers are, there- fore, not reflected in official statistics, which distinguish merely between full- and part-time students or between EU and non-EU students. Specific departments of continuing higher education are to be found mainly within older universities and where studying is seen primarily as a leisure activity or as study for its own sake in the liberal adult education tradition. Commenting on the meaning and scope of continuing higher education, John Brennan (Open University – OU) suggested dividing students into three groups: (1) standard Bachelors degree (BA/BSc) students (full- or part-time); (2) mature students, who come relatively late to full-time study at a university or FE college; and (3) graduates who return to undertake further academic study. John Storan argued that the courses offered at the UK’s 131 universities depend on the expectations students have of the role of the respective institution. For exam- ple, what he calls the elite universities have a ‘legacy of elite structures’, while 220 B. Geldermann and S. Schade the quondam polytechnics3 have traditionally championed wider access to higher education and the older universities have traditionally had a ‘learning for leisure’ mentality (Int. Storan, 2006). Richard Taylor (University of Cambridge) pointed not only to the changing importance of continuing higher education but also to the role of post-1992 uni- versities in providing it. Continuing higher education, he argued, has traditionally been one of their missions through their focus on training older and non-traditional students. John Brennan also stressed the importance of the post-1992 universities in this context. Some facets of lifelong learning were integrated wholesale into institutions’ ethos, organisation, course design, entry requirements and access arrangements, accommodation of non-traditional profiles, evening teaching, long opening hours for libraries and adaptation of course structures to students’ family and work com- mitments, in particular by making requirements more flexible to meet the needs of older students and giving courses a stronger vocational orientation. Brennan argues that older universities, by contrast, focus more strongly on research excellence and on recruiting younger students.

2.1.2 Lifelong Learning In recent years, another concept has come into currency alongside continuing higher education in universities – that of ‘lifelong learning’. It is tempting to see ‘lifelong learning’ as merely a synonym for ‘adult education’, but we find that it is then nuanced by distinctions such as that between formal and informal learning or that between liberal and vocational education. ‘Lifelong learning’ found its way into UK legislation in the 1990s, and the first Minister for Lifelong Learning was appointed in 1997. In 1998, a series of Green Papers (consultative documents) were published, followed by a White Paper (legislative proposal) entitled Learning to Succeed. In the same year, an Advisory Group for Continuing Education and Lifelong Learning was set up, which published two key reports – the Fryer Reports of 1998 and 1999 (Field, 2006, p. 11). More recently, the debate around lifelong learning has centred on its economic relevance and in particular on lifelong learning as a factor in international competitiveness (Field, 2006, p. 17). Asked about the philosophical differences between continuing higher education and lifelong learning, Richard Taylor told us that for him, lifelong learning is just as important as continuing higher education but has a broader reach and is not centred on university-level study. For John Brennan, lifelong learning is simply what people have been doing at universities for many years; he also argued that the boundaries of continuing higher education have shifted in the last 20 years and that it now targets those wanting to study in bursts throughout their lives rather than school-leavers.

3Polytechnics were granted university status in 1992 and are, thus, often referred to as ‘post-92 universities’. Continuing Higher Education in the United Kingdom 221

2.1.3 Summary It is not possible to draw a clear distinction in the UK context between continuing higher education and basic initial education. British statistics distinguish between full- and part-time students, between mature (>21 years) and younger (18–21 years) students and between those with a first degree and those with a second or higher degree. The focus in the UK is on issues such as making universities more accessible (‘widening participation’), continuing education as a leisure activity, CPD, reducing drop-out rates and increasing student numbers from outside the EU. UK universities are very demand-oriented and place emphasis on meeting stu- dents’ individual needs. Students are given opportunities for lifelong study, at dif- ferent paces, with different motivations and at different periods in their lives. The question for the German context is whether the separation of continuing higher edu- cation and basic training can be sustained in the long term. The distinction between initial and continuing education at universities will become irrelevant if in future informal learning is given weight and vocational qualifications are considered as valid as academic ones for entry to Masters level study. The assessment of prior (experiential) learning and learning outcomes are then likely to be the major criteria.

2.2 Continuing Higher Education Providers

Alongside the 131 universities and colleges4 that offer higher education, the UK has a number of adult colleges, founded originally by religious communities, as well as provision by trade unions, sometimes in conjunction with the WEA. Courses are also offered by public and private trainers, some of whom accredit courses in conjunction with universities to provide opportunities for progression to academic qualifications. The relative autonomy of the institutions, which are partly funded by the state, means that they have a fair degree of freedom to develop their own profile. As a result of this and of the range of definitions explored above, there are no institutions that focus primarily on continuing higher education, but institutions have developed specialisms in certain subject areas and this is also reflected in their continuing education provision. Worthy of special mention alongside general university course provision and in particular the focus within the post-1992 universities on lifelong learning are Birkbeck, University of London, which specialises in evening teaching, the Open University, which offers a wide range of distance-learning courses, and Kellogg College at Oxford University, which teaches mostly mature students (those over 21 years).

4For a full list of the 131 universities and colleges, see the Higher Education Funding Council for England website, http://www.hefce.ac.uk/unicoll/FE. 222 B. Geldermann and S. Schade

2.3 Continuing Higher Education Framework

2.3.1 Macro-economic Framework The UK economy is one of the most deregulated and privatised in the world, and the UK has fought consistently for liberalisation and deregulation within the EU’s ‘Lisbon strategy’ for economic reform. This marked deregulation agenda is clearly evident in educational policy; the UK government has placed great emphasis on diversity in institutional missions and goals, and British universities are legally independent bodies managed locally but centrally accountable through the funding framework and quality assurance. Under pressure to earn income from tuition fees and what are known as ‘third-leg activi- ties’, British universities are markedly demand-led in both teaching and research.

2.3.2 Political and Statutory Framework To understand fully the role continuing education plays in British universities and FE colleges, where it is concentrated, we need to take account not only of macro- economic constraints but also of the political and statutory framework. The key elements in this framework since the 1997 Dearing Report, commis- sioned by the (then) Department for Education and Employment (DfEE), are set out in Table 1.

2.3.3 Social and Cultural Framework Like most European countries, the UK has an ageing population. By mid-2004, the total population was 59.8 million, of whom 50.1 million lived in England. The average age was 38.6 (34.1 in 1971). Population growth of around 0.4% a year is largely attributable to immigration. Until November 2010, student numbers in the 18–20 age group will rise because of demographic trends and then fall sharply over the next 10 years, as shown in Fig. 1. The number of young school-leavers entering higher education will fall by 20% between 2005 and 2020, a trend reflected also in other European countries. The most optimistic view is that the decline can be compensated for by recruitment of overseas students (Bekhradnia, 2006 Section 21). Demographic trends will also impact on the age profile of part-time students: there are already signs that over-30s will make up a growing proportion of part-time students in the UK.

2.4 The Role of Continuing Higher Education

Tony Blair’s comment that ‘Education is the best economic policy we have’ (DfEE, 1998) reveals that UK seems to see higher education’s primary role as being that of fuelling economic growth. It is also seen as promoting social inclusion and offering opportunities for self-development (Edwards, 2000, p. 7; Jary, 2005, p. 641). Continuing Higher Education in the United Kingdom 223

Table 1 Main legislation on higher education since New Labour (Jary, 2005, p. 641; Watson, 2006, p. 3)

Report of the National Recommendations Committee of Inquiry into High priority to widening participation (opening universities Higher Education to more, and more diverse, students) 1997 Repayment of tuition fees made dependent on income; (The Dearing Report) student contribution of 25% Commissioned by the Institutional strategies for improving the professionalisation Conservative government of teaching and learning by means of information (1979—1997) and technology continued by the Labour Enhanced quality assurance government. Makes Diversification of institutional missions and goals to be recommendations on the retained and reflected in funding purpose, form and structure, Better local and regional collaboration with business scope and funding of higher (sponsorship) education and for financial support for students. Higher education for the 21st Overview of the results of implementing key Dearing century recommendations; alternative proposals for tuition fees 1998 and student support New Labour’s reply to Dearing

The learning age: a Stressed the prerequisites for a global information- and renaissance for a new knowledge-based economy, individual benefits and social Britain justice: 1998 Skills to be the key factor in the nation’s competitiveness Green Paper on higher Learning to support social cohesion, responsibility, identity education and ways out of the dependency culture Widening participation in universities (targeting students from disadvantaged groups) Acknowledging the significance of higher education for individual fulfilment and pleasure

Widening participation in Introduction of funding incentives for institutions to increase higher education student numbers and bring down the drop-out rate among 1998 students from disadvantaged groups and part-time students HEFCE consultation Modernising Higher Balance between teaching, research and knowledge transfer Education: meeting the Ensuring better quality under each of these headings global challenge Support for wider participation and social inclusion 2000 Preserving and enhancing the traditional ‘scholarship role’ Speech by (the then Secretary Accountability to government and society of State for Education) Collaboration with employers and other stakeholders David Blunkett More effective use of Information and Communication Technology (ICT) Solutions to inequality Higher education White Paper Identified the key influences on higher education legislation 2003 (see below) and introduced the following: Increase in the participation rate to 50% of students in the 18–30 cohort, principally by means of foundation degrees Selective research funding Greater diversification of institutions 224 B. Geldermann and S. Schade

Table 1 (continued)

HEFCE Strategic Plan Research – improving the knowledge base, in particular 2003/08 through ‘world class institutions’; Enhancing the international reputation and market value of teaching and learning Opening up universities (the ‘widening participation’ agenda) and ensuring fair access to the elite universities Boosting collaboration between higher education and regional public stakeholders

Higher Education Bill Key statement of intention concerning student finance: 2004 raising tuition fees, increasing grants and supports, and non-means tested loans

Chart 1: 18–20 year-olds from 2005–06 to 2020–21 2100.0

2050.0

2000.0

1950.0

1900.0 Thousands

1850.0

1800.0

1750.0 2005– 2006– 2007– 2008– 2009– 2010– 2011– 2012– 2013– 2014– 2015– 2016– 2017– 2018– 2019– 2020– 06 07 08 09 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21

Fig. 1 Trends in the 18–20 cohort (ONS and Government Actuary’s Department) (2004-based projections, published October 2005)

2.4.1 Boosting Competitiveness in the British Economy David Blunkett summed up the economic significance of higher education in a 1998 Green Paper, The learning age: A renaissance for a new Britain: ‘Learning is the key to prosperity – for each of us as individuals, as well as for the nation as a whole. Investment in human capital will be the foundation of success in the knowledge- based global economy of the twenty-first century. The fostering of an enquiring mind and the love of learning are essential to our future success.’ (DfEE, 1998). Assuming a linear correlation between high-quality education and acceleration of economic growth, the government decided to increase the percentage of the 18–30 cohort in higher education to 50% by 2010. Ways to achieve this included diversi- fying institutions’ missions and profiles, instigating closer co-operation at local and regional level between universities and employers (Dearing Report, 1997), mak- Continuing Higher Education in the United Kingdom 225 ing more systematic and effective use of ICT, improving management training, enhancing the knowledge-base by establishing ‘world class institutions’ and making research and teaching both transfer-oriented and employment-related (Jary, 2005, p. 641).5

2.4.2 Enhancing Social Inclusion – Combating Social Inequality Since the 1990s, British education policy has placed increased emphasis on raising educational levels, increasing student numbers and getting more learners into higher education. Measures to achieve this include special initiatives such as the widening participation agenda, Aimhigher, ‘lifelong learning networks’, Individual Learning Accounts, Centres for Excellence in Teaching, the creation of an Office for Fair Access and making payment of tuition fees dependent on earnings. Discussions around making university education more widely available tend to be couched in terms of the tension between promoting elites and boosting social integration. The UK government’s response has been to put in place a number of strategies to ensure excellence, such as performance indicators for funding and transparent external and internal quality assurance mechanisms, as well as to make the elite universities admit more students through its Office for Fair Access (OFFA).

2.4.3 Self-Development (Studying for Fulfilment and Pleasure) As noted above, there is a long tradition of learning for its own sake, particularly in Russell Group universities; in the early part of the 20th century, many of them founded extra-mural departments, some of which continue today as Centres for Con- tinuing Education or lifelong learning programmes. Here, a wide variety of leisure courses are offered, ranging from British and world history, languages, literature, classical music and creative writing to basic IT courses.

3 Institution Level

3.1 Organisational Structure and Management of Continuing Higher Education

3.1.1 Trends The shift in focus in the continuing education sector in the 1990s also left its mark at organisational level; continuing education departments or centres funded by local education authorities (LEAs) were cut, downsized or fragmented, and while con- tinuing education itself did not decline, it was re-housed in ‘widening participation units, credit accumulation and transfer schemes or educational development units’.

5Cf. Section 2.3. 226 B. Geldermann and S. Schade

As widening participation and economic development becomes the dominant activity, UCE is not simply being a delivery and facilitator of courses, but also plays other cross-university roles such as contributing to strategic matters, external liaison, facilitating learning support for students, co-ordinating credit accumulation and transfer schemes, technology and much more.

3.1.2 Legal Status British universities enjoy substantial autonomy, with the state’s control exercised largely through funding and quality assurance. Mike Osborne stressed in our inter- view with him that the government has no powers over higher education beyond regulating the funding councils and setting the framework for qualifications through Quality Assurance Agency (QAA) standards and benchmark statements. Nor, he told us, do centres, units or divisions of continuing higher education within individ- ual universities – mostly Russell Group universities – have any special legal status; they are part of their university (Int. Osborne).

3.1.3 Organisational Structure Many of our experts stressed the high degree of autonomy enjoyed by universities, which are free to determine what they teach and research and how those activities are managed. The only limitations on their autonomy are, as mentioned above, the funding councils’ regulations on funding allocation and the quality standards set by the QAA. One example is the change to the funding model that led to universities having to credit-rate their modules and courses. These changes led to further decentralisation of continuing higher education, which was then offered, variously, by academic departments, schools, divisions, centres or units and on a subject basis. Indeed, this trend was overwhelmingly driven by the change in funding rules described below (Int. Storan). As already noted, some Russell Group universities have individual centres, units or divisions of/for continuing higher education or lifelong learning, for example the universities of Cambridge, Oxford, Manchester and Stirling; in most cases, these are integrated into Education Departments. It is, however, very difficult to find a continuing higher education department in the UK (Int. Osborne). Continuing higher education may also be integrated into institutions’ structures, under such titles as credit accumulation units, transfer units or departments of edu- cational development (Osborne, 1997, p. 13). Osborne (1997) gives an overview of these structures, breaking them down by main focus. One major group comprises organisational models for central co-ordination of administration, teaching and, in some cases, research. These centres may be seen as resembling traditional subject departments and form part of a faculty’s normal structure. This model sees staff Continuing Higher Education in the United Kingdom 227 undertaking the same responsibilities – teaching, research and administration – as their colleagues in other subject areas. To cater for the growing interest in adult edu- cation and the need for research staff in this area, such departments offer Masters programmes (MEd, MA or MSc), PhDs and EdDs in adult and continuing education. The second major group comprises centres based outside the faculty structure that are responsible solely for administering provision. A few centres are also responsi- ble for innovation within the university (Osborne, 1997, p. 13). Lines of communication and organisational structures thus differ very widely from one university to another and, says Osborne, any evaluation of a particular organisational structure needs to be informed by its view of continuing education (Int. Osborne). Departments use such diverse terms as ‘part-time degrees’, ‘widen- ing participation units’ or ‘knowledge transfer units’, and most see continuing edu- cation as part of their role alongside their other activities. Many universities have technical and administrative support or facilitating units. Departments take responsibility for organising Continuing Professional Develop- ment (CPD) (Int. Osborne; Int. Gallacher), and it is possible from the literature review and the expert interviews to discern three main types of organisation along Osborne (1997) proposed continuum between a high degree of centralisation and decentralisation. The first of these is the Continuing Education Centre, traditionally offering adult education courses in such subject areas as foreign languages or history. While some of these centres are being dismantled, others are being (re-)absorbed into the uni- versity’s structure and are offering access courses or level 1 courses (for example, at the Institute for Lifelong Learning at the University of Sheffield). Such centres or institutes are run along the same lines as the university, from general administration (including marketing and HR) to course design, but they receive very little support from the university itself. UK universities, and especially but not only the post-1992 institutions, frequently have a vocational and social orientation, whether through the widening participa- tion agenda or through educational and social projects in their region, and work closely with schools, local communities and businesses. The case of the Univer- sity of East London shows that it is left to academic departments to organise and design the course content of continuing higher education provision. In some cases, these departments are supported by what are known as knowledge transfer units or business units/links, which provide support for these activities and in particular for partnerships with business and local communities. General support, such as admin- istration, enrolment, libraries, IT support and marketing, is provided centrally. This support also includes innovation in adult and higher education and research into such areas as distance education development or provision for people with learn- ing difficulties; an example of this is Stirling University’s DAICE (Development of Academic Innovation and Continuing Education) or UEL’s CONTINUUM. Continuing professional development (CPD), offered in many universities by academic departments (often in conjunction with professional bodies), represents knowledge transfer between a university and the economy and helps strengthen regional economies. However, CPD should not be seen as synonymous with con- 228 B. Geldermann and S. Schade tinuing higher education as we are discussing it here, since participants will not necessarily be aiming at an academic qualification and the term ‘continuing higher education’ in the UK applies to both first and higher degrees. We found CPD co- ordinators serving either an academic area or the entire university; they generally co-ordinate the availability of provision as well as teaching and research activities.6

3.2 Profiles of Selected Universities

DAICE, University of Stirling – a support unit with cross-cutting responsibilities and a mission to innovate Stirling’s Division of Academic Innovation and Continuing Education (DAICE) started life as an independent unit, similar to a faculty. Its research focus and course provision meant that synergies were developed with the Education Department, and DAICE was eventually integrated into that department. DAICE is headed by a direc- tor (Mike Osborne). A service level agreement between DAICE and the univer- sity governs what services DAICE provides and is monitored by a Learning and Teaching Committee. DAICE coordinates the university’s work in relation to widening participa- tion, student support, continuing education for academic teaching staff (educational development) and teaching and learning support for teaching staff. It is currently undergoing reorganisation, as is the entire university, with a view to achieving flat- ter structures (Int. Osborne).

3.2.1 Open University – The UK’s First Lifelong Learning University The Open University (OU) was founded in 1969 as the UK’s first lifelong learning university and now has some 150,000 undergraduates and over 30,000 postgradu- ates, making it Europe’s largest university. When it was founded, the OU’s key role was to open up higher education to those who had previously been excluded. In recent years, however, this mission has given way to a greater emphasis on lifelong learning and on initial and continuing vocation training (Int. Gourley). The OU’s model of supported open learning is normally provided through blended learning, combining distance study with support from tutors, staff at regional centres, virtual communities, seminars, chat groups and central institutions, such as the library and the Students’ Association. Most courses set no entry requirements beyond a minimum age of 18 years. In contrast to other UK universities, which normally require two or three A-levels, OU students do not need A-levels or require just one. Around a third of current student had no A-levels when they enrolled, a third had two or three, and the remaining third

6It should be pointed out that the organisational forms listed here represent an abstraction of the variety of organisational forms and communications structures found in British universities. Continuing Higher Education in the United Kingdom 229 already had a degree. Students who need academic support can access this through the university’s advisory service. Virtually, all OU students study part-time and more than 70% of undergradu- ates are in full-time employment. Over 50,000 receive financial support from their employer, and 11,000 are registered for a higher degree. Most OU courses are offered throughout Europe, some are offered worldwide; over 25,000 students live outside the UK. One-third of undergraduate students have lower entry qualifications than are typical of other universities (Open University, 2006). The average age of an OU student is 34 years. Over the past 5 years, the relatively low tuition fees charged by the OU have meant a substantial rise in the number of 18–21-year olds enrolling. Most students combine study with employment, and even full-time students do part- time jobs. The drop-out rate is about 34%. Initial fears that the system’s high degree of flexibility would actually make lifelong learning more difficult have not been borne out (Henkel, 2001, p. 279).

3.2.2 University of East London (Post-1992) – A Strong Social Mission, Decentralised Organisation of Continuing Education The University of East London (UEL) gained university status in 1992 and joined those institutions offering applied courses. It currently has some 20,000 students from 120 countries. Over 60% of students are from a minority ethnic background, and many are the first in their family to go to university. At UEL, academic staff within faculties and departments are responsible for organising pre-entry courses, access courses, CPD (mostly in the form of short or part-time courses) and tra- ditional BA and MA programmes. Each year, course provision is assessed by the students and this is used by the teaching staff within subject areas to make changes. John Storan says that there is no separate Institute of (Academic) Continuing Educa- tion at UEL; the intermittent patterns of learning of many students dictate a flexible framework in which credit courses can be tailored to students’ individual situations and needs. There are central departments looking after such areas as admissions, the ‘education and community partnerships’ work, and international, extended and strategic development services, as well as Knowledge Dock (UEL’s Knowledge Transfer Department), marketing, and the Further and Higher Education Advice Centre (Int. Storan). A knowledge transfer department was set up at UEL to strengthen collaboration between the university and the regional economy. Its role includes providing office solutions consultancy for local businesses, supporting business start-ups, formulat- ing business strategies, innovations and finance models, co-ordinating student place- ments with local employers, offering tailor-made courses in business and labour law, simulating technology, process development and animated modelling, and conduct- ing client and market analyses. One particular feature of UEL is its CONTINUUM centre, whose roles include devising and supporting widening participation programmes and advising the UK government on legislation. 230 B. Geldermann and S. Schade

3.2.3 Recruitment of Academic Staff Members of university staff tend to make up the majority of those providing con- tinuing education, but some 30% of teaching staff also teach at other universities or are freelance trainers. This was one of the problems we encountered with our questionnaire, which was completed by those working in very different university contexts. Continuing education centres tend to employ tutors and a high proportion of freelance trainers, whereas academic departments are more likely to be staffed by tenured academics and, depending on the discipline, practitioners (in such areas as health-care, law and psychology or on MBAs). Most OU teaching staff are aca- demics from other universities.

3.3 Quality Assurance Ð Quality Through Transparency

The main body of guidance on quality assurance in universities and colleges is the guidance provided by the Quality Assurance Agency (QAA), which was created in 1997. The QAA is an independent body financed by universities and colleges and by the funding councils (QAA, 2006). Its job is to protect the public interest, to set stan- dards for university education and to ensure continual improvement in universities’ quality management arrangements. To this end, the QAA develops benchmarks, for- mulates clear and explicit standards, and assesses compliance. The QAA’s quality assurance role covers a range of standards and guidelines, including the qualification framework, which lays down general descriptors for a range of academic qualifications; subject-specific benchmarks, which define the curriculum and forms of assessment for specific subjects; and codes of practice and standards for the assessment of the quality of provision and of the effective- ness of universities’ internal structures. Compliance with the standards and guide- lines is monitored through what are known as academic and institutional audits, as explained below. In general terms, the QAA is responsible for monitoring universities’ internal quality assurance procedures; the way these procedures are devised and imple- mented is, however, left to individual universities and varies widely, ranging from personal development programmes, management of external assessors, reviews, and annual evaluation of programmes to approval of new taught courses (University of Manchester, 2005). Great emphasis is placed by the QAA on transparency: British universities are required to publish all audit findings.

3.3.1 QAA Quality Assurance Procedures Institutions in England and Northern Ireland are assessed through what is known as an ‘institutional audit’. FE colleges offering higher education courses are assessed at subject level through what is known as ‘academic review’. Continuing Higher Education in the United Kingdom 231

An institutional audit focuses on the quality of course provision and the standard of qualifications currently available alongside ultimate responsibility for activities carried out on the university’s behalf. This is an evidence-based process carried out through peer review to meet the requirements for reliable, independent and rigorous assessment of institutions. The process places emphasis on the interests of students with regard to quality of information on course provision and teaching and learning support and on the academic standards they will be expected to reach (QAA, 2002). Institutional audits take place at both subject area level and course level, and since 2005, they have followed a 6-year cycle, including mid-cycle assessment (QAA, 2002). Institutional audits focus on three areas:

• the effectiveness of internal structures and mechanisms for quality assurance (by reference to QAA codes of practice); • the accuracy, completeness and reliability of information that an institution pub- lishes on the quality of its programmes and the standard of its qualifications (by reference to HEFCE information 02/15) and; • sampling of institutional quality assurance processes at course provision level (audit sampling by subject area) or at institutional level (with reference to spe- cific themes), with a view to demonstrating the validity and reliability of the information gained through this process.

3.3.2 Quality Assurance Tools The university staff surveyed felt that in virtually all provision, quality is assured by end-of-course satisfaction questionnaires, by systematic assessment of student performance through examination, by assessment of applied learning some time after course completion, and by analysis of student complaints. Other quality assurance tools include the UK’s National Student Survey, internal annual assessments according to faculty teaching standards, and the involvement of external examiners in assessing projects and academic assignments.

3.4 Funding of Continuing Higher Education

3.4.1 General Remarks Because the range of provision is so diverse and the concept covers such a wide range of elements, as noted above, there is no specific statutory basis for continu- ing higher education. Would-be students have many opportunities for undertaking continuing education at British universities, FE and HE colleges in modes that, like other provision, are funded through the general higher education funding regime (Int. Osborne; see Fig. 2). 232 B. Geldermann and S. Schade

Department for Education and Skills/ Scottish Executive/ Welsh Assembly Government/ Department for Employment Office of Science and Other and Learning NI Technology government

SLC/LEA/ Funding Council Research grants & Postgraduate Research Non-research SAAS/DEL grants contracts fees £640M £1,077M NI fees £6,055M (39%) £820M (5%) £316M (2%) (4%) (7%) £573M (4%) Universities and colleges Total income £15,562M

Other research UK charities Overseas student Residences and Other income income £654M fees catering £2,865M £483M (3%) (4%) £1,085M (6%) £996M (6%) (18%)

Other fee income £1,217M Government funds Income for non-research services £477M Endowments £230M Predominantly non-government funds Other operating income £941M

Fig. 2 Funding model for universities and colleges in the United Kingdom (HEFCE, 2005)7

Experts stress that higher education funding is mainly directed at and/or derives from three areas: research, teaching and what are known as ‘third-leg activities’. Government funding of higher education makes up the lion’s share of a university’s budget. This reliance on state funding means that despite being legally independent entities, universities have to comply with the guidelines and requirements laid down by government and the funding council (Int. Osborne). As well as state funding, universities and colleges receive funding from other sources, such as sponsorship, tuition fees, conferences and donations, or by providing services (HEFCE, 2005).

3.4.2 Mainstream (State) Funding The four funding councils allocate money for teaching and research according to a model that, in the case of teaching, is based on the number of EU students on credit courses; virtually all research funding depends on qualitative and quantitative performance indicators. The UK experts we interviewed told us that individual institutions have very diverse budgets: some institutions are more (state) funding-driven than others, John Storan argued. The post-1992 universities receive most of their funding for teach-

7Key to abbreviations: NI, Northern Ireland; SLC, Students Loan Company; LEA, Local Education Authority; SAAS, Students Awards Agency for Scotland; DEL, Department for Employment and Learning (Northern Ireland); M, million; UK, United Kingdom. Continuing Higher Education in the United Kingdom 233 ing (UEL is an example of a teaching-focused institution), with only a relatively small proportion being allocated for research. UEL’s third-leg activities include short courses or work-based learning programmes (Int. Storan). FE colleges are funded on the basis of SUMs (student units of measurement) rather than on the basis of student numbers (Int. Gallacher): they are viewed as one of the key vehicles for widening participation in higher education. Asked about the impact of these changes, Mike Osborne told us that the changes in the mid-1990s were less than transparent. More recently, the elite universities have been receiving funding for extra-mural provision or liberal education. When the former polytechnics were given university status, there was criticism of their role in widening participation. John Storan is just one of the experts calling for changes in the funding model. However, the funding councils want a system that is affordable (Int. Osborne; Int. Storan). The universities given money for continuing education or liberal education have been required to convert their provision into credit courses to sustain the funding, giving the funding councils an easy calculation formula. In the mid-1990s, British universities converted their non-credit courses into credit ones and devised ways of assessing student achievements, since not every- one taking courses was interested in conventional assessment. This made continuing higher education part of mainstream funding. However, while the hurdle of making provision credit had largely been overcome, the actual credit-rating of provision was not always so easy to integrate into the mainstream, contrary to government expec- tations. Since credits for continuing higher education were often level 1 credits, it became rather difficult to accredit this level meaningfully in terms of progression to further study, for example Masters degrees (level 6 or level 7) or certificates (level 3 or level 4). Mike Osborne predicts that the difficulty of accrediting study for higher-level study means that continuing higher education may well disappear, with universities simply delivering certificate-level courses. Some universities have managed to pre- serve their continuing education departments, while other centres with extra-mural liberal education provision simply vanished as the changes in the funding model began to bite. The irony, says Osborne, is that this type of provision has survived at the elite universities while other provision, aimed this time at the general public, has vanished. The funding regime, he adds, has shifted towards rewarding success, widening participation and enhancing collaboration (Int. Osborne).

3.4.3 Teaching Funding Method – TFM in England The TFM is the way in which government funding is allocated each year. The fund- ing councils make money available to institutions in the form of block grants that the institutions are then free to use as they see fit. The key factor determining the amount of funding an institution receives is its student numbers, although the formula also takes account of institutional features such as subjects taught and student profiles. Specific grants are made from time to 234 B. Geldermann and S. Schade time. In general terms, the principle of a block grant is designed to enable institu- tions to formulate their own strategies and goals (SQW, 2005).8 State-funded subsidy of tuition fees is normally restricted to full-time undergrad- uates and students undergoing initial teacher training (ITT) as well as to research students who receive grants from one of the research councils. Institutions are free to set tuition fees for students on most part-time undergraduate courses and many postgraduate ones. The current university funding regime assumes the same fees for all these groups, although in practice, they are likely to vary very widely (HEFCE, 2003). Students not considered full-time equivalents and whose places are not funded from public funds include predominantly overseas (non-British/non-EU) students, students funded through the National Health Service (NHS) or Teacher Training Association (sic – Agency (translator’s note)) (TTA) and postgraduate research stu- dents. The notional fee for June 2005 was a full-time equivalent for part-time under- graduates (excluding those on ITT) of £1175 and for part-time postgraduates of £ 3968.

3.4.4 Sponsorship – Unregulated Sources of Income The particular financial pressure under which British universities operate – a 3% rise in their government funding means a 6% rise in costs – means that they have increasingly had to look for unregulated sources of income, such as the fees paid by full-cost overseas (non-EU) students or tuition fees for CPD courses (Int. Osborne). Sponsorship works in a number of ways, including company links, alumni (for- mer students), knowledge transfer schemes or science parks. In Oxford and Cam- bridge, contacts are made with local businesses by means of regular events bringing businesses and alumni together. Universities expect alumni to play an active part once they have obtained their degree, assuming that graduates will continue to feel grateful to their former university or college. American universities are particularly successful at this form of fund-raising, gaining between 70% and 80% of their third- leg funding from their alumni.

3.4.5 Funding of New Continuing Higher Education Provision Of those surveyed, 32% said that the cost of planning and developing new continu- ing higher education provision was met mostly from the institution’s block grant, while 35% said it came directly from faculty or departmental budget and 13% that part of the cost was met from the continuing education unit itself (N = 107). A minority (around 10%) use income from third sources and from tuition fees to develop innovative continuing education courses.

8SQW is an independent economic research and consultancy body. Continuing Higher Education in the United Kingdom 235

3.4.6 Tuition Fees and Charges Of those surveyed 79% said that a combination model was used to calculate fees and charges. And 8% indicated that this model combined operating costs plus overheads, while 10% said that fees were in line with market rates. While 68% said that the institution’s management took the decision on fees, for example by setting them centrally (N = 78), a further 44% (multiple answers pos- sible) indicated that faculties and departments set them. Only 3% said that the fees were set after a consultative exercise involving the various parties, that they var- ied according to type of provision, and that decisions made by a course-team were approved by the faculty in accordance with a model for particular types of course or that the market governed the level of fees in certain specific cases. Figure 3 shows the extent to which the cost of continuing higher education courses can be covered by tuition fees. While 80% said that a fee was payable for teaching such classes (N = 76) – the rate was set centrally by institutions in 71% of cases – in 9% the rate was nego- tiable. In 69.41% of cases (N = 85), fees for non-established teachers/visiting lec- turers were also set centrally; 29.41% of respondents said that all teaching staff were members of university staff. Table 2 shows the extent to which money was available for the planning and instigation of new continuing higher education courses.

3.4.7 Rates of Pay for Visiting Lecturers/Non-established Teachers The experts we interviewed were rather reluctant to talk about rates of pay for visiting lecturers/non-established teachers. The Continuing Education Institute at the University of Cambridge employs 12 members of staff on a permanent basis (excluding those who run the Institute) and 600–700 teaching staff on a visiting lecturer/non-established teacher basis. These individuals are paid £25–£30 an hour. Those on permanent contracts are usually paid on the salary scale negotiated by the lecturers’ union, AUT (Association of University Teachers). Professorial pay varies according to status and prestige and is generally negotiated at institutional level (AUT, 2006).

3.4.8 Summary of Funding Arrangements British universities’ budgets for teaching derive from tuition fees, grants from the relevant funding council and third-leg activities. In the vast majority of cases, the mainstream funding element, covering the teaching of undergraduates and post- graduates on taught courses for EU students, is calculated on a transparent model using the Teaching Funding Method for England. The funding system for continu- ing education provision in general, and for short courses, CPD courses and summer schools, is considerably less simple, however. Grants or bursaries are available for some courses, and in some cases, employers or other stakeholders pay the fees. 236 B. Geldermann and S. Schade 12,36% 20,00% 30,51% 16,67% 51,00% 18,37% 18,07% 32,58% 31,76% 35,59% 26,51% 46,97% 38,78% 34,18% 55,06% 48,24% 36,14% 33,90% 25,76% 24,49% never 13,92% 0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% 90% 100% seldom mostly always learning? Are the overhead costs assumed by university? and/or remuneration? global budget for your department? remuneration originating from continuing education offerings? fees and/or remuneration originating from these offerings? the overhead costs of centre for continuing education? Are the overhead costs that are assumed by university covered tuition fees Are the expenses associated with your continuing education offerings covered by specific funding initiatives for continuing education, widening participation or lifelong Are the savings used for planning new offerings obtained through tuition fees and/or Are the expenses associated with your continuing education offerings covered by Are the expenses associated with your continuing education offerings covered by tuition Do tuition fees and/or remuneration originating from continuing education offerings cover Percentage of costs covered by tuition fees Fig. 3 Continuing Higher Education in the United Kingdom 237

Table 2 Availability of funds for investment in continuing higher education

Number Percentage

Adequate funds are always available 4 5.13 Adequate funds are usually available 31 39.74 Adequate funds are sometimes available 19 24.36 Adequate funds are seldom or never available 24 30.77 Total responses 78 No response 29

Teaching of EU students is paid for partly from the block grant and partly from tuition fees. It is reasonable to assume that the fees for non-EU students are based on at least the full cost, since non-EU students are not included in the block grant. In practice, cost intensity and demand in certain subject areas influence the setting of fees: non-EU students pay more than three times the fee payable by EU students (some £8600) for a Masters in Economics at one institution, for example. It is, however, difficult to determine whether the fees set for non-EU students really do reflect the full cost of their courses or, indeed, the extent to which they earn the institutions income over and above this level, given the enormous variety of courses, which are attended by both EU and non-EU students. Our interviewees estimated that in general terms, tuition fees cover around one-third of costs. Some UK experts think that over the next few years, there will be a general move towards higher tuition fees, to some £9000 for Bachelors degrees as against the cur- rent cap of £3000 for EU students. Universities have already indicated that from 2006, they intend(ed) to make full use of this cap, and Russell Group universities in particular are very keen on further increases in fees. One of the experts we inter- viewed told us that the fees for CPD courses, short courses and summer schools are based on the full cost of the relevant provision plus a margin.

3.5 Future Prospects

3.5.1 Current Trends in Provision While 64.04% of academic managers told us that in their institution, the number of part-time Masters courses was increasing, 73.03% said the same of part-time Bachelors courses (N = 89); 65.17% thought that the provision of CPD courses was currently expanding. More than half also thought that there was an increase in con- tinuing higher education and vocationally orientated foundation degrees at present, with a concomitant move towards accrediting skills acquired in the workplace. Asked about other current trends, interviewees listed APL (accreditation of prior learning) and APEL (accreditation of prior experiential learning); growth in num- bers of overseas students paying full-cost fees; better integration of mature stu- dents into mainstream university life; the introduction of foundation degrees; greater 238 B. Geldermann and S. Schade emphasis on cutting drop-out rates than on widening participation; and greater emphasis on knowledge transfer with the aim of securing the income stream.

3.5.2 Future Trends in Provision More than half of the academics surveyed (N = 87–107) thought that it was very likely or quite likely that over the next few years, the availability of part-time and full-time undergraduate and postgraduate programmes would increase, along with further growth in CPD courses, open-access courses, short courses, work- based learning and greater accreditation of prior (experiential) learning and that it would be increasingly important for continuing provision to have a proper academic foundation. They thought that full- and part-time Masters programmes and course accreditation would be particularly important.

3.5.3 Widening Participation Initiatives There has been special emphasis on widening participation in UK universities, including the following initiatives:

• agreements with regional businesses and Learning Councils; • special funding council grants to boost recruitment of students from low-income families and from disadvantaged backgrounds, as assessed by postcode; • partnerships with Aimhigher, though pre-entry initiatives; • use of demographic student information and performance indicators to formu- late far-reaching strategies and/or opening access to specific courses via access courses and routes; • a ‘widening access unit’ within the subject area, targeting disadvantaged groups, using higher education ‘ambassadors’ and making advice available, providing students grants and using locally based campaigns to increase student numbers by 6500 a year; • national marketing and advertising campaigns; • guidelines and packages of initiatives at individual faculty level, forming part of universities’ overall strategies; • foundation degrees in regional colleges; • interviews with alumni and follow-up studies.

3.5.4 Funding Trends Questioned about the future reaction to tight funding in British universities, one- third of those questioned (N = 107) said that their university managers would expect full costs to be met and 9% said that this was already the case. However, 24% (N = 100) thought it ‘unlikely’ that provision would cover its costs in the near future. In general terms, the interviews with experts and the survey findings point to full-cost funding being demanded by individual HEIs but being subject to a range of Continuing Higher Education in the United Kingdom 239 shifting variables, including the relative proportions of EU and non-EU students, the cost intensity of provision, and other opportunities for cross-subsidy. However, the increased efforts by institutions to recruit non-EU students show that these students’ fees are at least covering costs.

3.5.5 Other Trends in Higher Education in the UK Alongside the introduction of foundation degrees, referred to above, and the removal of the current £3000 cap on full-time undergraduate tuition fees, 2-year Bachelors degree programmes are being introduced in some HEIs, offering the same course content as traditional degrees but over a considerably shorter time due to longer teaching periods (MacLeod, 2006b). A number of post-1992 universities, including Leeds Metropolitan University, Thames Valley University, the University of Greenwich and the University of Northampton, have already announced that they will be setting their fees below the maximum permitted level, with the aim of recruiting students from lower-income backgrounds (Shepherd, 2006, p. 7). The UK government’s target is to recruit an additional 100,000 non-EU students to British universities by 2011. The UK currently has around 203,000 non-EU stu- dents who contribute some £5 billion a year to the country’s economy. International higher education is a key element in British exports, and may account for as much as £20 billion by 2020. The government is also targeting an increase in private donations by philan- thropists and alumni; the Department for Education and Skills (DfES) has set aside £7.5 million over the next 3 years to help institutions – particularly new and smaller universities – to manage this (MacLeod, 2006a).

4 Programme Level

4.1 Courses

4.1.1 Form and Duration One of the (predictable) findings of our questionnaire was that provision for mature students differed very little from undergraduate programmes of study. Comments from Heads of Department, School or Division illustrate this:

“All our courses are open to mature students. Like all Schools in the University of Brighton, we support students through personal tutors who offer academic and personal study guidance.” 240 B. Geldermann and S. Schade

“We do not have dedicated courses for mature students, but many join our undergraduate programme. Students with at least 8 years’ professional expe- rience can be accepted onto our MA programmes.” “Your questionnaire assumes that units and courses for ‘mature students’ should differ from those for non-mature students. My experience is that this is not necessarily the case: most of our ‘mature students’ (that is, those over 21 in the case of undergraduates or over about 30 for postgraduates) are integrated into our normal undergraduate or postgraduate programmes, although I am here reflecting my own department and not necessarily the university as a whole.”

The questionnaire survey showed that all those surveyed confirmed the diversity of provision, covering CPD, short courses, summer schools, taster courses, training provision for local firms, open access courses, non-credit courses, part- and full-time Bachelors, Masters and PhD programmes, distance learning courses and courses run jointly with businesses. However, virtually no respondents commented on dura- tion of courses. Our on-line search pinpointed the following eight major forms of provision. Continuing education Provision under this heading usually includes programmes open to all interested participants, including the general public. They are often offered by centres for/of continuing education. Courses span a wide range of areas, from art appreciation and creative writing to specific vocational development courses, such as business and management, IT and language courses. They typically run for between 6 and 10 weeks, though 1-day courses are also common. Go-higher Go-higher is the route into higher education for those over 21 years who have no traditional qualifications for access to university education. The pro- gramme is also aimed at those who completed their school education or vocational training some while ago but who would now like to enter higher education. It is a year-long programme and participants attend one full day a week, studying sev- eral modules a year. On successful completion of the programme, participants may apply to part- or full-time study at a university. One of the institutions offering this programme is the University of Liverpool. Courses for leisure These courses typically last between 5 and 10 weeks and require attendance once a week (often in the evening). Here, too, the range of provi- sion is extremely broad and aimed at the general public. Courses may be offered in such areas as botany, art, music or local history (as, for example, at the University of Bath) and aim not only to provide education in the subject area concerned but also to provide participants with a forum for socialisation. Short courses In some institutions, short courses also cover a very wide range of subject areas and may be aimed at the general public or for particular vocational groups wishing to bring their knowledge up to date on particular current issues. Examples of courses under this heading include art, specialised computing courses and health and personal development. Most short courses do not set entry require- Continuing Higher Education in the United Kingdom 241 ments given that they are aimed at the general public. They are often designed as workshops lasting between 1 and 3 days over a weekend but may also run weekly in the evening for up to 8 weeks. Businesses often use such provision as CPD for their staff. Continuing Professional Development (CPD) This term spans a range of courses specifically designed to help those in work to advance professionally and sometimes offered in collaboration with professional bodies or public stakeholders. CPD may also include traditional postgraduate courses (MScs or MAs) taken part-time. Some CPD courses lead to a traditional qualification, while others award credits or are designed on a modular basis. However, virtually all are aimed at a formal higher education qualification. Subject areas are highly specialised and targeted at the staff working in those areas who wish to undergo further training or widen their pro- fessional horizons. The main focus of such provision is business, midwifery and nursing. Postgraduate programmes This includes traditional postgraduate education offered to those with a first degree, typically MBA or MSc/MA programmes. These programmes of study offer a more sustained and also more expensive development than other continuing education programmes. Certificate courses What are known as certificate courses last for 1 or 2 years and are often geared to part-time study. They target those who are working and usually, though not always, require an academic qualification; many courses of this kind also recognise relevant work experience or comparable vocational qualifications as providing a basis for entry. Diploma courses Diploma courses last for 2–3 years and they, too, are often geared to part-time study. They target those who are working and because they offer a higher-level qualification than certificate courses, entry requirements are higher (a better academic qualification or longer work experience, for example). Some uni- versities require students to have completed a certificate course in the same subject area. One very positive factor is the cumulative nature of the certificate/diploma system: such courses may usually, for example, count towards higher-level qualifi- cations so that someone starting with a diploma may then go on to gain a Masters degree. Analysis of CPD provision within the largest universities (those with over 20,000 students) produced the following findings.9 Many universities do not have central lists of CPD courses but do usually have individual subject area CPD websites or, at the very least, very general information on their continuing higher education provision.

9Twelve very large and 14 medium-sized HEIs were chosen for the on-line search. For pragmatic reasons, the definition of ‘academic continuing education’ was narrower than that used in the ques- tionnaire survey and only the terms ‘continuing professional development (CPD)’, ‘continuing education’ and ‘lifelong learning’ were used as search terms. This means that only provision listed under these three terms has been analysed. 242 B. Geldermann and S. Schade

Areas with high levels of provision are medicine and psychology; provision is aimed at doctors, nurses, midwives, psychotherapists, auxiliaries or others working in the broad health field. Entry requirements vary from subject to subject. Courses in medicine require formal academic qualifications and also, in many cases, professional registration; participants may be registered in particular areas, depending on their level of qual- ification and so continuing higher education provides a wealth of courses aimed at these varying levels. Courses are often offered as ‘refresher’ courses, for example for midwives re-entering professional practice. Health generally accounts for a very high number of such courses. Continuing higher education courses in the business area tend to focus on mar- keting and accountancy, but the range is narrow in most institutions, with only a few courses on offer. Provision is, however, often tailored to the needs of individual businesses, meaning that courses in this subject area are not likely to be standardised in terms of content and thus that website information is likely to be sketchy at these universities. Some universities offer specialised in-service training for teachers, aimed some- times at special educational needs (for example, children with a hearing impairment) or offering further training in subjects such as dance, art, mathematics or physics. Some courses are also open to trainee teachers or those without formal teaching qualifications. Other, mostly local, provision includes logistics, environmental management and transport, while some institutions offer courses in design and architecture. Entry requirements here are stringent in most cases, but while an actual degree in the subject is a distinct asset, some institutions also recognise work experience to some extent. Individual universities also offer a range of provision in the legal field, requiring prior qualifications in law; such courses are often seen as up-date courses and build on substantial prior knowledge and experience. Engineering courses are wide-ranging and most are designed as MSc pro- grammes, requiring a prior qualification in engineering. Such courses usually aim at familiarising students with the most recent technological developments and industry trends. Information technology courses are in most cases aimed at experienced practi- tioners, requiring substantial prior knowledge of individual areas or applications. We could find no basic beginners’ courses in such areas as word-processing or spread- sheets, and it seems that IT courses are aimed primarily at those who already have an IT qualification.

4.1.2 E-Learning The on-line survey, Internet search and secondary analysis had not yet focused the use of e-learning technologies. The academics questioned said that around 10% of units had their own ‘learning management system’ (LMS), that some 12% used an external LMS and that around 2% used no LMS; most subject areas (the remaining Continuing Higher Education in the United Kingdom 243

76%) used their university’s LMS (N = 58). Because of the very small sample (N = 10), it was not possible to assess comments on the type of learning platform used. Asked whether there were service units supporting the creation and use of mate- rials for on-line learning and/or blended learning in continuing higher education, 42% of those questioned said that they were supported by a university-wide network (decentralisation) while 35% said that they got support from careful co-ordination of the work of central units (N = 60).

4.1.3 Subject, Academic and Vocational Orientation Some of the academics interviewed expressed the view that the most important areas from the perspective of scope were engineering, economics (leadership and accoun- tancy), law, pharmacy and industrial pharmacy, and social sciences. One respondent, from the Open University, told us ‘it depends who you ask and what you mean by most important. The OU accountants might be able to identify which are the most profitable – but that is not the main concern of academics’. The size of the sample (N = 6) means that it is not possible to generalise findings in this area, which would require statistics from individual HEIs. The thematic orientation of continuing higher education provision depends largely on the individual university’s general orientation and strengths. One-third of all provision is driven by student demand, while around 6% depends on what additional funding is available (see Table 3).

Table 3 Provision drivers

Number Percentage

Driven by university’s academic strengths 57 72.15 Driven by expected labour market demand 26 32.91 Driven by current social concerns 12 15.19 Driven by (additional) funding opportunities 5 6.33 Driven by student demand 28 35.44 Driven by business demand 20 25.32 Total responses (multiple answers) 148 Total respondents 79 No response 28

4.1.4 Academic and Vocational Orientation In terms of the academic orientation of continuing higher education in British uni- versities, 73% of those surveyed said that tenured staff were involved in developing and planning; 100% said that teaching staff had an academic qualification; 84% said that that at least one lecturer had a PhD; 78% that provision was credit-bearing; 73% that provision was comparable with university education; 97% that participants 244 B. Geldermann and S. Schade wrote one or more academic assignments; and 94% that primary sources were used in teaching (N = 51–69). Asked about the vocational orientation of provision, 52% said that virtually all provision was explicitly vocational in orientation; 60% of respondents indicated that this vocational orientation was reflected in teaching and learning design in virtually all provision, 62% that it was reflected in course content in virtually all provision and 53% that it was reflected in the involvement of practitioners in virtually all provision (N = 31–60). The findings of the questionnaire point to a marked academic orientation of provision, although not all the expert interviews supported this view. The experts stressed that the Russell Group universities have taken a strategic decision to focus more strongly on research, whereas the post-1992 universities receive a majority of their funding for teaching and are much more likely to tailor their provision to vocational needs. However, it is very difficult and, perhaps, unfruitful to draw gen- eral conclusions, since a university’s orientation – academic or vocational – varies from one institution to another and also because there are substantial differences between individual subject areas, as was illustrated by our on-line research into CPD. It is, however, reasonable to assume that the financial pressure on British uni- versities and the resulting need for third-leg activities, along with student tuition fees, are pushing continuing higher education in the direction of greater vocational relevance.

4.2 Partnerships

British universities have many diverse links with businesses, local communities and professional bodies, sometimes coordinated by subject departments or special units such as knowledge transfer departments, business units or science parks. Around one-third of the academics surveyed said that within their university, departments of continuing education or specialised units collaborated with faculties and departments on most of their provision. Of those questioned 33% said that there was little or no collaboration with individual lecturers, and 69% that there was col- laboration on around a quarter of courses with other continuing higher education providers. There was collaboration with businesses on around a quarter of courses according to 32% of those surveyed, while 38% said there was only limited collab- oration with professional bodies; 53% of those surveyed said that there was collab- oration with public bodies on almost all courses and the same proportion reported collaboration with corporate universities on only a few courses (N = 40–56). The questionnaire findings indicate that collaborative arrangements in continu- ing higher education vary in significance. The main focus is on co-operation with public institutions. Where undergraduate courses are concerned, co-operation is very unlikely, whereas short courses represent continuing education or professional development for companies in particular. In specific disciplines, Masters courses are designed in conjunction with companies or are even, in some cases, tailored to their Continuing Higher Education in the United Kingdom 245 requirements. ‘Sandwich’ courses represent another route to continuing education with their combination of workplace-based practice and academic study. The role of universities may also lie in creating a Knowledge Transfer Depart- ment, as UEL has done, in offering consultancy for business start-ups or develop- ment of company strategy, innovation and financing models, in co-ordinating work placements, in providing specific training in financial or labour law, in simulating technology, process development or animated modelling, or in conducting client and market analyses.

References

AUT. (2006). Local and national pay and employmenp in UK higher education. Retrieved 2006/08/29, from http://www.aut.org.uk/index.cfm?articleid=175 Bekhradnia, B. (2006). Demands for Higher Education to 2020. Retrieved 2006/05/04, from http://www.hepi.ac.uk/downloads/22DemandforHEto2020.pdf DfEE. (1998). Department for Education and Employment: Green Paper, The Learning Age – a Renaissance for a new Britain. Retrieved 2006/06/29, from http://www.lifelonglearning. co.uk/greenpaper/ Edwards, R. (2000).Lifelong learning, lifelong learning, lifelong learning. In J. Field & M. Leicester (Eds.), Lifelong Learning – Education Across the Lifespan (pp. 3–11). London: Routledge. Field, J. (2006). Lifelong learning – and the new educational order. Sterling: Trentham Books. HEFCE. (2003). Survey of fees for postgraduate taught and part-time undergraduate students. Retrieved 2006/04/28, from http://www.hefce.ac.uk/Pubs/hefce/2003/03 42/ HEFCE. (2005). Higher education in England. 34 Retrieved 2006/04/28, from http://www. hefce.ac.uk/Pubs/hefce/2005/05 34/ Henkel, M. (2001). The UK: The Home of the Lifelong Learning University? European Journal of Education, 36(3), 277–289. Jary, D. (2005). UK higher education policy and the ‘global Third Way’. Policy & Politics, 33(4), 637–655. Kogan, M. (2000). Lifelong learning in the UK. European Journal of Education, 35(3), 343–359. Kultusministerkonferenz. (2001). Sachstands- and Problembericht zur “Wahrnehmung wis- senschaftlicher Weiterbildung an den Hochschulen”, Beschluss der KMK vom 21.09.2001. Retrieved 2006/08/29, from http://www.kmk.org/doc/beschl/wisswei.pdf Layer, G. (2005). Widening participation – an overview. In C. Duke & G. Layer (Eds.), Widen- ing Participation – Which way forward for English higher education? (pp. 1–14). Leicester: NIACE. MacLeod, D. (2006a). Two BA or not to BA? In Guardian, Wednesday 19 April. Retrieved 2006/06/03, from http://blogs.guardian.co.uk/mortarboard/2006/04/two ba or not to ba.html MacLeod, D. (2006b). Universities urged to seek private funding. In Guardian Thursday 16 March 2006. Retrieved 2006/06/03, from http://education.guardian.co.uk/universityfunding/ story/0,,1732304,00.html Open University. (2006). Open University: Award Approval. Retrieved 2006/06/16, from http://www.open.ac.uk/foi/p9 3.shtml Osborne. (1997). THENUCE Report – United Kingdom. Retrieved 2006/05/16, from http://paginas.fe.up.pt/nuce/UKIN.html Osborne, M. (2003). Continuing Education in the United Kingdom. In M. O. E. Thomas (Ed.), Lifelong learning in a changing continent – continuing education in the universities of Europe (pp. 32). Leicester: NIACE. 246 B. Geldermann and S. Schade

Osborne, M., Sandberg, H., & Tuomi, O. (2004). A comparison of developments in university con- tinuing education in Finland, the UK and Sweden. International Journal of Lifelong Education, 23(2), 137–158. QAA. (2002). Quality Assurance Agency for Higher Education: Handbook for institutional audit: England. Retrieved 2006/04/04, from http://www.qaa.ac.uk/reviews/institutionalAudit/ default.asp QAA. (2006). Quality Assurance Agency for Higher Education: An Introduction. Retrieved 2006/04/04, from http://www.qaa.ac.uk/aboutus/qaaIntro/intro.asp Russell Group. (2006). Widening Participation in Russell Group universities. Retrieved 2006/02/17, from http://www.Russellgroup.ac.uk/news.html Shepherd, J. (2006). Leeds Met fees net high interest. Times Higher Education Supplement, 28 April, p. 7. SQW. (2005). Evaluation of the Teaching Funding Method. Retrieved 2006/04/28, from http://www.hefce.ac.uk/Pubs/rdreports/2005/rd06 05/ University of Manchester. (2005). Procedure for the approval of new taught programmes. Retrieved 2006/06/07, from http://www.campus.manchester.ac.uk/tlao/quality/ Watson, D. (2006). New Labour and Higher Education – keynote presentation for the AUA Con- ference, Queens University Belfast, 11 April 2006.

Interviewees (Int.)10

Barlow: Forschungsinstitut Betriebliche Bildung (Research Institute for Vocational Education) interview with Ann Barlow, unpublished. Brennan: Forschungsinstitut Betriebliche Bildung (Research Institute for Vocational Education) interview with John Brennan, unpublished. Gallacher: Forschungsinstitut Betriebliche Bildung (Research Institute for Vocational Education) interview with Jim Gallacher, unpublished. Gourley: Forschungsinstitut Betriebliche Bildung (Research Institute for Vocational Education) interview with Brenda Gourley, unpublished. Osborne: Forschungsinstitut Betriebliche Bildung (Research Institute for Vocational Education) interview with Mike Osborne, unpublished. Storan: Forschungsinstitut Betriebliche Bildung (Research Institute for Vocational Education) interview with John Storan, unpublished. Taylor: Forschungsinstitut Betriebliche Bildung (Research Institute for Vocational Education) interview with Dick Taylor, unpublished.

10 All interviews were carried out in 2006. Continuing Higher Education in Austria

Ada Pellert and Eva Cendon

Contents

1 Study Design ...... 248 2SystemLevel...... 251 2.1 Definition of Continuing Higher Education ...... 251 2.2 Continuing Higher Education Providers ...... 253 2.3 Continuing Higher Education Framework ...... 255 2.4 The Role of Continuing Higher Education ...... 258 3 Institution Level ...... 259 3.1 Organisational Structures and Management of Continuing Education .... 259 3.2 Quality Assurance ...... 263 3.3 Public Relations, Marketing and Advertising ...... 265 3.4 Funding of Higher Continuing Education ...... 268 3.5 Future Prospects ...... 270 3.6 General Information ...... 271 4 Programme Level ...... 272 4.1 Courses ...... 272 4.2 Identifying Needs ...... 279 4.3 Formal Aspects of Continuing Education ...... 279 4.4 Staff Motivation and Participation in Continuing Education ...... 281 4.5 Partnerships ...... 281 5 Conclusions and Future Challenges ...... 283 References ...... 285

A. Pellert (B) Berlin University for Professional Studies, Charlottenstr. 68, 10117 Berlin/Germany e-mail: [email protected]

M. Knust, A. Hanft (eds.), Continuing Higher Education and Lifelong Learning, 247 DOI 10.1007/978-1-4020-9676-1 8, C Springer Science+Business Media B.V. 2009 248 A. Pellert and E. Cendon

1 Study Design

In accordance with the objectives of the overall study and the focus on the sys- tem, institution and programme levels in each country, the design of this study of Austria is based principally on the following three methodological approaches, with complementary and more specific information being obtained by researching the relevant areas on the Internet:

• An in-depth analysis of the secondary literature, reports and studies on the sub- ject in question, and other relevant documents pertaining to continuing higher education in Austria. These were used mainly for the study of the system level. • A comprehensive questionnaire survey of Austrian institutions providing con- tinuing higher education. This focussed principally on the institution and pro- gramme levels. • Interviews with representatives of five specially chosen Austrian higher educa- tion institutions that were used as the basis of five case studies of continuing higher education. Again, this concentrated predominantly on the institution and programme levels.

This approach resulted from the specific characteristics of the Austrian system. The place of continuing education in the Austrian higher education system is charac- terised by the following features:

• Continuing education in Austria’s universities is in many cases notable for its decentralised structures and has been developed over the course of decades by a number of highly committed individuals who have championed its cause. As a result, courses are not always co-ordinated by central bodies. On the other hand, executive education has in some cases already been outsourced and provided by separate private companies for several years. • In the case of art colleges (Kunsthochschulen) that were converted into “uni- versities of the arts” (Kunstuniversitaten)¨ by the 1998 Universities of the Arts Organisation Act (Kunstuniversitaten-Organisationsgesetz¨ – KUOG 98), and in the case of the medical universities (Medizinische Universitaten)¨ established by the 2002 Universities Act (Universitatsgesetz¨ – UG), continuing higher educa- tion is to some extent still at the development stage, at least as far as the creation of centralised structures is concerned. • Since 2003, Fachhochschulen (universities of applied science) have been allowed to offer continuing education courses, although appropriate organisational struc- tures need to be developed. The significance of continuing higher education courses other than part-time study courses at these institutions will become apparent over the course of the next few years.

These aspects were taken into account when devising the Austrian questionnaire, which was based on the questionnaire used in the study of Germany. The question- naire focussed on different formats of continuing higher education: Continuing Higher Education in Austria 249

• Short courses (with or without a certificate of attendance, e.g. lectures, seminars, workshops, courses) • University courses (leading to the title of “Academic” followed by the profession or final qualification) • Masters programmes (leading to an internationally recognised Masters qualifica- tion, e.g. MBA, MAS, MSc., etc.).

Because of this study’s focus on providers of continuing higher education, the ques- tionnaire was sent to the 22 state universities,1 6 Fachhochschulen and 7 private universities.2 The Austrian University Continuing Education and Staff Develop- ment Network (AUCEN) played a valuable role in helping to co-ordinate the survey. The aims and objectives of the study were presented at the 20th AUCEN Meet- ing at Vienna’s University of Veterinary Medicine (Veterinarmedizinische¨ Univer- sitat¨ – VUW) at the end of January 2006, and various members of the network agreed to participate in a trial run. The questionnaires were sent out by e-mail and could be completed on the respondents’ PCs. We received completed replies to 16 of the 35 questionnaires that were sent out. Four institutions contacted us to say that they were unable to complete the questionnaire.3 One of the returned questionnaires was not included in the final analysis,4 while 13 institutions did not respond at all. The response rate was thus just under 50%. Thirteen state universities, two private universities and one university of applied science returned completed questionnaires. The limited supply of data meant that it was not possible for the results of the questionnaires to be broken down according to the different higher education sectors. Nevertheless, in some instances it was considered appropriate to break the results down by type of higher education institution. However, in these cases, we did not resort to the widely used classification of multidisciplinary universi- ties, specialist universities and Fachhochschulen, preferring instead to have separate categories for universities specialising in particular areas. Universities offering a wide range of courses for different careers were classed as “traditional universi- ties”.5 According to this classification, Austria’s universities can be broken down as follows:

1 The questionnaire completed by Danube University Krems was not used, since the overall results would have been distorted by this institution’s exclusive focus on continuing higher education. 2 One of the seven private universities that we contacted has since failed to be reaccredited. 3 Two of the institutions reported that the relevant structures did not yet exist. At one, no continuing higher education provision is currently available. Another institution refused to participate on the grounds that it had concerns regarding the academic rigour of the higher education institution carrying out the study. 4 Danube University Krems. 5 It could be argued that medical universities really belong with the “traditional universities”; how- ever, in this study they were included in a separate category. 250 A. Pellert and E. Cendon

• Six Traditional Universities (Graz, Innsbruck, Klagenfurt, Linz, Salzburg, Vienna) • Three Technical Universities (Graz, Leoben, Vienna) • Four Medical Universities (Graz, Vienna, Innsbruck, Vienna University of Vet- erinary Medicine) • Six Universities of the Arts (Graz, Linz, Salzburg, Vienna (3)) • One University of Natural Resources and Applied Life Sciences • One University of Economics and Business Administration (Vienna) • One University of Continuing Education (Danube University Krems).

For the purposes of evaluating the questionnaire responses, the state universities were divided into six traditional universities, two technical universities, two medical universities and three Universities of the Arts. The two private universities and one University of Applied Science that responded were included in the relevant category in accordance with their specialist subject areas. The responses can thus be broken down by type of higher education institution as shown in Fig. 1.

4 6

3

3

Traditional Universities Technical Universities Medical Universities Universities of the Arts

Fig. 1 Questionnaire responses by type of higher education institution

Five in-depth case studies were also undertaken. Graz University, Salzburg University and Danube University Krems were chosen on the basis of their dif- ferent organisational structures and their respective specialisations. The Manage- ment Center Innsbruck Internationale Fachhochschulgesellschaft (MCI) and the Carinthia Tech Institute – University of Applied Sciences (Fachhochschule Tech- nikum Karnten)¨ already run some continuing education courses and were therefore in a position to contribute their own opinions and experiences. Interviews were con- ducted with the following key representatives of these institutions:

• Dr. Friedrich M. Zimmermann, Professor and Vice Rector for Research and Knowledge Transfer, and Dr. Andrea Waxenegger, Head of the Center for Con- tinuing Education (Zentrum fur¨ Weiterbildung - ZfW), University of Graz; • Dr. Rudolf Mosler, Professor and Vice Rector for Academic Affairs, University of Salzburg; Continuing Higher Education in Austria 251

• Dr. Ada Pellert, Professor and Vice Rector for Academic Affairs and Continu- ing Education, and Doris Carstensen M.A., Quality Manager, Danube University Krems; • Dr. Andreas Altmann, Managing Director, MCI; • Dr. Irene Muller¨ M.Phil., Executive Director, Carinthia Tech Institute – Univer- sity of Applied Sciences.

The interviews were conducted between mid-May and the beginning of June 2006, and were subsequently transcribed and evaluated. The use of open-ended questions to guide the interviews allowed for an interesting discussion of the higher educa- tion and service provision aspects, and consequently the experts’ contributions were integrated into the overall framework of the study.

2SystemLevel

2.1 Definition of Continuing Higher Education

During the last decade, continuing higher education in Austria has received greater attention mainly as a result of the reform of higher education. The status of contin- uing education at universities was boosted by the legal reforms introduced by the 1993 University Organisation Act (UOG 93). At an institutional level, the Act pro- vided for the establishment of Vice Rector posts with specific responsibility for con- tinuing education within universities’ management structures, and to some extent it also provided them with operational support. The reforms led to the establishment in 1996 of an Inter-University Working Group on University Continuing Education, comprising interested Vice Rectors and heads of continuing education from virtually all the universities.6 The group had the common goal of lobbying for continuing education at university level. The AUCEN network (Austrian University Continuing Education and Staff Development Net- work)7 developed a joint definition of continuing higher education that stresses the unique nature of continuing education at universities. Since no single definition of continuing higher education is shared by all the stakeholders in Austria, we have opted to use the AUCEN definition for the purposes of this study. According to AUCEN, continuing education constitutes the third core responsi- bility of Austria’s universities, alongside research and teaching, and includes voca- tional and personal development measures in various course formats. The target

6 At the time, there were 12 universities in Austria. Since then, the latest batch of higher education reforms has led to three Faculties of Medicine being given independent status as Universities of Medicine. Furthermore, the arts academies and art colleges became Universities of the Arts as a result of the 1998 KUOG Act. Finally, the 2004 DUK Act changed the status of Danube University Krems to a Continuing Education University. 7 Until 2005, AUCEN operated as an informal network whose membership included all the univer- sities in Austria. Since October 2005, AUCEN has been registered as an official association. 252 A. Pellert and E. Cendon groups are defined as graduates and people with an academic and/or other relevant educational background. Key requirements for continuing higher education include links with research, a connection between theory and practice, and its own particu- lar form of reflective thinking. Continuing higher education acts as a link between current academic research and experiences and approaches from outside the aca- demic world, thereby enabling non-academic perspectives to be taken into account in academic research, and allowing universities to increase the effectiveness of the services they provide to a broad range of occupations and walks of life. Thus, in addition to providing further training for individuals, continuing higher education creates added value by enabling the development of professional communities, com- munities of people with common interests, and networks, thereby contributing to a more effective society (AUCEN, 2002). AUCEN identifies the following specific characteristics of continuing higher education:

“1. Relationship with international research University continuing education has the advantage of being able to draw on the latest international developments in theory and practice, since the people providing continuing education in universities are familiar with the state of the art in their respective subject areas. Their participation in international research projects means they are well placed to offer an insight into the creation of know- ledge and to teach research skills insofar as they have a practical application. 2. A reflective approach in a social context Academic knowledge is critical and reflective, since it questions the conditions of its creation and its impact. This reflective process analyses the origins and purpose of knowledge in terms of its relationship with the individual and society as a whole. A reflective approach is also the most coherent method of recon- ciling theory with practice. Instead of denying the difference between theory and practice or blurring the boundary between them, it integrates them effec- tively into the learning process for both students and teachers. This requires an open-minded, flexible approach to teaching and learning. 3. Partnership principle Teachers and students are partners in a shared teaching and learning process. The experiences and knowledge of both groups contribute to this process right from the beginning. This leads to a system of continuous improvement through the interaction of all the participants.” (AUCEN, 2002).

Using this basic definition as a starting point, the experts were asked during the course of their interviews about what they understood by continuing higher educa- tion. They identified a sound academic basis and strong ties with research as the key elements, in other words, continuing higher education should be underpinned by research skills. The use of research findings from the different subject areas plays a key role in ensuring academic rigour. The interviewees also stressed the importance of practical and vocational relevance. They believed that it is crucial to achieve the right balance of practical work and research, drawing on both the know-how of the participating practitioners and the knowledge of the academics. The third key factor Continuing Higher Education in Austria 253 that they identified was that continuing higher education should offer practical ben- efits to students, enabling them to develop their potential and increase their value on the employment market, and allowing them to apply what they have learned to their work. The higher education institution is responsible for ensuring the quality of the learning process through appropriate quality development and assurance measures. According to this view, the key role is played by the higher education institution as the service provider, and this indeed also corresponds to the approach taken by the legal framework. Consequently, this study will concentrate exclusively on continu- ing education provision at Austrian higher education institutions, i.e. state universi- ties, private universities and Fachhochschulen. The requirement for the learning to have a practical application means that continuing higher education courses should be geared particularly towards practitioners. In the context of university autonomy, the issue of tuition fees is a significant factor. Consequently, this study places particular emphasis on university course for- mats leading to the title of “Academic ...” and Masters courses. In addition to this kind of continuing higher education provision, the higher education institutions also offer a variety of other, mostly shorter formats, such as lectures, seminars, work- shops, university courses, summer universities, summer schools, language courses and evening classes. In this respect, it is important to emphasise the services that are targeted at people with an interest in this type of learning, with a view to open- ing up the range of services offered by universities to a wider public. Examples of this type of service include “University meets Public”, a joint project between the University of Vienna and the Association of Vienna Adult Education Institu- tions (Verband Wiener Volksbildung), which takes up the old Viennese tradition of public university lectures (Volkstumliche¨ Universitatsvortr¨ age).¨ 8 In addition, since 2002 the University of Graz has been running a series of public lectures and debates on topical issues for the general public under the banner of “Education for Every- one”, as part of its Monday Academy programme (BMBWK (Federal Ministry for Education Science and Culture), 2005b, p. 57).

2.2 Continuing Higher Education Providers

With reference to the German system, German higher education researcher Andra¨ Wolter describes a trend towards “diversification of continuing education in higher education institutions” (Wolter, 2003, p. 3), both within higher education institu- tions themselves and also between higher education institutions and other contin- uing higher education providers. This trend can also, to some extent, be observed for continuing higher education in Austria. However, in Austria, higher education institutions are currently taking on a more active role as providers of continuing

8 These lectures were introduced with a view to popularising science and had their heyday in Vienna at the beginning of the 20th century, a time when the universities were expanding. For an in-depth look at this topic, see Wilhelm Filla (2001, 2006). 254 A. Pellert and E. Cendon education.9 While this change of emphasis has led to continuing higher education enjoying a higher profile, it has also put higher education institutions under greater pressure to meet their responsibilities as continuing education providers. According to the 2005 Universities Report, all but one of Austria’s universities provided continuing education in the form of university courses (BMBWK, 2005c, p. 124). In this context, Danube University Krems (Krems University for Contin- uing Education) enjoys a unique status. It has a novel funding approach based on contributions from central and regional government, but above all from the students themselves. As far as teaching is concerned, Danube University Krems (DUK) is required by statute to provide exclusively postgraduate continuing education in the form of courses, university courses and Masters degrees. The reform of the Austrian university system introduced by the 2002 Universities Act has been implemented at DUK through a new Organisation Act (DUK Act 2004) that draws heavily on the 2002 Universities Act in terms of its content and organisational changes. The DUK accounts for some 24% of all continuing higher education provision in Austria and had a total of 3210 students as of 31 January, 2006 (Danube University Krems, 2006, p. 18). The creation of 14 professorships and 12 departments has served to consolidate the link between research and continuing education and to strengthen the university’s reputation in specific subject areas. The university is now more than 75% self-financed, and the 2004 DUK Act states that its goal is to become a “Central European competence centre” in the field of continuing higher education. In the 2004 winter semester, a total of 9829 students were registered for contin- uing higher education courses across all of Austria’s universities, including DUK (BMBWK, 2005c, p. 124). If the DUK students are excluded, the total num- ber of students on continuing education university courses came to 6687. A total of 210,125 students were registered at Austrian universities for the 2004 winter semester (BMBWK, 2005c, p. 99), meaning that just over 3% of all Austrian univer- sity students were attending continuing education courses.10 Asfarasthedistribu- tion of continuing education students across the different universities is concerned, a heterogeneous picture emerges, with numbers not necessarily dependent on the size of the university. Alongside DUK, the university with the largest number of con- tinuing education students is the University of Klagenfurt, where 15% of students are taking continuing education courses (BMBWK, 2005b, p. 57). The reason for this relatively high percentage is that the Institute for Interdisciplinary Research and Further Education (Institut fur¨ Interdisziplinare¨ Forschung und Fortbildung – IFF) of the universities of Graz, Innsbruck, Klagenfurt and Vienna has been integrated into the University of Klagenfurt as an independent faculty. The IFF has a long tradition of combining continuing higher education with interdisciplinary research,

9 Consequently, the “university-style courses” (Lehrgange¨ universitaren¨ Charakters) that could pre- viously be provided by non-university educational institutions in partnership with university lec- turers and that were approved by the Federal Ministry for Education, Science and Culture (Bun- desministerium fur¨ Bildung, Wissenschaft und Kultur – BMBWK) are being phased out. It was, therefore, decided to exclude courses of this type that are still running from the present study. 10 These data do not include other continuing higher education formats. Continuing Higher Education in Austria 255 consultancy and public relations, and has been providing continuing higher educa- tion since the beginning of the 1980s. The Fachhochschulen (universities of applied science) established in 1994 pro- vide higher education courses that place greater emphasis on vocational training, offering academically based vocational courses designed to meet market needs and tailored for target groups in specific professions. While Austrian universities do not officially offer any part-time course options as part of their regular study courses,11 by distinguishing between full- and part-time students, the Fachhochschulen have used and developed the opportunity to offer part-time courses. During the 2005/2006 academic year, 61 out of 150 Fachhochschule courses were offered on a part- time basis,12 and these were attended by 28% of all students (FHR (Council of Fachhochschulen), 2006). Furthermore, since 2003, Fachhochschulen have been entitled to provide “continuing education courses” (Lehrgange¨ zu Weiterbildung) that match the guidelines for university courses in terms of the legal framework (FHStG – Fachhochschul-Studiengesetz, 2006 Section 14a). Seven providers of Fachhochschule courses have taken advantage of this option and are offering con- tinuing education in the form of courses leading to internationally recognised qual- ifications.13 Since the year 2000, it has been possible to set up private universities in Austria. The accreditation of educational institutions as private universities is regulated by the 1999 University Accreditation Act (Universitats-Akkreditierungsgesetz¨ – Uni- AkkG). Private universities and the courses that they offer are accredited by the Accreditation Council in accordance with international accreditation standards for a fixed period of time (usually 5 years). The qualifications conferred are recognised in accordance with the Austrian study regulations. Currently, six of the ten accred- ited private universities provide postgraduate continuing education programmes in different subject areas.

2.3 Continuing Higher Education Framework

In its 2003 Country Note, the Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Devel- opment (OECD) made a relatively favourable assessment of existing adult learning and in-service training provision in Austria (BMBWK, 2004). Austria was identified as having the following positive aspects:

11 This has been confirmed by the study on the European Qualifications Framework (EQF) in the context of tertiary education, undertaken by the Department for Continuing Education Research and Educational Management (Department fur¨ Weiterbildungsforschung und Bildungsmanage- ment) in conjunction with the Institute for Advanced Studies (Institut fur¨ Hohere¨ Studien- IHS). 12 Thirty-two were exclusively part-time courses, while 29 were run on a full- and part-time basis. 13 This information was obtained from a telephone survey conducted by the Council of Fach- hochschulen (Fachhochschulrat) in the winter of 2005. The survey results were very kindly made available to our researchers. 256 A. Pellert and E. Cendon

• a high standard of training • a high number of students who complete Secondary II level (Sekundarstufe II, equivalent to sixth form) • a strong emphasis on initial vocational training • well-developed adult learning provisions • a wide range of upskilling opportunities

Nevertheless, the OECD report also identified a number of barriers and obstacles that need to be overcome in order for a further significant improvement to be achieved:

• a pronounced demarcation between the individual sectors (e.g. between in- service training and the formal education system, or between the different parts of the education system); • a provider and supply-oriented approach; • a lack of overarching strategies and co-ordinating bodies; • a lack of structural support for small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs) (to enable them to form part of a coherent lifelong learning strategy).

The problems identified by the OECD with regard to adult learning can to some extent also be said to apply to the higher education sector in Austria.

• Access and transfers There is a tendency for strong demarcation lines to exist between individual parts of the system, both within the tertiary sector (i.e. between higher education institutions) and as far as access to higher education is concerned. Access for non-traditional students is difficult, and the number of students who gain access to higher education institutions through the Studien- berechtigungsprufung¨ (a special university entrance exam for people without sec- ondary school qualifications) or the Berufsreifeprufung¨ (for people with some vocational training or work experience) is equally low. It is true that the num- ber of non-traditional students admitted to higher education courses did increase following the establishment of the Fachhochschulen; however, the numbers were still lower than hoped for (Lassnigg & Unger, 2006, p. 220). According to statis- tics from the Council of Fachhochschulen, in the 2004/2005 academic year only some 12% of students14 (FHR, 2004, p. 79) attending Fachhochschule courses had been admitted via non-traditional pathways. • Links between sectors The links between the higher education sector and in- service (continuing) training provision are few and far between. Apart from a few exceptions that occur almost exclusively in the area of continuing education, very few higher education institutions take advantage of the opportunity to develop

14 Approximately 3.7% gained access to Fachhochschulen through the Berufsreifeprufung¨ ,1.6% through the Studienberechtigungsprufung¨ , 0.8% through secondary TVE schools (Berufsbildende Mittlere Schulen – BMS), 2.3% through an apprenticeship certificate, 0.16 via industrial master schools (Werkmeisterschulen) and 3.4% via other access routes. Continuing Higher Education in Austria 257

corporate programmes for and in conjunction with businesses. Jointly developed courses are currently only offered in some isolated cases in Fachhochschulen.

As far as the legal framework for continuing education at universities is concerned, two major milestones were the 1993 University Organisation Act (UOG 93) and the 2002 Universities Act (UG (Universitatsgesetz),¨ 2002) that came into force in all universities as of the beginning of 2004. The 1993 University Organisation Act described continuing higher education as “continuing education in particular for university graduates” (UOG 93, Section 1, Para. 3, Ln. 3) and established it as the third core responsibility of universities, alongside research and teaching. The partial legal autonomy granted to universities meant that they had greater room for manoeuvre as far as funding is concerned and were able to charge for continuing higher education courses. Furthermore, the creation of executive posts responsible for continuing higher education meant that it was possible to increase its profile at the institutional level. The 2002 Universities Act granted the universities full legal autonomy, meaning that each university can now establish its own guidelines for continuing education in its statutes. All that the 2002 Universities Act says is that universities are entitled to set up university courses (UG, 2002 Section 56). Following the transfer of authority and responsibility for establishing continuing education courses from the Federal Ministry for Education, Science and Culture, universities now act autonomously with regard to the provision of university courses and other formats of continuing higher education, as well as with regard to the conferring of qualifications and qual- ity assurance. There are hardly any statutory regulations governing the conferring of qualifi- cations. The relevant passage in the 2002 Universities Act stipulates that in the case of university courses, the relevant standard international Masters degree for the subject in question may be conferred as long as the course “is comparable to the relevant international Masters courses in terms of its access requirements, scope and demands” (UG, 2002 Section 58, 1). Students who obtain a minimum of 60 ECTS credit points are awarded the title “Academic...” followed by the name of the profession (UG, 2002 Section 58, 2). Each individual university is responsible for ensuring the quality of its contin- uing education, and the relevant quality assurance measures should be integrated into an overall quality management system for the university as a whole (UG, 2002 Section 14, 1). AUCEN has been discussing the topic of quality assurance for uni- versity courses and part-time Masters courses for some years in terms of the student workload resulting from the ECTS system. AUCEN recommends that 90 ECTS credit points should be awarded for part-time Masters courses with a duration of four semesters. The 2003 amendment to the Fachhochschule Studies Act (Fachhochschul- Studiengesetz – FHStG) created the legal framework for Fachhochschulen to pro- vide continuing education courses. The legal framework is similar to that of contin- uing higher education; however, all study courses need to obtain the prior approval of the Fachhochschulrat (Council of Universities of Applied Science), the accredi- 258 A. Pellert and E. Cendon tation body responsible for courses at Fachhochschulen. The Council has 3 months during which it may decide not to authorise the course if the relevant formal condi- tions have not been met.

2.4 The Role of Continuing Higher Education

Continuing higher education has a special place within lifelong learning policy. The goal of promoting lifelong learning that appears in the Bologna Process declara- tions from Prague to Bergen poses new challenges for higher education institutions. In addition to the Bologna Process, the development of a European Qualifications Framework for Lifelong Learning (EQF) poses new challenges for the individual parts of the education system, not least in terms of the establishment of a national qualification’s framework intended to create links between all the different parts of the education system. This will require a new definition of the role of continuing higher education beyond the Bologna process. The goal of promoting lifelong learning is still being met by Austria’s higher education institutions almost exclusively through continuing education courses.15 Hitherto, by far the most common means of gaining access to higher education in Austria has been via the university entrance certificate awarded by schools to students who pass the Matura (secondary school leaving exam). While it is true that the creation of the Studienberechtigungsprufung¨ and the Berufsreifeprufung¨ did offer alternative access routes, the proportion of people entering higher education in this way is very low. On the whole, universities do very little in terms of validating previous work experience gained outside university. Furthermore, there is currently a lack of relevant, binding standards and guidelines for validating non-formal and informal learning. On the other hand, the Fachhochschulen are also geared towards people in work, and they do take previous work experience partly into account in their course admissions procedure. Continuing higher education in Austria fulfils two important roles: it provides continuing education for graduates, but it also acts as a gateway for new professions or for professions where academic qualifications have not yet been developed. It thus often serves as an early warning system for identifying new educational demands and requirements, and is endowed with a high degree of flexibility that enables it to respond rapidly to these new needs. Work experience and prior knowledge acquired outside university play an important role in ensuring a link between professional practice and research. As such, continuing higher education constitutes an important means of entering higher education for people with work experience, since a university degree is not necessarily a prerequisite. However, there is currently a lack of accurate data on

15 Indeed, the progress report on the implementation of the Bologna Declaration in Austria refers exclusively to continuing higher education provision in the section on lifelong learning (BMBWK, 2005a, p. 44). Continuing Higher Education in Austria 259 the ratio of university graduates to non-graduates in continuing higher education in Austria. The only university that does have centrally compiled statistics on this topic is Danube University Krems, where 62% of students were university graduates and 38% non-graduates in 2004. The majority of students have some work experience, with two-thirds of them having at least 10 years (BMBWK; 2005b, p. 71).

3 Institution Level

3.1 Organisational Structures and Management of Continuing Education

3.1.1 Organisational and Legal Structure On the basis of the organisational and legal structures identified through the ques- tionnaire, it is clear that parallel continuing education structures exist in the majority of higher education institutions.16 In addition to the organisational units for contin- uing higher education that are mainly structured as central service centres or depart- ments of central service centres, some continuing higher education units also form part of a faculty. Only two institutions are structured as academic or non-university institutions. Furthermore, there is one higher education institution where continu- ing education has a purely decentralised structure, i.e. where it is organised by the individual course directors. At an institutional level, moreover, continuing education units are to some extent integrated into the larger institution at different levels via professorships or the vice rector’s office. As far as the legal status of continuing education units is concerned, 15 respon- dents described their units as “a section of the higher education institution”, while one unit is a private company (GmbH) and in a further case continuing education activities are the legal responsibility of the individual faculties. Decentralised structures were also evident in the case of fee-paying continuing education provision. Half of the respondents said that continuing higher education is provided not only through the centralised units but also in the individual faculties or centres (institutes, university hospitals, etc.), as well as in partnership between the two. The organisation and management of fee-paying courses is also predominantly decentralised, i.e. it is dealt with by the organisational units, faculties or institutes. The research conducted on the Internet and the discussions at AUCEN indicate that continuing higher education in Austria has acquired a stronger identity in recent years. The technical universities that have tended not to attach much importance to continuing higher education in the past have now started to set up their own centres or units. Examples include the new Continuing Education Center (CEC) at Vienna

16 The assumption that this would be the case was catered for in the questionnaire by allowing multiple responses. 260 A. Pellert and E. Cendon

Technical University, and the Graz Technical University Office of Lifelong Learning that was established in November 2005. Some traditional universities have chosen to outsource their Master of Business Administration (MBA) and executive education departments, in some cases by turning them into private companies. As long ago as 1989, the International Management Academy (LIMAK) was created in partnership between the business community, the public sector and the Johannes Kepler University Linz. The Academy is structured along the lines of a US Business School, and focuses on executive education. The Innsbruck Management Center (MCI) was founded 10 years ago as a limited company called “Die Unternehmerische HochschuleR ” (The University of Entrepreneurship) by the University of Innsbruck and various partners, and forms an integral part of the Innsbruck Open University for Initial and Further Training, offering both non-graduate and postgraduate courses. The MCI runs the University of Innsbruck’s MBA courses.17 Likewise, Salzburg University’s MBAs are organised in partnership with and run by the Salzburg Management GmbH-University of Salzburg Business School (SMBS). The Vienna University of Economics and Business Administration (WU Wien) is one of the higher education institutions that have not actually hived off these functions as a private company, but it has nevertheless been running its Executive Academy (formerly the Continuing Education Center) as a flourishing Business School for several years, offering a range of services including university and Masters courses, continuing education for the university’s own staff, corporate programmes for businesses, open seminars, and conferences and events. The higher education institutions selected for our case studies also had extremely diverse and in some cases very dynamic organisational structures. A strategic development process undertaken across the whole of the University of Graz in the year 2000 led to the creation of an “Office of University Continu- ing Education” charged with expanding continuing education provision, organisa- tional development, and the planning and setting up of a continuing education centre (Waxenegger, 2006, p. 203). As a result, the Zentrum fur¨ Weiterbildung (Center for Continuing Education) was established in autumn 2002. Hitherto it has served to co-ordinate continuing education activities at Graz University and has acted as an interface and link between academic theory and practice and between people inter- ested in continuing education and organisations with a range of different functions. In response to the need to optimise the organisational, fiscal and labour law aspects of the centre, a limited company for continuing education was subsequently created as a partner institution,18 in particular with a view to providing continuing education tailored to the requirements of businesses or in the form of university courses. The Zentrum fur¨ Weiterbildung is a university institution that forms part of the Depart-

17 The MCI is in a unique position, in that following its creation, a Fachhochschule was created as a result of the Fachhochschulen Act that opened up the possibility of setting up higher education courses. 18 The private company is wholly owned by the University of Graz. Continuing Higher Education in Austria 261 ment of Administration and Services, and will in future concentrate on meeting the university’s social responsibility in the field of lifelong learning, under the motto “Education for Everyone”. Continuing education activities at the University of Salzburg have various differ- ent organisational structures. Business and economics courses are farmed out, and are supervised and run by the Salzburg Management GmbH-University of Salzburg Business School (SMBS). The SMBS is a subsidiary of Salzburg University, and is a public–private partnership between the university and central government, the Salzburg Land government and various businesses. Continuing education activities at the university are decentralised and are the responsibility of the various faculties. Support for development and supervision is provided by the Vice Rectorate for Aca- demic Affairs, and this is indeed the first contact point for people wishing to develop continuing education courses. At the Carinthia University of Applied Sciences, continuing education activities are not currently centralised. Continuing education courses are developed by the course directors, and the curricula are then checked by management and the board before being sent for assessment to the Fachhochschulrat. Danube University Krems is a special case, insofar as it provides exclusively continuing education courses. Management is centralised via the Vice Rectorate for Academic Affairs and the Quality Management Office, which is attached to the Vice Rector’s Office, as well as via the Senate. Meanwhile, course development is undertaken by the individual departments. When the university’s organisational structure was reformed, a Forum for Academic Affairs was created in order to enable exchanges and co-ordination regarding course content and to promote co-operation between the departments.

3.1.2 Management Structures The survey results indicated that as far as management structures at the higher education institutions are concerned, continuing education units are managed by a variety of different players, and there is a distinction between strategic and oper- ational management. Six of the units were managed by a member of the academic staff, two by a full-time manager and one by a part-time manager. The relevant Vice Rectors were identified as being responsible for strategic management, while the course directors or heads of the relevant departments or organisational units are responsible for operational matters. In most cases, managers report to the university administration, although in three instances they report to the Senate and in one case it is not clear whom they report to. This overall picture becomes clearer if one looks at the management structures of the higher education institutions selected for the case studies. At the universities in question, ultimate responsibility rests with the relevant Vice Rectors, while at the Carinthia University of Applied Sciences it lies with management and the board. At the University of Salzburg, there is a direct connection between the Vice Rector for Academic Affairs and the faculties. Meanwhile, at Graz University a corresponding support structure was introduced via the Center for Continuing Education. 262 A. Pellert and E. Cendon

3.1.3 Recruitment of Teaching Staff In the expert interviews, we discussed issues pertaining to academic management of university or Fachhochschule courses and Masters courses, and talked about the mix of teaching staff on the courses. At the University of Graz, it is felt to be very important for academic managers to have an appropriate academic background, since they are ultimately responsi- ble for the quality of the service being provided. In order to obtain a post as an academic manager, candidates are required to have several years’ experience in research, teaching and course design. Managers are often supported by a qualified co-ordinator. Particular stress is also placed on having a diverse mix of teaching staff suited to the requirements of each course, with special emphasis on the applied and practical aspects. Consequently, there is a more balanced mix of in-house and external teaching staff and of academics and non-university practitioners than on regular university courses. At the University of Salzburg, it is considered important for continuing educa- tion provision to be in line with the university’s core academic subject areas. The university’s Vice Rector stresses that the subject in question must have a relevant link to research, e.g. in the form of a professorship. Furthermore, at least one of the course directors must be a member of Salzburg University’s staff. At the Carinthia University of Applied Sciences, great importance is attached to both the academic and applied aspects of teaching. Since the institution’s own full- and part-time teaching staff is involved in teaching the courses, the academic level is very high. The institution’s orientation and the experience garnered from running the courses has resulted in a balanced mix of academics and practitioners. At DUK, the creation of departments and new professorships means that aca- demic management is now the responsibility of the university’s in-house professors. They are responsible for signing off on the academic content of curricula and for the quality of the courses. Several members of each department’s academic staff are usually involved in curriculum design and in running and supervising the courses. In some cases, courses are managed by teams that can include out-of-house pro- fessors. DUK’s Quality Manager believes that there is currently a trend towards course management teams, since it is rare for a single person to possess all of the diverse set of skills required, such as the right academic background, extensive pro- fessional experience and teaching skills. She considers this to be an example of best practice in continuing education, based on the development teams created to set up Fachhochschule courses. As far as teaching is concerned, DUK has what it describes as a large “Fly- ing Faculty” comprising over 1000 external contract teachers who teach on DUK courses. Between 30 and 40% of these are academics, while the remainder are prac- titioners. A significant proportion of the teachers work in the field of consultancy, for example as management consultants. These close ties between consultancy and university teaching are a result of the strong focus on innovative change in teach- ing services. There are between 100 and 150 foreign contract teachers, mostly from German-speaking countries. The appointment of professors and intensified recruit- Continuing Higher Education in Austria 263 ment of academic staff are aimed at creating a core of permanent academic staff. The new professors have been appointed to further raise teaching standards and add value to the courses. In the words of DUK’s Quality Manager, “The professors should have a real impact. As ever, academic rigour is something that comes from individuals.”

3.2 Quality Assurance

Quality assurance of continuing higher education is largely regulated by statute. Quality assurance of continuing education at universities (UG, 2002 Section 14) and Fachhochschulen (FHStG, 2006 Section 2, 3) is required to be integrated into an overall quality and performance assurance system through the development of its own quality management system. As for private universities, regulations exist requiring them to report to the Accreditation Council on the quality assurance mea- sures they have taken (UniAkkG, 2006 Section 4, 4). The expert interviews were used to gather information for the case studies on special forms of quality assurance used for continuing higher education, specific quality assurance instruments not used for regular study courses, and customer- oriented quality assurance measures. It is clear that to some extent, the higher education institutions have put very different quality assurance systems in place, particularly ex ante, i.e. while continuing education courses were being set up. This is a result of the fact that the universities were required, in keeping with their autonomous status, to develop their own structures for continuing education quality assurance. At Graz University, continuing education courses form an integral part of the university’s service provision and are, therefore, subject to its quality control pro- cedures. In addition, there is a proposal for introducing a section in the statutes that places special emphasis on quality assurance. In the case of businesses for which tailor-made programmes are provided, quality control is carried out by the participants themselves and by the organisations that they belong to. Meanwhile, the Monday Academy has an academic management team that includes professors on the university’s staff and is responsible for guaranteeing the quality of the lec- tures given at the Academy. The academic management team appointed by the uni- versity is responsible for quality assurance of seminars and programmes. A highly sophisticated quality assurance system was established for the process of setting up continuing higher education courses. The involvement of the different departments in the development process and the consultation of the Center for Continuing Edu- cation constitute an important quality control mechanism right from the start of the process. The limited company has taken on this consultation role since it was set up. Before a new course is established, the Curriculum Committee obtains a peer review from two external (usually foreign) experts in the relevant subject area. Fol- lowing the Curriculum Committee’s decision, a further quality control measure is provided by the formal review process established by the 2002 Universities Act. 264 A. Pellert and E. Cendon

Different quality control procedures are used by course directors during the courses themselves. Some opt to consult course participants on their opinions, while others set up academic advisory committees – in practice, the approach is relatively open and creative. At Salzburg University, when somebody has an idea for a new continuing edu- cation course, the first step is to have a meeting with the Vice Rector for Academic Affairs. If they obtain agreement in principle for their idea, the next step is for the prospective course directors to produce a provisional study programme. This is then checked in-house to ensure that it complies with any educational legislation, and guidelines are provided on various requirements and on structuring the course, as well as on understanding ECTS. Once the course has been revised in the light of the above, the Vice Rector issues an opinion on the study programme. The Senate then appoints a Curriculum Committee to review the course content and make a recommendation to the Senate. Once approval has been obtained from the Senate, the course can be set up. Quality assurance for the courses run by the SMBS is still dealt with by the university. The course content is once again assessed by the Senate and the Curriculum Committee, and in the case of new courses an external review is also usually obtained. One key element of quality assurance is that all continu- ing education courses are required to be in line with the university’s core academic subject areas, and should focus on areas where the necessary competences exist to provide them. In addition, at least one of the course directors must be a member of Salzburg University’s staff. In recent times, applications for new courses have been subject to more thorough assessments, and some courses are now only approved for a limited period of time. Furthermore, most courses and partnership agreements are required to have student evaluations and to report on course implementation and evaluation. Although these procedures were already in place on the majority of courses, they are now required to be implemented as common standards across all the university’s courses. An overall quality assurance system is being developed for the university’s regular courses, involving all the different faculties. Although this system is aimed mainly at the university’s regular courses, continuing education is nevertheless included in it. At the Carinthia University of Applied Sciences, the study programmes of pro- posed new courses are subject to a formal external assessment by the Council of Fachhochschulen. Prior to this, the institution’s management and Board assess and approve proposed courses on the basis of how well they fit with the main subject areas taught at the institution. At DUK, work on a centralised quality management system has been ongoing since the changeover to the new organisational structure. Two Academic Affairs Forums have been set up to help with teaching and quality development, enabling discussion of teaching and study-related issues. This involves meetings of course directors to discuss specific topics, and meetings where current problems and new curricula are discussed. New curricula are presented at these meetings, allowing input from other departments to be taken on board, and initial reflection on the course content is encouraged by the fact that the presentations all follow the same basic structure as determined by an internal checklist. Curricula, accompanied by Continuing Higher Education in Austria 265 the relevant documentation (e.g. market and needs analyses, costings, partners, teaching staff composition, proposed teaching methods) then enter the internal review process, where they are submitted to the Senate, Vice Rector’s Office and University Council for assessment and discussion prior to the drawing up of a writ- ten report (Danube University Krems, 2006, p. 13). Great emphasis has been placed on evaluation for some years now. Since the year 2000, an intranet-based on-line evaluation tool has been used to evaluate lectures, courses and modules. All lectur- ers are evaluated systematically. Furthermore, course modules lasting several days are evaluated upon their conclusion via an open discussion between the course direc- tors and students. This enables continuous proactive and reactive adjustments to be made to the teaching and learning process. Various forms of external evaluation exist at DUK, including academic advisory committees for courses and departments, pro- fessional recognition of curricula and accreditations.

3.3 Public Relations, Marketing and Advertising

For the purpose of studying this theme, a comparison was undertaken of the specific measures implemented for each format in 2005 (see Fig. 2).

Use of own web site Education fairs Flyers Press articles & editorial contributions Direct Mailing Advertisements Posters Public relations Open days Internet continuing education portals Alumni events Company information evenings Others Internet banners Taster courses 0 51015 20 25 30 35

Short formats University/Fachhochschule courses Masters courses

Fig. 2 Marketing measures by format

The measure most frequently cited by the different formats was the use of higher education institution’s own web site. A look at the web sites of selected higher education institutions shows that continuing education is frequently mentioned on the site’s home page. Thus, there is a link to “Studies & Continuing Education” on Graz University’s web site (www.uni-graz.at), and to “Continuing Education” (Weiterbildung) at the Carinthia University of Applied Sciences (www.cti.ac.at). On the Salzburg University site, on the other hand, continuing education is found under the “Studies” link (www.uni-salzburg.at), while MCI’s home page does not 266 A. Pellert and E. Cendon use the term “continuing education” at all, opting instead to list a range of targeted continuing education courses (www.mci.edu). The responses to the questionnaire identified education fairs as an important vehicle for presenting university, Fachhochschule courses and Masters programmes. Further important tactics included press articles and advertisements. Direct mail- ing and flyers were also frequently mentioned, specifically for university and Fachhochschule courses. On the other hand, Internet banners and taster courses were not rated highly at all and were hardly used, although DUK does offer tasters as part of its “Student for a Day” initiative that allows people to get a feel for the university by spending one day attending classes free of charge on a continuing education course. If marketing measures are broken down into advertising (advertisements, Inter- net banners, poster campaigns, continuing education portals on the Internet), infor- mation (flyers, direct mailing, institutions’ own web sites, public relations, press articles, editorial contributions), consulting (education fairs, information evenings at companies, alumni events, open days, taster courses) and others, a more differ- entiated picture emerges (Fig. 3). Information is the most important category for all formats, while consulting are less widely used.

Information

Presentations

Advertising

Others

0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40

Short formats University/Fachhochschule courses Masters courses

Fig. 3 Marketing categories by format

For Masters courses, the proportion of consulting is very low overall. However, only 11 of the 16 institutions that responded to the questionnaire ran Masters courses last year. The responses of the six traditional universities indicate that information and consulting play a more important role than advertising (Fig. 4). When considering the role of consulting, it is important to remember that the questionnaires were addressed to the relevant managers at the central offices. It may be surmised that a different picture would have emerged if course directors had been questioned, since the organisation of consulting about specific courses is generally decentralised. Continuing Higher Education in Austria 267

Fig. 4 Marketing for Masters 6 courses at traditional 10 universities

14

Advertising Information Advice

The answers to the question about who is responsible for marketing continuing higher education19 reflect the institutions’ organisational and management struc- tures (Fig. 5). The two most frequent responses were that the higher education institution has central responsibility and that responsibility is decentralised to the individual faculties, with both approaches having more or less equal weight.

Higher education institution Faculties Others Press office Partners 012345678

Fig. 5 Responsibility for marketing continuing education

3.3.1 Similar Trends Emerged From the Expert Interviews At the University of Graz, marketing is undertaken both for the whole university and at the level of specific projects. The Center for Continuing Education supports the university’s central marketing activities through a common Internet portal for all the university’s continuing education provision. In addition, the centre is responsible for the editorial content of Graz University’s annual continuing education brochure. It also co-ordinates the university’s continuing education presence at a major edu- cation fair known as BeSt3 (Careers, Education and Continuing Education Fair). Meanwhile, decentralised marketing is also carried out by the individual faculties for their own courses.

19 Multiple answers were permitted. 268 A. Pellert and E. Cendon

Salzburg University uses various different strategies to market its continuing edu- cation activities. While SMBS carries out its own centralised marketing, the decen- tralised marketing of individual courses at the university is very diverse. Some of the courses have only a very small budget for advertising and marketing. While some rely mainly on word of mouth, others do some small-scale advertising and use folded flyers. As far as centralised marketing is concerned, a continually updated list of all the available courses (including those run at the SMBS) with the correspond- ing approved study programmes can be downloaded from the “Studies” section of the university’s web site. The Carinthia University of Applied Sciences uses a mixture of centralised and decentralised marketing. Certain areas that affect the whole institution are dealt with centrally. A course-specific marketing budget is also available to encourage individ- ual courses to develop their own marketing measures, although these do need to be approved subsequently. Since the institution has yet to develop a specific pro- file for centralised marketing of continuing education, this is currently done on a decentralised basis. At DUK, marketing and PR are considered to be very important, since it is felt that continuing education requires a much more proactive sales and marketing strat- egy than regular undergraduate courses. The DUK adopts a top-down approach to marketing. The “Communication, Marketing and PR” services unit is responsible for external and some aspects of internal communications.

3.4 Funding of Higher Continuing Education

In the Austrian study, the funding section of the questionnaire focused on areas where it was assumed that answers could be provided by central managers responsible for continuing education. The questions related to funding of planning and development of new continuing education activities, opinions about the extent to which the costs of running continuing education courses are recovered through fees and charges, and remuneration of both in-house staff members and external teachers. There was a wide range of responses with regard to the funding of planning and development of new continuing education activities (Fig. 6).20 The highest percent- age of the funding comes from the higher education institution’s central budget, fol- lowed by the individual faculties and departments and cross-financing from tuition fees. Fundraising also appears to play an important role, followed by third-party funding. The responses to the questions on cost recovery indicated that although the costs of most of the courses are covered by tuition fees, overheads are not always fully recovered. It is rare for there to be surplus tuition fees that allow reserves to be built up.

20 Multiple answers were permitted. Continuing Higher Education in Austria 269

Higher Education Institution Cross-financing Faculties/Departments Fundraising Third parties Others Continuing Education Organisation 0123456789

Fig. 6 Continuing education funding

According to the questionnaire, members of the institution’s in-house staff who teach continuing education classes are paid fees in line with the going market rate in 10 cases, while in six cases they are paid fees based on a fee scale, and in two cases no fees are paid at all. The breakdown is similar for fees paid to external teachers (see Fig. 7).

Market rate

Fee scale

Other

012345678910 In-house staff External staff

Fig. 7 Basis for the fees paid to teachers

The experts in the case studies were also asked about funding and cost recovery for continuing education courses. In order to ensure cost recovery, the University of Graz mainly adopts a mixed funding approach to continuing education. Courses with a larger public component make correspondingly greater use of mixed funding, with funding sources including the state, grants, student fees, the university itself, sponsors and EU projects. At Salzburg University, all courses have to pay for themselves. Every new course has to provide a costing that gives precise details of how its costs will be covered either through tuition fees or other external funding methods. The university only provides support in exceptional cases, for example in the case of courses that are not directly to do with business and economics. All calculable costs, such as room rental costs, must be paid for by the course as a matter of principle. Furthermore, the university’s development costs (licence fees) must also be catered for. For this purpose, 5% of the course’s revenue must be set aside, and this has to be taken into account in the original costing. The university only charges 2.5% development costs for courses that are just starting up or for certain other special cases, and this is seen as a form of cross-financing. The 5% fee is all that is paid to the university, and 270 A. Pellert and E. Cendon the remaining profits are retained by the course, although in practice it is rare for a course to make a profit. Profit-making courses are offered by the SMBS, which retains and reinvests the profits. Course funding at the Carinthia University of Applied Sciences is currently the responsibility of the courses themselves, since no additional funds are available through the authorities responsible for the university, and it is also not possible to use grants for this purpose. Consequently, courses have to pay for themselves. Hith- erto, the university has not charged continuing education courses for overheads. The special circumstances of DUK have already been alluded to and are based on the university’s high level of self-financing, achieved through course fees and the growing proportion of third-party research funding. The newly created depart- ments are run as cost centres, in other words all costs are allocated proportionately to the departments, which are required to operate in such a way as to cover their costs. There are three categories of profit contributions: variable costs, payroll costs and overheads. Any costs that are not recovered, together with costs for centralised functions such as accounting and marketing, are paid for with public funds from central and regional government. Courses have to pay for themselves predominantly through tuition fees.

3.5 Future Prospects

The questionnaire asked respondents to rank the future prospects for continuing higher education provision on the basis of five statements. The statements “continuing education provision is increasingly being defined by workloads (ECTS credits)”, “vocational orientation of courses is increasingly important” and “the demand for qualification-oriented courses is likely to grow” were ranked as highly probable. The statements “it will be made easier for vocational skills to be taken into account for higher education courses” and “the academic foundation of courses is becoming more important” were ranked as fairly likely. The change in the environment for continuing education resulting from the bud- getary pressures at higher education institutions met with a critical response in the answers to the questionnaire. The statement “the higher education institution will demand full cost recovery from continuing higher education” was ranked as highly probable by all 16 respondents. Conversely, the statement “our organisation will achieve full cost recovery” (n = 14) was only considered to be fairly likely. A look at the changes to the organisational structures of continuing higher educa- tion suggests that although the stakeholders currently perceive continuing education to have a somewhat peripheral role, it appears that we are nevertheless witness- ing the beginning of a new movement towards professionalisation and diversifica- tion of organisational structures. Examples of this range from the setting up of a Management School at one faculty to the creation of a Continuing Education Cen- tre for centralised co-ordination, and the launch of a new Continuing Education Continuing Higher Education in Austria 271

Academy responsible for identifying course requirements, co-ordinating existing courses and establishing new ones, as well as for quality assurance and marketing. Some universities are giving serious consideration to creating continuing educa- tion centres and farming out activities in the form of private companies or joint ventures. Other trends identified include greater integration of continuing education courses into the Bologna structures and an expansion of the range of Masters courses offered (accompanied by a fall in the number of courses leading to the title of “Academic ...”). Although hardly any Fachhochschulen participated in the questionnaire for the reasons detailed above,21 they too are considering the organisational integration of continuing education. According to the Executive Director of the Carinthia Univer- sity of Applied Sciences, Fachhochschulen are well placed to develop continuing education activities, thanks to their close ties with the world of work and the strong practical focus of their teaching staff.

3.6 General Information

The questionnaire also requested general information on the annual total of students attending the different formats of continuing higher education, and staffing levels in the continuing education area. The annual total of students attending the different formats of continuing higher education is relatively modest. The annual number of students on the majority of university or Fachhochschule courses is 100 or fewer. Only two higher education institutions reported numbers between 100 and 200, while three reported annual totals of over 200. The annual student numbers for Masters courses are relatively low. Five respondents reported numbers of up to 50 and three reported totals of up to 100, while only two institutions had an annual total of over 200. Staffing levels for continuing higher education are reported as being very low in terms of full-time equivalent positions. If one takes the organisational structures that are found in this area into account, it is easier to understand why this is the case. The work performed by higher education institutions’ academic staff in developing con- tinuing education activities is not explicitly recognised, and supervising continuing higher education is just one of the many tasks for which Vice Rectors are respon- sible. These findings for universities tie in with AUCEN’s perception that contin- uing higher education is only endowed with sufficient resources in a tiny minority of cases, and is often carried out by people with various other responsibilities. It should be remembered that outsourced continuing education organisations were not included in this survey.

21 For example, we are just beginning to develop continuing education activities, we haven’t yet set up a central office, we have only just started to establish a central office. 272 A. Pellert and E. Cendon

4 Programme Level

4.1 Courses

4.1.1 Course Duration The questionnaire was used to categorise the courses run in 2005 by format. Half of the 14 institutions that provided university or Fachhochschule courses in 2005 ran a total of up to five courses. Only three offered up to 10 courses, while a further three ran between 11 and 20 courses. Finally, only one institution ran more than 20 continuing higher education courses in 2005. Just 11 of the 16 institutions ran Masters courses in 2005. The majority (six) offered up to five courses, while none of the respondents ran more than 15 Masters courses. It should be noted, however, that in some cases these data do not cover executive education, and that the university courses and Masters courses offered by DUK were also not included. The case studies provided a range of different data. The current continuing education brochure for the University of Graz lists 18 continuing education courses. Twelve of these are university courses (seven lead to the title “Academic...” followed by the name of the profession, three lead to a diploma, one is a university preparatory course and one a course for preparing people without secondary school qualifications to sit a university entrance exam). As for Masters courses, there are two Masters of Law (LL.M), one Master of Arts (MA),22 one Master of Science (MSc.) and one Master of Advanced Studies (MAS). In addition, there is a wide range of workshops, short courses and seminars, as well as a summer university. General university education aimed at making the university accessible to a wider, regional public and to specific target groups is provided in the guise of various activities, such as the summer university, lecture series, round table lectures, workshops and seminars (University of Graz, 2006). Total 31 continuing higher education courses are currently offered by Salzburg University, 11 of which lead to the title “Academic...” followed by the name of the profession. The university runs 10 Masters courses: a Master of Business Law (M.B.L.), an LL.M course, and a number of other MSc., MAS and MA courses. The SMBS runs 10 MBA courses. MCI currently has 12 continuing education courses, including eight Fach- hochschule courses leading to the title “Academic...” followed by the name of the profession and four Masters courses (two LL.M courses, one MBA and one MSc.). Carinthia University of Applied Sciences currently runs three courses: two Fach- hochschule courses leading to the title “Academic ...” in the areas of healthcare management and mediation and conflict management, and a Remote Engineering Masters course. DUK ran 148 continuing education courses in 2005. These were divided into 23 Certified Programmes, 39 continuing higher education courses leading to the title

22 The “Public Health” Masters course is a continuing education course at the Medical University of Graz. Continuing Higher Education in Austria 273

“Academic...”followedbythenameoftheprofession,and86Masterscourses(MSc., MA, MBA, LL.M). Seventeen courses were run both as courses leading to the title “Academic...” and as Masters courses (Danube University Krems, 2006, p. 31). Seven of the respondents to the questionnaire stated that there had been no change in the duration of courses provided over the past 3 years, while seven thought that the number of longer courses had increased and two identified an increase in the number of shorter courses (Fig. 8).

2

7

7

More shorter courses No change More longer courses

Fig. 8 Changes in courses on offer A diverse picture emerges when the statistics are broken down by the type of higher education institution (Fig. 9). At the traditional universities, there is an equal balance between those who state that there has been no change and those who iden- tify an increase in longer courses. This can be put down to a relatively stable policy of non-intervention in the form of a lack of any incentives, and a tendency for con- tinuing higher education courses to be upgraded. One University of the Arts and one Medical University felt that the number of shorter courses is increasing.

Traditional Universities Technical Universities Medical Universities Universities of the Arts 0123456

More shorter courses No change More longer courses

Fig. 9 Changes in course structure by higher education institution type The views of the experts regarding changes in course structure tally with the trends identified in the responses to the questionnaire. Overall, they felt that there is a growing trend towards qualification-oriented courses (courses leading to the title “Academic...” and Masters courses). The experts also thought that the duration of Masters courses was increasing. This is connected to a greater orientation towards regular study courses accompanied by the corresponding adjustment of the ECTS workload. 274 A. Pellert and E. Cendon

A further trend is the upgrading of courses leading to the title “Academic...”to Masters courses. This is a consequence of the need for them to differentiate them- selves from non-university providers. Connected to this trend is the expansion in the range of Masters courses on offer, and the concomitant fall in the number of courses leading to the title “Academic...”. In view of the diverse needs and requirements involved, a further trend was identified towards increased co-operation with other providers along the lines of an “assembling business”.

4.1.2 E-learning E-learning was discussed in-depth during the expert interviews. The overall pic- ture at Graz University is of a number of dedicated individual initiatives that use elements of e-learning to support the learning process. The available platforms are WebCT and Moodle. The recent establishment of the Academy for New Media and Knowledge Transfer (Akademie fur¨ Neue Medien und Wissenstransfer) provides teaching staff with support in the area of e-learning. E-learning platforms have not yet become well-established for continuing education courses. However, the Head of the Center for Continuing Education stresses the fact that it is precisely the con- tinuing education students who report that face-to-face exchanges with other highly qualified colleagues offer significant added value as far as they are concerned. The University of Salzburg uses the Blackboard learning platform. A central ser- vice function is responsible for the platform and provides support, particularly for regular study courses. Some courses are planning to use Blackboard for all their information aspects. The Vice Rector believes that e-learning will become more important in the future as a helpful means of supporting face-to-face teaching. Various individual initiatives have already been running for some time at the Carinthia University of Applied Sciences. Particular attention has been paid sys- tematically to this area over the course of the past year, with the intention of making increased use of e-learning as of autumn 2006. The institution’s Executive Director singles out the Fachhochschule courses and part-time courses as priority areas for the use of e-learning components. Danube University Krems is currently in the middle of switching platforms. The old eCampus platform that was mainly geared towards providing teaching materials on-line is to be replaced by the Moodle learning environment. This will allow new forms of blended learning to be developed still further in the future.

4.1.3 Course Content The questionnaire requested information on the subject matter of continuing higher education courses (Fig. 10).23 Thirteen respondents said that courses followed the overall academic focus of the institution providing them, nine said that courses

23 Multiple answers were permitted. Continuing Higher Education in Austria 275

4 4 13

5

9

Overall academic focus Forecast demands Topical issues in society Obtaining funding Other

Fig. 10 Subject matter of courses sought to meet forecast demands, while five cited topical issues in society. This is also demonstrated by the increased profile developed at the system level. Some interesting trends emerge when the responses are broken down by higher education institution type. The traditional universities concentrate mainly on the areas in which they already specialise, as well as on topical issues in society and forecast demand. An important role is also played by decentralised development of courses “on the initiative of members of the university”, something that was mentioned twice under the other category. The role of the continuing education institution is to support and assist these initiatives, often from their conception right through to their implementation. This also emerged from the expert inter- views, where the representatives of the Universities of Graz and Salzburg both stressed the importance of courses being in line with the universities’ main research areas. Graz University seeks to fulfil its social responsibilities in particular under the motto “Education for Everyone”, with the aim of opening up access to uni- versity and education for social groups that have had fewer opportunities in this regard. As far as meeting forecast demand, particularly from businesses, is con- cerned, the University of Graz has created a private company specifically for this purpose. At the technology institutions, meanwhile, in addition to focussing on the institution’s own areas of specialisation, the trend is for courses’ subject matter to be geared towards meeting forecast demand and towards obtaining (start-up) fund- ing for example through third parties. In the future, the Fachhochschulen can also be expected to compete for the market in technical courses with a high level of practical content. Universities of the Arts have a more specific understanding of continuing edu- cation. Consequently, two of the respondents preferred to use the term “areas of artistic focus” instead of “areas of academic focus”. Similar trends emerged in the case studies as far as course subject matter is con- cerned (Fig. 11). Courses at the University of Graz focus on the academic areas specialised in by the university. University and Masters courses are provided in 276 A. Pellert and E. Cendon

Overall academic focus

Forecast demand

Topical issues in society

Obtaining funding

Other

02468101214

Traditional Technical Medical Universities of Universities Universities Universities the Arts

Fig. 11 Subject matter of courses by higher education institution type

Economics, Law and the Media, the Healthcare System, Natural Sciences, Social Science, and Languages, with the majority of courses concentrating on Economics, Law and the Media and Languages. In addition to this focus, serious attention is also given to the university’s social responsibilities and to improving access, mainly under the banner of “Public Access”. The subjects of continuing education courses at Salzburg University are also in line with the university’s overall areas of specialisation. The key subject areas in continuing education are Economics, Law, and Welfare and Healthcare. The fact that MCI has positioned itself as The University of Entrepreneurship means that the majority of its courses focus on management studies. Continuing education courses at the Carinthia University of Applied Sciences are in line with the institution’s overall areas of specialisation, with the currently available courses focussing on IT and Electronics and Healthcare, Economics and Welfare. Continuing education courses at DUK in 2005 concentrated on the following five areas: Economics and Management; Communication, IT and Media; Medicine and Health plus Building and the Environment; Law, European Integration and Public Administration; and Educational and Cultural Sciences. The majority of continu- ing education courses were in the areas of Medicine and Health plus Building and the Environment, Communication, IT and Media, and Economics and Management (Danube University Krems, 2006, p. 17).

4.1.4 Academic and Vocational Orientation of Courses As far as this topic is concerned, the expert interviews focussed on accreditation, the degree of practical content and what was considered to be an appropriate didactic design for continuing education courses. Continuing Higher Education in Austria 277

There is some variation as regards the percentage of accredited courses at the higher education institutions in the case studies. The majority of MBA courses are internationally accredited by the Foundation for International Business Adminis- tration Accreditation (FIBAA). In addition, DUK students who successfully com- plete the Professional MBA Logistics course are entitled to register for and obtain the European qualification of “Certified European Master Logistician” (E M Log) awarded by the European Logistics Association (ELA). A further two Masters courses were accredited by the Royal Institution of Chartered Surveyors (RICS) in June 2005. The DUK’s Centre for Biomedical Technology obtained ISO 9001:2000 certification in December 2005. In the other areas, the accreditations tend to be professional in nature, in other words the key factor is acceptance by the relevant professional body. For example, the Carinthia University of Applied Sciences “Mediation and Conflict Management” Fachhochschule course is offered as a civil law mediation training course recognised by the Ministry of Justice (http://www.justiz.gv.at/mediatorenliste/). The Healthcare Management course is also certified. Meanwhile, the relevant professional bodies, health insurance institutions and the Ministry of Health all approve and recognise the psychotherapy courses provided at DUK. As regards the didactic design of courses, the experts placed particular emphasis on the need for teaching to have a practical focus. Apart from a few exceptions, the majority of the continuing education courses provided by the University of Graz are aimed at people in employment. Conse- quently, the courses’ didactic design has to take particular account of the need for appropriate learning arrangements and a suitable learning environment as well as using the relevant adult-oriented teaching methods. According to the Executive Director of the Carinthia University of Applied Sciences, there are hardly any differences in the design of regular study courses and continuing education courses, since the institution’s regular study courses are already targeted at specific groups. She sums this approach up as follows: “We adjust our courses to the needs of the target group.” The same principle applies to courses’ practical orientation, since the institution’s regular study courses already have a very strong practical focus, particularly once students begin their work placement semester. As far as the continuing education courses are concerned, coursework focuses on practical topics that are relevant to the profession in question, and the courses are run by an academic course director and a practitioner. The methodological and didactic design of the management courses offered by MCI (leading to the title of “Academic...”) places special emphasis on the specific needs of practitioners. Key features include a clear relevance to the participants’ professions and the teaching of skills that can be applied in a practical context. It is also considered important for there to be a reciprocal exchange of experiences, in order to make the most of the valuable networking potential provided by the participants’ professional expertise and personal experience. For many years, the DUK used the “Krems method”, which is based on the- ory, practice, application and case studies. This is still partially used in the MBA courses today. DUK offers targeted courses and uses adult-oriented teaching meth- 278 A. Pellert and E. Cendon ods with small groups of students. The practical focus of courses is key, as is the requirement for the skills taught to be directly applicable in an everyday working environment. The increased incorporation of blended learning allows teaching and learning processes to be highly flexible in terms of time and place. According to the Vice Rector, in order to achieve a practical focus that is academically rigorous, it is important to promote the ability to reflect, i.e. to teach people to be “reflective practitioners”.

4.1.5 Continuing Education Provision for Specific Target Groups In the questionnaire, this topic was addressed via the question “Who are your insti- tution’s courses aimed at?”, and the answers were classified according to the three continuing education formats (Fig. 12).

Specific professions with degree Graduates from own higher education institution Specific professions with no degree Members of public with degree Members of public with no degree Specific social groups Women 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40

Short University/Fachhochschule Masters course courses courses

Fig. 12 Target groups by format

For all three formats, the highest percentage of courses was aimed at people from specific professions who hold a degree. A high proportion of courses are aimed at graduates, particularly short formats and university or Fachhochschule courses. A relatively high percentage of short formats and university or Fachhochschule courses target people from specific professions with no previous degree, but the proportion is significantly lower in the case of Masters courses. Women are only mentioned as a target group in the case of short formats. If the figures are broken down into graduates (specific professions, members of the general public), non-graduates (specific professions, members of the gen- eral public) and specific target groups (social groups, women), a complex picture emerges (Fig. 13). In all formats, graduates comprise the highest proportion of students. Approximately a third of participants in short courses and university or Fachhochschule courses are non-graduates, while non-graduates account for only a very small percentage of students on Masters courses (only four cases were mentioned). Continuing Higher Education in Austria 279

Masters courses

University/Fachhoch- schule courses

Short formats

0 102030405060

Graduates Non-graduates Specific Groups

Fig. 13 Target groups categorised by format

4.2 Identifying Needs

At Graz University, teaching staff in the faculties suggest courses on the basis of the needs and requirements of modern society, although the university is also informed of requirements for possible courses by third parties outwith the university. As far as needs analyses are concerned, a variety of approaches are taken, for example development workshops and focus groups, some of which may be held jointly with partner organisations. Formal needs analyses or market studies are only rarely used owing to their considerable cost. Feedback from course participants is also used for all the university’s courses. Needs analyses are not seen as absolutely essential at the Carinthia University of Applied Sciences, since the institution is in regular contact with businesses and public institutions. DUK sees identifying the need for a continuing education course as an important first step before it can be set up. A market or needs analysis is required to be included when the curriculum for a proposed course is presented.

4.3 Formal Aspects of Continuing Education

4.3.1 Entrance Requirements The questionnaire data on the reported target groups in the different formats of con- tinuing higher education reveal a similar trend to the specific question on entrance requirements in the expert interviews. The “university or Fachhochschule course” format is seen as a more accessible format and, as described above, it is consid- ered to be a gateway for non-graduates or members of professions for which aca- demic qualifications do not exist, since it recognises “equivalent qualifications”. The 280 A. Pellert and E. Cendon entrance requirements for Masters courses are stricter, and the percentage of non- graduates was estimated to be rather low (20–30% at most). For Masters courses, a previous degree (e.g. a Bachelors degree) is an important entrance requirement. However, considerable importance is also attached to partic- ipants’ professional experience. There are various approaches to recognising skills acquired outside of university. What constitutes an “equivalent qualification” is a highly subjective judgement made by course directors, and this points to ambiguities regarding the relationship between continuing higher education and regular study courses. The experts were unanimous in the view that in order for non-graduates to be admitted to a Masters course, they would at the very least have to have worked in a relevant management position for a number of years, and even then the decision on whether or not to admit them would depend on the course in question. Entrance requirements should also take into account the connection between the target group and the relevant profession. Continuing higher education can and should be open to providing courses for and resulting from new professions, but only insofar as these professions have a place in academic education. This raises the as yet unresolved issue of recognition. The controversy arises when a person holding a continuing education Masters degree is considered to have a second-level qualification according to the Bologna structure, meaning that some- one with no undergraduate degree can obtain the same qualification as someone who does have a Bachelors degree. As far as the proportion of graduates to non-graduates is concerned, it is considered important for there to be an appropriate balance between the two groups. One expert stressed the need for tighter regulation of admissions with regard to checks on the skills and previous qualifications of both graduates and non-graduates. Different trends regarding the ECTS credits awarded for qualifications were evi- dent in the higher education institutions in the case studies. In the case of university and Fachhochschule courses leading to the title of “Academic” followed by the name of the profession, the 2002 Universities Act clearly states that 60 ECTS points shall be awarded. However, there are no standard guidelines for awarding ECTS points to people on Masters courses, although some of the experts thought 90 points to be a useful rough guide. In some cases, the ECTS points awarded still appear not to be a fair reflection of the workload. At DUK, the 1-year course leading to the title of “Academic ...” (60 ECTS points) is the first step in a coherent range of study courses. These courses are often continued to Masters level, or there may also be a parallel Masters course leading to a standard internationally recognised Masters qualification. A new more practi- cally oriented format is currently being considered that would be a lower level than the courses leading to the title of “Academic ...” and would be worth 30 ECTS points. In order for a course to be able to award ECTS credits, it must meet the relevant requirements in terms of its curriculum and didactic design. Great care is taken when dealing with ECTS points in order to ensure that courses do not involve an excessive workload. As a result, Masters courses that are generally worth between 90 and 120 ECTS points last between four and five semesters. There is Continuing Higher Education in Austria 281 currently a rule in place that no Masters course shall be worth fewer than 90 ECTS points.

4.4 Staff Motivation and Participation in Continuing Education

With regard to the subject of staff motivation and participation in continuing edu- cation, the experts were questioned about the existence of incentive systems for teaching staff at their institutions. Various different structures were used. While in some cases managers felt that the lack of financial incentive systems for teaching staff constituted a shortcoming, this does not appear to be the most important issue as far as the staff themselves are concerned. At the University of Graz, teaching staff’s involvement in continuing education is not (yet) explicitly promoted by the university, and consequently depends on the personal motivation and commitment of individual lecturers. According to the Vice Rector, it is important to develop appropriate financial incentives for course directors using fixed fee scales. At Salzburg University, teaching staff involved in continuing education receive a fee that varies from course to course. Course directors also receive separate addi- tional compensation. The Vice Rector for Academic Affairs believes that teaching staff are very keen to teach continuing higher education courses; indeed he even suggests that some people seem more interested in teaching continuing education courses than regular study courses. The Carinthia University of Applied Sciences has a financial incentive system for teachers of continuing education courses based on overtime pay, primarily in the form of bonuses. Alternative future organisational structures for continuing higher education are currently being considered, and these would also allow different remu- neration systems to be introduced. The teaching load of in-house staff at DUK is determined by their position. As for out-of-house teachers, fees are agreed on an individual basis, but have to fall within a range that applies right across the institution and must also be included in the costing presented when a new course is proposed.

4.5 Partnerships

The topic of partnerships in the planning and implementation of continuing edu- cation courses was also investigated for the different continuing higher education formats. Certain differences were evident in the responses to this issue. In the case of short formats, the most common type of partnership was with other continuing education providers, followed by partnerships with higher edu- cation institution lecturers and businesses (Fig. 14). As for university and Fach- hochschule courses, the majority of partnerships are with the institution’s faculties, departments and teaching staff, followed by other continuing education providers. 282 A. Pellert and E. Cendon

Faculties/Departments Lecturers Other Austrian HE institutions Foreign HE institutions Other CE providers Businesses Professional associations State institutions Corporate Universities Other partnerships 024681012

Masters courses University/Fachhochschule courses Short courses

Fig. 14 Partnerships by format

Faculties/Departments Lecturers Other Austrian HE institutions Foreign HE institutions Other CE providers Businesses Professional associations State institutions Corporate Universities Other partnerships 024681012

Traditional Technical Medical Universities Universities Universities Universities of the Arts

Fig. 15 University and Fachhochschule course partnerships by type of higher education institution

The most frequent partnerships on Masters courses are with the institution’s own faculties and departments, followed in order of importance by partnerships with other Austrian higher education institutions and partnerships with teaching staff. When the results are broken down by format, some interesting trends emerge for university and Fachhochschule courses (Fig. 15). While the most common kind of partnership in traditional universities and Universities of the Arts are partnerships with the institution’s own faculties and departments, in technology institutions the most frequent partnerships are with lecturers and State institutions. Meanwhile, the most common partnerships at Medical Universities are with lecturers and other con- tinuing education providers. Continuing Higher Education in Austria 283

5 Conclusions and Future Challenges

This overview of continuing higher education in Austria as seen from a variety of angles has revealed a highly diverse field that is becoming increasingly differenti- ated. In no small part as a result of the increase in their autonomy and the greater freedom that they enjoy as a consequence, but also because of new financial chal- lenges, higher education institutions in Austria now recognise that continuing higher education provision can constitute a significant competitive advantage, and that they therefore need to position themselves accordingly. Following an initial period of euphoria when continuing education was touted as a potential cash cow, recent years have seen people’s expectations of continuing higher education come back down to earth, at least in the universities, and the role of continuing higher education has consequently tended to be marginalised. The results of this study point to the emer- gence of significant renewed interest in the potential offered by continuing higher education, but this time accompanied by more realistic expectations and more sus- tainable approaches to its development. The following signs are indicative of this trend. There is increasing diversification of the organisational structures of continuing higher education. In addition to predominantly decentralised organisational struc- tures that enjoy a greater or lesser degree of support from the institution’s central authorities, there is also a tendency for continuing higher education activities to be organised in the form of separate private companies. It is also noticeable that rather than relying on a single organisational structure, institutions are increasingly planning or already implementing different parallel organisational structures, geared towards different target groups or meeting different needs. The study distinguished a relatively wide spread of organisational structures, and as such it can be said that continuing higher education has a range of different goals and demands. The fol- lowing formats and goals were identified:

• A very broad and comprehensive orientation of the higher education institution as a “lifelong partner” that arranges its organisational structures along inter- nal and external or centralised and decentralised lines according to differing requirements • A strong focus on managers and Executive Education, with highly specialised and market-oriented continuing higher education courses aimed at a clearly defined and highly competitive market • The splitting of organisational structures into a separate Executive Education operation and decentralised continuing education activities that focus on the uni- versity’s key research areas • A focus on research with the desire to be a successful research institution; contin- uing higher education does not have a particularly important role in the overall strategy, and its organisational structures are pared down to a bare minimum, with courses focussing primarily on graduates. 284 A. Pellert and E. Cendon

There is an emerging trend towards diversification of course structures in order to target specific groups. One important aspect in this regard is the creation of separate continuing education operations designed to optimise financial, fiscal and organisa- tional efficiency. This is accompanied by a diversification of course structures and a range of new target groups. Although higher education institutions, and partic- ularly universities, continue to target their continuing education courses mainly at graduates, efforts are also being made to develop more courses with, for example, a regional focus and for businesses. At an education policy level, a number of challenges remain that require further analysis and more intensive discussion. These are mostly connected with the rela- tionship between continuing higher education and the Bologna study architecture, and the fundamental education policy requirement to place students at the centre of a coherent lifelong learning strategy. Hitherto, continuing higher education in Austria has not been properly integrated into the Bologna study architecture as part of the second cycle. More work needs to be done in this regard to prevent continuing education from running the risk of remaining a separate track of higher education exclusively for training people for the labour market. The introduction of ECTS as a means of defining workloads and the greater diversity of course structures already provide a good framework for work- ing towards this integration. One important challenge in this context is to resolve the issues connected with the introduction of an EQF and the question of access for non-traditional students. This is something that is still receiving hardly any atten- tion at the moment on regular study courses at higher education institutions, where access for non-traditional students continues to be limited. Continuing higher edu- cation thus finds itself somewhere in the middle, in so far as it claims to act as a gateway for professions for which academic qualifications do not exist while at the same time offering continuing education to graduates. On the one hand, continu- ing higher education is viewed as a separate track, while on the other the criteria for Masters courses are similar to those for regular study courses. The boundary between regular studies and continuing education is blurred, and this is something that increasingly requires urgent clarification in the context of the Bologna study architecture. A second key challenge has to do with the way we define continuing higher education. We need to reflect upon where continuing higher education begins and on the criteria that define it. In Austria, the current approach focuses on the institution as service provider. However, another possible approach would be to take the type of continuing education format as the starting point, e.g. part-time versus full-time courses. A third option would be to adopt a student-centred approach. However, this would require a major change of perspective affecting not only Austria’s higher education institutions but also the education system as a whole. Furthermore, in order for this to form part of a coherent lifelong learning strategy, the appropriate funding methods would need to be developed. Continuing Higher Education in Austria 285

References

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Heinke Robken¨

Contents

1 Study Design ...... 288 2SystemLevel...... 289 2.1 Definition of Continuing Higher Education ...... 289 2.2 Continuing Higher Education Providers ...... 290 2.3 Continuing Higher Education Framework ...... 294 2.4 Function of Continuing Higher Education ...... 297 3 Institution Level ...... 298 3.1 Organisational Structure and Management of Continuing Education ..... 298 3.2 Quality Assurance ...... 302 3.3 Public Relations, Marketing and Advertising ...... 303 3.4 Funding of Continuing Higher Education ...... 304 3.5 Future Prospects for Continuing Higher Education ...... 305 4 Programme Level ...... 307 4.1 Formal Aspects ...... 307 4.2 Demand for Continuing Higher Education ...... 318 4.3 Motivation and Participation of Staff in Continuing Education ...... 318 4.4 Partnerships ...... 319 References ...... 321

H. Robken¨ (B) Bergische Universitat¨ Wuppertal, Educational Organisation and Management, Gaußstr. 20, 42097 Wuppertal/Germany e-mail: [email protected]

M. Knust, A. Hanft (eds.), Continuing Higher Education and Lifelong Learning, 287 DOI 10.1007/978-1-4020-9676-1 9, C Springer Science+Business Media B.V. 2009 288 H. Robken¨

1 Study Design

The research was designed around the three focal points of the International Com- parative Study: system level, institution level and programme level. For each level, a specific methodological approach was adopted depending on the data situation, sometimes relying to a greater extent on the available secondary literature, and sometimes on data collected by the author. For the system-level analysis, an extensive literature review was conducted. Empirical studies, relevant reports and academic contributions on the subject pro- vided the basis for analysing the institutional position of continuing higher educa- tion in the American education system. These data were complemented by inter- views with experts conducted over the course of a 6-week research trip to the USA. Analysis at institution level was based on the author’s own data, collected dur- ing qualitative interviews carried out at selected American higher education insti- tutions. The interviews were based on a series of guide questions that had been translated into English and adjusted to the particular characteristics of the Ameri- can higher education system. To narrow down the scope of the research, an expert was contacted and asked to name 30 institutions that together represent the spec- trum of continuing higher education in the USA. At 22 of the 30 institutions con- tacted, a member of the management agreed to participate in the study by being interviewed either in person or on the telephone. Two continuing education institu- tions that had participated in the on-line survey were also included. The 24 insti- tutions thus selected (see Table 1) include both private and state higher education institutions, religious institutions and land-grant universities, regarded as playing a key role in American continuing education. All of the selected higher education institutions are accredited by the relevant regional agencies and are members of the national organization for continuing higher education, the University Continuing Education Association (UCEA).

Table 1 Higher education institutions included in the study

Universities included in the study

Boston University UC Berkeley University Extension Central Michigan University UC San Diego George Washington University University of Chicago Georgetown University University of Denver Harvard Extension University of Kansas Indiana University University of Maryland University College Millersville University of Pennsylvania University of Pittsburgh MIT School of Engineering University of South Florida MIT Sloan School University of Texas Christian University New York University University of Wisconsin at Madison Providence College University of Pennsylvania Rutgers - State University of New Jersey Worcester State College Texas Christian University Continuing Higher Education in the United States of America (USA) 289

For the programme-level analysis, data from the interviews conducted at the con- tinuing education institutions was used. This data was complemented by an indepen- dent assessment of the web pages of the 24 higher education institutions included in the study. The assessment framework for the web-based part of the study was developed from the set of guide questions devised for the programme-level survey. Findings were subjected to statistical analysis and complemented by secondary data on the institutions.

2SystemLevel

2.1 Definition of Continuing Higher Education

In the USA, the term continuing higher education is used to mean a variety of things. Some of the most common terms in American usage include ‘adult education’, ‘continuing higher education’ and ‘continuing professional education’. Of these, the term ‘adult education’ is the broadest, encompassing all types of continuing educa- tion geared towards adults, including both courses aimed at personal development and work-related activities. ‘Continuing higher education’ (sometimes also referred to as ‘continuing university education’) belongs to the tertiary level. It generally assumes that participants at least have a general qualification for entrance into higher education, but in many cases the courses on offer are geared towards students who have some college experience, or who already possess an academic qualification (Kohl, 2000). ‘Continuing professional education’ designates an even narrower field of continuing higher education: courses under this heading comprise work-related continuing education activities provided both by higher education institutions and professional associations. They also include programmes that are a legal require- ment for members of certain professions, such as medicine, law or architecture, in order to obtain or extend their licence to practice. Many continuing education programmes offered by higher education institu- tions are geared towards ‘non-traditional students’. These include working adults, independent and part-time students. Members of this target group are much more frequent participants in continuing education courses provided off the traditional campus, in online programmes and evening or weekend courses (Pusser & Doane, 2001). Under American education policy, a ‘non-traditional’ student is defined as one who meets at least two of the following criteria:

• working on a full-time, part-time or seasonal basis • studying part-time or on a distance-learning basis • aged 25 or over • married or a lone parent • financially independent • returning to higher education following a period in work, or entering higher education for the first time but not immediately after graduating from high school. 290 H. Robken¨

By this definition, the majority of students now in higher education in the USA may be considered ‘non-traditional’, while ‘traditional’ students are the exception. Levine (1998), for example, has observed that 18–22-year-old full-time students living on campus now make up only around 16% of the total student population, in other words fewer than 3 million of the 17 million students currently study- ing at American higher education institutions. In 2004, 40% of students were enrolled in a part-time programme of study, and 40% were aged 25 or over (Stokes, 2005, p. 1). Not all students classified as ‘non-traditional’ fall within the category of con- tinuing higher education. Many students, for example, are enrolled in part-time programmes provided within the framework of faculty undergraduate degree pro- grammes. At most universities – especially the renowned doctoral and research uni- versities – part-time programmes of study leading to an academic degree are still considered to belong firmly among the core activities of the faculties. Many of the courses offered by continuing education units within universities, meanwhile, do not lead to an academic degree, but are non-credit or certificate courses. There are some exceptions, however, and these will be discussed further. No reliable figures are available to date regarding continuing education taking place at universities or similar higher education institutions. According to esti- mates by the National Center for Education Statistics (NCES, 2004), the num- ber of people participating in continuing education at higher education institutions is around four million. The students in this case are people who have at least a general qualification for entrance to higher education, but in many cases already hold an academic degree. They are either in work or have work experience, and are participating in a fee-paying continuing education programme at a higher edu- cation institution either on a voluntary basis or because they are required to do so by a professional body or state government in order to obtain a licence to practice. In line with the generic definition established for the International Compara- tive Study, for the purposes of this sub-study on the USA, a programme is clas- sified as continuing higher education if a tuition fee is payable and the programme is geared towards students who are either in work or have work experience and are eligible for entrance to higher education. Providers are universities or similar higher education institutions. The study excludes programmes for non-traditional students that fall into the category of ‘classic’ faculty undergraduate or graduate programmes.

2.2 Continuing Higher Education Providers

2.2.1 Who Provides Continuing Higher Education? A study recently carried out by NCES (2004) found that 92 million Americans, equivalent to 46% of the adult population, had participated in some form of contin- uing education in the previous 12 months. Of these 92 million, however, only around Continuing Higher Education in the United States of America (USA) 291

4% were enrolled in a continuing education activity at an American higher educa- tion institution. The majority of participants (30%) were engaged in work-related continuing education courses provided by their employer or by a professional body. Around one-fifth of participants were taking part in personal interest courses. Other areas of continuing education included language programmes for immigrants (1%), courses to obtain a high school qualification (1%), vocational or technical diplomas (1%) or apprenticeship programmes (1%) (NCES, 2004, Table 1).

Companies and Professional Associations Taking a broad definition of continuing education, companies and professional asso- ciations can also be included among the providers of continuing education, although these are not generally considered providers of continuing higher education. Com- panies in many cases give their employees continuing education, although they do not charge tuition fees for it or require participants to qualify for entrance to higher education. Companies are nevertheless considered to have an important role in con- tinuing education provision (see e.g. Cervero, 2000, p. 5). In 1996, private and public businesses invested US$ 60 billion in providing continuing education for 50 million US Americans. Companies employing persons in professional fields are regarded as particularly prolific providers of continuing education (Cervero, 2000, p. 5). Trade and professional associations also offer a large number of continuing education opportunities. According to Cervero (2000, p. 6), continuing education is a key function of trade and professional associations. A study recently commis- sioned by the American Society of Association Executives found that 90% of the 5500 associations surveyed organize continuing education opportunities for their members, and sometimes also for the wider public. These associations invested a total of US$ 8.5 billion in academic and technical courses (Maurer & Sheets, 1998, cited in Cervero, 2000, p. 6).

Higher Education Institutions Continuing higher education as defined in the context of the International Compar- ative Study, meanwhile, takes place almost exclusively at higher education institu- tions. Today, almost all American higher education institutions provide continuing higher education (Edelson, 2000). The form and the extent of provision, however, vary considerably among the 4071 institutions currently operating. One of the rea- sons for this is the heterogeneity of the American higher education system. For example, higher education institutions can vary widely in terms of their educational mandate, funding, controlling bodies and spectrum of activities. Probably the mostwidely used framework for describing the US higher educa- tion system is the classification system devised by the Carnegie Foundation (2000). According to the Carnegie Classification, American higher education institutions can be divided into Doctorate-granting Institutions (extensive and intensive), Mas- ter’s Colleges and Universities, Baccalaureate Colleges, Specialized Institutions and Associate’s Colleges. 292 H. Robken¨

Table 2 Number of higher education institutions in the USA and enrolment numbers (Autumn, 2002) (NCES, 2004)1

Institutions Students

Total 4071 16,611,711 Doctoral, extensive 152 3,358,476 Doctoral, intensive 107 1,212,114 Master’s Colleges und Universities 635 3,640,682 Baccalaureate Colleges 633 1,097,414 Specialized Institutions 884 773,646 Associate’s Colleges 1660 6,529,379

Types of Higher Education Institutions According to the Carnegie Classification (2000) Doctorate-granting institutions, in addition to offering baccalaureate (bachelors) programmes, also have a particular focus on the provision of Masters and doctoral programmes. Depending on the number of subject groups in which the title of Doc- tor of Philosophy (PhD) can be attained, a distinction is made between intensive and extensive universities. Masters colleges and universities likewise offer baccalaureate programmes,butaregearedparticularlytowardsgraduatedegreeprogrammesleading to the award of a Masters title. Baccalaureate colleges focus on undergraduate degree programmes and the primary academic qualification they confer takes the form of a bachelors degree. Specialised institutions frequently offer programmes of study in a single field or a limited set of fields. This category includes theological colleges, medical schools, law schools, schools of engineering, business schools, art colleges, teacher training colleges, colleges for health professionals, and military colleges. All of the types of higher education institutions discussed hitherto are classified as 4-Year Institutions because they provide at least undergraduate-level degree pro- grammes leading to the award of a bachelors degree. Associate’s colleges, which include the Community Colleges, mentioned above, are also referred to as 2- year colleges. Community colleges are one of the most important providers in the American continuing education market; by European standards, however, it is rather difficult to classify them as higher education institutions. These 2-year institutions guarantee access to education for all citizens over 18 years of age, providing a great variety of courses with a practical focus which, according to Lapiner (1993, p. 2) are in fact closer in level to the German Volkshochschulen (often translated as ‘adult education centres’).

Continuing Higher Education at 4-Year Institutions There is a long-standing tradition of continuing higher education at American higher education institutions. Its roots originate in the colonial era: the ‘Land Grant Col-

1Table retrieved from http://nces.ed.gov/programs/digest/d04/tables/dt04 214.asp Continuing Higher Education in the United States of America (USA) 293 leges Act’ of 1862 provided support for educational institutions offering free and practical instruction in engineering and agriculture (Edelson, 2000, p. 36). Orig- inally, the continuing education programmes offered by these institutions centred on the fields of agriculture and engineering. By the early 20th century, continu- ing education at the land-grant universities was becoming ever broader, both geo- graphically and in terms of subject areas. It was not until the second half of the 20th century, however, that rapid growth in continuing higher education pro- grammes at American universities was experienced. Since the 1980s especially, continuing education has become a lucrative business side-line for higher educa- tion institutions. This boom is attributed in part to falling numbers of students in traditional degree programmes, which in turn was largely a result of the lower birth rate since the mid-1960s. There were increasingly insistent calls, especially from the ranks of the politicians, to make this unused capacity available to all adult Americans and thus enable ordinary people to participate in continuing edu- cation (Bowen, 1980). This goal was soon reflected in student numbers: in the 1980s, the number of students aged 25 and over rose by 10% (Maehl, 2004, p. 12); universities likewise extended the certification options available to non-traditional students.

For-Profit Higher Education Institutions Another type of higher education institution that is becoming increasingly impor- tant in the continuing education market is the for-profit universities and colleges, sometimes also referred to as ‘proprietary schools’. These institutions are primar- ily profit-oriented educational institutions run by private individuals or companies. The best-known institution of this type at the present time is the University of Phoenix. Data on for-profit universities show rapid growth in student numbers and these institutions are having a major impact on the higher education policy debate in the USA at present (Breneman et al., 2000). For-profit institutions have focused specifi- cally on working people and other non-traditional students. They are regarded as highly efficient, self-sufficient, responsive to demand and entrepreneurial (Kirp, 2003). As a rule, for-profit universities and colleges offer a limited number of less cost-intensive degree programmes, such as management, teacher training or informatics. Additional ways of keeping costs down may include having limited- capacity premises or providing minimal, if any, facilities for social activities (e.g. no sports or leisure facilities). More than half of these institutions offer what they call ‘accelerated programs’, a kind of intensive course that can lead to the award of a certificate or academic degree after only a short period of study. Many institutions advertise that they take into account prior practical experience and emphasise that an academic degree can be obtained in a short time. Hamilton College in Iowa, for example, stresses that students can obtain a bachelors degree ‘in the shortest time possible’. 294 H. Robken¨

2.2.2 Distribution of Continuing Higher Education A study recently carried out by Pusser et al. (2005) provides some data on the distri- bution of continuing higher education provision in the different categories of higher education institution. For this study, more than 1700 public and private 2- and 4-year non-profit higher education institutions, selected on the basis of random sampling, were approached in writing. More than 700 institutions responded, equivalent to a response rate of 41.3%. Of these, 426 (60.3%) indicated that they provided continu- ing education programmes. Institutions with fewer students provided less continuing education on average than those with high numbers of students. Only 39% of insti- tutions with fewer than 2000 students offered continuing education programmes. In contrast, 99% of institutions with more than 20,000 students had continuing edu- cation programmes (Pusser et al., 2005, p. 30). Eighty-nine per cent of institutions classified by the Carnegie Foundation as doctoral/research universities, 78% of asso- ciate’s colleges and 62% of Masters colleges and universities provided continuing higher education. Of the specialised institutions, 39% were actively engaged in con- tinuing education, while the figure was 28% in the case of the baccalaureate col- leges. With 79% of public higher education institutions providing continuing edu- cation opportunities, these institutions are much more active in continuing education provision than private institutions, a mere 41% of which are active in this segment of the education market (Pusser et al., 2005, p. 30). According to this study, there- fore, the most important providers of continuing higher education are the doctoral and Masters universities and the 2-year associate’s colleges.

2.3 Continuing Higher Education Framework

2.3.1 Macro-Economic Framework Continuing higher education plays a major role in building and developing the US American labour force. The Department of Labour has forecast that the Ameri- can economy will generate more than 22 million new jobs between 2000 and 2010 (UCEA, 2004, p. 46). Post-high-school continuing education is regarded in the USA as the surest way a person can increase his/her long-term income potential (UCEA, 2004, p. 48). This is also reflected in the figures recently published by the US Census Bureau: individuals with a higher education qualification can expect to earn, on aver- age, a million US dollars more during their working lives than those who only have a high-school diploma. Graduate study enhances lifetime income to an even greater extent: a Masters degree increases average income by a further 25% compared to a baccalaureate degree. A doctorate, meanwhile, results in an average increase in lifetime income of US$ 900,000 compared to a Masters (US Census Bureau, 2002, cited in UCEA, 2004, p. 48). A professional degree promises the highest lifetime income: holders of a qualification from one of the professional schools earn around twice as much in the course of their working lives as those with a baccalaureate Continuing Higher Education in the United States of America (USA) 295 degree and nearly four times as much as holders of a high school diploma (UCEA, 2004, p. 48).

2.3.2 Legal and Policy Framework In many states in the USA, participation in regular continuing higher education is enshrined in the legislation. Both state government and professional bodies require licensed practitioners in certain occupational groups to undertake continuing edu- cation on a regular basis. Between 1998 and 2003, the number of states requiring architects, for example, to take continuing education courses rose from 10 to 22; the number requiring professional engineers to do so increased from 14 to 23, and in the case of social workers it rose from 35 to 47. Figure 1 (based on UCEA, 2004, p. 51) gives an overview of the distribution of compulsory continuing education in different states for selected professions.

2.3.3 Socio-Cultural Framework Population growth The development and characteristics of continuing education provision in a given country are closely bound up with demographic dynamics. In contrast to many other industrialised nations, USA expects to see a continuous rise in its population over the coming decades, primarily as a result of American immi- gration policy. The highest growth is anticipated among the Asian population: the share of this group in the general population is set to double to 8% by 2050. In the case of the Hispanic population, 88% growth is expected: in the year 2050, Latin Americans will make up just under a quarter of the US population. Growth in the black population for the same period is estimated at 71%; by extrapolation, there- fore, they will account for 14.6% of the population as a whole. The non-Hispanic white population is expected to grow at the markedly slower rate of 7% to reach

Architects Engineers Doctors Lawyers Psychologists Vets Dentists Social workers Chiropractors Pharmacists Accountants Opticians Fig. 1 Number of states with Insurers continuing education Real estate agents requirements for selected professions 0 102030405060 296 H. Robken¨

210.3 million. In 2050, this group is likely to comprise 50.1% of all Americans (UCEA, 2004, p. 3). Demography Another major factor influencing the importance of continuing higher education is the age structure of a society. The American population is age- ing in a similar manner to many western European nations. An ageing population opens up a number of options for continuing higher education. The increasing ratio of older people in the American labour force means that they must regularly update their skills and competences in order to remain competitive in a rapidly changing technological environment. Moreover, the number of people that have a significant amount of free time at their disposal and want to enrich their lives by taking up continuing education opportunities will grow: between 2004 and 2030, the number of over-65s not in work is expected to rise from 32 million to 61 million (UCEA, 2004, p. 49). Dynamics of demand for higher education More than 17 million students were enrolled at American higher education institutions in 2004; of these, 6.8 million were enrolled on a part-time basis. A little over one-quarter (26.7%) of the Amer- ican population have obtained a baccalaureate degree, a Masters or a ‘professional degree’ from a tertiary institution (UCEA, 2004, p. 20); another quarter have either an associate’s degree or have participated in a college programme. Just under one- half (48%) of US Americans have never attended a university or college; around one in six Americans have not obtained a high-school certificate. Overall, potential demand for continuing higher education must be regarded as very high: more than 57% of the American population (104 million people) aged over 25 are qualified for entrance to higher education as holders of a high-school graduation diploma, but have not obtained a qualification from a higher education institution (UCEA, 2004, p. 18). Alongside all other college graduates, this group represents the largest pool of potential demand for continuing higher education.

2.3.4 Technical Framework The internet has become a key component of higher education infrastructure. An increasing number of higher education institutions are working with e-learning technologies and deploying them also – indeed particularly – in continuing higher education. According to UCEA figures, more than 90% of public colleges and uni- versities now offer the possibility of on-line degree programmes (UCEA, 2004, p. 61). The majority of institutions intend to have on-line programmes in place within the next 3 years. In 2001, a total of around 127,000 on-line courses were offered at these institutions (UCEA, 2004, p. 61), of which 99,000 were provided by public higher education institutions. Around 8% of students (3.1 million) par- ticipated in on-line courses in the academic year January 2000. Although most of the on-line study options tended to be individual courses rather than complete aca- demic degree programmes, almost half of the 4-year institutions claimed that they offered at least one degree programme organised purely on a distance-learning basis (UCEA, 2004, p. 61). Of the 4130 American higher education institutions in oper- Continuing Higher Education in the United States of America (USA) 297 ation in 2001, 19% (around 800 institutions) offered degree programmes that were structured entirely on a distance-learning basis (UCEA, 2004, p. 65).

2.4 Function of Continuing Higher Education

The literature essentially identifies four distinct functions of continuing higher edu- cation in the USA: compulsory continuing education, human capital development, career development and personal development.

2.4.1 Compulsory Continuing Education In the 1960s and 1970s, certain professions and regulatory authorities introduced compulsory continuing education, also referred to in US terminology as ‘mandatory continuing education’. Participation in continuing education activities of this sort is a requirement imposed on certain professional groups licensed by government or professional associations in order to practise their profession. For this reason, many licensing bodies (generally state governments or professional associations) require evidence that an individual has engaged in continuing education in order to renew his/her licence to practice. What began in the 1960s is now so widespread in the USA that ‘every profession, whether licensed or certified, uses some form of manda- tory continuing education’ (Collins, 1998, p. 13). For professional groups such as doctors, teachers, lawyers, engineers, pharmacists, insurance brokers, social work- ers, architects, etc., continuing higher education is increasingly taken for granted. Regulatory authorities such as the New York Stock Exchange now also require their staff to undertake compulsory continuing education (Collins, 1998). Depending on their profession, staff may obtain their continuing education at a relevant profes- sional school, a university, college or community college, or in special programmes organised by the relevant professional associations.

2.4.2 Human Capital Development As a post-industrial society, sometimes also described as a ‘post-Fordist’ society, the USA realised early on that it needed to invest not only in its technological infras- tructure but also, and to an increasing extent, in its human resources. Rapid glob- alisation and growing international competition since the 1990s have made human capital development a key political and economic issue (Field, 2000). The first rec- ommendation of the US Commission for a Nation of Lifelong Learners, for exam- ple, was ‘to acknowledge and promote the link between universal lifelong learning and America’s position in the global economy’ (Commission for a Nation of Life- long Learners, 1997, p. 18). Tax breaks and financial support measures have been put in place to promote participation in continuing education programmes. For the coming decades, both media and academics expect that the labour pool will work primarily with knowledge and hence require continuing education on an ongoing basis (Maehl, 2004, p. 12). 298 H. Robken¨

2.4.3 Career Development Human capital development, as it is called in terms of the national economy, gen- erally also benefits the career development of the individual employee. Since the 1980s, undertaking continuing and adult education in the USA is increasingly con- sidered a good move for advancing a person’s profession or career. By 1984, 80% of continuing education programmes were geared towards work-related training, while in the 1960s work or career-related courses accounted for only 50% of all continuing education activities (Rachal, 1989, p. 7). The costs of participating in work-related continuing education, meanwhile, are increasingly being met by employees them- selves; according to information from one expert, employers’ share in the costs of continuing education has declined steadily in recent years (e.g. LaPidus, 2000, p. 7).

2.4.4 Personal Development A fourth function of continuing higher education is personal development. In very early publications on the subject of adult education, personal growth was the pre- dominant motif, and its objective was the production of the ‘whole person’ (Jacks, 1936, p. 4). American universities and colleges offer a multitude of ‘personal enrich- ment’ courses, often specifically aimed at senior citizens. Harvard University, for example, has established an Institute for Learning in Retirement, which now has more than 500 permanent members. Personal development courses fall into the non-credit category and even today represent a large part of the continuing edu- cation offered by universities. The creativity of such programmes knows virtually no bounds: personal enrichment courses range from salsa dancing, horse riding and rock climbing courses to professionally organised study tours to Zanzibar and Antarctica (cf. for example the continuing education courses on offer at the Univer- sity of Wisconsin La Cross or the University of New Mexico).

3 Institution Level

3.1 Organisational Structure and Management of Continuing Education

The metaphor of organisational anarchy, a description already applied to univer- sities a long time ago by Cohen & March (1986), can also be used to describe the way continuing education is organised at American higher education institu- tions. In an ‘anarchic’ organization, the objectives being pursued are not defined; organisational processes are unclear and member participation fluctuates. In fact, in many continuing higher education institutions in the USA, the boundaries between traditional faculty teaching and the courses on offer at continuing education insti- tutions are fluid. Expectations within the university regarding the role one has in meeting the needs of non-traditional students are not clearly defined. Universities have frequently established their own ways of dealing with these uncertainties and Continuing Higher Education in the United States of America (USA) 299 bringing continuing education programmes into accord with their own organisa- tional structure. The result is a highly varied continuing education landscape that has given rise to many different forms of organisation. This was also the picture that emerged in the interviews conducted with experts in the USA prior to the actual sur- vey. One expert characterised the American continuing education landscape as the ‘Wild West of the higher education system’, estimating that there were many forms of organisation as there were providers of continuing education. The American sub- study, therefore, cannot claim that the analysis it provides based on selected higher education institutions gives a complete picture of the continuing higher education landscape in the USA. Instead, the aim of the analysis provided below is to high- light a few examples of the organisational patterns that have evolved at continuing education institutions at medium and large universities in the USA.

3.1.1 Organizational and Legal Form The form of organisation adopted for continuing higher education at the selected institutions can vary enormously. Even within the same category of higher education institutions, it is difficult to identify any uniform pattern of organisation for contin- uing education. This great variety is primarily a result of the considerable institu- tional autonomy typically enjoyed by higher education institutions in the USA. The American higher education system is regarded as highly decentralised; there are no uniform federal or even state-level provisions governing the structure of the higher education system. The decision to become active in continuing higher education is prompted first and foremost by economic considerations: if an American higher education institution sees a potential source of additional income in continuing edu- cation, then it will enter the market. Income generated from fees is the priority (Edelson, 2000, p. 18). Land grant universities, which regard provision of continu- ing education as an integral part of their mission, are an exception to this rule. These Universities provide continuing education programmes in a given region at low cost and sometimes free of charge as a ‘community service’. All 24 of the continuing education institutions surveyed indicated that their unit was institutionally part of the parent university. In terms of organisational struc- ture, however, the units differed significantly. Among the continuing education units investigated, it was possible to distinguish four basic types of organisation – admini- strative service unit, academic centre within a faculty, self-sufficient college and continuing education university. Administrative service units themselves do not generally offer continuing educa- tion programmes leading to an academic degree or as credit programmes. In cases where they do offer programmes of their own, these are generally in the non-credit sphere and limited to short-term activities. The primary function of an administrative service unit is to co-ordinate continuing education programmes and courses offered within the university, usually in the professional schools or colleges. In this context, the service units often assume a marketing function, manage matriculation or pro- vide administrative support for joint development of programmes with co-operation partners. 300 H. Robken¨

Table 3 Organisational forms represented among the continuing education units studied

Organisational form Frequency Percentage

Administrative service unit 5 20.9 Academic centre 5 16.7 Faculty unit 4 16.7 College 9 37.5 University for continuing education 1 4.2 All 24 100

Academic centres, meanwhile, offer their own credit and non-credit programmes, which frequently lead to the award of a certificate (for details of the different certifi- cation options). As a rule, however, academic centres do not run autonomous degree programmes leading to an academic qualification. These institutions also undertake a wide range of administrative tasks for other units within the university that also offer continuing education. Continuing education units may also belong to a particular faculty or profes- sional school. In this context, they will generally provide part-time or short-term programmes aimed at ‘non-traditional students’ who have not (hitherto) enrolled in a regular degree programme. These may be credit or non-credit programmes, but generally do not lead to an academic qualification. Sometimes, however, alternative certification options are offered in the form of diplomas or certificates. The greatest degree of autonomy is enjoyed by colleges or schools and by uni- versities for continuing education. In the colleges/schools, continuing education has been hived off to self-sufficient units that often operate on an equal footing alongside the other colleges and professional schools. Alongside non-credit courses, colleges offer a wide range of certificate programmes and self-contained degree programmes culminating in the award of a bachelors or Masters degree, and sometimes even a doctorate. Among the institutions investigated, there was one where all the courses on offer were geared towards non-traditional students and which could, therefore, be con- sidered purely as a university for continuing education. We are referring here to the University of Maryland University College (UMUC). UMUC offers its 90,000 students around the world a range of academic qualifications including certificates, bachelors (BA) and Masters (MA) degrees and philosophical doctorates (PhD).

3.1.2 Management Structure All of the institutions investigated were managed by a full-time manager. Thirteen of the units indicated that the highest post in their management chain was the dean. Six units were headed by a director. In one case, the person in charge was the vice chan- cellor and in three cases the vice president of the university. In one case, the head of the unit was the provost of the university. The self-sufficient schools/colleges typi- cally have a dean at their helm. There was only one exception, where the continuing Continuing Higher Education in the United States of America (USA) 301 education college was headed by the vice president of the university. In the case of administrative service units, some were headed by deans, some by directors and some by vice presidents. Academic centres and faculty sub-units were managed by a vice chancellor, director or dean. The majority of the heads of continuing education units reported to the provost or associate provost. In the context of the German higher education system, a provost is equivalent to the post of Kanzler/in (chancellor) or administrative vice president. A total of 17 out of 24 institutions indicated that they were accountable to the provost or to a person in a similar position. In cases where continuing education is integrated within a faculty, the head of the unit usually has a reporting obligation to the dean. In the university for continuing education, the head of the unit is directly accountable to the president of the university.

3.1.3 Recruitment of Teaching Staff The recruitment of teaching staff at American continuing education institutions is a controversial topic. In the interviews, respondents were somewhat hesitant about reporting on the academic qualifications and provenance of their lecturers. The com- position of the teaching staff is very often considered to be an indicator of quality. In the non-credit domain in particular, ‘adjunct faculty’ are frequently employed on a part-time basis with fixed-term contracts. Two institutions indicated that they recruited all of their teaching staff from outside the university; seven indicated that more than 90% of teaching staff were brought in from outside, and at least 75% of courses at four institutions are taught by externally recruited teachers. The Mas- sachusetts Institute of Technology, on the other hand, recruits almost exclusively in-house, tenure-track faculty members for delivering their continuing education courses. In seven institutions, the ratio of external teaching staff is between 25% and 50%. All of the institutions that recruit the majority of their staff from within their own university come under the category of doctoral universities. In 80% of the universities investigated, teaching provided in the context of con- tinuing education is not part of the regular teaching load. Generally, separate remu- neration is given – to both in-house staff and external teachers – for classes taught in the continuing education context. The academic qualifications of the teachers depend largely on the content of the courses in question and the qualification options they aim to provide, and on the mission of the parent university. At institutions offer- ing primarily non-credit activities such as personal enrichment courses, instruction is provided mainly by professional practitioners who have relevant practical experi- ence in a particular specialist area. In programmes of study leading to an academic degree, teaching staff must usually, as a minimum, possess the qualification that the students are working towards. Here too, however, there are occasional exceptions, for example in professional fields like management, law or informatics. In these cases, instruction may be provided by professional practitioners who have attained high office in business or administration, and who are expected to use their back- ground to ensure that theory is clearly linked to practice. Two universities indicated that they recruit only teachers that hold an academic degree to deliver their contin- 302 H. Robken¨ uing education programmes. In these cases, the continuing education programmes on offer are geared to the overall objectives of the universities themselves, which perceive themselves to be strongly academic in orientation.

3.2 Quality Assurance

A great variety of quality assurance instruments are deployed by the institutions surveyed, with the primary aim of ensuring ‘customer’ satisfaction or focusing on technological infrastructure or pedagogic/didactic issues. All of the continuing edu- cation institutions stated that they used feedback forms completed by students at the end of a given activity to evaluate their courses and programmes. The results are taken very seriously both by those in charge of the programme and by teaching staff. It is not uncommon for these evaluations to serve as the basis for decisions regard- ing whether or not to run a course again or to extend an adjunct faculty contract. The majority of institutions carry out complaints analysis. Other quality assurance measures mentioned were as follows:

• Consultative committees, possibly comprising representatives of the faculty, practitioners and advisors. These meet once or twice a year to discuss how to adapt the existing programme structure to meet future requirements and needs. • Benchmarking Larger providers of continuing education, particularly, conduct their own market research and evaluate the programmes offered by their rivals, using this information to position their own range of activities. • Self-evaluation Sometimes tenure-track faculty are asked to give their profes- sional opinion prior to recruiting teaching staff. They thus assume a share of the responsibility for the quality of continuing education programme content. • Analysis of applicants’ profiles and the subsequent career development of former students. Larger colleges such as the continuing education units at New York University (NYU) or Boston University analyse applicants’ profiles and the ‘mar- ket value’ of their alumni, using the results for quality management purposes. • Focus groups Students, working people or advisors come together in focus groups on an annual basis and discuss measures to improve the programmes currently on offer or options for developing future activities. • Certification checks One university indicated that it checked students’ perfor- mance in different courses to ensure that the marks being awarded were not end- ing up ‘too high’. • External quality consultation Once a year an external consultant assesses the range of programmes offered by the continuing education institution. • Faculty members assume responsibility for a continuing education programme Quality assurance for each certificate or degree programme is managed by a fac- ulty member. Continuing Higher Education in the United States of America (USA) 303

• Research and Assessment Office Occasionally, the task of quality assurance is taken on by a central body that provides assistance with student feedback or other measures such as focus groups or advisory teams.

3.3 Public Relations, Marketing and Advertising

As a rule, institutions themselves are responsible for marketing their continuing education courses, or they provide marketing support for faculty-related contin- uing education programmes. The type of marketing approach that predominates depends on the nature of the higher education institution and its objectives. In the case of strongly research-oriented institutions, for example, word-of-mouth recom- mendation plays a major role. Satisfied participants in continuing education pro- grammes recommend particular courses to other people, thereby ensuring constant demand. Particularly prominent faculty members can also have a positive influence on demand for continuing education, as was emphasised in two cases. All of the institutions run advertisements in the print media. How far across a region these advertising measures reach, however, depends on the geographical catchment area of the parent university. The institutions surveyed expressed dif- fering views regarding the World Wide Web as an advertising platform. All of the institutions use this medium at least to some extent for marketing purposes. Ban- ner advertising on the Internet, on the other hand, is considered less important. Research-oriented institutions particularly are fearful of the impact it could have on their reputation if their universities were to use banners, establishing an asso- ciation with less renowned continuing education providers; they, therefore, tend to focus their marketing efforts on print media. Other advertising strategies include direct mailing and co-operation with the public relations department.

Continuing higher education: The Chicago way

The University of Chicago (UChicago) is considered to be one of the most outstanding research institutions in the USA. Established in the late 19th cen- tury, it was modelled on German Universities following Humboldtian ideals. The University was founded by the oil magnate John D. Rockefeller, who would later describe it as ‘the best investment I ever made’. The University of Chicago has produced more Nobel prize winners than MIT (Massachusetts Institute of Technology) or Harvard. For this reason, experts consider it to be one of the best universities in the world. A total of 78 Nobel prize win- ners teach, have taught or studied there, along with several Pulitzer prize winners and other outstanding scholars. The institution describes the contin- uing education it provides as ‘scholarly’, ‘rigorous’ and ‘exhilarating’. While participants can also obtain a range of professional certificates, notably in management skills, the Graham School of General Studies emphasises the fact 304 H. Robken¨

that it is primarily humanities-oriented. According to the Graham School’s motto, the goal of its students is: ‘To add depth to their days and breadth to their horizon through an explo- ration of the liberal arts’. In this regard the focus of programme content at the Graham School stands out in stark contrast to all of the other institutions investigated; the latter fre- quently concentrate on subjects that are directly work-related. The Graham School has opted instead to give priority to non-credit programmes; it also offers the possibility of obtaining a Master of Liberal Arts degree. Every year, some 10,000 ‘interested and interesting’ adults participate in continuing edu- cation at UChicago. The institution offers 350 non-credit programmes per semester, as well as certificates in around 10 specialist subjects. Teaching is carried out almost exclusively by lecturers and professors from the University itself. Most students already possess a university qualification and are return- ing to university after spending several years working and gaining ‘greater maturity’. One student explains, ‘The most practical education is a good one, and that’s precisely what is offered in the Master of Liberal Arts degree.’ At such a distinguished research institution, marketing continuing higher education programmes can pose a particular challenge. The Dean of the Gra- ham School of General Studies at the University of Chicago reported that the institution finds it difficult to attract sufficient numbers of students to its courses, despite its open enrolment policy. The University enjoys an excellent research reputation in the USA; many students, therefore, anticipate higher academic standards, and this deters them from participating. The research rep- utation of the parent institution thus imposes special demands on managers of continuing education institutions as regards marketing policy. The most important marketing channels for the Graham School include direct mailing, both by post and over the Internet. The University purchases targeted mailing lists and sends its promotional leaflets to them. In addition, advertisements are placed in the national press. Advertising spots are also broadcast over the radio. In each case, however, the management of the Graham School faces the challenge of having to reconcile the elite university culture of the par- ent institution with the rather more open access policy of the School itself (http://grahamschool.uchicago.edu/).

3.4 Funding of Continuing Higher Education 3.4.1 Sources of Income Tuition fees paid by course participants represent the principal income source of continuing education institutions at American universities and colleges. Fees for higher education at US institutions as a whole have risen steadily in recent years. At public higher education institutions, for example, fees have increased by 85% Continuing Higher Education in the United States of America (USA) 305 within a decade. Between 2003 and 2004 alone, fees at public institutions increased by 13% (UCEA, 2004, p. 33). At the same time, there is currently a squeeze on state funding for student support in the form of grants or low-interest loans. Student debt has risen continuously since the 1990s; 68% of baccalaureate graduates have taken out student loans; on completing their course, they leave college or university with debts averaging $17,000 (UCEA, 2004, p. 33). Only very few part-time students receive financial support from the state. Gener- ally they do not fulfil the eligibility criteria for applying for state support. Instead, they fund themselves by working. In 2001, 86% of part-time students were engaged in an occupation; of these, 82% were working on a full-time basis. Sometimes an employer will assume some of the costs of returning to higher education – around 25% of working students received financial support from their employer. The aver- age amount of support provided to employees undertaking a baccalaureate degree was $2200 per year. As regards students in graduate programmes, meanwhile, one in five received financial support from his/her employer; and the average amount was $3500 per year (UCEA, 2004, p. 33).

3.4.2 Cost Coverage The majority of the institutions studied were at least able to cover their costs; in many cases the provider even managed to make a surplus. In the case of the more profitable participating institutions, this amounted to a margin of between 10% and 50%. It comes as no surprise, then, that continuing higher education is referred to as a ‘cash cow’ at American universities because it represents a lucrative source of income for the parent university (Edelson, 2000, p. 60). All of the institutions sur- veyed stated that they were able to cover the direct costs of programmes provided by them; 75% used their own resources to defray indirect costs. Two institutions were able to cover part of their indirect costs, while in the case of another insti- tution indirect costs were settled by the university’s central administration. As far as the funding of new continuing education programmes is concerned, the major- ity of the institutions surveyed bore the costs themselves. Eighteen institutions fund programme development out of their own budget, while four indicated that they received funding covering their total investment costs for new programmes, or at least a subsidy, from the central budget of the university.

3.5 Future Prospects for Continuing Higher Education

An American expert (Prof. Ronald Cervero) was asked to give his opinion on the development prospects for continuing higher education in the USA. According to Cervero, in order to understand the present structure and future orientation of con- tinuing higher education, it is necessary to take into account current developments concerning higher education funding in the USA. Over the past two decades, state funding for the higher education system in America has diminished continuously. At present, alongside education, public expenditure is focused particularly on health- 306 H. Robken¨ care and security. At some publicly funded universities, dramatic cuts in funding can be observed: at the University of Georgia, public funding fell from 60% to 40%; the state system of the University of California and the University of Virginia now only receive 10% of their funding from the state. In response to this financial squeeze, universities have begun to increase tuition fees to cover their rising teaching and research expenditures. The variety and creativity of continuing higher education, according to Cervero, are primarily a strategic response to increasing privatisation of the American higher education system. By comparison to many European higher education institutions, American universities have been active in a competitive market for longer and to a greater extent, and the continuing education they provide is geared towards this market. If universities want to maintain their position in the market, let alone expand their market presence, they must tap into lucrative additional sources of income in order to be able to fund core functions such as research and teaching. Continuing higher education presents one possible means of doing this. There is a perceptible conflict here that is likely to affect the future orientation of continuing higher education too. On the one hand university continuing education is considered to be an area of innovation and experimentation for the institution, enabling the development of novel programmes, learning technologies and meth- ods of evaluation. Representatives of the other camp, meanwhile, declare it to be a profit centre, income from which should primarily be ploughed into cost-intensive university activities, namely research and (undergraduate) programmes. The ratio of cost-to-quality is the subject of controversy. One view assumes that if a continuing education institution makes bigger profits, it is at the expense of quality. Others, however, emphasise the positive connection between profits and quality, whereby only high-quality continuing education programmes will have durable success in the market. Whether programmes leading to an academic qualification or certificate will gain ground in the medium term vis-a-vis` non-credit continuing education activities is not easy to assess, according to Cervero. The majority of American continuing education falls into the non-credit category; the function of awarding certificates remains primarily the responsibility of the university faculties. For the continuing education market too, however, it is the certification business that tends to be the more profitable source of income. In this domain, according to expert opinion, co- operation agreements between faculties and continuing education units will need to be improved in the long term to avoid a situation where the battle of interests is played out on the back of the potential ‘customer’. It is, therefore, impossible to identify any clear centralising or decentralising trend in the American continu- ing education market. At times when public coffers are low, the faculties are likely to be reluctant to relinquish such a lucrative business from their sphere of respon- sibility. The university management, meanwhile, may have an interest in tapping into the continuing education market as broadly as possible for itself, assigning management of this market segment to an institution specially established for this purpose with professional management structures. In this context, the idea of the ‘entrepreneurial university’ plays a key role: the overriding aim of universities is to Continuing Higher Education in the United States of America (USA) 307 create high-quality continuing education programmes that enable the university to generate profits to support less well-off units.

4 Programme Level

4.1 Formal Aspects

A hallmark of continuing higher education programmes in the USA at present is the broad spectrum of different delivery formats and the fact that programmes can be offered at times to suit the participants. The following section examines the courses on offer in terms of the qualification they provide, the technology support- ing them, entrance requirements, subject areas, academic orientation, and in terms of whether/to what extent they are aimed at specific target groups. Each sub-section first of all describes general developments in US American continuing education on the basis of secondary data. These findings are then complemented by the author’s own data on the 24 higher education institutions surveyed.

4.1.1 Qualifications Secondary Data In the 1970s and 1980s, the majority of continuing education programmes still fell into the non-credit category. Since the 1990s, however, the number of certified and credit courses in the continuing education sector has risen steadily. The number of continuing education programmes leading to an academic degree has also been increasing continuously. These include Associate’s, bachelors, Masters and PhD degrees. Developments in the national economy and the labour market in the USA are often cited in the literature by way of explaining this increase. Some continu- ing education institutions perceive increasing labour market demand for graduates with a bachelors degree as an opportunity to enter this segment of the market. In response to this demand, some continuing education institutions, especially those with a self-sufficient college structure, have begun to establish their own degree programmes, which students can take either in a traditional classroom setting or on a distance-learning basis via the Internet. As well as academic qualifications, continuing education institutions also offer an ever-expanding range of certificate programmes. In the USA, programmes of this sort are considered to be one of the fastest growing forms of continuing higher edu- cation (LaPidus, 2000, p. 6). Participation in this type of programme has a whole range of advantages for both students and employers. They are shorter – some pro- grammes can be completed within a few days or weeks. They are generally highly specialised and hence it is easier to define the scope of the subject matter – the ‘customer’ has a clear indication of what to expect. Firms can send their employees as and when required to specialised programmes that are often customised to the requirements of a particular firm. Certificate programmes are usually delivered using 308 H. Robken¨ a variety of teaching methods; on-line and blended learning are just as prevalent as instruction delivered in the classroom. For working students, and also from the employers’ perspective, this generally provides highly flexible learning arrange- ments (LaPidus, 2000, p. 7). Another reason for the expansion of certificate pro- grammes, according to LaPidus (2000, p. 7), is the decline in willingness on the part of employers to provide financial support for employees to undertake longer- term courses, or to release employees from their duties over a longer period in order to participate in continuing education activities. The literature also discusses a whole range of disadvantages associated with cer- tificate programmes. Few, if any, standards or quality controls are in place, for exam- ple; certificates can be awarded by a great variety of institutions, and not only those within the higher education sector. Up until a few years ago, providers were mainly universities, whose reputation guaranteed course quality; in recent years, however, a large number of for-profit institutions have entered this market. Another object of criticism in this context is the increasing fragmentation of knowledge acquisition: although short courses may repeatedly provide employees new ‘building blocks’ of knowledge, it is questionable whether these fragments can be assembled into a meaningful whole. The fact that the broader perspective is missing from many practice-oriented continuing education programmes, combined with the fact that it is difficult to convey the broader perspective via unconnected knowledge modules, are the subject of impassioned discussion within the American continuing education debate (LaPidus, 2000, p. 7). Alongside degree and certificate programmes, non-credit courses continue to play a major role in continuing higher education (Grubb et al., 1997; Milam, 2005). Non-credit programmes are an important medium for IT training, language courses and continuing professional development, but also for personal enrichment courses and company-specific continuing education programmes. Programmes in the non- credit domain are often associated with the advantage that the provider is able to respond rapidly and flexibly to new needs arising in the regional or local econ- omy (Harmon & MacAllum, 2003). Bailey (2003, p. 15) observed, for example, that community colleges were enthusiastically developing non-credit programmes geared specifically to the needs of the regional economy. In their study, Bailey et al. (2001, p. 62) reach the conclusion that many continuing education students, perhaps even the majority, are not necessarily seeking to obtain an academic qualification, and that their needs are often met by non-credit programmes. The findings of a study produced by the US General Accounting Office (GAO) were somewhat dif- ferent: overall, the study found that demand for credit programmes was greater, but at some higher education institutions, especially community colleges, demand for non-credit programmes was also very high (GAO, 2004, p. 10). Few large-scale studies have hitherto been carried out into the distribution of non-credit continuing education programmes on offer at higher education institu- tions: ‘We do not have a good sense of the overall size and importance of these activities at individual colleges’ (Bailey, 2003, p. 17). From time to time, attempts to systematise the varied range of non-credit programmes on offer have even been dismissed as superfluous. The President of the University Continuing Education Continuing Higher Education in the United States of America (USA) 309

Association commented recently in an interview that investigations of this sort ‘are not worth a hill of beans’ (Milam, 2005, p. 59). Reason for this include the lack of clear and consistent data on non-credit programmes and the fact that the latter are subject to rapid change – many continuing education institutions change their non-credit programmes several times a year in order to respond rapidly to shifting demands.

Programmes Offered by the Institutions Surveyed To analyse the types of programme offered at the 24 continuing education institu- tions included in the survey, an extensive Internet search was carried out (Fig. 2). The most widespread type of credit programme available are certificate pro- grammes: a total of 623 certificates were offered by the institutions surveyed; of these, 137 could be completed as on-line study programmes. Likewise very common are Masters programmes; a total of 205 Masters degree programmes were identi- fied. Forty percent of Masters programmes were available in on-line format. In third place came programmes leading to the conferring of a bachelors degree. The insti- tutions surveyed offered a total of 138 BA programmes, of which 41 were available in on-line format. Less common were diploma programmes (14), associate’s degree programmes (14) and PhD programme (9). When interpreting the types of programme offered, it must be borne in mind that the distribution of programmes varies widely among the 24 institutions. For example, some 72.4% (352) of the certificates are offered by a mere quar- ter of the institutions. As many as 97.1% (133) of the on-line study programmes are offered by just a quarter of the institutions surveyed. In the case of the Masters programmes, a quarter of the institutions provide 85.4% (105) of the attendance- based degree programmes and 95.1% (78) of the on-line Masters programmes;

Non-Degree

Diplomas

Certificates

Associate Degree

Bachelor Degree

Master Degree

Type of qualification conferred Type PhD 0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000 4500 5000 Number of programmes of each type offered by the selected institutions

In Class Online

Fig. 2 Qualifications conferred by the continuing education institutions surveyed 310 H. Robken¨

90.7% (78) of classroom-based BA programmes and 100% of on-line BA courses are run by a quarter of the institutions. Of the selected institutions, some of the most important providers of programmes conferring a qualification include New York University (16% of all programmes), University of Maryland University Col- lege (13%), UC San Diego (10%), University of Denver (8%), Boston University (7%) und UC Berkeley (6.5%). Of these, four operate as self-sufficient colleges or continuing education universities, one as part of a faculty and one as an aca- demic centre. Administrative service institutions, on the other hand, did not provide self-sufficient degree or certificate programmes. Taking into account the non-credit programmes offered by the 24 institutions, the picture emerges as depicted in Figure 3. Figure 3 shows that, as always, the majority of continuing education programmes on offer still fall into the non-credit category. Twenty of the 24 institutions offer non-credit courses. Together they offer a total of more than 4100 courses. This number must be interpreted with caution, as this type of programme is subject to constant change. In the case of the non-credit programmes too, course num- bers vary considerably among the institutions: four institutions provide 81.3% of all the non-credit courses. The institutions that are most active in this sphere are those that do not award academic degrees. These include MIT, Central Michi- gan University and the University of Wisconsin. ‘Corporate education’ also falls into the non-credit category. This refers to programmes that are tailored to the needs of particular companies and their staff. Corporate education is offered at nine of the institutions surveyed. Summer schools, another form of continuing higher education that is gaining ground, are provided at ten of the institutions investigated.

Diplomas

Certificates

Associate Degree

Bachelor Degree Degree Type Degree Type Master Degree

PhD

0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 Number of Programmes Among Selected Institutions

In Class Online

Fig. 3 Programmes offered by the institutions surveyed, including non-credit programmes Continuing Higher Education in the United States of America (USA) 311

4.1.2 E-Learning Secondary Data In the study by Pusser et al. (2005), continuing education institutions were also asked about their use of e-learning technologies in the programmes they offered. A significant proportion of the institutions (43.6%) deployed blended learning in their credit programmes, and more than one-third (35.1%) of the institutions offered credit programmes in a distance-learning format. A quarter of the institu- tions offered non-credit programmes by means of blended learning (22%) or dis- tance education (2%). Around a quarter (22.5%) of the institutions had on-line synchronous courses carrying credit points; 18.4% offered the same programmes without credit points. Around a quarter (22.2%) of the higher education institutions organised synchronous on-line practical programmes carrying credit points, while 13.3% offered similar courses without credit points (Pusser et al., 2005, p. 36).

Programmes Offered by the Institutions Surveyed Of the 24 higher education institutions included in the survey, 14 indicated that they used e-learning in their continuing education programmes; seven made little or no use of e-learning. Institutions using very little e-learning or none at all stated that developing an on-line study programme was too expensive for the institution; modern communications technologies were nevertheless used to support teaching. MIT, for example, one of the world’s leading research institutions in the field of technology and information sciences, deploys no on-line technologies for delivering course content in its continuing education programmes. On the other hand, however, both students and the wider public can download teaching materials produced by MIT faculty free of charge from the MIT website (see e.g. http://mitworld.mit.edu/).

University of Maryland University College (UMUC): Innovative use of e-learning

UMUC is one of 11 universities that together comprise the federal asso- ciation entitled ‘University System of Maryland’. Of these 11 institutions, UMUC is the only one that has geared its programmes exclusively towards the needs of non-traditional students. The University offers programmes through- out the world. By going international in this way, UMUC’s objectives are twofold: first, part of its teaching mandate is to enable US citizens employed abroad to gain access to higher education at both undergraduate and grad- uate level. In addition, UMUC also seeks to extend its teaching and learn- ing opportunities to non-US citizens desiring to continue their education by means of flexible learning arrangements. Today UMUC is active in 45 out of 50 US federal states, and in another 70 countries world-wide. UMUC 312 H. Robken¨

offers its 90,000 students around the world a range of academic qualifications, including certificates, BAs, MAs and PhDs. Ninety percent of its students are enrolled in an undergraduate or certificate programme, and more than 50% of UMUC students participate in on-line programmes. The College currently has 2300 faculty members world-wide, 23% of whom work on a part-time basis. The rest of the staff are part of what is termed the Adjunct Faculty, and are recruited on a contractual basis for a particular course or a set period of time. Due to its international orientation, UMUC began to introduce e-learning pro- grammes very early on. As far back as 1994, it launched a ‘Virtual Univer- sity’ initiative. Before 1994, the university sent its staff to the different federal states and abroad in order to reach students unable to travel to Maryland. Although the university had already experimented with alternative technolo- gies such as voicemail, interactive television and audio and video technologies over the previous 30 years, it was not until the early 1990s that the university management decided to use the Internet, the most effective medium hitherto encountered for delivering programmes of instruction without being tied to a particular time or place. As a result of this decision, demand for e-learning- based courses increased rapidly within a very short time. In 1994, the number of continuing education participants enrolled on-line was 110, while by 2002 this number had risen to 86,769. Demand for on-line courses led UMUC to convert 16 of its BA programmes, all 17 of its Masters programmes and 38 of its 70 certificate programmes to on-line format. In addition, between 1994 and 2002 more than 450 other courses were also developed as part of under- graduate and postgraduate programmes. Converting study programmes to on-line formats requires other adapta- tion measures to ensure that the needs of students who are not physically present can be met. In view of this, UMUC tailored the whole administration process – from submitting an application and registering for a course to apply- ing for financial support – to its distance learning students. UMUC’s services are now based on a mixture of telecommunications and other technologies. For example, applicants can either register electronically via the Internet, or complete a traditional paper form. Students can sign up to courses on the Inter- net, by fax or e-mail, or using an interactive telephone system; the same media can also be used to apply for financial support. Academic or careers advice is also available in a wide range of electronic formats. UMUC’s library services deserve special mention. In the USA, most univer- sity libraries now use the Internet to facilitate searching for articles or journals and inter-library lending. However, it is still only possible for students present on site to actually borrow media such as books or video cassettes from the library. UMUC, meanwhile, has adopted new methods to allow students on distance learning programmes to use and borrow library media. The Univer- sity’s management was quick to begin converting as many services as possible Continuing Higher Education in the United States of America (USA) 313

to on-line format. Via the Internet, for example, students have access to all 90 electronic databases of the 11 campuses of the University of Maryland. Half of these databases provide access to full-text material. In addition, UMUC ensures that all books are delivered direct to students and teachers at home. UMUC library staff provide a ‘24/7’ service: in other words, they are on duty for students every day around the clock and can be contacted by students seeking assistance irrespective of the time zone they live in. Faculty members can obtain all the teaching materials they require in digital form via UMUC’s library services.

4.1.3 Entrance Requirements Secondary Data As already outlined above, the majority of continuing education activities under- taken by the American population take place outside the higher education system. Around 4% of continuing education students are enrolled in programmes at higher education institutions, while 30% of Americans are engaged in work-related contin- uing education programmes and 21% in personal enrichment courses offered out- side of universities and colleges. According to NCES data, certain characteristics are associated with participation in continuing education programmes at higher educa- tion institutions: participants tend to be less than 30 years of age, unmarried, have worked in the preceding 12 months, are required to undertake continuing educa- tion activities for their occupation, have at least a high-school diploma or work in managerial occupations (NCES, 2004, p. viii). As can be seen from Table 4 (based on NCES, 2004, p. 9), the majority of participants in continuing education at higher education institutions already have some experience of college or a college qualification.2

Programmes Offered by the Institutions Surveyed Entrance requirements depend on the particular type of programme. In the case of non-credit programmes, participants are not usually required to possess a prior aca- demic qualification. Likewise, in the case of undergraduate bachelors programmes or degree-completion programmes, prior academic education is not required. For credit programmes, certificate and degree programmes, institutions often require students to hold a bachelors or even a Masters degree. Even though many pro- grammes claim to operate an ‘open enrolment’ scheme, a kind of self-selection gen- erally takes place by the participants themselves. An open enrolment programme

2Note: Adults can participate in several activities in parallel; hence, the percentage figures do not necessarily correspond to the total given. 314 H. Robken¨

Table 4 Participation in continuing higher education in the USA in 2002 (percent)

College/university Work-related Personal interest 2001 degree programmes courses courses

Total 46 4 30 21 Age 16–30 53 10 28 24 31–40 53 4 39 20 41–50 55 4 42 21 51–65 41 1 28 21 >65 22 – 4 19 Sex Male 43 4 29 16 Female 49 5 30 26 Educational attainment Less than high school-diploma 22 – 6 11 High school diploma or 34 2 20 15 equivalent Some college experience 58 8 36 26 College qualification 66 6 51 30 may, for example, fall within the category of graduate-level education and thus implicitly require a bachelors degree. Consideration of experiential learning varies widely at the different institutions surveyed. Ten universities do not consider informally acquired learning at all, and four report that it is sometimes taken into account. Five institutions recognise prior experiential learning of participants in continuing education programmes. The fol- lowing methods are among the most commonly used:

• Standard tests. Here, the continuing education institution uses standardised tests to assess applicants’ informally acquired competencies and, in some cases, award credit points that can be counted towards a degree or certificate programme. • Assessment of individual portfolios. In this case, a faculty member or team of lec- turers and professors evaluates the individual applicant’s curriculum vitae (CV) and awards credit points on this basis. • Consideration of informally acquired competencies already recognised by spe- cific agencies (e.g. by the Council for Adult and Experiential Learning – CAEL). In this case, students approach a professional body that converts their prior experi- ential learning and college experience into credit points or academic qualifications that the student can then use when applying to the higher education institution.

When interpreting the data, it must be borne in mind that the institutions partici- pating in the survey included especially large and visible research universities. According to an expert in the field, continuing education institutions at smaller and medium-sized universities are much more active as regards consideration Continuing Higher Education in the United States of America (USA) 315 of formal and experiential learning. Around 280 colleges and universities are currently working with the central organisation that deals with consideration of learning acquired through work (CAEL). A list of higher education institutions that co-operate with CAEL can be downloaded from the organisation’s website (http://www.cael.org/membership.htm).

4.1.4 Subject Areas Secondary Data According to the study by Pusser et al. (2005), 50% of programmes and courses offered at half of the institutions surveyed were in only three subject areas: teach- ing, management/business/marketing, and the humanities and social sciences. More than half of the credit courses offered at as many as 75% of the 4-year colleges and universities were in these three subject areas. In contrast, only 7% of continuing education programmes at the 2-year institutions focused on the three areas men- tioned. They tended to focus instead on health and nursing sciences, computer and information technology, and technical and mechanical disciplines. More than half of the credit programmes offered at 41% of the 2-year colleges were in these subject areas. The opposite was the case at the 4-year institutions, which were significantly less active in the technical and health-related fields. Courses in these subject areas accounted for more than half of the courses on offer at only 7% of these institutions (Pusser et al., 2005, p. 36). In the case of non-credit programmes, around 50% of courses on offer cov- ered four subject areas: computer and information technology, management/ busi- ness/marketing, the humanities and social sciences, and health sciences. At the 4-year institutions, non-credit programmes focused primarily on the humanities and social sciences, and on management/business/marketing, with fewer courses being offered in health and computer-related subjects. The opposite was found at the 2-year colleges, where non-credit programmes tend to focus more on health and computer sciences than on other fields (Pusser et al., 2005, p. 36). If certificate programmes are considered separately, a similar concentration in particular subject areas emerges. Research by Patterson (2000) found that the major- ity of certificates are awarded in the field of business and management. This sub- ject area alone accounts for 24.5% of certificates. Courses in informatics account for 15.8% of the total; 15.1% of courses came under health sciences, and 8.2% under education sciences. The remainder of the certificate programmes were spread across social sciences (6.4%), art (4.8%), engineering sciences (3.8%), technology (3.6%), life sciences (3.5%), environmental sciences (3.1%), communication (2.65), law (2.2%), international studies (1.7%), agriculture (0.7%), architecture (0.3%) and pharmacy (0.2%). Institutions classified as ‘research and doctoral institutions’ under the Carnegie system were particularly active in the field of certificate programmes; 91.7% of certificates were awarded by these universities alone. Master’s colleges and universities offered 7.72% of the certificate programmes analysed, while bac- calaureate institutions offered 0.5% (Patterson, 2000, p. 242). 316 H. Robken¨

Programmes Offered by the Institutions Surveyed An Internet-based analysis of the 24 institutions confirms at least in part the findings of Pusser et al. (2005) and Patterson (2000) regarding the concentration of contin- uing education programmes offered in the fields of business, the humanities and social sciences. At the institutions surveyed, certificates are particularly popular in business and management sciences, informatics, technical disciplines, social sciences and health sciences. Masters and bachelors degrees predominate in the management and social sciences fields, followed by education and health sciences and informatics. Management-related courses are predominant among the non-credit programmes, too. Courses in art and the humanities are negligible in number. In the fields of tech- nology, law, education, life sciences and mathematics, non-credit programmes play only a very minor role. The range of subjects offered by the institutions investigated essentially depends on two factors: the knowledge resources available at the higher education institu- tion, and predicted market developments. Four institutions use primarily the com- petencies and ideas of their faculty members to modify existing programmes and devise new ones. Eight institutions base their programme structure mainly on mar- ket research carried out either by themselves or by third parties, thereby orientat- ing themselves towards external market factors such as labour market dynamics, demand from students, or expectations of employers. Six of the participating institu- tions indicated that they used a hybrid approach. Two institutions carried out hardly any autonomous planning at all, because their role was primarily to co-ordinate the activities of other continuing education providers within the university and the resources available to them for planning their own programmes were minimal. One institution sets up a consultative committee for programme planning comprising representatives from business, higher education and market research, and this body meets twice a year to evaluate future programme options.

4.1.5 Programme Orientation: Academic Versus Work-Based As already presented in Section 3.1.3, the majority of continuing education pro- grammes are taught by teachers recruited externally. In most cases, the institutions questioned were unable to provide exact details regarding the ratio of teachers with an academic background to those who qualify for the job largely as a result of their professional experience. Teachers of labour market related programmes tend to be professional practitioners with many years of experience in business or administra- tion who are able, in their teaching, to make a clear connection with actual working practice. With very few exceptions, continuing education gives priority to teaching; in the opinion of one expert in the field, education of a more academic nature tends to be provided in the traditional degree programmes. Teachers sometimes work for several continuing education institutions at the same time. One respondent stated that this was particularly true in American cities where a large number of universities Continuing Higher Education in the United States of America (USA) 317

Business/Management

Social Sciences

Information Sciences

Engineering

Health Sciences/Pharmacy

Art

Humanities

Education Subject area

Law

Architecture

Other

Natural Sciences

Mathematics/Statistics

0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 Number of programmes

Bachelor Degree Master Degree Certificate/Diploma Non-Credit

Fig. 4 Programmes offered by the institutions surveyed, by subject area

and colleges are found close together. In New York, for example, it appears to be a relatively common for a continuing education course to be offered by the same teacher at several higher education institutions simultaneously. For programmes leading to an academic qualification, quality standards are gen- erally at least the same as those applied to traditional teaching in higher educa- tion. A faculty member is often appointed to develop programme curricula and ensure compliance with certain academic standards. Degree programmes are gen- erally accredited by the relevant professional associations; as is the case in regular degree programmes, students are required to undertake an academic research project at the end of the degree programme. In the case of short-term programmes such as non-credit courses or certificate programmes, a final project is not required.

4.1.6 Continuing Education Programmes for Specific Target Groups Based on an Internet search, a number of programmes geared towards specific groups were identified at the institutions investigated. Some of the most common of these target group-oriented programmes include the following: 318 H. Robken¨

• Corporate training Corporate or customised programmes enjoy high status within American continuing higher education. Fourteen of the 24 institutions surveyed stated that they were active in this area. • Summer schools for high school students Five institutions provide continuing education options over the summer months in a wide range of curricular and extra-curricular subjects aimed at senior high school students. • Reading programmes for school students Several institutions offer writing and reading programmes specifically for children at middle school level. • Homeland security und law enforcement A number of universities are currently offering government-supported programmes aimed at providing continuing edu- cation for the security forces and law enforcement employees. • Programmes for older people Harvard University and the University of Denver are renowned for their special programmes for older people. Many older peo- ple become long-term members, allowing them to participate in a wide range of continuing education courses, notably non-credit programmes. Boston Univer- sity has developed a programme entitled ‘Evergreen’ encompassing numerous courses aimed at persons over the age of 58. • Special programmes for ‘high professionals’ In the category of work-related programmes, some universities have developed special programmes for high professionals in particular industries. The renowned research universities are especially active in this area. The management and leadership programmes for engineers offered by MIT, for example, are in high demand world-wide. The University of Kansas is well known for its special programmes in aerospace technology, the University of Denver for its Environmental Policy and Man- agement Program for high professionals. The Wharton School at the Univer- sity of Pennsylvania organises a special programme for managers in the field of biotechnology.

4.2 Demand for Continuing Higher Education

As was the case with the range of subject areas offered, demand is ascertained pri- marily on the basis of market research or on the suggestions of teachers and students. Four of the institutions surveyed carry out some of their market research via market research agencies such as Eduventure, specialising in the higher education sector. Student evaluation exercises carried out regularly at the end of continuing education activities are used by many institutions to assess what participants want and obtain suggestions that can be used to develop future programmes or modify existing ones. As a result of their close contact with students, teaching staff also receive feedback regarding the extent to which course content fulfilled participants’ expectations, and can pass this on to the person in charge of the programme.

4.3 Motivation and Participation of Staff in Continuing Education

Most of the institutions surveyed recruit the majority of their teaching staff from outside the university. They are generally employed on a part-time contract basis. Continuing Higher Education in the United States of America (USA) 319

One exception is New York University, which employs 160 of its 2200 continu- ing education teachers on a full-time basis. The primary factor motivating external teaching staff to become involved in continuing education is generally financial. In cases where the continuing education institution recruits some of its teaching staff from the faculties, the motivating factor is either financial or content-related. At the research-oriented institutions, for example, continuing education managers emphasise that the lecturers teaching on their programmes are also very interested in working with adults who have professional experience in the field and often bring valuable practical experience to the classroom. One manager, for example, reported the case of a female professor who was very keen to teach adults so that she could discuss her current Kama Sutra research project with them. In addition, many emer- itus professors are also engaged in continuing education.

4.4 Partnerships

4.4.1 Secondary Data In recent years, co-operative arrangements between universities and employers have become increasingly important in continuing education (e.g. Cervero, 2000, p. 6). This is partly attributed to the fact that universities are supposed to be assuming a more active role in the economic development of their federal state or region. The idea behind this is that publicly funded educational institutions should bring greater benefit to the wider public. Continuing education programmes, particularly those developed on the basis of co-operation between the higher education insti- tution and the business community, are seen as one strategy for fulfilling this new role. Around 90% of continuing education programmes funded by employers for professional employees, middle management and executives are developed via co- operation rather than organised as purely in-house activities (Cervero, 2000, p. 7). Studies on higher education institutions as providers of continuing education have found that between 60% and 85% of continuing education programmes are based on some form of co-operation (Cervero, 1988; 1992). Comparable research stud- ies have shown that professional associations and for-profit providers, too, use co- operative programme planning to develop between 50% and 85% of the activities they offer (Koss-Feder, 1998, p. 3).

4.4.2 Co-operation at the Institutions Surveyed The fact that co-operation is very widespread – whether in order to develop new programmes, finance programme development or implement a continuing educa- tion programme – was confirmed in the interviews. All 24 institutions indicated that they engage in some form of co-operation with in-house or external partners. Eleven institutions co-operate with other faculties; 14 institutions co-operate pri- marily or additionally with external organisations, developing or delivering special programmes for them. One university stated that it engaged in co-operation with a 320 H. Robken¨ variety of private-sector and non-profit organizations, primarily to acquire financial resources. External co-operation arrangements initiated for the purpose of deliver- ing programmes are generally protected by contract. In-house co-operation within universities for developing or co-ordinating programmes, on the other hand, tends to take place on a more informal basis.

New York University: Co-operation for programme development New York University (NYU) is a renowned university in New York City. It was founded in the early 19th century as an antithesis to the elite universities of the east coast. Its goal was to provide access to higher education for all social ‘classes’, especially the working classes. In contrast to the ‘classical’ curriculum focusing on subjects such as medicine, theology and law, the NYU established a range of new subjects like political economy, history and mod- ern languages. The University has continued to pursue this direction, thereby setting itself clearly apart, for example, from the Ivy League institutions. With a total enrolment of just under 40,000 students, NYU is now one of the largest private universities in the United States; 20,212 of its students are enrolled in undergraduate programmes, 15,884 in graduate studies and 3312 as doctoral students (2005 figures). The University consists of 14 faculties and colleges, one of which is the School of Continuing and Professional Studies (SCPS). This institution basi- cally organises all of NYU’s continuing education programmes. It was estab- lished in 1934 and since that time has been developing study programmes for working people and people wishing to undertake continuing education for their personal development. Since its inception, more than 2 million stu- dents have obtained a qualification at the SCPS. The institution today serves around 55,000 students annually, making it one of the largest providers of continuing higher education in the world. The School of Continuing and Pro- fessional Studies provides more than 2000 courses, more than 100 certificates and diplomas, 11 Masters degrees, more than 20 BA programmes, as well as careers advice and other work-related services. In 2002, the SCPS became the first educational institution to receive the Presidential ‘E’ award. The ‘E’ stands for ‘excellence’ and is one of the most prestigious forms of recognition that can be conferred by the American federal government. SCPS has achieved excellence also as a result of its innovative approach in the field of co-operative programme development. With its campus located in the heart of New York City, the institution also has many links with a range of other higher education institutions based in the metropolitan area of New York City. Strategic factors in the institution’s success are reckoned to include the excellent connections it has with New York’s industries and its artistic and cultural scene. Over recent decades, via a network of contacts, the institution has established a creative range of programmes that are highly popular among Continuing Higher Education in the United States of America (USA) 321

the students. A former manager of the SCPS, for example, reports on its highly popular music and film management courses. For marketing purposes, co- operation was initiated with prominent figures in order to be able to call on them for advertising spots or to provide insights into the music and film scene at kick-off events for students. Occasionally, continuing education courses are devised for foreign univer- sities that have inadequate experience of developing continuing education pro- grammes. One manager reported that that SCSP will soon be developing and delivering a continuing education programme on Shakespeare for a university in the bard’s home country, England. This is only one example of the range and dynamism expected of the continuing education programmes offered by NYU at international level too. It also shows how successful the institution has been at recognising niches in the market and filling them by responding flexi- bly and speedily in developing programmes that meet particular requirements (http://www.scps.nyu.edu/).

References

Bailey, T. (2003). The Response of Community Colleges to Increasing Competition and Growth of the For-Profits, Paper prepared for the Markets, Profits, and the Future of Higher Education conference in May, 2003 at Columbia University Teachers College. Bailey, T., Badway, N., & Gumport, P. (2001). For-Profit Higher Education and Community Colleges. Retrieved 2006/07/12, from http://www.stanford.edu/group/ncpi/documents/pdfs/ forprofitandcc.pdf. Bowen, H. (1980). Adult Learning, Higher Education, and the Economics of Unused Capacity. College Entrance Examination Board, New York, 1980. Breneman, D., Pusser, B., & Turner, S. (2000). The contemporary provision of For-Profit-Higher Education. Virginia. Cervero. (1988). Effective Continuing Education for Professionals. San Francisco. Cervero, R. (1992). Professional Practice, Learning, and Continuing Education: An Integrated Per- spective. International Journal of Lifelong Education, 11(No. 2), 92–101. Cervero, R. (2000). Trends and Issues in Continuing and Professional Education. New Directions for Higher Education (86), Summer 2000, 3–12. Cohen, M., & March, J. (1986). Leadership and Ambiguity: The American College President.2. Ed. Boston: Mass. Collins, M. (1998). Exploring Professional Associations’ perceptions of Institutions of Higher Education as Potential Partners. Unpublished Doctoral Dissertation, Pennsylvania State Uni- versity. Commission for a Nation of Lifelong Learners. (1997). A Nation Learning: Vision for the Twenty- First Century.Albany,NY. Edelson, P. (2000). Weiterbildung in den USA. Mering: Rainer Hampp Verlag. Field, J. (2000). Lifelong learning – and the new educational order. Sterling: Trentham Books. GAO. (2004). Public Community Colleges and Technical Schools: Most Schools Use Both Credit and Noncredit Programs for Workforce Development. GAO-05-4 Washington, D.C. Grubb, W., Badway, N., Bell, D., Bragg, D., & Russman, M. (1997). Workforce, Economic, and Community Development, The Changing Landscape of the Entrepreneurial Community Col- lege (MDS-1094), Mission Viejo, CA. 322 H. Robken¨

Harmon, R., & MacAllum, K. (2003). Documented Characteristics of Labor Market-Responsive Community Colleges and a Review of Supporting Literature. Washington D.C.: U.S. Depart- ment of Education, Office of Vocational and Adult Education. Jacks, L. (1936). To Educate the Whole Man. In M. Ely (Ed.), Adult Education in Action (pp. 3–13). New York. Kirp, D. (2003). Education for Profit. Public Interest, No. 152, Summer 2003, pp. 100–112. Kohl, K. (2000). The Postbaccalaureate Learning Imperative. In K. Kohl & J. Lapidus (Eds.), Postbaccalaureate Futures: New Markets, Resources, and Credentials (pp. 10–29). Phoenix. Koss-Feder, L. (1998). Brushing Up. Time, Special Issue, July 20, 1998, pp. 16–17. LaPidus, J. (2000). Postbaccalaureate and Graduate Education: A Dynamic Balance. In K. Kohl & J. Lapidus (Eds.), Postbaccalaureate Futures: New Markets, Resources, and Credentials (pp. 3–9). Phoenix. Lapiner, R. (1993). Connections: The Role and Mission of Continuing Higher Education. In W. Herget (Ed.), Continuing Education in the United States – Zur Theorie und Praxis der Weiterbildung (pp. 1–18). Mainz. Maehl, W. (2004). Adult Degrees and the Learning Society. New Directions for Higher Education (103), Fall 2004, 5–16. Maurer, C., & Sheets, T. (1998). Foreword to Volume 1, National Organizations of the US, Ency- clopedia of Associations, 33rd ed. Detroit. Milam, J. (2005). The Role of Non-credit Courses in Serving Non-traditional Leaders. New Direc- tions for Higher Education, 129, Spring 2005, pp. 55–68. NCES. (2004). The National Center for Education Statistics. Retrieved 2005/11/02, from http://www.nces.ed.gov/; http://nces.ed.gov/pubs2004/2004050.pdf. Patterson, W. (2000). Certificate Program Snapshots. In K. Kohl & J. Lapidus (Eds.), Postbaccalau- reate Futures: New Markets, Resources, and Credentials (pp. 239–253). Phoenix. Pusser, B., & Doane, D. (2001). Public Purpose and Private Enterprise: The Contemporary Orga- nization of Postsecondary Education. Change, 33(No. 5), 18–22. Pusser, B., Gansneder, B., Gallaway, N., & Pope, N. (2005). Entrepreneurial Activity in Non-Profit Institutions: A Portrait of Continuing Education. New Directions for Higher Education 2005 (129), 27–42. Rachal, J. (1989). The Social Context of Adult and Continuing Education. In S. Merriam & P. Cunningham (Eds.), Handbook of Adult and Continuing Education (pp. 3–14). San Fran- cisco. Stokes, P. (2005). Memorandum, Paper presented at The Commission on the Future of Higher Education. The State of Higher Education Today: Adult Learners, December 2. UCEA. (2004). University Continuing Education Association: Lifelong Learning Trends – A Pro- file of Continuing Higher Education. Washington D.C.: Heinrich-Boll-Stiftung:¨ Arbeiten zur Wissensgesellschaft. Corporate Universities and Research Associations as Players in Continuing Higher Education

Michaela Knust and Anke Hanft

Contents

1 Aim of This Study ...... 323 2 Corporate Universities ...... 324 2.1 Definition of This Type of Organisation ...... 324 2.2 Continuing Higher Education by Corporate Universities? ...... 326 2.3 Co-operation Activities of Corporate Universities ...... 333 3 Research Associations ...... 340 3.1 Overview ...... 340 3.2 Continuing Higher Education Offered by Research Associations? ...... 341 3.3 Co-operation Activities of Research Associations ...... 350 4 Final Summary ...... 352 References ...... 354

1 Aim of This Study

This part of the study supports the other studies on continuing higher education (CHE), and aims to examine where the different systems intersect, and to what extent CHE is also offered outside higher education institutions. Finally it analy- ses whether – or how – these facilities co-operate with higher education institutions in designing their provisions. We shall be focusing on research associations (RAs) and corporate universities (CUs) although, owing to the extremely varied nature of what they offer, they are not incorporated into the study in the form of a systematic analysis. In addition to an analysis of the relevant literature, examples of both RAs

M. Knust (B) Carl von Ossietzky Universitat¨ Oldenburg, Center for Lifelong Learning, 26111 Oldenburg/Germany Ammerlander¨ Heerstraße 114–118, 26111 Oldenburg/Germany e-mail: [email protected]

M. Knust, A. Hanft (eds.), Continuing Higher Education and Lifelong Learning, 323 DOI 10.1007/978-1-4020-9676-1 10, C Springer Science+Business Media B.V. 2009 324 M. Knust and A. Hanft and CUs are cited and documented in the form of case studies. We also conducted a written survey of CUs that addressed the question of co-operation with other educa- tion providers. In the context of this survey, we wrote to 34 organisations that either own a CU now or have owned one in the past that has been reintegrated into the company (e.g. into human resource or organisational development). A total of 19 companies are covered by this survey.1 The analysis of RAs focused on large associations in particular. The detailed analysis of CUs focused on those characterised by their understanding of excellence and their approach to co-operation with higher education institutions. The following contact persons were interviewed:

• DaimlerChrysler Corporate University (DCU), Stuttgart Dr. Bernd Staudinger, Director; Uwe Steinwender, Senior Manager Partnership Programs. The DCU was chosen for two reasons – first the fact that along with the Lufthansa School of Business it is one of Germany’s oldest CUs and, second, the emphasis it places on leadership. In 2005, the DCU was one of the very few German CUs in this field to be given a Corporate University Xchange (CUX) best-practice award. • AutoUni of Volkswagen AG, Wolfsburg Prof. Walther Zimmerli, President; Dr. Stefan Wolf, Manager Corporate Values and Culture. The AutoUni was chosen because its approach is closely related to that of universities in that it integrates research with teaching, and because it explicitly positions itself as a partner coop- erating with German and international higher education institutions. • Fraunhofer Technology Academy (FhTA), Munich Dr. Roman Gotter,¨ Director. The FhTA was chosen because it is one of the few research institutions to offer a centralised form of CHE and, with its specific focus on external clients, it com- plements the other two case studies very well, since they currently address only in-house employees.

2 Corporate Universities

2.1 Definition of This Type of Organisation

The particular organisational form of the CU has already been in existence for several decades. The literature credits General Electric with the first CU (“Crotonville”), which was founded in 1956. In the USA, CUs are described as “old models” (1950–1980), before evolving into “new models” (from 1980 onwards) (Meister, 1998, p. 22), but in Germany no notable development of CUs was apparent until the late 1990s onwards. The first German organisational unit to describe itself

1Of these 19 companies, 14 completed the questionnaire and five explicitly stated that they did not wish to participate in the survey. Corporate Universities and Research Associations 325 as a CU (although this did not form part of its name) was the Lufthansa School of Business, which was founded in 1998 (Domsch & Andresen, 2001b, p. 532). In 2000, there were estimated to be a total of 80 CUs in the 1000 largest compa- nies; it was apparent that whether or not a company operated a CU was strongly dependent on its size. Of the top 100 companies, more than one in three was believed to have its own CU, whereas for companies in positions 301–1000, the figure was only one in 35 (Wimmer et al., 2002, p. 9). At the end of May 2005, it was determined in the course of a study conducted by Campus Sapiens in co- operation with HHL Executive gGmbH that of the 100 German companies with the highest turnovers, plus the five largest banks and the five largest corporate consul- tancies, 31 companies stated that they operated their own CU (Themen and Trends, 2005, p. 8). This being so, it can be assumed that following a small degree of con- solidation around the start of the new millennium, the number of CUs in Germany is currently proving to be relatively stable. Most of the attempts to define and delimit the organisational unit “CU” can be traced back to Jeanne Meister, former President of CUX: “A corporate university is the strategic umbrella for developing and educating employees, and suppliers, in order to meet an organization’s business strategies” (Meister, 1998, p. 207). However, this definition leaves open the question of what exactly constitutes this “strategic umbrella”, which means that uncertainty is largely prevalent among both practitioners and academics as to precisely what is concealed behind the organisational unit “CU” (Domsch & Andresen, 2001b, p. 523). So on the one hand it is not surprising that there are many similar-sounding definitions and also many lists of the fundamental characteristics of a CU that can be found in the widest possible range of “self-portraits” of CUs. On the other hand, this lack of clarity also means that there is a need to delimit the organisational unit “CU” more precisely by means of models or types.2 CUs are primarily typified on the basis of the following aspects: mission, evolutionary phases, content and target group. A problem arises in the context of the attempts to define the types, in that in every case the existence of the models/types described is documented by only a very small number of examples from practice (e.g. Deiser, 1998; Heuser, 1999; Stauss, 1999). This means that it is almost impossible to transfer or generalise these models. In any case, this is not the aim of this chapter. What follows is based on the definition essentially going back to Meister, but also supplemented by Andresen. It defines CUs as “educational institutions within companies that support their strategic management. [...] the human resource devel- opment programmes are integrated into binding strategic development plans [...]. Learning and strategic action are understood as an integral process” (Andresen, 2003, p. 225). In addition to this, account will also be taken of a process of develop- ment that Todd formulates as follows: “The old model of corporate university, which borrowed constructs from the academic world with functional colleges, deans, reg- istrars, and brick and mortar buildings, died years ago. [...] The mantra that com-

2A good overview of the various models can be found in Andresen (2003). 326 M. Knust and A. Hanft panies should ‘run training like a business’ is being replaced by a more powerful idea – ‘running training for the business’” (Todd, 2006, p. 1). This “new” model is essentially to be found in an analysis of the existing case-study examples of CUs in Germany (e.g. Glotz & Seufert, 2002; Wimmer et al., 2002). In it, the CU acts as an organisational unit within the company, and does not act as an independent player in designing and offering programmes of continuing education for the company. Finally, we shall also look at Munch,¨ who summarises the characteristics of CUs by saying that “the corporate universities involve tasks and aspects that have always played a part in companies, [...] which are usually subsumed into the concepts of ‘human resource development’ and ‘organisational development’” (Munch,¨ 2003, p. 65). In principle, the educational activities of German companies include both training and continuing education/training. From the late 1990s onwards, in large companies in particular, continuing education/training specifically at management level was taken over by CUs, which work in co-operation with business schools, cor- porate consultancies and higher education institutions. However, it is almost impos- sible to distinguish precisely between what is also offered to other employees in the company as traditional training and what is offered by CUs (Domsch & Andresen, 2001a, p. 54). This is due to the fact that there are major differences between the individual companies in terms of their own training cultures and the way in which they interpret continuing education, which means that they cannot be classified.

2.2 Continuing Higher Education by Corporate Universities?

The fact that they are called universities makes it natural to conclude that CUs pos- sess an affinity with the academic world. This could consist in the fact that their target groups are selected analogously with the selection process of higher educa- tion institutions, in other words they expect participants to have reached the gen- eral qualification required for university entrance (Hochschulreife) or an equivalent level. However, it could also be demonstrated that the didactic design and the stan- dard of the content are based on the same level as of higher education institutions. The target group for CHE in universities comprises university graduates, people in work or people with professional experience who have acquired an entitlement to access to higher education by traditional or non-traditional routes. This already creates a restriction, since only a particular stratum of company employees fulfils these criteria. This primarily covers employees working in middle or senior man- agement or above, for whom the programmes are made available. In the specific case of Germany, Wimmer et al. established that only 37% of German CUs addressed their programmes of continuing education to all employees.3 Instead, the focus is clearly on top management or senior executives (Wimmer et al., 2002, p. 10).4 This implies that in Germany, a different form of CUs

3Representatives of such strategies are the Lufthansa School of Business and Deutsche Bank Uni- versity, whose programmes are open to all employees (Schwertfeger, 2004, p. 31). 4The investigation covered 1000 large companies with more than 2000 employees. Small and medium-sized enterprises were not taken into consideration, since it was hypothesised that it was Corporate Universities and Research Associations 327 tends to be found from those CUs in the USA or Canada, for example, where com- pletely different target groups are also aimed at, such as non-managerial employ- ees or those in junior management levels (CUX (Corporate University Exchange), 2002, p. 112). The emphasis on employees who have had an academic education thus allows us to conclude that German CUs are aimed at target groups similar to those of continuing higher education. Even if the focus on these specific target groups presupposes a certain level of continuing education, this does not suffice to make it absolutely clear whether CUs are basing their didactic design and content on the provisions offered by univer- sities. The fact that CUs not uncommonly refer to co-operation with leading uni- versities and business schools supports the hypothesis that in principle, in addition to other programmes of continuing education, CUs also include CHE in their ser- vice portfolios. The objectives of CUs and the scope of academic approach of their programmes of continuing education are illustrated by the examples of DCU and the AutoUni.

2.2.1 DaimlerChrysler Corporate University (DCU) The establishment of DCU goes back to the merger with Chrysler. The aim of estab- lishing it was to implement particular directorial strategic projects. At the beginning of 2004, however, DCU was repositioned, and since then it has pursued a traditional human resources development policy targeted at executive staff. DCU was called a corporate university on the basis of an American interpretation of CUs, but follow- ing the subsequent strategic repositioning, the relevance of this interpretation has become much more limited. In this context, with reference to Meister (1998), Uwe Steinwender (DCU) points out that “the original idea was to use a CU as an instrument with which a CEO could implement a strategy, in order to propel a dramatic change or strategy through the organisation. It never claimed to be academic. We do not co-operate directly with higher education institutions. Of course we make use of experts from this background here and there, but essentially we do not offer continuing higher education.” As an organisational unit, DCU is based in the “executive management develop- ment” division. Its service portfolio (which covers the grey shaded area in Fig. 1) is aimed at all senior executives in what is a globally active company. It focuses primarily on executive management development and not on strategic development (which takes place in the “strategy” division). DCU’s programmes are aimed at levels E1-E3; it does not currently offer pro- grammes of continuing education for levels below these, such as management

above all companies with large numbers of employees that had a CU as an organisational unit. A total of 326 companies took part in the survey, 47 of which stated that they operated their own CU; another 18 stated that they had access to a CU at holding-company level; a further 26 said that establishment of a CU was still at the planning stage – the remaining companies replied that they were neither operating a CU nor planning to do so in the near future. 328 M. Knust and A. Hanft

Fig. 1 DCU’s programme Board of structure Management Approx. 3,500 people reached by DCU

E1

E2

E3 Management levels

E4

PROM IDP AEP

trainees or foremen. With a total of approximately 3500 participants, at present DCU is reaching around 75% of the intended target group. Three specific types of continuing education are offered:

• PROM When they move up from one level to the next, employees are prepared for their future responsibilities by means of specifically needs-based support programmes. The specially composed teams of three are trained by care- fully selected top management coaches and consultants from within and out- side the company – only in a few exceptional cases are professors brought in from business schools for this purpose. The selection is made in a cherry-picking process – in other words, particularly suitable trainers are chosen in the course of a selection process lasting several months. • IDP The Individual Development Programmes are based on an annual analysis of the training needs of the relevant executives. In these programmes, in-house employees (top management) or external trainers (e.g. top management coaches and consultants) offer subject-specific seminars. • AEP Once they have been at management levels E1-E3 for a certain length of time, selected employees are offered the option of participating in special Advanced Executive Programmes in order to improve their own prospects and familiarise themselves with the latest management and leadership developments. In this area, DCU co-operates with international business schools such as Har- vard Business School, INSEAD and IMD Lausanne.

2.2.2 AutoUni Unlike the majority of German CUs, AutoUni aims to have a profile strongly based on university structures. It also places strategic emphasis on developing co-operative links with higher education institutions within and outside Germany, with which it Corporate Universities and Research Associations 329 plans to develop and implement various programmes. The appointment of Prof. Walter Zimmerli (previously President of the University of Witten/Herdecke) as Director5 of AutoUni emphasises that its closeness to higher education institutions is an important element of its profile. First, a brief overview of AutoUni’s organisa- tional structure is given here: until 31 March 2006, AutoUni was an organisational component of VW Coaching GmbH. However, since AutoUni is active throughout the Group, this integration into a brand was ended on 1 April 2006. The organ- isational structure within AutoUni has links with an academic setting (vertically, see Fig. 2) and also with company processes (horizontally, see Fig. 2). The ensu- ing matrix structure includes the process-oriented cross-disciplinary departments of company research, corporate culture and values, and learning strategy and technol- ogy. The vertical division into School of Science & Technology, School of Human- ities & Social Sciences and School of Economics & Business Administration is intended to ensure that AutoUni can link up with the academic environment. While it is true that all the continuing education programmes (such as the Job Family Development Programmes (JFDP) or the courses of study) have an interdis- ciplinary orientation and focus on the Group’s own subjects, the disciplinary ori- entation of the three schools provides for communication and co-operation with state universities and other partners (AutoUni, 2004, p. 8). AutoUni’s aim was “from the outset to operate as an academic institution in the postgraduate sphere” (Walther Zimmerli). Zimmerli sees as a fundamental difference from other CUs the fact that AutoUni has specifically decided against acting as a “science and knowl- edge broker” in that it is, without exception, developing and running continuing education programmes it has itself designed and, within these programmes, it pursues a Group-specific didactic orientation: “We are more than just a corpo- rate university.” AutoUni is intended to be more “corporate” than state or private sector higher education institutions, but nevertheless also more of a “university”

Fig. 2 Organisational structure of AutoUni (as at 31 July 2006)

5The interview was carried out in June 2006. Meanwhile Dr. Peter F. Tropschuh became Director of AutoUni. 330 M. Knust and A. Hanft than the other corporate universities that are currently well known (AutoUni, 2004, p. 14). One of AutoUni’s target groups is top management staff within the Group – the aim is to have a total of some 4000 participants (including skilled workers and man- agers) a year. AutoUni offers its target groups four different types of programme – JFDP, modules/courses of study, events and research programmes. The profile of these programmes is based on a specially developed “fingerprint”, which provides for the following characteristics to be combined in each programme (AutoUni, 2004, p. 14):

• Cross-disciplinary nature (the aim is to promote a wide variety of individual and organisational perspectives in a productive interdisciplinary dialogue). • Academic nature (postgraduate education of an academic standard is offered, with intra-company and university research being accorded a high status). • Practical relevance (the emphasis is on working through actual specific cases from working life). • Breaking the mould (the aim is to break up established routine thinking and action, to make room for fresh perspectives).

A blended-learning approach is adopted for the continuing education programmes, in which the aim is to impart, in addition to the technical subject matter, key compe- tences such as entrepreneurial responsibility and social, media and methodological competence. A strategic focus is always applied, i.e. the aim is to produce aca- demically based future-oriented knowledge. Ultimately, regionally oriented teach- ing methods play an important role in AutoUni’s fingerprint, based on the premise that it is best to address specific issues in the working places where they play the most important part. This means that individual modules are taught on Group sites outside Germany, which underlines the international orientation of the programmes offered (AutoUni, 2004, p. 16). The teaching staff on the programmes is composed of people from both within and outside the Group, with both academic and non-academic backgrounds. In the academic modules, the ratio of academic to non-academic lecturers is approximately 70/30, while in all other modules it is roughly 50/50. An analysis of the various types of programme shows that 80% of the entire portfolio is non-academic, i.e. the majority of programmes are short (between 1 day and 1 week of face-to-face teaching), in which no credits are earned. Despite this, the continuing education programmes offered by AutoUni definitely manifest great affinity with the academic world. Irrespective of the content offered, this is also due to the fact that such proximity is deliberately marketed as an explicit characteristic of the profile.

2.2.3 How Academic Is Continuing Education in CUs? Essentially, continuing education can be described as academic when the content addresses academic or complex job-related topics and the continuing education is Corporate Universities and Research Associations 331 offered by an academic institution or such an institution is involved in its provision (BMBF, 1989, p. XI). These preconditions are certainly fulfilled in some of the con- tinuing education programmes offered by CUs. Academically qualified and usually well-known experts are engaged as lecturers or trainers, and their intellectual level is appropriate to even the most demanding target groups. Furthermore, the didac- tic quality of the provisions is at least equivalent to that of universities, and often exceeds it. Despite their “affinity with the academic world” in some areas, CUs tend not to see themselves as providers of CHE. Incidentally, this not only applies to the case studies illustrated here, but is also a general characteristic of many CUs (Andresen, 2003, p. 28). The primary objective of most CUs is to impart skills and competences to various employee groups so that they can fulfil their everyday and future responsibilities. As a rule, the content imparted in this way is closely associated with the corporate aims and corporate vision (Andresen, 2003, p. 24). Even if the individual programmes of continuing education have different names and are offered in varying formats, there are some common key features that closely connect all the CUs’ programmes with one another to a greater or lesser extent. These are the particular characteristics of the corporate programmes, which can be described as “relevance to the company”, “action learning” and “learning networks” (see Fig. 3). Relevance to company: CUs’ endeavour to create references to company-specific structures even in the learning process, at the level of individuals or individual groups, to support the subsequent knowledge transfer to the relevant areas of work (Andresen, 2003, p. 29). This can succeed only when the programmes concerned are specially tailored to the intended target group. General management or MBA courses are regarded as insufficiently oriented to specific company needs, which is why CUs make only minimal use of them (only 12% of German CUs use programmes that lead to an academic qualification to train their employees; Wimmer et al., 2002, p. 36). Action learning: the aim is for employees to develop particular skills and compe- tences through the example of a genuine and complex problem within the company,

Action learning 1 PROM 2 IDP 3 JFDP 1 4 Modules / courses of study 23 5 AEP Relevance Learning 6 Events to company 4 5 networks 7 Seminars 67 Fig. 3 Ways of organising learning 332 M. Knust and A. Hanft and to work out a solution to the problem (No author, 2006). Learning is centred on unresolved company-specific problems, which are to be resolved via learning by doing and self-reflection rather than analytically. The aim is for those involved in the solution process to be able to apply a creative and innovative approach to problem-solving (Mergel, 2000, p. 23). This method was employed by Jack Welch (CEO of General Electric – Crotonville) as far back as the middle of the last century. Wimmer et al. established that some 60% of companies currently offer action learn- ing programmes in their CUs (Wimmer et al., 2002, p. 8). Learning networks: internal learning networks, which transcend hierarchical lev- els and work areas, are ideal preconditions for innovative developments both within the company and extending beyond the company, e.g. spin-offs or start-ups (Eglau et al., 2000, p. 204). When asked about the assumed reasons for taking part in their own programmes, 83% of companies reply that the establishment of networks between participants is an important reason (Wimmer et al., 2002, p. 30). Since a teaching process dominated by personal attendance can provide stronger support for networking activities, it is not surprising that, at less than 20%, the average propor- tion of virtualisation within the provisions of German CUs is relatively small (even in an international comparison) (Wimmer et al., 2002, p. 33). On the basis of the two case studies, the programmes offered by each CU were categorised in accordance with these three characteristics by way of example (see Fig. 3). This demonstrates that all the programmes are company-specific, and that the networking aspect is supported by appropriate didactic design. In DCU’s Pro- motion and Individual Development Programmes (Nos. 1 and 2) and AutoUni’s Job Family Development Programmes (No. 3) in particular, the “action learning” char- acteristic is also prominent. This specific design of CU programmes is a fundamental aspect that, from their point of view, illustrates the way in which they differ from university provision. In an empirical survey of personnel responsible for continuing education, human resource development and organisational development in small/medium-sized enter- prises (SMEs) and large companies conducted in 2005,6 more than three-fourths of those surveyed stated that the following were important or very important: relevance to actual cases or problems in the company concerned, direct transfer of learning, a strong thematic emphasis for continuing education, the imparting of up-to-date specialist knowledge, and close alignment of the subject matter to the company. Admittedly, over 70% of respondents also stated that imparting of the latest scien- tific findings was important or very important, yet only 37% of respondents said that the lecturers should be important experts from the academic world – in contrast to experts from the world of practice, who were preferred by more than 70% of respondents (Knust, 2006, p. 127). CUs often associate an academic approach with remoteness from practice, and are therefore ambivalent about it – on the one hand, it is essential for companies to keep up to date with the latest scientific developments,

6This classification is based on the European Commission’s Recommendation concerning the def- inition of micro-, small- and medium-sized enterprises, which came into effect on 1 January 2005. Corporate Universities and Research Associations 333 but, on the other, they attach much greater importance to learning in the specific situations encountered in practice. Continuing higher education tends to have neg- ative connotations, because it is associated with inflexible programmes of no rel- evance to companies. This ambivalence to the academic approach also manifests itself in the reluctance of German companies to adopt the “corporate university” concept – only 34% of the CUs actually use the designation “university”, while the remaining CUs choose other names such as “academy” or “school” (Wimmer et al., 2002, p. 25).

2.3 Co-operation Activities of Corporate Universities

In order to satisfy their interest in continuing education at the highest possible level, CUs have the option of either employing academically qualified in-house or external experts, trainers and consultants, or seeking to co-operate with academic establish- ments, such as universities or research institutions. Thus in the context of this study, the issue of co-operation with such institutions is of particular importance, even if CUs are not operating as providers of continuing higher education. Wimmer et al. (2002, p. 34) established that, essentially, co-operation between companies and universities plays a greater role in Germany than it does in the USA, where freelance trainers and consultants play a much more important part than uni- versities, which are chosen as co-operation partners by only one CU in 20 (CUX, 2002, p. 72). In Germany, 20 of the CUs taking part in the Wimmer et al. study stated that they use German universities as co-operation partners. However, it is clearly apparent in Germany that freelance trainers (35 CUs), business schools (34 CUs) and their own management (32 CUs) are chosen by many more CUs as co- operation partners. When CUs were asked for specific details of their co-operation partners, European business schools and private sector universities were most com- monly cited; the only state university included in the 12 most commonly cited co- operation partners was the University of St. Gallen (six mentions). Overall, INSEAD (12 mentions) and IMD Lausanne (six mentions) were the most frequently cited co- operation partners. Of our case studies, DCU does not currently co-operate with German higher edu- cation institutions, but rather with a small number of renowned business schools operating at international level (see previous section). When selecting suitable co-operation partners, DCU begins by conducting worldwide research into poten- tial suppliers, establishes on the spot how well equipped the facilities are (facul- ties, departments, etc.), and obtains a picture of the professors or academics to be employed by means of individual interviews. As a rule, the process of acquiring a new co-operation partner takes approximately 9 months (Bernd Staudinger, Uwe Steinwender). AutoUni maintains intensive co-operative relationships with several academic institutions (“learning alliances”), with the aim of establishing joint programmes: “We co-operate very closely with five German universities, and we have a model of system suppliers, each of which is thematically based.” Within the framework 334 M. Knust and A. Hanft of these system suppliers, individual modules and services (such as teaching and accreditations7) are exchanged, and new programmes of continuing education are developed on a co-operative basis. Apparently it is possible that in the long term, the courses offered by AutoUni may also be opened up to external customers in the course of these co-operative arrangements: “For the moment we do not plan to change the format; for the moment the course [Sustainable Mobility] is open only to employees of the Volkswagen Group. However, this does not mean that it won’t soon be opened up, because the [co-operation] model provides for reciprocal penetration and opening up” (Walther Zimmerli). Admittedly, a model of this kind calls for further co-operative interconnections between the partner institutions. In addition to the very close co-operative relationships with the system suppli- ers, AutoUni is also endeavouring to build up an extensive co-operation network with other national and international higher education institutions. These are to be selected primarily on the basis of excellence and reputation in the respective spe- cialist field, but also on the basis of regional aspects (Walther Zimmerli, Stefan Wolf). It is said to be a fundamental characteristic of the co-operative relationships that they are initially formalised with the institutions, before individual co-operation agreements with professors ensue. In contrast, co-operative relationships with busi- ness schools are seen as less important. Only from the Group-subsidised busi- ness school GISMA (Hanover) and from CEIBS (Shanghai) are lecturers employed under AutoUni’s continuing education portfolio. Types of co-operation between CUs and higher education or academic institu- tions range from the engagement of individual, often hand-picked, experts (cherry- picking), who bring in the necessary teaching content (courses, modules, etc.), to institutional co-operative arrangements and networks (“learning alliances”), which involve an ongoing transfer of knowledge on the basis of longer-term co-operative relationships. When asked if their CUs enter into learning alliances of this kind, all the companies surveyed in this study answered “yes”. The partners are chosen according to need, but the choice is strongly dependent on content and target group. Figure 4 provides an overview of the fundamental types of external co-operation. In addition to state universities, it also includes other players from the education market to make it clear in which areas other cooperating partners are given prefer- ence over universities. The different shades of grey reflecting the number of individual mentions in the below co-operation matrix (classed as 0–3, 4–7, 8–10 and 11–13 mentions) show clearly that, overall, co-operative activities are focused on the short to longer courses. The columns of the co-operation matrix show the different course formats, namely, in line with the basic grouping of this comparative study, in columns one to three short courses (<40 h or up to 6 days’ workload), longer courses (>40 h or 7 or more days’ workload), and modules or courses of study leading to the award

7The course-based accreditations for the two courses already in place are issued by the cooperating German universities. Corporate Universities and Research Associations 335

Formats Programmes co-operation

Individual short Longer courses Modules or Programmes of Forms of involving action courses and and courses of specific learning (busi- seminars programmes study, leading to relevance to the ness impact Co-operation (up to six days‘ (seven or more the award of company (job- programmes partners workload) days‘ workload) credits based projects) etc.)

Supply chain 3 2 1 3 partners Institutional co-operative relationships Consultancies and training 10 7 6 7 companies Chambers of industry and 3 1 0 1 commerce, associations

Business 6 10 5 7 2 Schools

Private sector 5 6 2 4 0 universities

Public sector 4 4 3 1 1 universities (cherry-picking) (cherry-picking)

Non-university Individual co- relationships

trainers, operative 13 8 8 8 consultants, coaches University lecturers and 10 6 1 3 2 professors

No information 0–3 mentions 4–7 mentions 8–10 mentions 11–13 mentions available

Fig. 4 Matrix of co-operative relationships of credits. The switch to modular study structures makes the latter possible and offers companies interesting prospects of co-operation with universities. Columns four and five illustrate the aspects of action learning and relevance to the company (job-based and value added). Lastly, the column on the far right shows whether the type of co-operation is institutional or individual. Irrespective of format, the CUs answer8 the question about the fundamental nature of the programmes of continuing education as follows:

• they are developed and offered on a needs-oriented basis (14 mentions); • they are specifically aimed at senior management/executives (seven mentions); • some of them are established on an academic basis (six mentions); and • they explicitly do not offer academically based programmes (one mention).

The rows list the various external co-operation partners from the perspective of the CUs. The matrix shows that their co-operation activities focus, first, on free- lance trainers, consultants or coaches (a total of 37 mentions) and, second, on both

8Companies were asked to comment freely on this question. 336 M. Knust and A. Hanft consultancies/training companies and on business schools (a total of 30 mentions for each).9 When CUs were asked which were the most important business schools with which they co-operated, INSEAD, with five mentions, and IMD Lausanne and London Business School with four mentions each stood out. When asked what per- sons they specifically employed as lecturers, CUs answered that, on average,10 the following are employed in the proportions as shown below:

• university lecturers, 13% (minimum 2%, maximum 50%), • business school lecturers, 30% (minimum 1%, maximum 100%), • lecturers from consultancies, 21% (minimum 2%, maximum 70%), • in-house staff, 29% (minimum 5%, maximum 88%), and • “others”,11 7% (minimum 6%, maximum 48%).

With regard to the choice of co-operation partners, the co-operation matrix also shows that state universities achieved only a very small number of mentions (a max- imum of four) in all fields, which indicates that, from the CUs’ point of view, along- side chambers of industry and commerce, associations and supply-chain partners, they either do not show the potential required for the relevant co-operation, or, pos- sibly, are sending out other negative signals. When CUs were asked whether they co-operated with universities in general (including in areas other than those listed in the above co-operation matrix), approximately 29% stated that on principle they did not do so. In the context of our survey, we were particularly interested to learn whether, in the academically based programmes that CUs offered, they tended to co-operate with universities as institutions or primarily with individual teachers via cherry- picking. A brief description of the findings from the co-operation matrix follows:

• In the short individual courses, CUs co-operate most strongly at the level of indi- viduals (and also at institutional level with consultancies), i.e. it is important here for the persons chosen to “fit in” appropriately with the company, insofar as, in addition to appropriate references or a good reputation and the relevant expertise, they must also demonstrate extensive methodological and social competences, specifically for dealing with executives, and an international perspective. In this context, Udo Dierk (formerly of Siemens Management Learning) points out that these are essential characteristics that German university professors are lacking in (quoted as an interviewee in Wimmer et al., 2002, p. 20). Nevertheless, the companies surveyed in this study state that in addition to freelance trainers, con- sultants and coaches, they also co-operate with university lecturers in this area. In

9Multiple mentions could be made throughout the co-operation matrix. All fields in which the company concerned maintained co-operative relationships were to be marked with a cross. 10The average was calculated by totalling the percentages and dividing them by the number of companies responding. 11The majority of the “others” are from training companies. Corporate Universities and Research Associations 337

the case of co-operation with institutions, the focus is on consultancies/training companies and on business schools. • Concerning longer courses and programmes, co-operation activities tend to focus on institutions, and in particular on business schools, with which 10 of the 14 companies responding co-operate. However, co-operation with individu- als also plays an important part in courses of this type. • In the context of programmes leading to the award of credits and full courses of study, we must point out that programmes leading to an academic qualification in particular have very rarely been implemented by the CUs. As we have already mentioned in the previous section, the study by Wimmer et al. (2002) shows that only 12% of CUs offer such programmes in co-operation with a state university. By far, the majority of qualifications are in-house certificates that are issued by 35 of the CUs responding (equivalent to 83%) (Wimmer et al., 2002, p. 36). This shows that although co-operation with state universities takes place in these fields, in comparison with other institutions the universities are brought in as co-operation partners to only a minor extent. It is also apparent from the survey conducted that business schools are more strongly represented as co-operation partners in learning alliances than private and state universities. • Lastly, less co-operation activity is apparent in special action learning and company-specific programmes than in the formats mentioned above. The major- ity of the co-operation activities in these areas takes place with freelance trainers, business schools and consultancies. In these special programmes, CUs give less attention to professors from state universities or to institutional co-operation with state universities.

Overall, it is apparent that although points of contact between state universities and companies do exist, in comparison with other education providers these co-operative relationships are much less intense. Therefore, it was important to find out why CUs regard state universities as such unattractive co-operation partners. Some impres- sions obtained from the interview with DCU have been discussed further. Bernd Staudinger: The approach of upgrading a university into a continuing edu- cation institution may seem appealing at first, but there are problems in putting this into practice for several reasons. “Firstly, the business of ‘continuing educa- tion for executives’ is a different matter from teaching students. Some professors are very good when they are working with students, but not so good when it comes to working with executives, because to do this you need to be familiar with the environment – the company. Secondly, many universities underestimate the effort and time it takes to build up mutual trust, and do not know the processes necessary for developing the co-operation.” Moreover, most universities are not able to guaran- tee a lasting future for the continuing education programmes. This is “because most universities have funding bottlenecks and therefore face problems when they are competing with established players like IMD or INSEAD, which have many years of experience in this area, and have their own experts to design the programmes, their own key accounts and event managers, have global networks, and are in a position to respond flexibly to the company’s requirements.” At international level, German 338 M. Knust and A. Hanft universities are often unable to link up with well-established business schools as regards management training needs. This means that there is no need for CUs to switch from their current co-operation partners (mainly business schools and con- sultants or freelance trainers) to universities. This leads on to the essential competences that institutions and individuals should have if they wish to be valued by CUs as co-operation partners, especially for learn- ing alliances (Wimmer et al., 2002, p. 17):

• the content in which the potential partner is deemed to be an expert must be appropriate to the relevant company; • the potential partner should be in a position to incorporate the necessary interna- tional perspective into his continuing education provision; • the potential partner should be able to demonstrate relevant experience of training and consulting executives; • the potential partner must be capable of fitting in with the corporate culture (the company language, values, standards, etc.); and • he should have appropriate teaching and methodological experience and compe- tences in working with executives.

Overall, the directors of CUs essentially classify German universities as unsuitable co-operation partners. This applies in particular when the services involved come very close to the company’s core strategic processes (Wimmer et al., 2002, p. 19). Interestingly, small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs) award universities very high marks for performance in continuing education of managers. This is appar- ent from a transnational comparative study12 conducted by TU Illmenau/Germany. When enterprises were asked to name their preferred providers for continuing edu- cation programmes, the responses most commonly given (almost 60% of enter- prises) were universities and universities of applied science.13 In second place were private sector education providers (49% of enterprises), and in third place were chambers of industry and commerce, with almost 41% of enterprises. The basic characteristics used by the enterprises in choosing education providers were, first, specialist competence, followed by orientation to practice and up-to-date teaching material (Bielig et al., 2006, p. 19). The following implications for state universities can be derived from the above information:

• Niche strategy – “It is a question of finding a meaningful niche. There is little prospect of success in choosing large companies as co-operation partners that already have their own CUs” (Bernd Staudinger). So universities should look carefully at the target groups and check whether it is large companies or small

12The study was conducted between April and June 2006. A total of 231 enterprises from Germany, Austria, Norway and Poland took part. The largest percentage of enterprises responding was in the service sector, followed by industry and commerce. 13Multiple responses were possible. Corporate Universities and Research Associations 339

or medium-sized enterprises with which they can make progress in terms of strategy. • International perspective – Due to the globalisation and networking that have already long been in place, there are now almost no companies (whatever their size) that are not involved in international competition. So if universities wish companies to consider them as potential co-operation partners, they too must have an international perspective. In this context, Walther Zimmerli says that German universities are only just “slowly waking up to the international aspect and noticing that universities in other countries are taking away all our customers.” • Needs-based approach – When the target group is narrowed down, its needs should be examined. It cannot be assumed that companies will send their employ- ees for outside training unless there is a very clear need for this that can be met by this provision. “Without a ‘teachable moment’ there is no continuing educa- tion” (Bernd Staudinger). So it must be absolutely clear to companies why they should withdraw their employees from the work process, and what additional qualifications they will bring back from their continuing education. The need of globally operating companies for general management courses can be regarded as very limited. “It is not our intention to ‘buy in’ general knowledge from a uni- versity” (Bernd Staudinger). This is particularly the case when academic titles are of less importance to internal promotion than proving one’s worth in spe- cific work situations. On the other hand, there is a need for continuing education programmes specifically attuned to the relevant company that take account of the company’s specific characteristics, such as the suitable format (face-to-face versus distance learning, duration, etc.) or the specific practical circumstances (e.g. special group accounting). This is also confirmed by Walther Zimmerli, who says that this is one of the reasons why he is declining to develop general management courses for an MBA. Similarly, Mario Vaupel (ERGO Management Akademie) is also very sceptical about using general MBAs for management development within a CU (quoted as an interviewee in Wimmer et al., 2002, p. 36). • Centres of excellence – “I would strongly advise against attaching a little ‘contin- uing education unit’ to every large university [...]. Instead, I would recommend creating centres of excellence” (Bernd Staudinger). Universities should establish continuing education only in areas of excellence, which means where they have built up high scientific reputation. • Professionalism – Universities should establish special service and administra- tion units for development and design, acquisition of partners and, above all, for sustained, efficient and effective implementation of continuing education pro- grammes. The nature of the service provided should be made appropriate to the nature of the customers. This means, for example, short response times, great flexibility and competent contact persons, who can communicate on a par with the company officers. • Format – Face-to-face contact in the continuing education programmes is an essential success factor in supporting networking, and the development of trust 340 M. Knust and A. Hanft

and mutual understanding. Of equal importance is the duration of the face-to- face phases, during which employees have to withdraw from the work process. According to Bernd Staudinger, it “[...] is difficult to take someone out of the work process for more than a week. The need for this must be based on a very specific reason.” This means that co-operation between universities and compa- nies in continuing education must be focused on short-term provisions and not long-term courses of study.

3 Research Associations

3.1 Overview

The information that follows is based on the results of research on the Internet and an interview conducted with the Director of Fraunhofer Technology Academy. The aim was to investigate the extent to which major German research associa- tions (RAs) are active in continuing higher education. Our analysis concentrated on the two largest German RAs, namely the Max-Planck-Gesellschaft and the Fraunhofer Gesellschaft; the former specialises in basic research and the latter in applied research. We shall begin this overview with some background information on the two RAs.

3.1.1 Max-Planck-Gesellschaft14 Founded in 1948, the Max-Planck-Gesellschaft (MPG) currently15 maintains 78 research institutes in Germany, which employ a staff of approximately 12,400. Some 4300 of these employees work as scientists. The individual Max-Planck Institutes (MPIs) conduct basic research in three generic sections – the Biology and Medicine Section, the Chemistry, Physics and Technology Section, and the Human Sciences Section, with the last-named section being much smaller than the other two (Wechselwirkungen, 2000, p. 20). With this scientific research, the MPIs supplement the work of universities and other research institutions. Some MPIs also fulfil service functions for university research, by mak- ing facilities, equipment, documentation and specialist libraries available to a wide range of scientists. MPG’s basic research is very much intended for application. MPG regards knowledge and technology transfer to industry and society as an important objec- tive, which was one of the reasons to establish Garching Innovation GmbH in

14Unless otherwise indicated, the information was taken from the association’s website, www.mpg.de. 15As at 1 January 2006. Corporate Universities and Research Associations 341

1970, which is a 100% subsidiary of MPG, and designed to support this technology transfer.

3.1.2 Fraunhofer-Gesellschaft16 The Fraunhofer-Gesellschaft (FhG) conducts applied research. Its contracting part- ners and clients are industrial and service companies as well as public sector organ- isations. FhG is currently divided in more than 80 research institutions; the annual volume of research, currently 1.3 billion euros, is handled by a total of 12,400 scien- tists and engineers, who are usually qualified in the natural or engineering sciences (FhG (Fraunhofer Gesellschaft), 2005, p. 10). FhG is active in various research fields in the area of engineering and natural sciences. The individual research institutions have joined together into a total of seven “alliances”, in order firstly to strengthen their specialised co-operation and, secondly, to be able to offer customers joint coordinated services. The subject areas of the alliances are “information and com- munication technology”, “life sciences”, “microelectronics”, “surface engineering & photonics”, “production”, “materials, components” and “defence and security research” (FhG, 2005, p. 98). In the field of continuing education, innovative know-how has been imparted to skilled workers and executives from industry in the Fraunhofer Technology Academy (FhTA) since September 2006. In addition to continuing higher education (CHE) for this target group, the aim is also to acquire new customers and strengthen customer loyalty, by extending and consolidating contact with these (external) cir- cles via FhTA (FhG, 2005, p. 27). The particular characteristics of this CHE institu- tion will be described in more detail in the next section.

3.2 Continuing Higher Education Offered by Research Associations?

As already mentioned, the two RAs selected offer both basic and applied research. It is thus interesting to see whether and, if so, how this characteristic affects the nature of their activities in continuing higher education. As a result of the Internet search, it can be assumed that the individual continuing education activities of the RAs (MPG, FhG) can be subsumed under the heading of “knowledge transfer”. This knowledge transfer takes place at different levels, depending on the target group. This means that in addition to those programmes that tend to manifest an academic standard and are primarily addressed to a target group with a scientific education, there are also courses and programmes that impart their content in a different form, not previously addressed, and which are aimed at a target group with little or no prior scientific qualification.

16Unless otherwise indicated, the information was taken from the association’s website, www.fraunhofer.de. 342 M. Knust and A. Hanft

Fig. 5 Knowledge transfer by research associations Publications Scientific Fostering the next Partner programmes Community generation of scientists Recruitment of the next generation of scientists

Events

Partners from Science and technology industry and the transfer, recruitment of service sector the next generation of scientists

Events General public, PUR and PUSH, children and recruitment of the next young people generation of scientists

In-house External

We have divided the provisions into several clusters to distinguish the various types of knowledge transfer in a structured way. These clusters are built up by the target groups and the provisions are offered in-house or externally. Figure 5 offers a kind of overview and serves as a framework for the information provided. To this end, the fields with grey shading are presented from left to right and from bottom to top (unless otherwise indicated, the contents were taken from www.mpg.de and www.Fraunhofer.de).

3.2.1 Promotion of Young Scientists/Junior Researchers MPG According to MPG’s self-description, the individual is the most important mechanism in knowledge transfer. Some 9100 doctoral students, post-doctoral stu- dents, visiting scientists and student assistants work in the MPIs. This large number of young scientists shows clearly that promotion of this target group constitutes one of MPG’s core tasks. This leads to some 700 dissertations a year, and, between 1990 and 2000, 573 postdoctoral researchers were qualified by MPG in co-operation with the relevant universities, of whom 253 have obtained a C4 chair and 186 a C3 chair (Wechselwirkungen, 2000, p. 55). To support young scientists accordingly, special programmes were developed, each of which is aimed at a separate target group:

• Doctoral candidates are prepared for the relevant examination in various Interna- tional Max-Planck Research Schools (IMPRSs). In 2005, more than 1700 doc- toral students were working in the 43 interdisciplinary graduate schools in which 54 MPIs are involved. Twenty-two of the graduate schools operate in the field of chemistry, physics and technology, 14 in biology and medicine, and seven in the humanities (MPG (Max Planck Gesellschaft), 2005, p. 41). The funda- mental design of these research schools is coordinated with the Association of Corporate Universities and Research Associations 343

Universities and other Higher Education Institutions in Germany (Hochschulrek- torenkonferenz), but otherwise there are no centrally decreed structures so that specific needs of the various subject areas, locations, and selected forms of co- operation (e.g. with universities outside Germany) can be respected. The focus of the IMPRSs is, firstly, on coordination of training of doctoral students with the various partner universities, and, secondly, on intensive support from repre- sentatives of the relevant graduate schools (MPG, 2004, p. 33). • Young scientists of the next generation aiming at a scientific career in research or at university are prepared for leading scientific positions in independent “next- generation” groups. On the basis of a particular budget, these young scientists undergo a phase (usually 5 years) of independent research activity, in order to create a basis for beginning a career as a scientist. In 2005, there were 46 independent and seven international “next-generation” groups (MPG, 2005, p. 39).

FhG Similarly to MPG, FhG offers the option of preparing theses, dissertations and postdoctoral lecturing qualifications in co-operation with the relevant universities. In this context, some 100 employees a year in FhG’s institutes complete their PhDs. However, in order to provide adequate incentives for in-house groups who are not aiming to become PhDs or professors, under the heading of human resource devel- opment various continuing education programmes are offered, ranging from courses to develop specialised competences via human resource-development seminars to courses lasting several days, which serve to develop management skills (FhG, 2004, p. 6). One element in these continuing education programmes is a knowledge portal, which can be accessed at www.wissen.fraunhofer.de. Under the label “Fraunhofer eQualification”, this portal offers, on the one hand, e-learning-based learning content in the subject areas of “printing and media”, “e-learning”, “electrical engineering”, “craft, industry, engineering in general”, “information technology” and “mechanical and plant engineering”, both to in-house employees and to outside groups. On the other hand, the knowledge portal also contains information on “technologies” and “services”, and provides information on whom to contact in the FhG with particular questions. Moreover, under the heading of “specialised knowl- edge”, databases are offered on subjects such as “planning and construction” and “lasers”, which indicate appropriate specialised books on the subjects concerned or offer direct information from the relevant institutes. Lastly, a learning platform offers a selection of seminars and courses (for the most part very much oriented to practice and non-academic), which can be accessed by individuals both within and outside FhG, following a registration procedure involving tuition payment. Another element is Fraunhofer Technology Academy (FhTA). However, since this organisational unit was not primarily established for the purpose of in-house management development – its programmes essentially set out to address an external target group (Gotter,¨ 2006, p. 86) – this continuing education facility will be covered later under the heading of “Science and technology transfer and recruitment of the next generation”. 344 M. Knust and A. Hanft

3.2.2 Public Understanding of Research (PUR), Public Understanding of Science and Humanities (PUSH) and Recruitment of the Next Generation of Scientists The types of knowledge transfer in PUR and PUSH programmes are primarily addressed to a general public with little or no prior scientific qualification. They aim to foster an understanding of research activities and their findings (Lederbogen, 2004, p. 271):

• PUR sets out to illustrate the process of ongoing insights as they gradually evolve. It involves discussing with the general public the possible applications that ensue from research findings. To make it possible to enter into dialogue with the public, research findings need to be disseminated via as many channels as possible, including, in particular, non-scientific channels such as television, the Internet, exhibitions and radio broadcasts. Along the way, it is important openly to address not only the new and positive aspects of the insights, but also any dif- fering views arising among individual researchers, together with any setbacks, in order to develop trust and understanding for the sometimes long duration of research projects. The public should also be included in discussions on, for exam- ple, ethical, social and political implications ensuing from research findings. • In PUSH, research findings already established and the scientists involved are presented to an interested public that has little or no prior scientific qualification. This is usually done through exhibitions or other media channels. Even if the research process is also presented alongside the findings, this is often done in a simplified form, merely looking back over it. It does not include explanation of setbacks or varying, possibly contradictory, views among different researchers, but instead the scientific discoveries are described as a well-defined and linear process.

In 1999, Wissenschaft im Dialog (WiD) GmbH was founded in Berlin on the ini- tiative of the Stifterverband fur¨ die Deutsche Wissenschaft as a project of the major German scientific organisations, including MPG and FhG. The aim of this com- pany is to intensify communication between science and all other groups in society (www.wissenschaft-im-dialog.de). It sets out to explain research projects and find- ings in a way that everyone can understand, to remove the general public’s fear of contact with this world, to bring science alive, to discuss controversial research topics with the public, and to draw the attention of interested persons in the up-and- coming generation to relevant career opportunities. The aim is to open up science’s “ivory tower” to the public, and so efforts are made to draw children and young people, citizens, policy-makers and leading figures in the economy and the world of culture, students, journalists, teachers and schoolchildren into discussion. The public at large are approached in a variety of ways. In addition to appro- priately edited research findings, which are made available on the Internet, a calen- dar of events is also offered on-line. Each day it bundles together all events and TV programmes on various scientific topics throughout Germany (Wissenschaft Corporate Universities and Research Associations 345 horen-sehen-erleben).¨ WiD GmbH also organises an annual “summer of science” at different locations. This series of events, which normally lasts one week, pro- vides answers to the widest possible range of questions by means of exhibitions, symposia, talk shows and cultural events, the aim of which is to talk directly to the public. Moreover, during the “Long night of science”, the laboratories and institutes of the research facilities involved are open to the general public. MPG In addition to taking part in the WiD project, every year the MPIs organise many public events (readings, exhibitions, conferences, meetings, etc.) addressed to interested members of the public. These events are advertised both on the websites of the MPIs and on that of MPG. Depending on the type of event, a distinction is made between those aimed at the public, with little or no scientific qualifica- tion, and those intended rather for an appropriate specialist public or industrial partner companies. Admittedly this distinction is not always feasible, as is made clear in Fig. 5 by the “Events” heading shown between the fields (some of these events could also be allocated to other clusters in the diagram). Topics primar- ily aimed at a general public with little or no scientific qualification include, for example:

• the relationship between the nobility and monasteries in the Middle Ages, • picture stories – illustrations of Italian chronicles in the local environment, • series of historical biographical readings, • traditions and perspectives of the study of cultural values, • Albert Einstein – engineer of the universe, • scientific illustrations, • science tunnel, and • space news.

In addition to these events, multimedia information is provided on MPG’s website. Information of this kind include, for example, scientific images or films presenting scientific documentation and research findings from various projects in a way that is easy to understand. Equivalent publications specifically addressed to a scientifically untrained public, such as the Max-Planck Forschung journal, reports on the scientific work of the MPIs in a generally comprehensible way. A particular target group comprises teachers and schoolchildren with a special interest in biology, geology or technology. They can download suitably edited publications from MPG’s website for use in class. In this way, MPG reaches a very young target group via knowledge transfer. FhG Every year, similarly to MPG, the Fraunhofer Institutes (FhIs) organise a series of public events aimed at the public. However, the topics tend to be geared to a rather specialist public, which is why examples of these events will not be given until the next cluster. In FhG’s view, the seeds of an occupational orientation are often sown dur- ing schooling, and so FhG is particularly concerned to offer an early introduc- tion to the scientific work of the institutes to technically or scientifically minded schoolchildren. In this context, we would begin by mentioning the TheoPrax net- 346 M. Knust and A. Hanft work (www.theo-prax.de), in which 40 professors, 60 schools providing a general or vocational education, over 60 companies and many associations and local author- ities work together to foster the next generation of technologists and scientists, and to combine their (theoretical) training with appropriate practical knowledge (FhG, 2004, p. 6). Moreover, the Deutsche JuniorAkademien and the Fraunhofer Talent School, which was held for the first time in 2006, constitute out-of-school pro- grammes designed to recruit the next generation of scientists and offered to highly gifted schoolchildren at Secondary Level I. These programmes focus on particu- lar specialised subject areas during the summer holidays, and enable Fraunhofer’s executives to establish initial contact with young researchers. Lastly, up-to-date research findings are made available to the public at large in the Fraunhofer Magazine and various brochures covering specific topics.

3.2.3 Science and Technology Transfer and Recruitment of the Next Generation of Scientists MPG. As already mentioned, in hiving off Garching Innovation GmbH, MPG has created an institution that serves as an intermediary between science and industry. On the one hand, it is responsible for conveying inventions and developments from the MPIs to industrial application and organising this transfer, and, on the other, it advises MPIs on all industrial property rights issues and carries out appropriate patent searches. It also advises MPG in all instances of scientific co-operation and provides support for the establishment of companies based on the MPIs’ technolo- gies (MPG, 2005, p. 21). A total of 6817 companies have been hived off from MPG since 1990, with active support provided by Garching Innovation GmbH for three quarters of the successfully financed hived-off companies. By the end of 2001, more than 2400 jobs had been created as a result of this (MPG, 2001, p. 43). FhG. FhG supports science and technology transfer in four complementary ways (Gotter,¨ 2006, p. 86):

• Commissioned research – in direct contact with the relevant clients, FhG devel- ops products and processes to the point where they are ready for application. Specific competences are developed by means of intensive co-operation between FhG’s individual institutes and the relevant industrial partner companies. • Hiving off of companies from FhG’s individual institutes – it is not uncommon for Fraunhofer employees to become self-employed on the basis of know-how acquired in the FhIs, and to establish companies. These company start-ups are given active support by FhG’s Munich-based Venture Group, which has a net- work of contacts with corporate consultants, accountants, auditors and public

17This figure ensues from an analysis of the annual reports for 2001–2005, which can be found on MPG’s website at www.mpg.de/bilderBerichteDokumente/dokumentation/jahresbericht/ index.html. Corporate Universities and Research Associations 347

and private sector holding companies, particularly in the start-up phase (FhG, 2004, p. 21). • Training of researchers – FhG sees itself as a bridge between science and indus- try, which means that even its relatively high staff turnover18 is not a problem, but instead a highly desirable state of affairs. This is because the move by well- qualified scientists from research to working in industry accords with FhG’s fun- damental mandate (FhG, 2004, p. 6). • Provision of programmes of continuing education to (potential) industrial partner companies. To ensure that SMEs without a research department of their own also have an opportunity to participate in new research findings, the institutes of FhG offer many continuing education programmes based on their research findings. In this context, Fraunhofer Technology Academy (FhTA) takes a particular path, which will be described in more detail further because of its specific mission.

With regard to the fundamental mission of FhTA (www.technology-academy.de), Roman Gotter¨ says, “Our guiding philosophy is to combine with the best partners as far as possible, to create genuinely special provision. It is not, however, our inten- tion simply to give something the green light on a franchise basis.” Within the framework of FhTA, FhG offers special academically oriented programmes only in subject areas in which FhG’s institutes lead the field. This currently means, in particular, subjects in the fields of technology management, logistics and the envi- ronmental sciences (Gotter,¨ 2006, p. 87). FhTA’s programmes are explicitly addressed to external executives (and only exceptionally to in-house executives) in industry and research. Participants, who emanate primarily from (potential) industrial partner companies, obtain, in co- operation with German and European universities, academic qualifications and pro- fessional certificates in technological and management fields. In both the certificate courses and the Master’s programmes,19 not only the initial idea but also the plan- ning, design and establishment ensue by way of co-operation between the directors of FhG’s institutes and the relevant universities, in which these directors usually hold a chair. At least 50% of the teaching staff in the individual programmes are usually scientific staff and/or professors from the FhIs. The aim of this is to ensure both that the content of FhG’s research interests and findings are incorporated and that an appropriate academic standard is achieved (Roman Gotter).¨ According to the interview with Roman Gotter,¨ FhTA is intended to strengthen the position of the overall “Fraunhofer” trademark in the continuing education landscape. FhTA was set up as a service centre for the FhIs, first to promote the development of more continuing education programmes and to support improved utilisation of their capacity by making them more visible on the market. Sec-

18The turnover rate for scientific staff in contract research is approximately 10% (FhG, 2004, p. 16). 19These Master’s programmes are an Executive MBA for technology managers, a Master of Environmental Sciences and a Master in Logistic Engineering, which are offered by FhTA (www.technology-academy.de). 348 M. Knust and A. Hanft ond, it takes on key tasks and services for the FhIs, such as marketing, quality assurance, acquisition and administration of participants, data management, course admission, alumni work, development of business models (standardisation of the individual institutes’ pricing), and co-ordination with partners. The aim is to offer the larger-scale20 and specifically degree-oriented programmes centrally through FhTA. The FhIs will continue to offer the events/programmes that they have offered hitherto on a decentralised basis. This geographical proximity to the institutes ensures that they remain close to practice. However, there are great variations in the target groups addressed and the frequency of provision. They are usually aimed either at a scientifically qualified public and/or partners from industry, or specifically at the scientific community:

• The majority of the events that tend to be addressed to a scientifically qualified public and/or industrial partner companies are specialist conferences, workshops, trade fairs or exhibitions. One example of these events is the “industrial summit” offered by FhG’s “information and communications technology” alliance. In this summit, leading representatives of industry and IT decision-makers from SMEs come together with experts from applied IT-research to exchange experiences of practice and research.21 • Highly academic events addressed more to members of the scientific commu- nity include colloquia or scientific talks, which are developed jointly with co- operating universities and led by professors. Some of these colloquia/scientific talks are listed below by way of example. They were offered jointly by the Fraun- hofer Institute for Experimental Software Engineering (IESE) and the Informa- tion Technology Department of the TU of Kaiserslautern/Germany: – Software Productivity Measurement and Modelling, – Predicting Value from Design, – Terminals and Infrastructures for Ubiquitous Computing, – Software Architectures for Software Agents and Mobile Robots, – Sequence-based Specification – a Way to Create Consistent Specifications from Informal Requirements.

3.2.4 Publications, Partner Programmes and Recruitment of the Next Generation of Scientists MPG According to MPG, its staff publish more than 12,500 scientific articles a year in renowned national and international specialist journals (such as Nature and

20Here, “larger-scale” means greater volume of finance and/or greater numbers of participants. 21In addition to FhG’s “information and communication technology” alliance, these industrial summits are co-organised by the National Association of German Industry (BDI) and the National Association of the German Information Technology Industry, Telecommunications and New Media (BITKOM) (www.iuk.fraunhofer.de/index2.html?Dok˙ID=111&Sp=1). Corporate Universities and Research Associations 349

Science), databases, specialist books and reference works. Moreover, the MPIs also produce regular research reports that provide an up-to-date weekly overview of new specialist publications in an on-line database.22 Interested scientists (both in-house and externally) can obtain an overview of the current state of the art in a particular subject area by calling up details of published articles on the basis of self-selected keywords, including full reference details (title, author, description of contents, ISSN number, etc.) in a database run by GWDG.23 The relevant yearbooks contain consolidated reports of their own publications; they also contain selected research findings, suitably edited. MPG also addresses a scientifically qualified target group in the shape of stu- dents, with a view to external recruitment of the next generation of scientists, by means of summer schools with topic-based programmes. These programmes are offered at irregular intervals by the MPIs (often in direct co-operation with univer- sities). In addition to this, at the beginning of 2006 MPG also worked with a total of 31 partner groups established with partners in Central Europe, India, China and Argentina with a view to developing and consolidating co-operative relationships between the individual MPIs and research facilities in other countries. In these part- ner groups, (guest) scientists work together in transnational projects. The partner groups, which receive financial support from MPG and are in each case established for a limited term (usually 3 years), are assisted by a scientific advisory council with representatives of both partners, which decides on any possible extension of the co-operation. FhG FhG offers the scientific community information on new specialist publica- tions, studies and interdisciplinary bibliographical publications that can be accessed or ordered on the FhG’s website. In Fraunhofer-Publica,24 a database of publica- tions, it documents publications of all kinds, such as essays, conference presenta- tions and papers, research reports, studies, university papers, patents and electronic publications ensuing from the research activities of the FhIs. In addition, FhG attaches great importance to co-operation with external scien- tists and research facilities. The directors of FhG’s institutes usually also hold a chair at a university. Many heads of departments also teach at universities and are thus involved in student education. This enables students to make contact with pro- fessional scientific practice even before they complete their studies. Appropriate courses are offered to some 4000 scientific assistants and trainees. Moreover, this group usually works on suitable industrial projects in co-operation with scientists within FhG (FhG, 2004, p. 5).

22Current Contents ConnectR , Institute for Scientific Information in Philadelphia, USA. This database is available at www.isinet.com. 23This database is available at http://ovid.gwdg.de/ovid-bin/ovidweb.cgi?T=JS&ID=max&; PASSWORD=planck&MODE=ovid&NEWS=N&PAGE=main&D=MPRR. 24This database is available at http://publica.fraunhofer.de/starweb/publica/indx.htm. 350 M. Knust and A. Hanft

To summarise, it can be stated that both research associations transfer knowl- edge from the research institutes to society in all the grey-shaded clusters in Fig. 5. There are, however, clear differences between them. For example, it is obvious that, with its IMPRSs and the independent “next-generation” groups, MPG specifically attaches importance to promoting young scientists/junior researchers in a structured fashion. On the other hand, with its knowledge portals, specific staff development programmes and learning platform, FhG also offers appropriate support mecha- nisms, but they are not focused exclusively on scientific staff. In the area of knowledge transfer to the general public, these associations focus- ing on both basic and applied research offer appropriate events, programmes or opportunities to acquire knowledge (e.g. via the website of the association con- cerned). The fact that MPG offers multimedia information (images, films, publica- tions, etc.) and organises a large number of events addressed to a general public with little or no scientific training means that this research association conducting basic research strongly supports the PUSH aspect. Both associations also adopt appropri- ate PUR-strategies to target a very young group of future scientists with appropriate publications, networks and academies. Science and technology transfer is an essential activity for associations focus- ing on both basic and applied research, in order to transfer knowledge. In addition to individual events, with Garching Innovation GmbH, MPG also goes down the hiving-off path in order to convey its own knowledge to industry. FhG takes several paths to this goal, with commissioned research, hiving off, training of researchers who, after leaving FhG, often settle down in industrial partner companies, and con- tinuing education. This underlines the great importance it attaches to this business area. Both research associations focus on disseminating their research findings by pub- lishing them in appropriate specialist journals or in specialist books. They also use databases to provide access to published articles on particular topics in order to record the state of the art. Lastly, consolidated reports provide a general overview of the relevant research findings for a particular period. Naturally, however, MPG, as an association dedicated to basic research, goes further down the path of publication.

3.3 Co-operation Activities of Research Associations

The co-operation activities of RAs vis-a-vis` other private and public sector institu- tions vary depending on the focus of the knowledge transfer. Since the events and programmes offered are different in nature from those offered by higher education institutions and corporate universities, which were described in previous sections and national studies, it is not very meaningful to classify them as short-term/long- term programmes, or in terms of whether or not they lead to a degree. Therefore the information that follows is based on the clusters presented in the previous section. We must start by saying that a system of dual appointments and close links – particularly with the universities’ research fields – plays an important part in all the clusters of knowledge transfer. In this system, scientists from the vari- Corporate Universities and Research Associations 351 ous research institutes are at the same time a head of department and a university professor. For the promotion of young scientists/junior researchers, there are special institutionalised co-operative links between the RAs and the universities, one reason for this being the need to be able to implement appropriate procedures to award doc- toral and postdoctoral degrees and titles. However, co-operative relationships with universities exist not only in the scientific field, but also in relation to the infras- tructure. In addition to offering them financial aid, the various types of co-operation also give the universities more direct access to the specific research facilities, thus enriching their own research findings and their teaching, in the course of which the latest research findings are disseminated. In return, the research institutes obtain improved access to the next generation of highly qualified scientists. In 2000, there were 23 C4 and eight C3 dual appointments between the MPIs and the universities, representing 9% of all newly appointed directors. Furthermore, another 124 (C4)/63 (C3) scientists held honorary chairs in the universities, with some 50% of these honorary chairs being located in physics/chemistry departments in each case (Wechselwirkungen, 2000, p. 27). In addition to this, one in seven courses is offered in co-operation between the MPIs and the respective universi- ties. In these (essentially basic) courses, the involvement of Max-Planck scientists extends to more than 1200 h per week of the semester of readings, seminars and workshops (Wechselwirkungen, 2000, p. 53). FhG currently has approximately 80 research institutions, just under three- fourths of which are organised as research institutes (58 institutes). “Almost all of these are headed by professors with corresponding university links” (Roman Gotter).¨ In other words, the system of dual appointments is used as an opportu- nity for co-operation with universities by associations focusing on both basic and applied research. In the cluster representing the imparting of scientific findings to a general pub- lic with little or no scientific qualification, i.e. PUR- and PUSH-programmes, the research associations often co-operate with corresponding institutions from the (education) policy field, such as the Association of Universities and other Higher Education Institutions in Germany (HRK), and with associations, such as the Stifter- verband fur¨ die Deutsche Wissenschaft or chambers of industry and commerce, and with other research associations. On the other hand, in the area of science and technology transfer, co-operation tends to focus on the private sector. One example is at institutional level, when employees of the various research institutions become self-employed and, if appro- priate, co-operation agreements are formalised between the RA and the hived-off businesses. Another is the co-operative links that tend to occur at the level of the individual, when, following the relevant training phase, employees leave the research institutions to take up employment in the private sector. Another example that tends to occur at the level of the individual is knowledge transfer via appropriate events and programmes of continuing education. Lastly, in the publications cluster, i.e. in the context of information provision and the exchange of information with the scientific community, co-operation tends to take place within the relevant RA. In this context, individual institutes join together 352 M. Knust and A. Hanft to form subject-based alliances, and work jointly on the relevant publications and projects (e.g. MPG’s partner programmes and FhG’s research alliances).

4 Final Summary

The findings from this part of the study, which specifically addresses continuing education of an academic level offered outside universities, in this case by CUs or RAs, indicate that such programmes do exist. They also show, however, that they differ quite obviously, in terms of their nature, the teaching staff employed and the target groups addressed, from the programmes offered by universities. The fundamental characteristics of corporate universities’ continuing education programmes are, first, their relevance to the company, and their emphasis on action learning and internal learning networks. The second fundamental characteristic is their ambivalent attitude to the subject of whether the programmes are academic in nature. The didactic quality and the complexity of the learning content imparted certainly do correspond to the standard of the programmes offered by universities, but when CUs are asked whether they see themselves as providing CHE, generally speaking, they tend to deny this, since a lack of relevance to the company and of action learning is often associated with academic continuing education. CUs maintain co-operative relationships with other education providers and play- ers in education, both at institutional level and at the level of individuals. The lec- turers conveying the learning content, which is in some cases very complex and demanding, are renowned experts, most of whom come from the world of practice or from consultancies or business schools. It is noteworthy that professors from private and state universities are, in comparison, employed as lecturers to a much smaller extent. It is clear that CUs in principle tend to regard them as unsuitable, particularly when it comes to imparting content very closely associated with company-specific core processes. However, the attitude of SMEs to this is completely different, since a transnational comparative study awarded higher education institutions high marks for continuing education of managers. CUs impose a series of specific competences as essential criteria in selecting both institutions and individuals to be co-operation partners in their various programmes of continuing education. These include:

• an appropriate fit with the company in terms of content, culture and language; • an appropriate international perspective in their own professional experience and teaching content; • appropriate experience in working with executives; and • appropriate teaching and methodological competences.

Finally, the following implications were derived from the findings compiled:

• state universities should concentrate more on a niche strategy, focusing specifi- cally on companies that have not yet established their own CU; Corporate Universities and Research Associations 353

• they should promote more strongly the intensity of the international perspective of learning content; • they should design needs-based continuing education programmes in close co- operation with the relevant companies; • they should offer CHE only in subject areas in which they have established an appropriate reputation; • they must establish professional structures within the university as an organisa- tional unit to support sustainable provision and to meet the companies’ specific needs for services; and • when co-operating with private sector companies, they should concentrate less on full courses of study and more on short and modular programmes.

It is a fundamental characteristic of CHE provisions offered by RAs that they tend not to involve the formats usually offered by universities, such as courses of study or modular courses (which account for only a very small proportion of the provi- sions), but instead to constitute continuing education options that can be subsumed under the heading of knowledge transfer. By promoting young scientists/junior researchers, they specifically address an internal target group. However, with PUR and PUSH programmes, various events, science and technology transfer, and publi- cations and partner programmes, the RAs specifically address various external target groups, ranging from the general public with little or no scientific qualification to partners from the private sector and to the scientific community. Where these continuing education options are concerned, co-operative relation- ships with universities are usually governed by dual appointments, in which an institute director is at the same time a university professor. RAs do indeed regard universities as very important partners in this context, not least in terms of the con- tinuing education of their own up-and-coming scientists through doctoral and post- doctoral programmes. However, other institutions also play an important role. The institutions involved in PUR and PUSH events often come from the field of edu- cation policy or from chambers of industry and commerce and associations. The partners involved in science and technology transfer tend to come from the private sector. We would conclude by saying that an international comparative study that did not extend the field of the investigation to continuing education outside higher educa- tion institutions would fail to record major academic continuing education activities. Special corporate programmes, examples of which were cited in the preceding sec- tions, have already been included for many years in country-specific interpretations of continuing higher education or continuing education of non-traditional students in other countries in the comparative study, such as the USA, Finland, France and the UK. In this context, the distinction made in Germany between the corporate field or the field of knowledge transfer and the continuing education field, which is covered by universities, is a particular country-specific characteristic, which goes back to, among other things, the history of academic and vocational education and continuing education (e.g. the division of responsibility for academic and vocational education and continuing education between the university system and the system 354 M. Knust and A. Hanft of dual vocational training, delayed assumption of responsibility for continuing edu- cation under the official remit of universities, and so on).

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Useful Websites www.fraunhofer.de www.iuk.fraunhofer.de/index2.html?Dok ID=111&Sp=1 www.mpg.de www.mpg.de/bilderBerichteDokumente/dokumentation/jahresbericht/index.html www.technology-academy.de www.theo-prax.de www.wissenschaft-im-dialog.de Author Index

Note: The letter ‘n’ followed by locators refers to notes.

A E Andresen, M., 325, 326, 331 Edelson, P., 291, 293, 299, 305 AutoUni, 329, 330 Edwards, R., 222 Eglau, H., 332 B Engblom, T., 149, 156, 157, 158 Bade-Becker, U., 71–139 Eurydice, 164, 167, 178 Bailey, T., 308 Becher, T., 8 n.2 F Bekhradnia, B., 222 Fahle, K., 9 Berlin-Kommuniqu´e, 87 Faulstich, P., 71–139 Bielig, A., 338 Feutrie, M., 177, 187, 206, 209 Bildungsberichterstattung, K., 75, 82, 110 Field, J., 220, 297 Bohn, I., 147 Filla, W., 253 n.8 Bourgeois, E., 24 Filloque, J. M., 176, 185 Bournazel, A., 176, 177, 187 Fischer, M., 83 n.1 Bowen, H., 293 Fr¨ohlich, W., 98, 100 Bredl, K., 84, 96, 97, 98, 108 Breneman, D., 293 G Brennan, M., 160, 161 Geldermann, B., 215–245 Bruhn, M., 64 Glaser, B., 22 Bundestag, D., 76 n.5 Glotz, P., 326 Gorys, B., 71–139 C G¨otter, R., 343, 346, 347, 351 Cendon, E., 247–284 Graeßner, G., 71–139 Cervero, R., 62, 291, 319 Grille, J., 185, 186, 197, 199, 201 Cohen, M., 298 Grubb, W., 308 Collins, M., 297 Corbin, J., 21 H Haapanen, E., 156, 159, 168 D Hagenhoff, S., 115 Davis, P., 8 n.2 H¨am¨al¨ainen, K., 150, 159, 162, 163, 166, Deiser, R., 325 171, 172 Denantes, J., 188 Hanf, G., 9 Dennery, M., 179 Hanft, A., 1–13, 15–22, 23–67, 323–354 Doane, D., 289 Harmon, R., 308 Domsch, M., 325, 326 Hellbom, K., 146, 149, 167, 169 Dunkel, T., 175–211 Henkel, M., 217, 229

M. Knust, A. Hanft (eds.), Continuing Higher Education and Lifelong Learning, 357 DOI 10.1007/978-1-4020-9676-1 BM2, C Springer Science+Business Media B.V. 2009 358 Author Index

Herm, B., 92 M¨uskens, W., 15–68, 149 Hetmeier, H.-W., 76 n.4 Myllym¨aki, H.-R., 161, 167, 169, 171 Heuser, M., 325 O Osborne, M., 25, 39, 146, 161, 168, 216, 217, J 218, 226, 227, 231, 233, 234 Jacks, L., 298 Otto, E., 169 Jarvis, P., 146 Jary, D., 222, 225 P Jeljoul, M., 186 Parjanen, L., 157, 161 J¨utte, W., 98, 100 Patterson, W., 315, 316 Pechar, H., 36 K Pellert, A., 247–284 Kirp, D., 293 Pl¨unnecke, A., 75 Klemm, K., 76 n.5 Pusser, B., 34, 289, 294, 311, 315, 316 Knust, M., 23–68, 115, 323–354 Kodron, C., 5 R Kogan, M., 217, 218 Rachal, J., 298 Kohl, K., 289 Reith, A., 145–173 Koss-Feder, L., 319 R¨obken, H., 287–321 Rodrigues, M., 169

L S LaPidus, J., 298, 307, 308 Schade, S., 215–245 Lapiner, R., 292 Sch¨afer, E., 92, 93 Lassnigg, L., 256 Schuetze, H. G., 86 Layer, G., 218 Schuetze, H., 36 Le Mouillour, I., 175–212 Schwertfeger, B., 326 n.3 Le Roux, A., 189 Seufert, S., 326 Lederbogen, U., 344 Sheets, T., 291 Lopez-Claros, A., 31, 32, 151, 152 Shepherd, J., 239 L¨uthje, J., 36 Shostack, L., 64 Stauss, B., 325 Stettes, O., 75 M Stokes, P., 290 Maassen, O., 169 Strauss, A., 21, 22 MacAllum, K., 308 MacLeod, D., 239 T Maehl, W., 31, 293, 297 Taylor, R., 146, 216, 220 Malan, T., 189 Teichler, U., 1–13 Mallet, D., 190 Tight, M., 25 Manninen, J., 26 n.2, 149, 150, 156, 157, 158 Tiihonen, P., 172 March, J., 72, 73, 147, 152, 187, 199, 298 Timmermann, D., 86 Markkula, M., 60 Todd, S., 326 Maurer, C., 291 Tuomi, O., 146 Mayring, P., 21 Tuomisto, J., 156 Meffert, H., 64 Meister, J., 324, 325, 327 U Mergel, I., 332 Unger, M., 256 Mestm¨acker, E., 78 Milam, J., 308, 309 V Minks, K.-H., 75, 83 Veelken, W., 78 M¨unch, J., 326 Vespermann, P., 129 Author Index 359

W Witte, J., 169 Watson, D., 223 Wolter, A., 36, 84, 85, 88, 92, 253 Waxenegger, A., 260 Wechselwirkungen, 340, 342, 351 Willich, J., 75, 82, 83 Wimmer, R., 325, 326, 331, 332, 333, 336, Z 337, 338, 339 Zawacki-Richter, O., 145–173 Subject Index

A 188, 190, 219, 221, 226, 253, 257, 283, Academic centre, 41, 310 299, 300 Academic orientation, 118, 119, 243, 307 Academic qualification, 27, 28, 30, 35, 37, 41, B 55, 58, 120, 131, 181, 218, 228, 230, Baccalaureate Colleges, 28, 34, 292 300, 306, 308, 314, 317, 331, 337, 347 Benchmarking, 46, 302 Academic staff, 10, 11, 38, 39, 58, 65, 74, 89, Blended learning, 60, 61, 114, 115, 130, 228, 96, 97, 111, 120, 146, 162, 211, 229, 243, 274, 278, 308, 311 230, 261, 262, 263, 271 Bologna process, 133, 169, 258 Access, 19, 24, 25, 29, 33, 34, 35, 36, 37, 39, Business area(s), 50, 51, 242 42, 46, 54, 55, 56, 57, 61, 75, 80, 84, Business school, 56, 66, 97, 136, 137, 138, 87, 92, 108, 121, 122, 127, 147, 151, 260, 261, 292, 352 152, 154, 161, 163, 177, 187, 204, 208, 210, 218, 220, 221, 224, 227, 229, 238, 240, 256, 257, 272, 275, 276, 279, 311, C 313, 320, 326, 343, 349, 350, 351 Cash cow, 45, 169, 283, 305 Accreditation, 3, 9, 11, 31, 33, 45, 46, 53, 56, Centralisation, 45, 65, 191, 227 79, 80, 98, 99, 100, 109, 110, 115, 126, Centrally organised, 95 128, 129, 138, 164, 194, 201, 218, 237, Centre for Continuing Education (CCE), 26, 263, 265, 277 39, 42, 51, 147, 150, 160, 162, 163, Accreditation of prior experiential learning 164, 169, 172, 173, 216, 236 (APEL), 237 Certificate(s), 8, 10, 28, 29, 30, 37, 41, 45, 55, Action learning, 331, 332, 335, 337, 352 57, 61, 73, 81, 107, 108, 109, 110, 112, 121, 122, 123, 133, 137, 148, 159, 176, Adult education, 8, 24, 149, 179, 289, 298 178, 179, 180, 181, 183, 185, 194, 202, Adult learners, 3, 8, 9, 11, 12 233, 241, 249, 256, 258, 290, 293, 296, Ageing population, 30, 32, 151, 222, 296 300, 302, 303, 304, 306, 307, 309, 310, Agreements on objectives, 51, 52, 64, 66 312, 313, 314, 316, 317, 320, 337, 347 Alumni, 4, 35, 47, 100, 109, 119, 120, 121, Collaboration, 16, 62, 72, 77, 80, 87, 99, 134, 139, 193, 202, 234, 238, 239, 265, 302, 136, 137, 139, 160, 171, 223, 224, 229, 348 233, 241, 244 Assessment of Prior Learning (APL), 37, 237 Communication strategies, 46 Associate’s colleges, 28, 292 Community college(s), 28, 57, 297, 308 Audit(s), 33, 65, 99, 206, 209, 230, 231 Competences, 1, 4, 5, 9, 10, 12, 25, 36, 50, 56, Austrian University Continuing Education and 85, 116, 117, 264, 296, 330, 331, 336, Staff Development (AUCEN), 249, 251, 338, 343, 346, 352 252, 257, 259, 271 Competition, 5, 9, 10, 19, 33, 35, 44, 45, 51, Autonomy, 16, 20, 32, 33, 38, 39, 41, 48, 49, 74, 75, 78, 88, 109, 161, 201, 297, 339 65, 66, 98, 101, 106, 133, 146, 187, Complaints analyses/analysis, 45, 302

361 362 Subject Index

Consecutive, 11, 12, 29, 53, 74, 79, 96, 97, 334, 335, 336, 337, 338, 339, 340, 342, 108, 123, 126, 128 346, 347, 349, 350, 351, 352 Conservatoire National des Arts et M´etiers Corporate University, 324, 327, 329, 333, 352 (CNAM), 27, 28, 39, 177, 182, 183, Council for Adult Experiential Learning 186, 189, 192, 196, 200, 209, 212 (CAEL), 38, 315 Continuing education, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 7, 8, 9, 10, Course(s), 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 11, 12, 13, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 23, 19, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 35, 36, 37, 39, 40, 41, 42, 43, 44, 45, 34, 35, 36, 37, 38, 39, 40, 41, 42, 43, 46, 47, 48, 49, 50, 53, 54, 55, 56, 57, 45, 46, 47, 48, 49, 50, 51, 52, 53, 54, 58, 59, 60, 62, 63, 64, 65, 66, 67, 68, 55, 56, 57, 58, 59, 60, 61, 62, 64, 65, 72, 73, 74, 75, 77, 78, 79, 81, 82, 83, 66, 67, 68, 72, 73, 74, 77, 78, 79, 80, 85, 86, 87, 88, 91, 92, 93, 94, 95, 96, 81, 82, 83, 84, 85, 86, 87, 88, 89, 90, 97, 98, 100, 101, 103, 104, 105, 107, 92, 93, 94, 95, 96, 97, 98, 101, 102, 108, 109, 110, 111, 112, 113, 114, 115, 103, 104, 105, 106, 107, 108, 109, 110, 116, 118, 120, 121, 122, 123, 124, 126, 111, 112, 113, 114, 115, 116, 117, 118, 127, 128, 129, 130, 131, 132, 133, 134, 121, 122, 123, 124, 125, 126, 127, 128, 136, 137, 138, 146, 147, 148, 149, 150, 129, 131, 132, 133, 134, 135, 136, 137, 152, 154, 156, 157, 158, 159, 161, 162, 138, 146, 149, 156, 157, 158, 159, 160, 163, 164, 165, 166, 167, 169, 170, 171, 161, 162, 163, 164, 167, 169, 172, 173, 172, 173, 178, 179, 180, 181, 182, 183, 176, 177, 178, 179, 180, 181, 182, 183, 185, 186, 189, 195, 197, 198, 199, 200, 184, 185, 187, 188, 189, 190, 191, 192, 201, 202, 203, 204, 205, 206, 207, 208, 193, 194, 195, 196, 202, 204, 205, 206, 209, 211, 216, 217, 218, 219, 220, 221, 207, 208, 209, 210, 211, 213, 216, 217, 225, 226, 227, 228, 229, 230, 231, 232, 218, 219, 220, 221, 222, 225, 227, 228, 233, 234, 235, 237, 238, 239, 240, 241, 229, 230, 231, 233, 234, 235, 236, 240, 242, 244, 245, 248, 249, 250, 251, 253, 244, 248, 249, 250, 251, 252, 253, 254, 254, 255, 256, 257, 258, 259, 260, 261, 255, 256, 257, 258, 259, 260, 261, 262, 262, 263, 264, 265, 266, 267, 268, 269, 263, 264, 265, 266, 267, 270, 271, 272, 270, 271, 272, 273, 274, 275, 276, 277, 274, 275, 280, 283, 284, 288, 289, 291, 278, 279, 280, 281, 282, 283, 284, 288, 292, 293, 294, 295, 296, 297, 298, 299, 289, 290, 291, 293, 294, 295, 296, 298, 300, 301, 303, 304, 305, 306, 307, 308, 299, 300, 301, 302, 303, 304, 307, 308, 309, 310, 311, 312, 313, 314, 315, 316, 310, 311, 312, 313, 314, 315, 316, 318, 317, 319, 320, 321, 326, 327, 329, 330, 320, 321, 325, 327, 328, 329, 330, 331, 331, 332, 333, 334, 335, 337, 338, 339, 334, 335, 336, 337, 339, 340, 341, 343, 340, 341, 343, 347, 350, 351, 352, 353, 347, 348, 349, 351, 353 354 Credit(s), 3, 9, 10, 29, 30, 31, 33, 37, 38, 41, Continuing education market, 45, 46, 60, 61, 43, 44, 45, 46, 49, 53, 56, 107, 108, 65, 78, 92, 109, 135, 183, 306 113, 121, 123, 148, 159, 167, 180, 194, Continuing Higher Education (CHE), 1, 4, 24, 195, 201, 202, 203, 209, 225, 226, 229, 29, 64, 68, 132, 150, 169, 195, 244, 232, 243, 255, 270, 276, 277, 280, 288, 280, 323, 324, 326, 327, 331, 341, 352, 290, 298, 299, 300, 301, 304, 306, 307, 353 308, 309, 310, 318, 324, 330, 334, 335, Continuing professional development (CPD), 337 2, 8, 9, 10, 24, 25, 33, 57, 58, 63, 66, Cross-subsidising, 45 67, 217, 219, 221, 234, 235, 237, 238, Customer-based, 45 240, 241, 244, 308 Continuing scientific education (CSE), 29, 150 Co-operation, 31, 34, 39, 44, 61, 62, 77, 79, 80, D 81, 92, 100, 103, 110, 115, 124, 126, Decentralisation/Decentralised, 34, 38, 39, 40, 152, 156, 163, 166, 171, 173, 176, 185, 44, 45, 109, 188, 190, 191, 194, 216, 194, 202, 204, 205, 211, 218, 224, 244, 226, 227, 229, 243, 248, 259, 261, 266, 261, 274, 299, 303, 319, 320, 324, 333, 267, 268, 275, 283, 299, 348 Subject Index 363

Degree programme(s), 2, 8, 9, 10, 11, 30, 37, Evaluation(s), 46, 72, 83, 89, 98, 110, 128, 41, 45, 55, 57, 157, 176, 183, 239, 290, 147, 164, 166, 167, 168, 177, 178, 188, 292, 293, 296, 297, 300, 302, 307, 309, 193, 198, 210, 211, 230, 264, 265, 302, 313, 314, 316, 317 306, 318 Demand-led approach, 3, 86 Ex-ante, 45, 64 Department(s), 4, 9, 12, 13, 28, 33, 35, 39, 40, Ex-post, 45, 64 42, 44, 45, 47, 51, 55, 60, 62, 65, 67, External, 2, 6, 39, 41, 42, 43, 45, 46, 48, 61, 62, 73, 89, 93, 94, 95, 96, 98, 101, 103, 85, 92, 93, 96, 97, 98, 115, 137, 138, 110, 125, 126, 138, 150, 159, 160, 161, 161, 162, 164, 167, 168, 169, 190, 193, 162, 169, 177, 181, 182, 183, 187, 190, 194, 203, 204, 210, 225, 226, 230, 231, 191, 192, 193, 194, 196, 197, 199, 202, 242, 262, 263, 264, 265, 268, 269, 283, 203, 204, 205, 206, 208, 209, 210, 211, 301, 302, 316, 319, 320, 324, 328, 333, 216, 217, 218, 219, 222, 224, 225, 226, 334, 335, 341, 342, 343, 347, 349, 353 227, 228, 229, 230, 232, 233, 234, 235, Extra-mural, 35, 217, 218, 225, 233 236, 239, 240, 244, 254, 255, 259, 260, 261, 262, 263, 264, 265, 268, 269, 270, F 281, 282, 294, 303, 329, 333, 347, 348, Face-to-face teaching, 1, 53, 60, 114, 115, 127, 349, 351 135, 274, 330 Deregulation, 33, 34, 216, 222 Faculty/Faculties, 4, 9, 12, 13, 39, 40, 44, 45, Didactic design, 11, 59, 119, 276, 277, 280, 49, 50, 52, 53, 61, 62, 65, 93, 94, 95, 326, 327, 332 98, 101, 103, 125, 126, 135, 136, 137, Diploma(s), 25, 28, 29, 32, 35, 56, 80, 87, 124, 150, 162, 163, 168, 173, 183, 187, 205, 125, 164, 176, 178, 179, 180, 181, 183, 206, 207, 208, 229, 235, 244, 251, 259, 185, 186, 189, 193, 194, 197, 198, 199, 261, 264, 267, 268, 269, 279, 281, 282, 201, 202, 203, 205, 208, 209, 241, 272, 290, 306, 319, 320, 333 291, 294–295, 296, 300, 309, 310, 313, Finnish Higher Education Evaluation Council 314, 317, 320 (FINHEEC), 164, 166, 167 Distance education, 25, 75, 134, 218, 227, 311 Fonds de Gestion du Cong´e Individuel de Doctoral institutions, 28 Formation (FONGECIF), 194, 195 Formal aspects, 17, 18, 19, 110, 121, 146, 203, E 279, 307 ECTS, 55, 56, 57, 123, 159, 203, 209, 211, Format(s), 8, 9, 10, 13, 29, 57, 61, 248, 251, 257, 264, 270, 273, 280, 281, 284 253, 254, 255, 257, 265, 266, 271, 272, Efficiency, 12, 129–130, 153, 195, 284 278, 279, 280, 281, 282, 283, 284, 307, EFQM, 46, 98, 99 309, 311, 312, 313, 331, 335, 337, 339, e-learning, 3, 59–60, 61, 83, 84, 109, 114, 130, 353 157, 161, 173, 201, 202, 208, 211, 221, For-profit higher education, 293 242–243, 296, 311, 312, 343 Forum for the Advancement of Continuing Elite, 35, 37, 54, 133, 219, 224, 225, 233, 304, Education (FACE), 54 320 4-year colleges, 315 Entrance requirements, 17, 121, 149, 279, 280, Framework conditions, 108, 186, 188, 190 307, 313 Full-time, 1, 3, 11, 25, 28, 30, 36, 38, 39, 40, Entrepreneurial, 42, 50, 52, 293, 306, 330 59, 82, 83, 94, 95, 96, 111, 113, 150, Etablissement publica ` caract`ere scientifique, 191, 193, 219, 229, 234, 238, 239, 240, culturel et professionne (EPSCP), 176, 261, 271, 284, 289, 290, 300, 305, 319 200 Funding, 2, 11, 13, 17, 26, 31, 32, 33, 34, 37, European Association for Quality Assurance in 39, 40, 42, 44, 45, 47, 48, 49, 50, 51, Higher Education (ENQA), 166–167 52, 56, 60, 62, 64, 76, 81, 86, 89, 92, European Continuing Education Network 95, 97, 101, 102, 104, 105, 106, 111, (EUCEN), 18, 25 116, 126, 127, 129, 131, 133, 134, 136, European Qualifications Framework (EQF), 9, 138, 146, 147, 158, 161, 162, 164, 166, 255, 258, 284 167, 168, 169, 170, 172, 179, 181, 182, EU students, 26, 29, 33, 49, 219, 232, 234, 185, 187, 189, 191, 194, 195, 196, 197, 235, 237, 239 198, 199, 201, 203, 207, 211, 216, 217, 364 Subject Index

218, 222, 223, 225, 226, 230, 231, 232, 197, 198, 225, 230, 231, 264, 265, 268, 233, 234, 235, 236, 238, 243, 244, 254, 283, 332, 339, 352, 353 257, 268, 269, 270, 275, 276, 284, 291, ISO, 46, 99, 193, 194, 277 304, 305, 306, 337 Funding model(s), 40, 81, 105, 216, 218, 226, J 232, 233 Joint ventures, 40, 271 Future prospects, 107, 126, 129, 130, 169, 177, 237, 270, 305 K Knowledge society, 4 G Knowledge transfer, 62, 67, 136, 137, 223, Global Competitiveness Report, 31, 151, 152 227, 229, 234, 238, 244, 245, 250, 274, Graduate(s), 2, 3, 4, 8, 9, 24, 25, 26, 27, 31, 36, 331, 341, 342, 344, 345, 350, 351, 353 37, 53, 54, 57, 58, 63, 76, 77, 80, 82, 83, 86, 87, 96, 97, 118, 119, 120, 121, 123, 132, 149, 154, 164, 180, 189, 194, L 203, 208, 219, 234, 252, 257, 258, 259, Leadership, 27, 40, 72, 95, 159, 160, 243, 318, 260, 278, 279, 280, 284, 290, 294, 296, 324, 328 305, 307, 311, 314, 320, 326, 342, 343 Learning management system (LMS), 60, 114, GRoupements d’ETAblissements du second 115, 242 degr´e public (GRETA), 182, 183, 184 Lecturer(s), 30, 39, 41, 42, 43, 52, 59, 61, 96, Growth Competitiveness Index (GCI), 31, 32, 97, 110, 111, 118, 120, 162, 173, 191, 151, 152 192, 193, 197, 204, 208, 235, 243, 244, 254, 265, 281, 282, 301, 304, 314, 319, H 330, 331, 332, 334, 335, 336, 352 Higher Education Funding Council for Legal regulatory frameworks, 19 England (HEFCE), 48, 218, 221, 223, Level of analysis, 21 224, 231, 232, 234 Liberal adult education, 25, 154, 217, 218, 219 Higher education legislation, 2, 137, 223 Liberal education, 28, 217, 233 Higher education policy reforms, 4 Lifelong learning, 4, 5, 7, 8, 10, 12, 13, 24, 25, Higher education system, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 9, 10, 33, 35, 36, 40, 50, 53, 54, 55, 63, 67, 12, 19, 34, 36, 37, 40, 45, 54, 56, 60, 84, 85, 86, 98, 108, 109, 127, 128, 129, 63, 76, 82, 87, 127, 128, 130, 131, 146, 132, 149, 161, 172, 176, 183, 188, 189, 176, 248, 288, 291, 299, 301, 305, 306, 209, 210, 216, 217, 218, 219, 220, 221, 313 225, 226, 227, 228, 229, 236, 241, 256, Human resource management (HRM), 258, 260, 261, 284, 297 52, 65 Lifelong Learning Networks (LLNs), 54 Long courses, 56, 111 I Long-term, 35, 44, 54, 56, 60, 82, 121, 132, Incentive(s), 4, 42, 43, 63, 64, 97, 110, 135, 159, 294, 318, 340 136, 147, 162, 204, 223, 273, 281, 343 LQW, 46 Indicator-based budgeting, 51 In-house, 11, 12, 41, 43, 61, 62, 96, 137, 182, M 183, 262, 264, 268, 269, 281, 301, 319, Macro-economic framework, 222, 294 320, 324, 328, 333, 336, 337, 342, 343, Management structure, 65, 92, 94, 95, 133, 347, 349 172, 191, 251, 261, 300 Initial training, 8 Marketing, 17, 18, 19, 45, 46, 47, 58, 64, 74, Innovation(s), 30, 51, 52, 86, 107, 132, 138, 86, 89, 92, 98, 100, 101, 104, 116, 117, 151, 153, 168, 204, 227, 228, 229, 245, 126, 129, 130, 146, 164, 167, 194, 195, 306, 340, 346, 350 211, 227, 229, 238, 242, 265, 266, 267, Institutional level, 19, 45, 231, 235, 251, 257, 268, 270, 271, 299, 303, 315, 348 259, 336, 351, 352 Mature students, 2, 8, 25, 217, 219, 221, 237, Internal, 45, 60, 74, 88, 89, 95, 98, 99, 104, 239, 240 116, 120, 126, 138, 147, 166, 188, 191, Micro-economic frameworks, 25 Subject Index 365

Ministry of Education, 32, 39, 43, 46, 82, 146, Primary education, 168 152, 154, 158, 159, 164, 166, 167, 168, Professional competences, 4, 9, 10 169, 182, 184, 187, 188, 190, 206, 209 Profile development, 50, 64 Modular/Modularisation, 8, 53, 54, 109, 112, Programme level, 17, 24, 55, 110, 239, 248, 113, 127, 133, 171, 177, 211 272 Motivation, 17, 41, 204, 318 Providers, 2, 9, 10, 17, 18, 25, 28, 33, 38, 46, 47, 50, 51, 53, 59, 61, 62, 67, 73, 78, N 80, 81, 83, 84, 85, 88, 93, 95, 96, 98, National Institute of Adult Continuing 103, 115, 124, 125, 129, 131, 134, 138, Education (NIACE), 54 146, 154, 161, 172, 177, 180, 181, 182, National register of vocational qualifications 183, 190, 194, 195, 205, 221, 244, 249, (RNCP), 59, 179 253, 254, 255, 256, 274, 281, 282, 284, Network, 18, 127, 139, 154, 195, 225, 350, 352 290, 291, 292, 294, 299, 302, 305, 308, Non-consecutive, 11, 79 310, 316, 319, 320, 324, 331, 333, 337, Non-credit, 29, 41, 55, 57, 62, 240, 290, 298, 338, 352 300, 301, 307, 308 Provision, 5, 9, 11, 12, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, Non-traditional, 2, 26, 28, 29, 41, 49, 63, 122, 25, 27, 29, 30, 32, 33, 34, 36, 40, 41, 180, 220, 256, 284, 289, 290, 293, 298, 43, 44, 48, 49, 55, 56, 57, 61, 63, 67, 300, 311, 326, 353 72, 73, 74, 77, 78, 79, 80, 81, 83, 84, 85, 86, 87, 88, 89, 90, 92, 93, 94, 95, O 98, 101, 102, 104, 105, 106, 107, 108, OECD, 8, 33, 255, 256 109, 110, 112, 113, 114, 119, 120, 125, Online, 8, 60, 83, 216, 289, 309, 310 126, 127, 128, 130, 131, 132, 133, 134, Open University, (OU), 8, 9, 16, 27, 28, 32, 136, 137, 138, 147, 156, 159, 160, 161, 33, 34, 36, 54, 149, 151, 154, 156, 157, 171, 172, 176, 177, 180, 181, 182, 183, 159, 161, 162, 180, 216, 219, 221, 228, 185, 187, 191, 195, 197, 198, 199, 201, 229, 230, 243, 360 202, 203, 206, 207, 208, 209, 210, 211, Organisational structure, 4, 18, 38, 40, 44, 52, 216, 218, 219, 221, 227, 228, 229, 230, 63, 73, 92, 93, 95, 133, 158, 160, 161, 231, 233, 234, 235, 237, 238, 239, 240, 162, 163, 172, 190, 206, 216, 225, 227, 241, 242, 243, 244, 249, 251, 253, 254, 248, 250, 259, 260, 261, 264, 270, 271, 255, 256, 257, 258, 259, 260, 262, 263, 283 264, 267, 270, 278, 283, 291, 292, 294, Organisme paritaire collecteur agr´ee (OPCA), 295, 299, 323, 327, 331, 332, 338, 339, 49, 194, 195, 196, 197, 207 340, 342, 347, 348, 351, 353 Public relations, 18, 19, 47, 167, 173, 255, 303 P Public Understanding of Research, 10, 66, 342, Partnership, 30, 61, 125, 177, 201, 252, 254, 344, 351, 353 259, 260, 261, 264, 324 Public Understanding of Science and Part-time, 2, 3, 4, 5, 8, 11, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, Humanities (PUSH), 10, 47, 342, 344, 38, 42, 43, 44, 45, 46, 53, 55, 57, 59, 350, 353 63, 65, 82, 94, 105, 108, 109, 113, 119, 127, 130, 138, 150, 193, 219, 221, 222, Q 223, 227, 229, 234, 237, 238, 241, 248, Qualifications, 2, 9, 11, 24, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 255, 257, 261, 262, 274, 284, 289, 290, 31, 33, 34, 35, 37, 38, 39, 41, 42, 43, 296, 300, 301, 305, 312, 318 46, 55, 58, 59, 73, 74, 75, 76, 77, 79, PhD, 29, 40, 58, 133, 173, 218, 240, 292, 300, 80, 81, 82, 83, 84, 86, 87, 88, 90, 100, 307, 343 108, 113, 118, 120, 121, 122, 123, 124, Political framework, 152 125, 130, 131, 132, 133, 134, 135, 137, Post-92, 217, 220, 221, 227, 229, 232, 239, 244 139, 150, 155, 156, 161, 176, 178, 179, Postgraduate (s), 2, 8, 12, 19, 28, 29, 57, 74, 180, 181, 186, 187, 189, 194, 201, 202, 77, 79, 98, 110, 134, 135, 136, 138, 207, 208, 210, 218, 221, 226, 228, 229, 149, 167, 228, 232, 234, 235, 238, 240, 230, 231, 240, 241, 242, 243, 249, 255, 241, 254, 260, 312 256, 257, 258, 270, 272, 273, 277, 279, Pre-92, 217 280, 284, 289, 290, 291, 292, 294, 296, 366 Subject Index

300, 301, 304, 306, 307, 308, 309, 310, Student age, 2, 11 312, 313, 314, 317, 320, 326, 331, 337, Student surveys, 45, 231 339, 341, 343, 344, 345, 347, 351, 353 Subject areas, 17, 33, 39, 40, 42, 50, 54, 57, Quality assurance, 17, 18, 33, 45, 46, 64, 65, 77, 116, 117, 134, 135, 136, 155, 209, 89, 98, 99, 109, 128, 146, 160, 164, 217, 221, 227, 229, 231, 237, 238, 240, 166, 193, 194, 211, 216, 222, 223, 225, 241, 242, 244, 250, 252, 254, 255, 262, 226, 230, 231, 257, 263, 264, 271, 302, 263, 264, 276, 293, 307, 315, 317, 318, 348 341, 343, 346, 347, 349, 353 Quality Assurance Agency (QAA), 33, 226, Subject matter, 55, 57, 274, 275, 276, 307, 330, 230, 231 332 Support, 29, 32, 33, 37, 40, 44, 45, 48, 50, 51, R 53, 54, 60, 61, 63, 65, 77, 78, 83, 86, Recognition of prior learning, 9, 17, 18, 53, 92, 115, 130, 131, 135, 137, 146, 154, 435 160, 166, 171, 179, 187, 190, 193, 199, Remedial learners, 8 201, 204, 206, 208, 209, 223, 224, 226, Reputation, 42, 46, 50, 52, 131, 135, 162, 224, 227, 228, 229, 231, 239, 243, 244, 251, 254, 303, 304, 334, 336, 339, 353 256, 261, 262, 267, 269, 274, 275, 283, Research Associations (RA), 27, 351 293, 297, 299, 303, 305, 307, 308, 311, Research institutions, 27, 83, 124, 303, 311, 312, 318, 323, 325, 327, 328, 331, 332, 324, 333, 340, 341, 351 339, 341, 342, 343, 346, 347, 349, 350, Research-oriented, 47, 303, 319 353 Russell Group universities, 35, 44, 218, 225, System level, 12, 17, 19, 24, 53, 72, 146, 248, 226, 237, 244 275, 288 S Sabbatical system, 32, 172 T Salary, 42, 43, 68, 150, 172, 235 Tailored programmes, 27, 61, 67 Scientific community, 342, 348, 349, 351, 353 Target group(s), 2, 3, 9, 13, 17, 18, 20, 25, 26, Second chance learners, 8 27, 47, 48, 54, 56, 58, 59, 65, 74, 75, Seedfunding, 51 80, 85, 86, 87, 92, 95, 100, 104, 109, Service units, 41, 243, 299, 300, 301 112, 118, 119, 120, 121, 122, 138, 146, Short courses, 8, 10, 59, 62, 109, 111, 113, 178, 180, 183, 194, 195, 196, 202, 205, 114, 119, 136 207, 211, 272, 277, 278, 279, 280, 283, Short-term, 19, 43, 82, 102, 111, 156, 192, 284, 289, 307, 317, 325, 326, 327, 328, 299, 300, 317, 340 330, 331, 334, 338, 339, 341, 342, 343, Source of funding, 48, 198 345, 348, 349, 352, 353 Specialized institutions, 291, 292 Teaching Funding Method (TFM), 233, 235 Spin-offs, 31, 40, 45, 332 Teaching load, 11, 39, 40, 42, 43, 97, 131, 136, Sponsorship, 49, 198, 223, 232 138, 281, 301 Staff, 2, 10, 11, 17, 18, 25, 27, 38, 39, 40, 41, Technical framework, 296 43, 48, 49, 50, 51, 56, 58, 59, 64, 65, Technology transfer, 25, 131, 134, 218, 340, 74, 85, 89, 96, 97, 100, 102, 106, 109, 341, 342, 343, 346, 350, 351, 353 110, 111, 118, 120, 126, 127, 131, 132, Tertiary sector, 27, 30, 34, 154, 256 135, 136, 137, 138, 139, 146, 147, 162, Third-leg, 49, 222, 232, 233, 235, 244 163, 177, 182, 185, 187, 189, 190, 191, Third-party, 42, 51, 97, 102, 105, 268, 270 192, 193, 195, 197, 198, 199, 202, 203, Traditional, 1, 2, 5, 8, 10, 13, 25, 26, 27, 28, 204, 207, 208, 210, 211, 216, 217, 218, 29, 32, 33, 37, 41, 44, 49, 51, 63, 67, 226, 227, 228, 229, 230, 231, 235, 241, 87, 90, 95, 102, 114, 115, 122, 126, 243, 249, 251, 260, 261, 262, 263, 264, 151, 159, 180, 181, 195, 201, 208, 217, 265, 268, 269, 271, 274, 279, 281, 282, 218, 220, 223, 226, 227, 229, 239, 240, 297, 301, 302, 310, 312, 313, 318, 319, 241, 249, 250, 256, 260, 266, 267, 273, 327, 330, 336, 340, 347, 348, 350, 352 275, 276, 282, 284, 289, 290, 293, 298, State funding, 33, 40, 47, 169, 300, 307, 311, 312, 316, 317, 326, 327, 217, 232 353 Subject Index 367

Tuition fees, 3, 4, 10, 29, 30, 31, 40, 44, 48, V 49, 50, 53, 59, 73, 78, 81, 95, 102, 103, Validation des acquis de l’exp´erience (VAE), 108, 109, 122, 126, 131, 149, 180, 181, 179, 187, 188, 189, 193, 204, 206, 207, 197, 198, 222, 223, 224, 225, 229, 232, 209, 211 234, 235, 236, 237, 239, 244, 253, 268, Validation des acquis professionnels (VAP), 269, 270, 290, 291, 304, 306 188 Two-year colleges, 28, 292, 315 Vocational, 3, 9, 25, 29, 32, 33, 34, 35, 36, 49, 53, 54, 57, 58, 59, 63, 77, 79, 82, 87, 88, 107, 108, 118, 119, 122, 129, 133, U 137, 155, 156, 157, 159, 168, 177, 178, Undergraduate, 2, 3, 10, 12, 19, 25, 28, 30, 32, 179, 180, 181, 182, 183, 185, 186, 187, 37, 43, 47, 51, 52, 53, 58, 60, 79, 80, 188, 190, 192, 195, 197, 199, 202, 206, 86, 98, 110, 111, 118, 128, 131, 134, 207, 208, 209, 210, 217, 220, 221, 227, 135, 137, 138, 156, 162, 181, 219, 228, 237, 240, 241, 243, 244, 251, 252, 255, 235, 240, 244, 268, 280, 290, 292, 306, 256, 270, 276, 291, 346, 353, 354 312, 313, 320 Universities Association for Lifelong Learning W (UALL), 54 Widening participation, 33, 37, 49, 161, 217, University of applied science, 249 218, 221, 223, 224, 225, 227, 228, 229, University Continuing Education (UCE), 8, 18, 233, 236, 238 24, 25, 29, 32, 52, 134, 157, 160, 167, Word-of-mouth, 46, 47, 303 246, 249, 260, 263, 288, 306 Work-based, 25, 58, 133, 233, 316 University degree, 3, 10, 56, 74, 79, 87, 125, courses, 58 210, 258, 314 Workers’ Educational Association (WEA), University of the Third Age, 25, 149 217, 221