The Current Situation and Use of Pottery in Myanmar Dr. Mya Mya Khin, Professor [email protected] Abstract This paper describes the current situation and use of pottery in Myanmar. After giving a brief history of Myanmar pottery, the current situation of potters and their works in Myanmar and the use of earthenware will be discussed. Twentay in the Yangon Region was chosen as a sample site to describe the current situation and use of pottery in Myanmar from Cultural Anthropological perspectives. The research does not cover the whole situation of pottery in all of Myanmar. Twentay is famous in Myanmar because of its pottery. The Twentay pots (Twentay Oh in Myanmar) are well-known in Myanmar because of their high quality. Earlier research by Tyn and his group discovered the oldest kiln at Kangyikone, a village beside a creek named the Kyaukphyasan, which is about 3.5 km southeast of Twentay. After reporting their findings to the Department of Archaeology at the Ministry of Culture, they started to excavate the site in 1999 and 2002. He concluded that the Twentay pottery existed as early as the 5th century A.D. (Tyn 2006). Even today the pottery making, the distribution of the products and their socio-economic network among potters and sellers can be found in Twentay. This paper gives special attention to the impacts of the government’s environmental conservation policy on pottery making. The resistance of pottery makers to restrictions and how to safeguard Myanmar’s pottery tradition as one part of the Myanmar cultural heritage are also explored. The paper concludes with the important role of policy makers for the future of pottery making in order to maintain, preserve and transmit the traditions as Myanmar’s cultural heritage.
Keywords: pottery, cultural resource management, government policy and pottery making, Myanmar cultural heritage, Myanmar archaeology, Twentay, intangible cultural heritage
1 1. Introduction In 2018, we (anthropologists led by professor Dr. Tosa Keiko from the University of Tokyo Foreign Studies and scholars from the Department of Anthropology, University of Yangon) visited Twentay after the international conference “Joint Seminar on Anthropological Research of Southeast Asian Countries Including Myanmar”. Twentay potteries made me propose a project to conduct research about how to maintain and preserve Twentay pottery as a Myanmar cultural heritage. I started my study on Twentay pottery from cultural anthropological perspectives because the pottery is very precious and is a respected source of prestige for Myanmar culture and Myanmar’s way of life. Cultural heritage represents the ways that people try to fulfill their needs and wants and to promote their ways of life and how to transmit their knowledge from generation to generation. It can be divided into two types: The knowledge, values, aesthetics, and techniques of intangible culture as well as the resulting artifacts that form the physical cultural heritage. In other words, the intangible heritage is closely connected with tangible culture; see http://www.cultureindevelopment.nl/ Cultural_Heritage/ What_is_Cultural_Heritage (accessed 4- 9-2019). Intangible culture produces the tangible culture as a part of the cultural heritage. In other words, the intangible heritage is inseparable from the tangible culture http://www.cultureindevelopment.nl/ Cultural_Heritage/ What_is_Cultural_Heritage (4- 9-2019). Myanmar pottery has a long history; its oldest examples are found in the Padah-lin Caves, a late Hoabinhian site, in the area between Nyaunggyat and Yebok villages in Ywa-Ngan township, Taunggyi district, Southern Shan State. Theses pots date to 11,000 years ago. The country’s oldest kiln sites were discovered in Twentay, Yangon Region that date to the 7th century A.D. (Tyn 2003, Khin 2018). The current situation of pottery in Twentay and the use of pottery in Myanmar are documented here in order to maintain and transmit Twentay pottery as Myanmar’s cultural heritage. It is a cultural heritage that is still living because it has long history and people are still producing pottery there and distributing their products around Myanmar. Twentay and its pottery are also important to maintain and transmit a local, regional and national level of cultural heritage because it possesses Myanmar’s precious tangible and intangible cultural heritage. Myanmar should keep and maintain this cultural workshop in Twentay as a place of the Myanmar cultural heritage sites correlated to its pottery.
2 Transect walks, informal interviews and key informant interviews were used to collect data. Research tools included audio recorders, cameras, and notebooks. The three owners of pottery factories, one of the big earthenware shops, and one local Buddhist monk were key informants for my data. Library research was also conducted to get the background history of Twentay and its pottery. The resulting research will help to reveal and suggest the history of Twentay’s pottery, its current situation and usage in Myanmar to international scholars and also to encourage the potters to produce more of their attractive pottery.
2. History of Myanmar’s pottery The use of the earthenware which is glazed or unglazed in Myanmar is introduced here to trace the history of Myanmar’s pottery. Earthenware is used for various purposes such as to store food and drink, for ceremonial and religious purposes, as well as for decorating houses, palaces and shrines and so on. Myanmar earthenware has been found from prehistoric times at the Padah-lin caves and at a site near Taung-tha-man-inn (Lake) in Amarapura that dates to the late Palaeolithic Age (Tun 1973). Earthenware sherds of cord-marked pottery were discovered at the Stone Age sites of Mong Tawa Gu caves on the Shan plateau as early as 1937-38 by the American Southeast Asiatic Expedition for Early Man led by Hellmut de Terra and Prof. Hallam L. Movius. Later a Myanmar team led by U Aung Thaw discovered fragments of Neolithic earthenware pottery in the caves of Padah-lin in the area between Nyaunggyat and Yebok village, Ywa-ngan Township, Taunggyi district, Southern Shan State in January 1969 (Tyn 2003: p 287). However, Dr. Than Tun pointed out that stone implements and pottery sherds discovered in Padah-lin Caves are earlier than Neolithic and the late Paleolithic Age. Radiocarbon dating also confirms the Padah- lin culture is over 11,000 years old (Tun 1973, p. 108). The Bronze Age artefacts included some earthenware objects: pipes, beads, 23 pieces of broken pots and three bowl-type oil lamps in Nyaunggan village, located in Budalin Township of the Sagaing Division (Tyn 2003 p 287). Earthenware took an important role in the Pyu culture and Pyu civilization that flourished in Myanmar from the early years of the first century A.D. to the ninth century A.D. The production and use of earthenware is shown in the Pyu sites: Beikthano 2nd century (B.C. ~ 5th A.D.), Hanlin (4th ~ 9th century A.D.) and Sriksetra (3rd ~ 10th century A.D.). Excavations at Beikthano and Sriksetra, which are early Pyu settlements in central Myanmar, produced quantities of unglazed earthenware pots and jars made for utilitarian and burial use between the
3 5th and 9th centuries (Tyn 2002, Tyn and Rooney 2001 p 57). Dr. Bob Hudson discovered pottery 4500 to 5000 years old used by Neolithic agriculturalists and people in the early part of the Bronze Age (Thein, 2011https://www. mmtimes.com/national-news/1628-old-pottery- uncovered.html). An ancient glazed ceramic kiln (10th to late 13th century) was first discovered along the Ayeyarwady riverbank in Bagan in 1963. Glazed architectural pieces were still being made two centuries after these early pieces (15th century) at Bago (Pegu) (Tyn and Rooney 2001 p 57-58). Glazed tobacco pipes and glazed jars were discovered from a relic-chamber and these glazed wares were dated by the Archaeology Department of Burma (Myanmar) to be early 14th century (Tyn 2002 p 21). The archaeologist Aung Khaing reported the discovery of an ancient kiln near Nagayone Pagoda in Bagan which was similar in size and shape to the No.1 kiln site in Bagan. And he found a round bottom earthen pot filled completely with melted glass of whitish green colour along with some turquoise-shell coloured glazed sherds of a broken jar inside the kiln. The first cross-draft kiln of large size was found by a team of researchers led by U Thaw Kaung in Lagunbyee, about 32 km south of Bago in 1987. They found many surface finds: some sherds are blue, other sherds are green-and-white and so on. Nearly one hundred more of the ancient kilns were discovered between Yangon and Bago, mostly north of Lagunbyee (Don Hein 2003, Tyn and Kaung 1998). Some glazed wares with a milky white background with decoration in green were discovered in the Tak area and the Omkoi district near the Thai-Myanmar border. The Japanese researchers Hasabe and his colleague (1986) tested the material scientifically and revealed that green and white wares are of Myanmar origin. And the green and white wares from Tak were possibly made in Myanmar near Bago in 15th or 16th century (Tyn 2002 p 24). These green and white wares became a powerful finding which revealed the hidden heritage of Myanmar’s ceramic tradition. An international collaborative research team (scholars from the University of Yangon, the University of Sydney, and the Myanmar national department of archaeology) found a large cross-draft kiln capable of manufacturing high-temperature green glaze and over a hundred kiln sites near Twentay. They are similar to those of Lagunbyee from the 11th to 13th centuries (Tyn and Rooney 2001 p 59). Tyn also found kiln sites 17.6 km southwest of Myaungmya Myohaung, in the Ayeyarwady Delta in 1989. These kilns were of the early 14th century and are similar to types found in Thailand (14th to 15th century) (Tyn 2003 p 288 ~ 298).
4 In Mrauk-U in Rakhine, colourful glazed tiles were used to decorate some of the religious edifices during the 15th to 18th centuries. Turquoise, yellow, green, red, and white glazed tiles and tablets were found in Marauk-U. These were tin-based glazed earthenwares produced in Marauk- U as early as the 15th century A.D. An estimated 30 kiln sites existed in Ngaputaw, which is 32 km west of Myaungmya Myohaung. The majority of kilns are large with brick-built surfaces in the cross-draft type and its celadon wares are similar to those of Twentay, Lagumbyee and Myaungmya Myohaung (Tyn 2003 p 30). Hein, Tyn and Aung Bo discovered three kiln sites in the Pathein (Bassein) area. One is at Thakukkhwar 11.2 km west of Pathein and the other two are at New Park village, 8 km to the south of Thakukkhwar. The two sites are 11.2km apart. And researchers found twenty kiln sites of the cross-draft type similar to those of Twentay. Most of the sherds found on the surface at the sites were celadon. One large green and white sherd of a dish was found on the site. The researchers continued to go to Thida-konpyin in Lemyethna Township of the Hinthada district because of the report of Taw Sein Ko to the Archaeological Department on 14th October 1915. He listed the following articles found near Thida Pagoda at Konbyin, Lemyethna Township, Hintahda District. These articles include one glazed clay animal figure, one glazed clay plate, one small glazed plate with narrow mouth and two glazed clay bowls and plates. They found a few dozen sherds of green and white ware collected from U Than Shwe’s compound near Thida Pagoda. These findings strongly indicated that there must be some ancient kilns in the Thida-Konpyin region (Tyn 2003, p. 31-32). Tyn pointed out the most famous artefacts among Myanmar glazed ceramics are the Martaban jars. They have been well-known since the 8th century A.D. in and out of Myanmar in places such as Indonesia (Borneo), Malaysia (Malacca), India (Delhi, Calcutta), Arabia (Sultanate of Oman), Portugal, and England (London), and so on. Martaban ware was being produced in Myanmar throughout the historical period. Even if the potters might have been moved or migrated elsewhere, the manufacture of Martaban jars continued due to official encouragement or market demand. Tyn gave the example of King Alaungpaya, who conquered Lower Myanmar in 1757 and transported potters, most possibly from Twentay areas, to upper Myanmar and created the conditions for them to manufacture glazed earthenware at Kyaukmyaung near Shwebo.
5 The production of Martaban jars at Kuaukmyaung which started long ago and continues to the present now enjoys the status of being the largest production centre of Martaban jars in Myanmar. Tyn and Japanese scholars (Tatuso Sasaki and Hanae Sasaki from Kanazawa University, Tsuda Takenori) explored the Martaban region in March 2002 for a week. Some sherds of greenware (celadon), whiteware, and blackware (Martaban) was found in Sinphyu quarter, Yeaysu quarter and Kyaikphyin pagoda hillock, but there were no signs of the ancient kilns. Hein also visited the Martaban area to find the ancient kilns and speculated that ancient kilns should exist within a range of 80 km from Martaban. In actuality, a couple of large Martaban jars with identical incised inscriptions of the date of donations (15th February 1870 AD) and names of the donors (Maung Thaya and Ma Khar) in Myanmar script were found at Yinnyein village about 8o km north Martaban (Tyn 2001 and 2003). Tyn suggests that Mon potters dominated the available clay sources in the history of Myanmar pottery. The Mon people are the most active in the manufacture of glazed earthenware in Myanmar while also Shan potters are quite active. The potter generation of ancient kiln sites has been lost and the present generation hardly has a memory of their potter-ancestors. Some evidence of the Shan contribution to the history of glazed ware in Myanmar was found by Taw Sein Ko (1895). Some ceramic scholars such as Singer (1990), Reith (1997), and Takenori (2001) and so on have explored and identified modern production sites in northern and southern Shan States. Some of the sites made glazed ware since colonial times and are still active today. Mongkung potters used ash-glaze and produced celadon ware (green glaze) before 1918. Tyn concludes that Myanmar possessed the knowledge of firing clay as early as 11,000 years ago and that the knowledge continued to flourish through different ages in the valley of the Ayeyarwady with its uniquely ancient culture, the Anyathian (Tyn 2003).
3. Twentay and its pottery Twentay is a town 32 km from the southwest edge of Yangon. The Hlaing River is on its west. It includes the Twentay canal, which is the longest manmade canal in Myanmar (35.2 km), connecting the Yangon River and the Ayeyarwady River. There are 220 Villages, 65 Village Tracts and 8 urban wards in the Twentay Township of the Yangon Region. Twentay is famous throughout Myanmar for its pottery, especially in the country’s south. The Twentay area and
6 Twentay earthenware cannot be separated from each other. The local people’s economy is engaged in fishing, farming, and pottery production (Khin 2018). Various terracotta tablets bearing the seal of King Anawrahta (1044~1077) were found during the excavation of the Maung De stupa, a Bagan-period site near Twentay. Scholars believed that an ancient kiln would be found around Twentay if systematic exploration and excavation were to be carried out. Tyn emphasized that Myanmar glaze wares are mostly tin- based and most researchers tend to believe that glazing technology was introduced to Myanmar from the Middle East, probably through India. Taw Sein Ko (1895) also mentions that Myanmar glazed ceramic technology was not of Chinese origin (Tyn 2003 p.298 ~ 299). Twentay is a very rich archaeological site and hundreds of kilns are estimated to have existed in the past. They excavated 41 places and discovered many kilns (Tyn 1999 p. 3~4). There are hundreds of ancient kilns clustered in 50 groups in the Twentay district. After excavating ancient kilns near Kangyigone village in the Twentay Township in 1998, archaeologists considered that Myanmar produces celadon and supports a new dimension in the history of ceramics in Southeast Asia. The most common shapes are small bowls, dishes and medium-sized plates. Tyn and Rooney write that Twentay celadon was traded domestically and internationally. They say that the history of Southeast Asia’s glazed ceramics would not be complete without the contribution from Myanmar (Tyn and Rooney 2001). They obtained 144 different types of design and created a file of hand drawn copies. These findings can be linked between the ancient earthenware potsherds of Myanmar and some other southeast regional kilns. Some comprehensive study of design from the potsherds of Taung-tha-man, Beikthano, Halin, Tagaung, Bago, Mrauk-U, Ava, Anarapura and Hanthawaddy were presented by scholars. Tyn describes the characteristic design from the potsherds of the Twentay region where the richest heritage of pottery has existed in Myanmar. The first cross draft glazed ceramic kilm of Myanmar was discovered at Lagumbyee, an old Pyu town northwest of Yangon in 1987 and the findings of the Buddha images is covered with green glazed show that the glaze ware technology of Twentay could have started since the 5 th century AD (Tyn 2006). The design of potsherds found in the Twentay region can be divided in two: geometric shapes and human, animal or other figurative form. Geometric shapes are rhombus, square, arch (with triangle top), arch (with rounded top), and neem leaf (Tamaryweettaung). Figurative
7 shapes include human, animal and other forms such as bird, crocodile, peacock, elephant, sun, palm leaf, star, crab, throne, horse, wheel, deer, Galon (the Mythical King of Birds), Hintha (Brahminy duck or (Ruddy duck), kainnaya (Kinmara), flower petal, orchid leaf, lotus bub, eye, and Pyatthad (spire-like roof). Twentay potsherds lack the letter type pattern, however the system of decorations of figural shapes inside the square and arch found on the Halin potsherds are similar to the square and arch system of Twentay. The design of lotus buds bulbs on the large baked brick of Srikshetra has a similar composition to that of Twentay potsherds with neem leaf designs. There are 38 different designs found among Bagan potsherds. They include geometric patterns of circle, rhombus and square. Rhombus is most common in comparison to Twentay potsherds. Human figures of Bagan are different from those of Twentay but those of the peacock, Hintha and horse are similar in form. The technique used was stamped, impressed and for the neem leaf patterns it was the carved-petal-impressed method that was used. In Twentay potsherds, the neem leaf pattern is most common, whereas only few neem leaf designs are found in Bagan and Tagaung (Tyn 2008).
4. Safeguarding the Cultural Heritage Some scholars, archaeologists, and historians value the local and national culture. They attempt to protect, maintain and transmit this culture to future generations. The state and regional governments also pay attention to their own cultural heritage and now have started to conduct research concerned with natural and cultural heritage of their local areas. In Ban Khu Bua, in eastern Ratchaburi, the dragon water jars which are decorated with brown and yellow Chinese dragon motifs represent a cultural legacy of Chinese migration to that corner of Thailand in the first half of the 20th century. These jars are symbols of the province and can be seen on official buildings because these jars are part of Ratchaburi’s identity and lifestyle. They now attempt to preserve the Chinese cultural heritage by training young people led by the province’s commerce department because the experienced potters are becoming fewer and the modern lifestyle is taking the place of the rural ways of life. In the countryside the skilled Chinese migrants are retiring. (MARWAAN MACAN-MARKAR, Asia regional correspondent NOVEMBER 09, 2018).
8 4.1. Current Situation of Pottery in Twentay Interviews with pot sellers in 2019 came from several locations, such as Pakhan Gyi and Pakhan Nge in Pakokku Township (Magway Region), from Yandabo village in Myingyan township (Mandalay Region), from Ngathayauk village in Nyaung U Township (Mandalay Region), from Kyaukmyaung (city/town) and the O-Bo quarter (Sagaing Region), from Kyauktai village in Nyaungshwe Township of Shan State (South), and also from Twentay in Twentay Township (Yangon Region). All of these places are famous for pottery in Myanmar at the present day. Environmental change affects people’s livelihoods. Positive and negative effects of environmental changes can be seen throughout the world. In Myanmar, an oriental marketing economic system was introduced instead of the Myanmar Socialist economic system during the 1990s. Thanks to this market-based economy, local and international investments are also increasing day by day. Some local and international businessmen started to invest in their businesses in Myanmar and utilize the natural resources for their businesses: there are jade mines, gold mines, copper mines and dam construction projects for various purposes, and so on. Some conflicts are breaking out throughout Myanmar because of property of land tenure, environmental conservation, local and international human migration and so on. In this section the environmental change and conservation are highlighted to consider the ways to maintain and transmit the cultural (tangible and intangible) heritage at the local or national level of cultural heritage. In this study, the technology has changed the environmental situation which caused positive and negative effects on the people living in these areas. The British colonial government constructed the Twentay canal to connect Yangon city (Yangon River) and the Ayeyarwady delta (Ayeyarwady River) in 1881 and opened it in 1883. Because of the canal, some parts of the Ayeyarwady and the local people’s economy or livelihood were changed. The impacts of this canal on Twentay pottery also can be observed. During our visit in August 2018, the factory owners told me that their big difficulty is to get the raw material (clay) for making pottery which is dug near the Twentay canal because they prefer only this material to make their pottery. The potters had to stop digging clay because of a decision by the Ministry of Agriculture and Irrigation. This decision affected the owners and potters’ ability to maintain, preserve and distribute traditional Twentay pottery. They need clay
9 for their pottery. They preferred the clay near the Twentay canal, but illegally obtaining it is dangerous for them. They will be arrested by authorities from the Ministry of Agriculture and Irrigation. Clay is a basic need to produce pottery. Another key factor is the market demand of pottery. Because of high technological development, the quality and quantities of pots, plates, dishes, trays, vessels and containers made from plastic, iron, steel to carry water and oil and so on also increasing day by day. In 2014, we (two experts: one from UNESCO and the other a Thai anthropologist, along with scholars from the Ministry of Culture and two scholars from the Department of Anthropology, University of Yangon) went to Kyauktaing village, Shan State, to study their pottery as their intangible cultural heritage. The potters have their own land for their raw material, the clay source is supported by the government although they need a wider plot for their raw material. The whole village produces glazed and unglazed earthenware for local and international markets. They have good connections with the Myanmar Ceramic Society and have conducted workshops to share and exchange their technologies and experiences. Tyn said that Twentay pottery existed in Twentay as early as the 7th century AD. In the last week of August 2018, some anthropologists from Japan and Myanmar went to visit the Twentay pottery workshops (museum) built by the Myanmar Ceramic Society. I found a variety of designs, shapes and sizes of pots, dishes and statues (Figure 1 ~ 10). They are testing ceramic colors and resulting quality at that facility. I observed that the building and its related facilities were funded by a Japanese scholars and his government in 2007 (Figure 11, 12). But land was donated by its Myanmar owner. Japanese scholars also brought Twentay clay back to Japan and produced earthenware by using their technology (Figure 13). They tested the many coloured ceramics. The decorated floor of the workshop looked like a museum (Figure 14). Their samples are very attractive in design and colour. By increasing internal and international cooperation, the potters, experts, scholars and technicians of pottery should be able to introduce the Myanmar Twentay pottery as the local, regional and national level cultural heritage site. That way is the Myanmar government can nominate and list this pottery among the world heritage sites. Twentay pottery is famous around the country and it has been among the Myanmar traditional handicrafts for generations. Now the pottery factory owners and scholars want to maintain, preserve and transmit this traditional knowledge to the next generation. The Myanmar
10 Ceramic Society also tries to save pottery and ceramic technologies as one form of Myanmar’s ICH (Intangible Cultural Heritage). The national government also needs to consider giving a suitable piece of land for pottery owners to continue their production and distribution of this traditional cultural knowledge and handicrafts to protect these kinds of Myanmar tangible and intangible cultural heritage. In 2018, the Yangon regional government also organized a committee at the regional level for governing and protecting this Myanmar cultural heritage. This is when they started to take care of this cultural heritage. Thanks to the heritage of pottery, Twentay has also been designated as a place for Myanmar cultural heritage at the regional level. To maintain and promote Twentay pottery, the potters should try to get a permit to dig the clay for making pottery. They should consult the local or regional government about their current situation to maintain and transmit their traditional handicrafts. They need to conduct collaborative research in and out of Myanmar for evaluation and promotion of their technology and to cultivate market demand. According to recent interviews in 2018 and 2019, some owners of pottery factories continue their business with the aid of INGOs and NGOs. For example, the Myanmar Ceramic Society led by Dr. Myo Thant Tyn helps to sustain and promote the pottery culture in Twentay in the 2000s. This society plans a micro-loan program for the 500 families in this region to continue their pottery making. Borrowers have to organize a group of 8 persons and collect $50 USD1 with 3% interest for a person. This society supports 376 pottery families out of 500 in the region. Among them, 5 families produce glazed earthenware, 15 families produce the red painted pottery and other engaged in other jobs for their livelihood. The organization named Conscience chose to support an extra 2 families with 800 US$ as their initial commitment (Conscience Community Development and Aid). When I interviewed, I learned that Tyn and his group also considered ways to maintain and transmit the knowledge of pottery making and searched for the best ways. They conducted research to produce the ash glazed earthenware because it is better than lead-glazed earthenware. They share their technic to the potters but they did not accept it because their technic needs to use more fire-wood. They could reduce the amount of temperature to produce the ash glazed earthenware. This was named celebon. When Singapore found out about their techniquies, they
1 1US$ = 1530 Myanmar Kyats (12 September 2019)
11 invited Tyn and his group to show their techniques how to produce celebon. They stayed one year in Singapore to show their techniques. They have introduced the home-use kitchen cook stoves as one way to reduce carbon and to preventing climate change, according to the UNFCCC2 guidelines (Figure 15). Tyn and his group tested the EFree cook stoves in Kyauktai Village, Nyaung Shwe Township, Shan State (South). U Yone from Twentay gave training to potters about how to produce EFREE cook stoves. They built 1000 cook stoves and shared them with rural families at no cost. They made these ovens for 1500-Kyats in 2016. The organization gave the potters cook stove moulds, cement and boracic acid. And with the collaboration of CCC3 from Korea they started to build these cook stoves in Kyaukmyaung, Sagaing in 2018. Their project aims to produce 108,000 ovens per year and distribute them in the rural areas of Myanmar. Their target area is central Myanmar. But 7 million of ovens or fire pits are necessary for the rural areas in all of Myanmar. Tyn and his group started to produce the EFree4 cook stoves in 2013. CCX from India came to Myanmar to sell their ovens in Myanmar and knew about the Tyn group’s EFree cook stoves. They brought the EFree cook stoves to be tested in India and demonstrated that these cook stoves reduce the carbon. And Tyn and CCX registered this cook stoves with the UNFCCC for climate change. They have to produce 7 million per year at low price for use in rural areas in Myanmar. They need to search for investors for their project. After they finish their producing and distributing of the EFree cook stoves, they can report to the UNFCCC to get their budget reimbursed. During 2018-2019, Tyn and CCX started to produce the EFree cook stoves for the rural areas of Myanmar’s south. They intend to produce 4 million ovens pits per year. In Twentay, nearly 300 pottery making families who engaged in other jobs make the EFREE ovens. The Myanmar Ceramic Society supports them with micro- loans. First they started from 20,000 kyat per person but now the micro-loans are 100,000 kyat per person. So they have succeeded in producing the EFree cook stoves. According to the national laws governing the protection and preservation of cultural heritage regions (1998), both the government and the local people need to maintain and preserve Twentay pottery as a national cultural heritage site, along with the intangible cultural heritage of
2 UNFCC is [tell the meaning of this abbreviation] 3 CCC is the Climate Change Centre. 4 EFREE means Environmental Friendly Energy Efficiency.
12 techniques for pottery making in Myanmar. The experts in earthenware, glazed or unglazed earthenware introduced a new technology for reducing carbon from entering the atmosphere and for saving the potters’ livelihood and for expanding the market demand for their pots. Local and international cooperation, as well as collaborative researchs, is also necessary for the potters’ sustainable development.
4.2. The use of pottery in Myanmar In place of earthenware, these days there are also iron, steel and plastic pots, plates and so on. This means that the demand and market for earthenware is growing smaller. There are some pottery shops in Twentay that buy pots from Kyaukmyaung, Shwebo and other places. They sell both products of Twentay and other regions particularly from the Kyaukmyaung, Sagaing Region (Figure 16 ~ 26). At most of the pagoda festivals, this pottery is sold with other utensils. Still today most people in Myanmar continue to prefer to use earthenware and ceramics for storing water, fish paste, and displaying flowers in their daily life. Some hotels and motels also use big earthenware pots and vessels for their hotel or motel’s landscape or in their interior decoration (Figure 27 ~ 29). Some artisans from Twentay produce pots and other utensils in their factories and sell their products in their own shops or they sell their work to the other pottery traders. One of their main products is water jars, which are needed in the Ayeyarwady region and Rakhine State, especially after the destruction caused by Cyclone Nargis (2008). They produced modern water jars by putting filters to purify the water and sent them to their customers after the disaster (Khin 2018). First the potters were not interested in borrowing from the bank although Tyn helped to organize them and establish pottery factories; they were lent the money at a low rate of interest. Because of Cyclone Nargis, they had to borrow money from private banks with the recommendation of the Chairperson of the Myanmar Ceramic Society. The owners of the 20 pottery factories borrow the median-credit loan for their factories, from 2 million to 5 million (Kyat) for a pottery factory. They also produce the oil lamps which are very popular in religious ceremonies. People celebrate the light offering ceremonies in the pagodas near and far from their own land every Thadingyut (October) and Tasaungtai (November) in lighting festivals. The famous pagodas like Shwedagon in Yangon, Kyikehtiyoe in Mon State, Twentay Shwe Santaw in Twentay, Pyi Shwe
13 Santaw in Pyi, Mahar Myatmuni in Mandalay and other pagodas in Myanmar accept offerings of light. At that time, they use baked earthenware oil cups. The potters from Twentay produce the oil cups and lamps because these are in demand in Myanmar. They also produce baked earthenware lamps used for offering incense o Indian spirits. Many animal figures, fruit figures and attractive designs and styles of the baked and unbaked pots are used as children’s savings banks. Ceramic vessels, earthenware vessels, ceramic pots or earthenware pots such as pots for storing water (Thauk-yay-Oh5 in Myanmar), small pots called Atar-oh/ Thingyan-oh6, small pots called Parit-Oh7 (used on the first day of a New Year), steamed pots, pots called Nyaung-yay-oh8 which are used to offer flowers to the Buddha images, stupas and pagodas, Nyaung-yay-thun-oh9 pots called pan-oh which are used to offer to the spirits and to decorate the rooms with flowers, and toys for children are also produced in pottery factories of Twentay (Figure 30 ~ 41). These earthenware products can be bought in most of the markets around the country and Pagoda Festivals celebrated in Myanmar. Most of the shops such as tea shops and snack shops use enamel plates, bowls, and cups. Some shops use glazed or earthenware bowls for special meals such as Myay-oh-mee-shae. Some use wood pestle (Ngayokgyipwae) and earthenware bowl or mortar (Ngayokson) to pound the papaya for papaya salad, chili, onion and garlic and so on.. Some use earthen pots for cooking pork and beef which are very soft and delicious. Some use earthen pots for cooking fish paste, rice, curry and soup. Some use small glazed or unglazed earthenware bowls to mix herbal medicine as they believe that earth adds strength to the herbal medicine. Most people prefer earthenware pots for drinking water because it can keep the water cool and is good for health because they fear the side effects from plastic bottles, bowls and pots. Along the Yangon-Mawlamyine highway bus road, especially in Mon State, we can see one or two earthenware pots placed under a shade tree or in front of a house fence for every person to freely drink from. These signify a donation of drinking water for travellers. This is correlated with their religious belief. If they donate a well or a pond or a water pot shelf10 for the 5 Thauk-yay-oh means a pot for drinking water. Thauk means drink or drinking. Yay means water and Oh means pot in Myanmar. 6 Atar-oh or Thingyan oh. Both are names of pots which are used during the Myanmar New Year Festival. 7 Parit-oh means a pot which is used as a flower vase and is placed in front of the monks when they recite the paritta suttas. 8 Flower holders are intended to be used for only the Buddha image, or at stupa or pagoda. 9 This earthenware pot is used in Nyaung-yay-thun-pwe on the full moon day of Kason (May). Nyaung-yay-thun-pwe is a ceremony for the pouring of water on the Naung pin (Bayan tree) during May. 10 Yay-oh-zin in Myanmar
14 others, they can get many benefits and they can escape from the samsara or life cycle; in other words, they can arrive at Nirvana. There are 24 pots that can be seen in some pagodas and monasteries. When they celebrate the recitation ceremony of Provisive (Pahtan, Buddha Teaching or Dhamma), they use 24 pots written the 24 names of Provisive on the surface. People believe that if they drink some water from all of these 24 pots, they will be healthy. Most of the believers in Nat (spirit), especially Nakarine Medaw or Bago Medaw, use glazed earthenware bowls in which they put the kanyut (asparagus) eaten by buffalo and water for Medaw’s refreshment. Most of the believers of Minmahargiri (Ain-twin-nat) use a glazed earthen bowl in which there is a lady dragon statue representing Minmahargiri’s wife, Shwenabay. When people conduct a funeral, they use an earthenware pot filled with water. According to the Myanmar (Bamar) culture, they send off the dead body by putting a coffin into the cemetery on the third day from death. If they bring that coffin outside of the house, they throw a water pot on the ground. Breaking a pot this way means that the dead person and other family members separate from each other. Nowadays, they hold the corpse in a cold room in the cemetery and prepare for the funeral or for cremation. Before putting the dead body in the crematorium, they throw a water pot on the cement ground as a symbol of the dead and living person’s separation.
5. Conclusion This paper’s aims are to explore a brief history of Twentay pottery, the current situation of Twentay pottery and the use of pottery in Myanmar. Around the country there are many places that make pottery but this paper focuses on the Twentay pottery to be maintained and transmitted as a Myanmar traditional culture and cultural heritage. It has tangible culture such as design, shape and size of pot, bowl, plates and other utensils and it also has intangible culture such as knowledge and technology for building kiln sites, and controlling the temperature (low and high temperature) to get desirable products and drawing designs and creating the styles. People’s beliefs also encourage the traditional pottery not to disappear in Myanmar. The Ministry of Culture (former name) counted the pottery as one of the Myanmar national cultural heritages. And the Myanmar Ceramic Society also opened a museum of Twentay pottery. But experts, scholars and potters need to protect their richest culture and the potters’ livelihood in
15 order to transmit their skill and knowledge to the younger generations. National and International collaborative research and evaluation and promotion of technology and living standards of potters are also important parts for sustaining the Myanmar pottery culture. Leading and instructing the local and the regional government is essential for Myanmar cultural preservation, including for the Twentay pottery culture.
6. Reference
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7. Acknowledgement I would like to give special thanks to my sincere professor Dr. Pho Kaung, Rector, Dr Thaung Htaik, Pro-rector and Dr. Ohnmar Kyaw, Pro-rector from University of Yangon and the responsible persons from Department of higher education,Yangon, Ministry of Education. I would like to say thanks to Mr. Guven, Witteveen and U Zaw Win supported by Photographer. I am always grateful to the Sayagyi Dr. Myo Thant Tyn, Chairperson of Myanmar Ceramic Society, Potters and Pottery shopkeepers from Twentay, Yangon Region and Poppa, Bagan, Kyauk Padaung, Mandalay Region, Kyauktai Village, Nyaungshwe Township, Shan State (South). Finally I would like to give special thanks to my friends and my beloved colleagues from Department of Anthropology, University of Yangon, Myanmar.
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