THE POLITICAL, COMMUNAL AND RELIGIOUS DYNAMICS OF PALESTINIAN CHRISTIAN IDENTITY: THE EASTERN ORTHODOX AND LATIN CATHOLICS IN THE WEST BANK UNTIL 2014 Quinn Patrick Coffey A Thesis Submitted for the Degree of PhD at the University of St Andrews 2016 Full metadata for this item is available in St Andrews Research Repository at: http://research-repository.st-andrews.ac.uk/ Please use this identifier to cite or link to this item: http://hdl.handle.net/10023/9598 This item is protected by original copyright This item is licensed under a Creative Commons Licence 4 The Political, Communal and Religious Dynamics of Palestinian Christian Identity: The Eastern Orthodox and Latin Catholics in the West Bank Until 2014 Quinn Patrick Coffey A Thesis Submitted for the Degree of PhD At the University of St Andrews 2 March 2016 2 3 Abstract: Despite the increasingly common situation of statelessness in the contemporary Middle East, a majority of the theoretical tools used to study nationalism are contingent upon the existence of a sovereign state. As such, they are unable to fully explain the mechanisms of national identity, political participation, and integration in non-institutional contexts, where other social identities continue to play a significant political role. In these contexts, the position of demographic minorities in society is significant, as actors with the most popular support – majorities -- tend to have the strongest impact on the shape of the political field. This thesis demonstrates what we can learn from studying the mechanisms of nationalism and political participation for one such minority group, the Palestinian Christians, particularly with regards to how national identity fails or succeeds in instilling attachment to the state and society. This is accomplished by applying the theoretical framework of social identity theory to empirical field research conducted in the West Bank in 2014, combined with an analysis of election and survey data. It is argued that the level of attachment individuals feel towards the “state” or confessional communities is dependent on the psychological or material utility gained from group membership. If individuals feel alienated from the national identity, they are more likely to identify with their confessional community. If they are alienated from both, then they are far likelier to emigrate. Additionally, I suggest that the way in which national identity is negotiated in a stateless context is important to future state building efforts, as previous attempts to integrate national minorities into the political system through, e.g., devolved parliaments and quotas, have failed to instil a universal sense of the nation. 4 Acknowledgments: This endeavour would not have been possible without the support of a number of incredibly kind and patient people. Firstly, my supervisor, Dr. Fiona McCallum, has been a tremendously helpful guide throughout this process; her expertise and advice have been instrumental in making this happen. My second supervisor, Professor Anthony Lang, was also an inspiring and positive force throughout. I must also thank the Russell Trust for their generous financial support of my field research. Many people and organisations in Palestine have contributed to this study through face-to-face interviews and their hospitality. For reasons of anonymity, it would be impossible to name them all here. But I can extend a special thanks to the Tantur Ecumenical Institute in Jerusalem, the Sabeel Ecumenical Liberation Theology Centre in Jerusalem, the Bethlehem Bible College, Bethlehem and Birzeit Universities, the Latin Seminary in Beit Jala, the YMCA of Beit Sahour, Holy Land Trust, and the Diyar Consortium. I must also extend a special thanks to the Bethlehem Iconography School and its director Ian Knowles. I wish the school and its wonderfully talented students all the best and thank them for their friendship and generosity. Finally, I need to thank my friends and family for their support throughout the project. I am particularly grateful to my partner Annabel, who has gracefully put up with four years of the PhD lifestyle, and without whom this would have not been possible. 5 Abbreviations: CRO Church Related Organisation DFLP Democratic Front for the Liberation of Palestine FIDA Palestinian Democratic Union IDF Israeli Defence Force MoLG Ministry of Local Government MP Member of Parliament NCCOP National Coalition of Christian Organisations in Palestine NGO Non-Governmental Organisation NLL National Liberation League PA (PNA) Palestinian (National) Authority PCBS Palestinian Central Bureau of Statistics PCP Palestinian Community Party PCPSR Palestinian Centre for Policy and Survey Research PFLP Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine PLC Palestinian Legislative Council PLO Palestinian Liberation Organisation PPP Palestinian People's Party UN United Nations 6 Contents: Chapter 1: Introduction 9 Social identity and state formation: 10 Approaches to the study of identity and politics in the Middle East 12 Key Definitions 19 Methodology and Plan of Study 21 Chapter 2: Identity Choice and Social and Political Action 28 Locating Identity 28 Personal and Social Identity 32 Identity Choice 35 Group Pride 35 Utility 37 Defensiveness 39 Demographic Decline 39 Perceived Social Status 40 External Factors 41 Conclusion 42 Chapter 3: Nation, State, and Statelessness in the Middle East 44 Nationalism 46 Imagined Communities 50 Nation and State 51 The Role of Language 52 The Ethnic Origins of Nations 55 Ethnic and Territorial Nationalism 59 The Development of Middle Eastern States 61 Legitimacy and Authority 66 Statelessness 69 Secularism and Post-Colonialism 71 Conclusion 74 Chapter 4: Contextualising Rum Orthodox and Latin History in the Holy Land 76 Early Social Dynamics 79 Arab Conquests 80 7 The Origins of the Latin Patriarchate of Jerusalem 82 Ottoman Period 82 Rum Orthodox Community 82 Greek Nationalism 87 Arab Nationalism and Russian Interests 88 Tanzimat Reforms 91 Latin Community 93 Re-establishment of the Latin Patriarchate 95 Local or Missionary Church? 96 The British Mandate 97 Rum Orthodox Community 97 Latin Community 100 Jordanian and Israeli Rule 101 Rum Orthodox Community 101 Latin Community 103 The First Intifada 105 Rum Orthodox Community 105 Latin Community 106 Oslo Period 107 Rum Orthodox Community 107 Latin Community 107 Contemporary Context 108 Rum Orthodox Community 108 Latin Community 109 Conclusion 111 Chapter Five: Navigating Communal and Political Identities 112 Communal identity in the Palestinian Christian Communities 113 Rum Orthodox Community 113 Latin Community 118 Contextualising the faith: liturgical issues 121 Political Identity 123 Relationship with Arabism 125 8 Political Affiliation 128 Notions of Citizenship in a Future State 130 Conclusion 137 Chapter Six: Palestinian Christian Political Participation 140 Factors Influencing Christian Political Participation 142 Generational Factors 145 Political Trends 150 2004/05 Local Elections 151 Background 151 Results in Christian-Quota Districts 152 2006 Legislative Elections 153 Background 153 Results in Christian-Quota Districts 154 2012 Local Elections 154 Background 154 Results in Christian-Quota Districts 156 Major Parties 157 Student Elections 160 Background 160 Results 161 Conclusion 163 Chapter Seven: Demography and Emigration 166 Palestinian Christians and "minority status" 166 Assessing the contemporary demographic realities 170 Why do Christians Emigrate? 175 Institutional Response to Emigration 182 Conclusion 183 Chapter Eight: Concluding Remarks 185 Bibliography 193 Appendix 206 9 Chapter One -- Introduction: It seems to me that nationalism is collapsing in the Middle East and the Middle East is going through a crisis of identity. People are not sure who they are and how can they define themselves. And identity is a complex issue because there are a lot of social elements that shape a person's identity. I can say I am from the West Bank, I am from Bethlehem, I am a Christian – all of them could be true depending on the social context -- each one of us has multiple identities. Sometimes these identities could be in tension with each other and there are dominant identities depending on the reality of the situation.1 -- Palestinian academic, mid-40s, Bethlehem The objective of this study is to examine the role that social identity plays in political participation and integration for the Palestinian Christian communities. This will be accomplished by exploring how the two largest confessional communities, the Rum Orthodoks and Latin (Catholic), negotiate between loyalty and adherence to the cultural identity and political norms of their confessional communities, and that of the proto-Palestinian state, where they represent a small, but vital part of the population. As the above quotation illustrates, social identity is a complex and fluid concept. It shapes the ways in which we view ourselves and the other and consequently affects our interaction with the social and political landscape. This is because our membership in social groups not only dictates acceptable behaviour in response to social roles (e.g. As a Palestinian Christian I cannot vote for Hamas)2, but also because in-group biases can affect the ways in which we experience integration within our other constituent social identities. This is particularly relevant to our experience of national identity in that nationalisms that are insufficiently broad and inclusive may alienate rather than include groups in the demographic, economic