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Unit 1 Section B: Local Study

Option 1: Changing Relations: and its Neighbours, 1920-49

Chapter 1:

 Key Terms of the Government of Ireland Act, 1920  Reactions to the Government of Ireland Act in the north and south of Ireland  The setting up of the under the Anglo-Irish Treaty  The Boundary Commission 1924-25  Dismantling the Anglo-Irish Treaty  The 1937 Constitution  The Economic War  The Anglo-Irish Agreements, 1938

Chapter 2:

 Responses to the Threat and Declaration of War  The Battle of Britain  Northern Ireland’s role in the Second World War  Attitudes towards Conscription  The effects of the Second World War on the lives of people in Northern Ireland and Eire.  German attacks and their impact on Britain, Northern Ireland and Eire  Eire’s neutrality  The response of Northern Ireland and Britain to Eire’s neutrality

Chapter 3:

 The Welfare State and its impact  Life in Eire, 1945-1949  Constitutional changes and effects on relations  The Anti-Partition League and the ‘chapel gate election’

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Chapter 1

The Government of Ireland Act, 1920

Whilst the War of Independence was going on mainly in the South of Ireland, the British made a deal with Ulster Unionists. Called the Government of Ireland Act, it created a six country Northern Ireland with its own Parliament in Belfast. Unionists won the elections and Sir James Craig became Northern Ireland’s first Prime minister.

Key terms of The Government of Ireland Act, 1920

 Ireland was partitioned: o Northern Ireland (6 counties) o Southern Ireland (26 counties)  These states would have control over areas such as education, health and transport.  Proportional Representation would be used to ensure minorities were represented.  Westminster would keep responsibility for defence, foreign policy and taxation.

Unionist Reactions

Many Ulster Unionists were delighted with the Government of Ireland Act and were content to accept the proposals. Others, however, some were not. Protestants in the North West were unhappy at being left out of the newly created Northern Ireland. Some Unionists had mixed feelings about Partition.

Nationalist Reactions

Nationalists were afraid that they would be a permanent minority that would be discriminated against by a Unionist government

Republican Reactions

The terms of the Government of Ireland Act were unacceptable to Republicans. They wanted much more power than the new law gave them and so the Anglo-Irish War went on.

The Anglo-Irish Treaty of 1921

In 1921 both sides agreed to a ceasefire and began to talk about the political situation. The outcome of these negotiations was the signing, in December 1921, of the Anglo-Irish Treaty.

As a result of this Treaty, Southern Ireland was declared a Free State within the British Commonwealth. It was known as the Irish Free State. Although it had more rights and responsibilities than Northern Ireland and many of the links with Britain were only symbolic, not everyone in the Irish Free State was happy and certain aspects of the treaty were particularly resented:

 The Oath of Allegiance to the King 3

 The role of the Governor-General in the Irish Free State  The power of the British Privy Council  The Irish Free State's dominion status within the British Commonwealth.

The Sinn Fein delegation reluctantly accepted the as a temporary price to pay for political independence. They were helped here by the British promise to set up a Boundary Commission to examine the location of the border at a future date.

The Nationalists split over the Treaty. It was accepted in the Dάil by 64 votes to 57. The pro-treaty group were led by Michael Collins, the anti-treaty group by Eamon De Valera. The pro and anti-treaty groups fought a Civil War over the issue. It ended in 1923 with victory for the pro-treaty Nationalists. They formed a political party called Cumann na nGaedheal.

Boundary Commission- A failure?

In the end the Nationalists were to be extremely disappointed. Although the Boundary Commission finally met in 1925 it did not lead to any change in the border. The commission's report actually recommended handing some of the Irish Free State’s land to Northern Ireland, something that had never considered. For that reason all sides agreed to leave the border as it was. From that point on it became clear that partition would be permanent.

De Valera returns

In March 1932 Fianna Fáil, led by Eamon de Valera, won the general election in the Irish Free State, partly because he had promised to sever links with Britain if he became head of the government.

With the support of the Irish Labour Party he formed a coalition government in the Dáil. De Valera's main political aim was to dismantle the Anglo-Irish Treaty and achieve the maximum possible degree of independence from Britain.

Dismantling of the Anglo-Irish Treaty

The Anglo-Irish Treaty was signed in 1921. It established a twenty-six county Free State. The Treaty included the following terms:

 British crown would be represented by a Governor General.  The MPs of the Irish Parliament (DAIL) would have to swear an Oath of Allegiance.  Britain would keep control of three ports as naval facilities in Ireland. Berehaven, and known as ‘Treaty Ports’. These were of strategic importance and would give Britain fast access to the Atlantic.

Nationalists were split over the Treaty.

Why did the Free State agree to the Treaty? After many years of violence, the Irish people wanted peace. The Treaty would bring this. The Treaty also meant that the Irish would have their own government and could rule themselves; the Oath of Allegiance meant nothing. The Treaty marked a step towards independence for Ireland. It could pave the way for future steps towards gaining full independence. Realistically the Irish were not in a position to start another war with Britain. Anti-Treaty groups argued that 4 the Treaty was not the Republic fought for in the Easter Rising of 1916 and therefore to accept it was a betrayal. They argued that there could be no real freedom while the King of England was still head in Ireland. Britain would continue to interfere in Ireland’s affairs while it remained a presence there.

The Treaty was accepted in the Dail by 64 votes to 57. The Pro and Anti Treaty groups fought a bloody Civil War over the issue in 1922-23. It ended in 1923 with victory for the Pro-Treaty Nationalists. They formed a political party called Cumann na nGaedheal.

A key point to keep in mind: William T Cosgrove (governed Ireland 1923-32) achieved some more freedom for Ireland despite the presence of the Treaty and he set the wheels in motion for de Valera. Under his leadership:

 The IFS joined the (1923)  IFS became the first dominion to appoint its own ambassador to the USA (1924)

Most importantly: Britain was forced to accept the Statute of Westminster (signed 1931) that allowed a dominion to leave the Commonwealth, even if Britain did not agree to it. Dominions were fully independent and could remove laws passed by the British Parliament. As a result of this, the Free State could legally dismantle the Anglo-Irish Treaty.

Why dismantle the Treaty? In 1932, de Valera’s party (Fianna Fail) won the General Election. This meant that de Valera became President of the Irish Free State. He now had the opportunity to dismantle the Treaty. He had been a leader of the 1916 Easter Rising and was a fierce Republican. De Valera wanted British control in Ireland to cease. He wanted full independence for all of Ireland.

How did de Valera dismantle the Treaty? De Valera took a number of steps to weaken the terms of the 1921 Treaty:

a) The Oath of Allegiance (1932) was abolished in 1933. De Valera claimed “It is an intolerable burden on the conscience of the people”. (This was within the law! - Statute of Westminster). This was an important step for Irish Nationalists in removing links to Britain and strengthening their political independence. b) Governor General – abolished (1937). De Valera instructed Fianna Fail ministers to ignore the Governor General and boycott all the official functions that he attended. De Valera could not get rid of the Governor General because he realised he needed someone to sign the proclamations in the Dail so they could become laws. c) Privy Council – Senate abolished (1936). De Valera amended the Free State Constitution to prevent Free State citizens using the Privy Council (the highest court in Britain) to appeal against decisions made in Irish courts. The result of this was that de Valera faced less opposition. The court decided that everything de Valera was doing was allowed under the terms of the Statute of Westminster. d) Position of the Monarch – de Valera took advantage of the abdication crisis in Britain to pass the EXTERNAL RELATIONS ACT. This law meant that the King had no authority in the Irish Free State 5

(1936). As a result, the office of Governor General also ceased to exist. (In theory, the IFS continued to recognise the monarch as the Head of the Commonwealth). e) In 1933, de Valera stopped the payment of LAND ANNUITIES (money owed) to Britain.

1937 CONSTITUTION

(it introduced three important political changes to the structure of the state)

Key point to note, the 1937 CONSTITUTION was to replace the 1922 Constitution and it was designed to remove all symbols of British power. For example: Specific name - Eire; Leader – Taoiseach; An elected President every seven years; special recognition of the Roman Catholic Church; Eire to remain in the Commonwealth but London had no authority over it. Thus, the Irish Free State was a Republic in all but name. The most controversial part of the Constitution was Articles 2 & 3 that stated:

“The national territory consists of the whole island of Ireland, its islands and territorial seas”.

“While maintaining the right to rule all 32 counties in Ireland, the laws passed by the Dublin parliament will only apply to the 26 counties until Ireland is reunified”.

(Articles 2 & 3 are still in the Constitution of the ).

Britain did challenge the changes to the Privy Council in 1935 but it was decided that de Valera had acted within the terms of the Statute of Westminster. Britain did not stop the changes because it had other serious problems to deal with: Abdication crisis of 1936, Effects of the Great Depression, Increased threat of war as Hitler had invaded the Rhineland.

Reactions to the 1937 Constitution

To Britain, the 1937 Constitution was not important. Britain was suspicious of de Valera but Hitler was viewed as a more serious problem. Unionists were alarmed by the special position of the Catholic Church and the claiming of Northern Ireland by articles 2 and 3. Northern Nationalists felt that the 1937 Constitution reinforced Partition and abandoned them to discrimination by the Unionist Government.

De Valera did not declare that the Irish Free State was a Republic as feared annoying Britain or the Unionist and he thought that the continued link would make it easier to end Partition.

THE ECONOMIC (Tariff) WAR 1932-1938

In the March Budget, steps were taken to make Ireland economically independent of Britain. De Valera refused to continue paying the Land Annuity payments which were repaying the loans Irish tenant farmers had been given to buy their own land (1870 Land Act). De Valera claimed that Ireland was in an Agricultural Depression and needed the money. He also argued that in Northern Ireland the tenants had been allowed to keep their Land Annuities as a ‘free gift’ so therefore this should also apply in the IFS. De Valera continued to collect the money, but kept it. The Irish Government kept £5 million it collected from Land Annuities and 6 placed a 20% duty (tax) on all goods coming from Britain. This started the ECONOMIC WAR as Britain placed a 20% import duty on CATTLE from the Free State as a way of getting the money back.

Impact on the Irish Economy - This was very damaging as cattle was Ireland’s main export. By 1934, Irish cattle going to Britain had fallen by a 1/3rd therefore this did harm to the Irish economy. Farmers’ income fell. They could find no new markets to sell their goods. The Irish Government encouraged Irish farmers and manufacturers to be self-sufficient and produce goods previously imported. As a result, farmers ploughed grasslands and grew wheat, fruit and animal foodstuffs. Irish exports were in decline – worth £38 million p.a. dropped to £14 million. Many thousands were unemployed. Irish farmers were forced to slaughter their cattle as it was too expensive to feed them as they could find no market. Factories were built due to Government grants but they were not very efficient because of so little manufacturing experience in Ireland. There is evidence that there was an increased production of textiles, confectionary, cutlery, etc.

Impact on the British Economy – Britain endured less hardship from the effects of the war but they did suffer as the Irish Government imposed a 20% duty on machinery, electrics, iron, steel and cement. 5 shillings per ton on British coal. In 1932, Britain sent 75.8% of its exports to Ireland but this had dropped to 54% in 1935.

Impact on the economy in Northern Ireland – Between 1924-1931 trade between north and south had been little affected by the border. After 1932, this was changed. De Valera’s withholding of Land Annuities and placing tariffs on goods was viewed in the north as a strategy to undermine the 1921 settlement and reopen the question of unity, Unionists feared a Free State victory. There was a decline in legitimate cross-border trade.

End of the Economic War

The effects of the Economic War on the two countries were so bad that both countries agreed in 1935 to a COAL-CATTLE PACT which eased problems and promoted better relations. Reconciliation with Britain came in 1938. British PM Neville Chamberlin wanted to solve the two problems with Ireland: Economic War and Treaty Ports. Britain was anxious for peace due to fears of a European war hence the ANGLO-IRISH AGREEMENT was signed in 1938 and it was agreed that:

1. Special taxes on goods traded between the two countries would be removed

2. Britain was given £10 million for the Land Annuities

3. Britain gave Ireland back the three Treaty Ports

(Britain also accepted the new Constitution).

ANGLO-IRISH AGREEMENT 1938 – Who won?

Britain had settled economic matters with Ireland and could now focus on Europe but had lost the vital Treaty Ports that would prove a significant loss when Ireland remained neutral during the war that was soon to break out.

Ireland had broken the final symbolic links with Britain and could follow a separate foreign policy. 7

Unionists in Northern Ireland felt that de Valera had started the war deliberately to get the Treaty Ports. The loss of the Treaty Ports meant that Britain would have to use Northern Ireland as a base for its Atlantic shipping. This would make Northern Ireland a target in a war.

Chapter 2 8

THE EXPERIENCE OF AND RESPONSE TO WAR

Chamberlain, the British Prime Minister, helped to ensure that Britain was better prepared for war in 1939 than any other country that was to face German invasion…

DEFENCE MEASURES TAKEN IN BRITAIN TO PROTECT AGAINST INVASION

1. The RAF had more than trebled in size during the 1930’s. In Sept. 1938 the RAF had only 6 squadrons of the new Hurricane fighters, but by 1939 they had 26 squadrons. Air defences were strengthened with anti-aircraft guns, searchlights and barrage balloons, and the RAF was organised into Fighter, Bomber and Coastal Command. The RAF was used to control the skies and defeat Operation Sealion (the planned invasion of Britain) in the Battle of Britain. This was helped by the introduction of Radar, the new top secret weapon, which allowed German aircraft to be detected over 30 miles from the British coast. This was crucial to the defence of Britain against air attack.

2. The British government introduced conscription to enlarge the army.

3. Industry was modernised to speed up the production of fighter planes such as the Hurricane and the Spitfire.

4. The Air Raid Protection (ARP) was formed to enforce blackout regulations. The ARP were to enforce blackouts and direct rescue efforts if the bombs hit their targets. The Home Guard was also formed as a second line of defence.

5. There were plans to evacuate children from London and other major cities to rural areas (1.5 million children were evacuated).

6. Gas masks were distributed to the civilian population, and 400,000 Anderson shelters were built The ARP were to enforce blackouts and direct rescue efforts if the bombs hit their targets.

7. The British government introduced conscription to enlarge the army.

DEFENCE MEASURES TAKEN IN NORTHERN IRELAND…

Compared to Britain N. Ireland was more relaxed in its preparations for war. The Stormont government believed that N. Ireland was too far from Germany to be targeted by the Luftwaffe. In 1939 N. Ireland had no RAF fighter protection, no searchlights and very few anti-aircraft guns. However, the naval base at Londonderry played a vital role in the . 9

Civil defence measures were taken, and blackout regulations were announced, but most people did not believe they were in danger of attack, and few civilians carried their gas masks. Unlike in Britain, cinemas, theatres and dance halls remained open, and few took the opportunity to be evacuated from Belfast.

In June 1940 John MacDermott was appointed as Minister of Public Security. His job was to prepare Northern Ireland against future attack. He acted quickly to make up for months of neglect. Air-raid shelters were built, the fire service was strengthened and attempts were made to evacuate children. However, no enough progress was made and when the Blitz hit Belfast it only had 22 anti-craft guns and public shelters for a quarter of the cities population. Moreover there was still only one squadron of RAF Hurricane fighters to defend the city.

THE BATTLE OF BRITAIN (July-August,1940)

The role played by the RAF

After the British evacuation from Dunkirk, preparations were made to defend Britain. Factories worked round the clock to produce fighter aircraft – vital for Britain’s defence – as Hitler drew up plans for Operation Sealion to destroy the RAF, as the first step to the invasion of Britain.

A chain of radar stations on the coast were used to spot enemy aircraft over the sea from 30 miles out, and pass this onto RAF Command Centre, which dispatched fighters to intercept the enemy. Meanwhile, barrage balloons protected civilian areas from low level attack. Hitler ordered the Luftwaffe to destroy the radar stations and airfields, and RAF Fighter Command sent up Spitfires and Hurricanes to shoot down the German bombers.

The RAF came close to defeat. In August 1940, pilots were being killed faster than replacements could be trained, and airfields were being destroyed. In all, 414 British pilots lost their lives, but the Germans eventually gave up these attacks and switched from daylight attacks on airfields to night attacks on London. By doing so the Luftwaffe conceded victory to the RAF, and abandoned plans to invade Britain. The war then changed to the phase known as the BLITZ.

The Battle of Britain was important because it prevented the invasion of Britain by German forces. Without the control of the air the Germans could not launch the sea-borne invasion that was necessary to conquer Britain. The failure of the Luftwaffe to destroy the airfields and the RAF meant that Hitler had to call off Operation Sealion, and instead he turned to attack Russia in 1941.

THE BLITZ

The first major raid of the Blitz was on London on the 7th September 1940, and London was bombed every night from then until the 2nd November. The raids continued until June 1941, but they became less intense. RAF fighters kept the bombers at bay during daytime, but at night the German bombers attacked under the cover of darkness. The cities of Southampton, Glasgow, Liverpool and Coventry were also targeted, but throughout the winter of 1941 Northern Ireland was untouched. However, Belfast got its taste of the Blitz in April 1941. 10

THE BELFAST BLITZ, 1941

WHY WAS BELFAST BOMBED?

It was believed in the early years of the war that Northern Ireland would not be targeted, but Belfast was important to the British war effort. Aircraft, ships and munitions were being built there, and the Germans knew that these industries were helping the British war effort against Germany. Belfast also played an important strategic role in the war against Germany, especially in the Battle of the Atlantic, and it was seen as a legitimate target as it was part of the UK. They also hoped that the bombing raids would undermine the morale of the civilian population. In early April, 1941, the bombing raids began.

THE AIR RAIDS ON BELFAST

There were four raids in total, the two largest ones being the second and third raids.

The second raid took place on the 15th / 16th April. Between 100-200 bombers flew in over Newtownards and dropped bombs and incendiaries, killing around 745 people, and injuring around 1,500, the highest number in a single raid since the raids on London. The fire services were unable to cope with the huge number of fires, and De Valera sent thirteen fire engines from Eire to help those in Belfast.

The third raid took place on the 4th / 5th May. This time over 200 hundred aircraft dropped 95,000 incendiary bombs, gutting both the harbour and the shipyard, and killing 150 people.

WHY DID BELFAST SUFFER SO MUCH DAMAGE?

1. The Northern Ireland government did not have adequate defence preparations for Belfast – it did not expect a German attack. It also believed that the country would be protected by Britain’s defences as German bombers would have to cross over the British mainland to reach N. Ireland.

2. Belfast was poorly prepared for the air raids. There were only 22 anti-aircraft guns (and they failed to shoot down any German bombers), very few barrage balloons (which were too low to deter enemy aircraft!), and only one squadron of fighters to protect the city. There were not enough air raid shelters (enough for only 25% of the city’s population), and blackout restrictions were not carried out properly. Also, few people took up the offer of evacuation, and there was a shortage of fire- fighting equipment. The use of incendiary bombs caused extensive fires in the densely populated areas of Belfast. Over 50% of houses were damaged and about 1000 people were killed.

HOW WERE PEOPLE IN BELFAST AFFECTED BY THE BLITZ?

1. The air raids claimed the lives of 955 people, with almost 2,500 being injured. Over 56,000 houses were destroyed or damaged (53% of the total), and production at the Harland and Wolff shipyards did not recover for six months.

2. There was also a less hostile attitude to Eire as its government had sent fire engines to N. Ireland to help tackle the fire caused by the Blitz.

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3. At least 100,000 people left Belfast to get away from the bombing, and to try to find homes in the country.

4. There was deep criticism of John Andrew’s government in N. Ireland. In 1943 he was replaced as the Unionist leader by Sir Basil Brooke.

THE END OF THE BLITZ

The Blitz came to an end in June 1941 when Germany invaded Russia. Although Belfast had been targeted, Londonderry had been left largely untouched, despite its importance as a naval base. It was attacked only once, by a single German bomber, which dropped two bombs on the city, killing 13 people in the UK as a whole, 51,500 people were killed in the Blitz, and 3.5 million homes were destroyed.

HOW DID THE WAR AFFECT LIFE FOR PEOPLE IN N. IRELAND?

Blackouts were intended to make it difficult for enemy bombers to locate their targets. People were not permitted to show lights from their windows, and cars, buses and bicycles could not show anything more than a very dim light. Blackout hoods were put over vehicle lights and white strips painted on bumpers to make them more visible. The ARP (Air Raid Protection) was also set up to enforce blackouts, but there was widespread apathy towards them.

Rationing was considered essential during the war. Farmers were encouraged to produce more, and private citizens were encouraged to grow their own vegetables and to become more self-reliant. Limits were put on food and fuel supplies to discourage waste and reduce any reliance on imports.

Although imported foods such as sugar, tea and fruit were rationed, food was more plentiful in N. Ireland than it was in Britain, and it was for this reason that many soldiers were sent there for training, and by 1944 there were 300,000 troops in N. Ireland.

Shortages of fuel meant that priority was given to the military and essential users such as doctors. Private transport all but ceased. Transport was confined mainly to buses and most buses stopped at 7p.m. compared to 11p.m. before the war. Most people out at night cycled. Milkmen used the old horse and cart combination for their deliveries.

Evacuation was not taken seriously in Northern Ireland and no attempt was made to introduce evacuation plans for Belfast until July 1940. Even then, only 10% of Belfast’s 70,000 school children were evacuated.

Air-raids on Belfast and other parts of N. Ireland resulted in thousands of homes being damaged, hundreds killed and thousands evacuated (although this was not done until after the Belfast Blitz).

The issue of conscription also caused tensions between nationalists and unionists, while newspaper and radio broadcasts were censored.

The N. Ireland economy benefitted from the war, because it brought economic prosperity, especially in the shipbuilding and engineering industries. In producing more than 150 ships, 550 tanks and 1500 bombers, the numbers employed in the shipbuilding, engineering and aircraft industries went up from about 27,000 in 1938 to 70,000 in 1945. Agricultural production also increased, especially in wheat, oats and potatoes, and N. Ireland provided 20% of all the eggs used in the UK. 12

By playing a key role in the war effort by manufacturing weapons and munitions meant that Belfast became a target for the heavy bombing of industries such as Shorts and the shipyards at Harland and Wolff.

ATTITUDES TO CONSCRIPTION IN N.IRELAND

Britain introduced conscription in April 1939, but conscription was not introduced to N. Ireland because the British government realised that the large nationalist minority there were opposed to it. In addition, the government did not want to alienate de Valera, and lose any goodwill that they hoped to gain from his policy of ‘benevolent neutrality’. This disappointed the Unionist leader, Lord Craigavon, who believed N. Ireland should be treated the same as the rest of the U.K. The Stormont government supported conscription as a symbol of their loyalty to Britain, and unionists believed that since N. Ireland was part of the U.K. it should be introduced to N. Ireland.

Most nationalists believed that participation in the war effort should be voluntary, and they did not want to be forced to fight for Britain, which had been responsible for the partition of Ireland, and many of them had an Irish identity and would have preferred to be part of Eire. Also Eire, the country they preferred to be in, had adopted a policy of neutrality in the war, and they wanted to do the same. Also, the choice of Sir Basil Brooke to lead the recruitment drive was not popular with nationalists, who remembered him encouraging Unionists only to “employ Protestant lads and lasses”. In May 1941 there were large nationalist protests against conscription.

THE IMPORTANCE OF N.IRELAND TO THE WAR EFFORT

THE ROLE OF AGRICULTURE AND INDUSTRY IN THE WAR EFFORT.

Northern Ireland made an important contribution to the production of war goods.

Industry helped in the following ways:

 N. Ireland played a key role in the war effort ny manufacturing weapons and munitions. Harland and Wolff produced 150 ships and converted 3,000 vessels into warships. It also produced 500 tanks.  Engineering works like Mackies produced armaments and munitions. For example, over 75 million shells were produced for the war, and materials for D-Day were also produced in Belfast.  Shorts made 1,500 bombers, while the linen and textile industries were expanded to produce parachutes, uniforms and tents.

Drawbacks:

 Although Northern Ireland was playing an important role in the war effort, its industries remained less productive than those in Britain. No new factories had been built in the province by 1941 and levels of unemployment remained high at 70,000.

Agriculture contributed in the following ways: 13

 Many farmers switched from livestock farming to potato and cereal production to provide additional food for the war effort. Agricultural production greatly increased, especially in wheat, oats and potatoes.  N. Ireland provided 20% of all the eggs used in the UK, and sent 3 million gallons of milk to Britain in the last year of the war. Sheep and cattle were also exported to Britain to help provide food.

NORTHERN IRELAND’S MILITARY CONTIBUTION TO THE WAR EFFORT

THE CONTRIBUTION OF NAVAL AND AIR BASES IN N. IRELAND

For Britain, one of the most important battles of the Second World War was the Battle of the Atlantic. German U-Boats attacked merchant shipping carrying vital supplies from America to Britain. Without these supplies Britain could be starved into submission.

N. Ireland’s geographical position allowed it to play a key role in the Battle of the Atlantic. The naval bases in N. Ireland (Belfast, Larne and Londonderry) were crucial in helping to win that battle by protecting the Western Approaches and combating the threat of the German U-boats by providing anti-submarine escorts. Without the ports and airfields of N. Ireland, it would have been much more difficult to protect the Atlantic sea-routes between Britain and America, and convoys could have been easy prey for U-Boats. The naval and air bases kept the sea lanes open during the Battle of the Atlantic.

 Belfast, Londonderry and Larne were used as naval bases to provide escorts for trans-Atlantic shipping to Glasgow and Liverpool. By 1943 the port of Londonderry had become the most important escort base for the shipping lanes in the Western Approaches The naval base also played an important role in repairing, refuelling and harbouring escort vessels such as destroyers and frigates.

 Spotter planes combed the Atlantic from airfields near Londonderry and Enniskillen searching for U- Boats. By 1943, 21% of German submarines destroyed by RAF Coastal Command were by aircraft based in N. Ireland. Air bases such as the ones Aldergrove and Castle Archdale played vital roles in the U-boat war, especially after de Valera opened up the ‘Donegal Air Corridor’.

Other ways that N. Ireland helped in the British war effort:

 Although there was no conscription in N. Ireland, 38,000 men served in the war, and 335 members of the RAF and WAAF who were awarded decorations for service in the war came from N. Ireland.

 40,000 men joined the local Home Guard. They manned anti-aircraft guns and helped protect public building and airfields.

 From 1941 onwards, Northern Ireland became a huge military training camp for American troops preparing for the invasion of Europe, with 250,000 American troops being based in N. Ireland.

EIRE DURING THE WAR

WHY DID EIRE STAY NEUTRAL DURING THE WAR? 14

There were a number of reasons why Eire did not take part in the war:

 First, Eire was weak economically and militarily, it had only a small army and navy, and the government wanted to protect its people from the hardships of war.

 Most Irish people favoured neutrality, so the Eire government took a popular line by staying out of the war. Also, the horrors of the First World War were still in some peoples’ memories.

 By staying out of the war Eire would be able to demonstrate its clear independence from Britain – it also did not want to fight as an ally of Britain whilst Ireland remained partitioned.

WHY WAS DE VALERA CRITICISED FOR STAYING NEUTRAL IN THE WAR?

There were different reasons for criticising de Valera:

 Many people in Eire thought it was right that Eire should fight against Hitler on moral grounds – to fight against the Nazi dictatorship was the right thing to do.

 Unionists in N. Ireland criticised Eire’s neutrality for the same reasons, and they detested Eire’s decision to stay out of the war. The outbreak of war increased tension between N. Ireland and Eire. Many people in N. Ireland saw Eire’s neutrality as an act of betrayal, and a threat to Britain’s security.  Britain wanted Eire to join the war because Eire was strategically important to her, especially after France was defeated by Germany. Britain was worried that Germany might invade Eire and use it as a base for attacking Britain. When the war ended in 1945 Churchill condemned de Valera’s role in the conflict, while praising the part played by Northern Ireland.

 After 1941 the USA also put pressure on Eire to join the fight against Hitler, and the American President, Franklin Roosevelt claimed that Irish neutrality was “a serious impediment of the war effort”.

WHY AND HOW DID BRITAIN TRY TO PERSUADE EIRE TO JOIN THE WAR?

Why?

After the conquest of France in 1940, the possibility of Germany invading Britain and Ireland increased, and Britain and her Allies believed that it was important for Eire to join the war on against Germany. Eire was strategically important – because of its geographical position it could help in the Battle of the Atlantic by protecting the Atlantic convoys. Britain was also worried about Germany using Eire Ireland as a base from which to attack Britain, so it tried to persuade Eire to join the war. Britain wanted Eire to give it use of its ports to help in the Battle of the Atlantic

How? 15

The British government suggested that if Eire entered the war, Britain would agree to a united Ireland at an ‘early date’. The Northern Ireland Prime Minister, Craigavon, was furious at this proposal, but De Valera rejected it anyway because he wanted an immediate end to partition as his price for joining the war against Germany. Some have also suggested that he did not think Britain would win the war, and that Germany would grant Ireland unity for staying neutral.

WAS EIRE IN DANGER OF INVASION?

Both Britain and Germany considered invading Eire. Churchill wanted to regain the Treaty Ports, and some of the British generals wanted to take them over by force, but there was little support for this idea in the British War Cabinet. Instead, the 53rd Division was deployed in N. Ireland, and it would have crossed the border to fight the Germans had they landed.

The Germans did have plans to invade Ireland – in 1940 Operation Green was drawn up, with plans to land five Divisions on the south coast of Ireland, but the plan was impractical because they did not control the seas. In 1941 the Germans considered a night-time assault on N. Ireland using 20,000 paratroopers, but the plan was dropped and by 1942 neither side gave any further consideration to invading Ireland.

THE DONEGAL ‘AIR CORRIDOR’

By early 1941 the Battle of the Atlantic was intensifying, and ships and aircraft were sent to N. Ireland to protect convoys. De Valera and the RAF had a secret deal. The RAF was allowed to fly over Co. Donegal between Belleek and the coast. This was important because it avoided a detour of over 100 miles around Donegal, and greatly increased the effectiveness of the Atlantic patrols. When America entered the war the air corridor was heavily used, and the corridor itself was widened to allow US aircraft flying from the Atlantic to land and refuel in N. Ireland. This was a good example of Eire’s ‘benevolent neutrality’.

IN WHAT WAYS DID EIRE FOLLOW A POLICY OF NEUTRALITY DURING THE WAR?

Throughout the war the Irish government was very careful to keep up the appearance of neutrality. Several steps were taken:

1 De Valera maintained diplomatic relationships with both Germany and Britain throughout the war, and he was careful to offer sympathy to the USA on the death of President Roosevelt, as well as to Germany on the death of Hitler. he tried to follow an even-handed approach.

2 De Valera refused to allow the Allies the use of Irish airfields and ports to help them against Germany, and he resisted pressure from Britain and the USA to end Eire’s neutrality, He rejected Britain’s offer to end partition if Eire entered the war, and he criticised the USA for stationing troops in N. Ireland in 1942. De Valera protested to the Americans that their presence in N. Ireland was an “unwarranted interference” in Ireland’s affairs

3 De Valera banned both the IRA and the Blueshirts (the head of the Blueshirts, Eoin Duffy, was sacked from his position as Garda Commissioner), to ensure that they did not play any part in the war that might endanger Eire. The Irish government was concerned that any IRA involvement with Germany might give the British an excuse to invade Ireland, so many IRA members were interned in the Curragh. 16

HOWEVER…De Valera followed a policy of “benevolent neutrality” towards the Allies (i.e. he treated them more favourably!). For example:

4 He sent fire crews to Belfast to help out during the Belfast Blitz, and officials from Stormont and Eire met to discuss ways of helping refugees from the Blitz – relief funds were set up in Eire and relief centres were established on the border to help refugees.

5 He secretly allowed crashed Allied airmen to return to Britain, but he interned German airmen.

6 He also allowed the RAF to use the Donegal Air Corridor, greatly increasing the effectiveness of the Atlantic patrols. This hindered the work of the U-boats to stop supplies coming into Britain.

7 Also, almost 43,000 Irish citizens joined up to serve in the British armed forces, and 780 decorations were awarded to those serving, as well as 8 Victoria Crosses.

HOW DID WORLD WAR TWO AFFECT THE LIVES OF PEOPLE IN EIRE?

THE STATE OF EMERGENCY

When war broke out the DAIL passed Powers Act, giving the government special powers to run the country during what was called The Emergency. Despite its neutrality, life in Eire was affected by the war. Eire was dependent on the ships of other countries to transport supplies in and out. Eire depended on Britain for coal, for example, but as Britain needed her coal for the war effort, there was a shortage in Eire and the public turned to turf instead. There were also a number of other items that became scarce due to the war.

1 Imported items such as tea, sugar and wheat were in short supply, and rationing was introduced – people were limited to half an ounce of tea and half a pound of sugar a week.

2 Petrol was unavailable for private motorists and they were forced to use buses and trains, while coal shortages resulted in most people using turf for fuel.

3 Much of Eire’s trade was with Britain and it declined as Britain needed its ships for the war effort. Imported machinery and equipment were virtually unobtainable, and as raw materials and fuel could not be imported many factories were forced to close down, and people lost their jobs. Many Eire citizens went to Britain to seek employment in the munitions factories in England – almost 100,000 people went to work in British munitions factories. About 30,000 crossed the border to seek work in Belfast and other areas.

4 There was a lot of traffic in both directions between N. Ireland and Eire during the war. Items which were cheaper on one side of the border were illegally smuggled (e.g. tobacco and whisky), and many Derry people travelled into Eire to supplement their butter, meat and sugar rations.

5 American soldiers often crossed the border into Eire - with no blackout regulations, Eire became a happy haven for servicemen on leave and for other northerners who crossed into Eire for entertainment and nights out. 17

6 The South did not escape war damage. Due possibly to navigation errors, bombs were dropped around Dublin on several occasions, the most serious taking place in May 1941 when bombs were dropped on North Strand (34 people died, 90 were injured and 300 houses destroyed or damaged).

7 The threat of German or British invasion was quite real, so steps had to be taken to improve defence measures:

(a) There was no conscription, but the army was expanded from 7,000 in 1939 to 41,400 by March 1941.

(b) The Navy was also expanded. Six light torpedo boats were added to the four other vessels in the Irish Navy.

(c)The Air Force was expanded. Eight second hand aircraft were bought (they were Allied aircraft that had crashed and been repaired).

8 The IRA were considered a serious threat by the southern government, because they were sympathetic to Germany and might support a German landing (the IRA carried out attacks on Birmingham, Coventry and London between 1939-1942).

In December 1939 the IRA raided Phoenix Park fort and stole a large quantity of arms and ammunition. Most of this was recovered, and 50 members of the IRA were arrested and six IRA men were executed. Two other IRA men were shot by police and several died on hunger strike. This showed that the southern government was taking a tough line against the IRA so that Britain would not have any excuse to invade Eire.

Chapter 3

INTRODUCTION OF THE WELFARE STATE

THE WELFARE STATE – WHAT IS IT? 18

The Welfare State is a term used to describe the way the government makes sure that everyone is secure (safe) from poverty, in illness and old age, and in any other misfortune which might befall them. It means that no-one should be without food, shelter, clothing, medical care, education, or any of the essentials of a decent life because he/she cannot afford them.

We take this for granted today, but it is only within the last hundred years that it has come about. Before that the government did not consider that it should do much to help, and it was only with the newly- elected Labour Government (1945-51), led by Clement Atlee, that the Welfare State became a significant reality.

WHY WAS THE WELFARE STATE INTRODUCED IN BRITAIN AND NORTHERN IRELAND?

The impact of the war had made the government realise that there were a lot of social problems that needed to be dealt with, and in 1942 the Beveridge Report provided an outline of what measures needed to be taken to solve those problems when the war ended. The Beveridge Report highlighted problems in health and social services, and the Labour party promised to create a Welfare State that would provide care for British citizens “from the cradle to the grave”.

CHANGES MADE BY THE LABOUR GOVERNMENT

The National Insurance Act (1946)

The Beveridge Report (1942) had proposed organising social services for the whole population ‘from the cradle to the grave’. The Labour Government from 1945 brought in this plan. One of its main measures was the National Insurance Act. Insurance was now made compulsory for the entire adult population. A wide range of benefits now became available for unemployment, sickness, maternity, widowhood and retirement.

The National Health Service (1948)

The chief measure of the government’s programme of change was the National Health Service Act (1946), which became effective from 1948. Before this, patients had to pay the doctor to come and see them. Medicines and operations had to be paid for in full. For most people, illness could mean suffering, even death, because they could not afford the treatment.

The Health Service, financed partly by taxes, partly by National Insurance contributions, was to provide free treatment for all. The Health Service soon proved itself very popular. The £2 million, for instance, set aside to meet requirements for opticians’ services and free spectacles over the first nine months, was spent within six weeks. The cost of the Health Service, estimated at £140 million a year, reached £358 million in 1950.

Education

The Labour Government put into practice many of the provisions of the Butler Education Act (1944), which swept away the idea that only an ‘elite’ would receive a secondary education. All children were to get a 19 secondary education automatically after primary school at the age of 11. The leaving age was to be raised to 15. Local authorities were to provide secondary education free of charge, and usually did so in the form of grammar, technical or secondary modern schools. This became law with the Education Act of 1947.

Who benefited from the Welfare State?

Before the Welfare State was introduced, many working class people suffered from poor housing conditions, and there was only limited unemployment benefit for those out of work. In addition, the high cost of healthcare and of doctors’ fees meant that many people could not afford the healthcare they needed. Also, access to a university education was limited to a privileged elite who could afford the fees. The Welfare State was set up to try and ensure greater social equality and opportunity for everybody.

HOW DID PEOPLE IN N. IRELAND REACT TO THE INTRODUCTION OF THE N.H.S. AND THE WELFARE STATE?

Why did many people support the changes?

The war had shown the extent of poverty in Britain and N. Ireland amongst working class people, and poorer people supported the idea of a Welfare State which would improve their lives. There was a lot of support for free medical treatment and for free prescriptions that would come with the N.H.S., and people also supported the idea of state aid for family allowances and social security. People believed that poverty would be reduced, and that free health care would help poorer people in particular. People were also encouraged because the Labour party also promised to provide a massive house-building programme to provide everybody with a good standard of housing, because thousands of people needed new houses after the war.

Why did some people oppose the changes?

There was some opposition to the idea of a welfare state because some people saw it as being too expensive to run, while others were concerned about too much state control in the lives of ordinary people. Wealthy people were worried about the higher taxation that would be required to pay for it, businessmen were opposed to the idea of nationalization and its links to the Welfare State, while many doctors were worried about losing their and professional independence and not being able to take on private patients. They were worried that they would just become like civil servants. They were only won over to the scheme when they were assured by Aneurin Bevan that they would be able to do so continue taking on private patients as well.

Unionist politicians also opposed the Welfare State because they thought that the Stormont government would have to pay the cost of the Welfare State, and they also opposed it because they were suspicious of the Labour government (it had traditionally supported the idea of a united Ireland).

HOW DID THE WELFARE STATE CHANGE THE LIVES OF PEOPLE IN N.IRELAND?

Health 20

The health of the population in Britain and N. Ireland improved because of family allowances, free medical treatment, free prescriptions and free dental care, and everybody benefited from the introduction of the NHS. From 1949 a campaign began to eradicate polio and TB from N. Ireland, and TB rates were greatly reduced. By 1962 N. Ireland had the lowest death rates from these diseases in the UK. N. Ireland now enjoyed the same health benefits as the rest of the UK.

Housing

There was a serious shortage of housing in N. Ireland before the war (only 50,000 houses had been built between the wars). Many people had lived in houses with no running water or indoor toilets and the 1944 survey in Belfast found that 37% of people lived in unfit or overcrowded dwellings. The Blitz had also destroyed 3,200 houses and damaged 53,000, and 100,000 new houses were needed urgently.

The government gave subsidies to local councils to build new houses, and a Housing Trust was set up in N. Ireland in 1945. Over the next 20 years this was to build 100,000 new houses, and these helped to raise living standards.

In Britain, 170,000 new houses were built each year between 1947-1950.

Education

In 1947 the Education Act introduced a system of primary education for children up to 11 years old. At that age children were to sit an 11+ examination. Those who passed would go to grammar schools, others to secondary schools.

The Education Act of 1947 brought in the principle of free secondary education for all children over the age of 11, with a modern system of primary education up to the age of 11. All children were to receive free education until they left school at the age of 15, either in secondary or grammar schools.

Local education authorities were obliged to provide free services to all schools, including free transport, free milk, free books and free stationery. The number of pupils in secondary schools doubled between 1947 and 1955.

Grants helped more students go to university. Separate schools continued for Catholics and Protestants, mainly because of demands from the Churches.

Social services

People benefited from the introduction of family allowances, the NHS, the provision of pensions and other benefits such as unemployment benefit, sickness benefit and maternity benefits.

HOW AND WHY WERE LIVING STANDARDS IN N. IRELAND DIFFERENT FROM THOSE IN EIRE?

Health Service 21

In N. Ireland the NHS had been introduced, and people there could now get free prescriptions, free medical care free dental care whereas in Eire medical treatment was very expensive. This improved health standards in N. Ireland and opened up a large gap in living standards between North and South. There was no National Health Service in Eire, and people had to rely on private medical care. The end result was a huge decline in mortality, a successful attack on tuberculosis, and an impressive programme of hospital building that could not be matched in Eire

Welfare benefits

The introduction of the Welfare State transformed Northern Ireland, and provided a much better standard of living than existed in the south of Ireland. In N. Ireland people were provided with pensions and welfare benefits that were at least 50% higher than they were in Eire. Other benefits were also available to everybody, such as unemployment benefit, sickness and maternity benefits, and these were all higher than they were in Eire as there was no welfare state in Eire, and welfare benefits were very limited.

Education

The remodelling of the educational system in N. Ireland also created a difference between North and South. Far more children attended secondary schools in Northern Ireland, much more money was spent on university education, and there was more opportunity to go to university due to the provision of grants for those with the qualifications to go.

Housing

In 1945 the Northern Ireland Housing Trust was set up to build 100,000 new houses. Local councils were also encouraged to build more houses, and this expansion of state-subsidised housing also helped to open a large gap in living standards between North and South.

It must be said that much of this contrast between North and South reflected higher taxation in the North than in the South, and that Northern Ireland could not have afforded her benefits without the massive financial contribution from Britain.

Economic Differences

Between 1945-1949 unemployment in Eire rose, and there remained severe shortages of food and fuel. De Valera declared a state of emergency in Eire as the country suffered a severe economic depression after the war. The building programme for schools and houses in N. Ireland did not take place in Eire, and emigration from Eire / the Republic was very high.

RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN BRITAIN, N. IRELAND AND EIRE BETWEEN 1945-1949. 22

WHY DID RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN EIRE AND BRITAIN GET WORSE AFTER THE WAR?

Many people felt angry about Eire’s neutrality during the war, especially after it became known what the Nazis had done during the war (the Holocaust). They felt Eire should have joined the war against the Nazis, and Churchill contrasted Eire’s neutrality with the role that was played by N. Ireland during the war. They were also angry over de Valera’s public expression of condolences after the death of Hitler. This bad feeling lasted for many years and there was a form of “cold war” between Eire and Britain.

THE ECONOMY (1945-48)

Eire, like N Ireland, faced problems after World War II - her economy was linked to the UK’s, and after the war Britain gave priority to her own needs. Britain had to rebuild herself and was unlikely to be sympathetic to Eire, especially given Eire’s neutrality during the war. As a consequence, Eire suffered severe shortages of coal, as well as other fuel and raw materials. Rationing remained in force. There was growing unemployment, and shortages of building materials made it impossible to clear slums and build new houses. By the end of the 1940’s, thousands of people were emigrating in search of a better life.

THE 1948 ELECTION

The lack of coal, rationing, unemployment, shortage of houses and price rises led to increased discontent in Eire. The situation was made even more unbearable because there were glowing reports about the new benefits of the Welfare State that had been introduced in Britain.

Discontent was so strong that new political parties were created. The most significant was Clann na Poblachta (“party of the Republic”). It was formed in 1946 and was led by Sean McBride, a former IRA chief of staff. Clann na Poblachta was more republican in its aims (i.e. .it pressed for an end to partition) than Fianna Fail was.

The year 1948 was bad for Fianna Fail. It won just 68 out of 147 seats and De Valera lost power for the first time since 1932. A new inter-party government was formed led by John Costello, leader of Fine Gael (“kindred of the Irish”). The Inter-Party government was made up of Fine Gael, Labour and Clann na Poblachta.

THE INTER-PARTY GOVERNMENT 1948-51

After 1948 Eire’s economy started to change - Eire would now be transformed, so that she could become a modern industrial country. Therefore the following bodies were set up:

1 The Industrial Development Authority - to encourage industrial growth.

2 Coras Trachtala - to promote exports to the USA and Canada.

By 1953 industrial production was up by 60% compared to 1946. Also, the post-war building shortage eased gradually as the government built new houses. By 1950 12,000 new houses were being built annually. However, despite all this, the Irish economy still lagged behind that of Britain and Northern Ireland. In 1949, 24,000 people emigrated from Eire. By the 1950s this figure jumped to 40,000 a year.

23

THE DECLARATION OF THE IRISH REPUBLIC (1949)

Eire was still officially part of the British Commonwealth after the war, but had removed from its constitution any references to the King of England who was Head of the Commonwealth. Eire was, in practice though not yet in name, a Republic.

WHY DID EIRE BECOME A REPUBLIC?

Relations with Britain had been very poor in the years after the war, and the new Inter-Party government, which was set up in 1948, wanted to end any confusion about its relationship with Britain. For example, it was in practice already a Republic, but not yet officially a Republic. It wanted officially to cut the links with Britain, and it also wanted to leave the Commonwealth as a protest against the partition of Ireland. It wanted to make Eire a republic instead of remaining part of the Commonwealth. This was done with the REPUBLIC OF IRELAND ACT (1948), and Eire officially became a Republic on Easter Monday, 1949. It was now a fully independent country.

HOW DID THE DECLARATION OF A REPUBLIC CHANGE RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN BRITAIN, N. IRELAND AND EIRE?

Unionist responses:

Unionists saw the declaration of the Republic as a threat to the union, as it was accompanied with a new drive to end partition. They were worried that it would lead to a renewed campaign to end partition. For unionists, it just confirmed the belief that the South was hostile towards them, and wanted to take over the North. The Unionist government called a general election in 1949 to try and show their support for remaining part of the UK. However, Nationalists ran the highest number of candidates since 1921, with 17 candidates standing for the Anti-Partition League. These candidates were financed by churches in the South and the Belfast Telegraph dubbed it the ‘Chapel Gate Election’. Unionists, however, were reassured by the response of the British government in the Ireland Act of 1949 which guaranteed Northern Ireland’s position in the , unless the Stormont Parliament decided otherwise. As a result of this, N. Ireland was bound even more closely to Britain, and separated even further from the South.

The Republic’s response:

Most people in the Republic were happy with the Declaration of the Republic because it finally ended the remaining ties with Britain that had been established by the 1921 Treaty, and it allowed the republic to assert fully its independence. The Republic did this by refusing to join NATO in 1949 because it would compromise its neutrality and it would also recognise implicitly the partition of Ireland.

Northern nationalist responses:

Northern nationalists demanded the right to sit in the Dail, so that the North would be represented in the Free State government, but this was refused. Northern nationalists felt abandoned, and they resented the fact that they could not sit in the Irish Parliament. They formed the Anti-Partition League and won 11 seats in the 1949 election. Eire politicians agreed to help finance anti-partition candidates in the election campaign, and they provided around £50,000 for their campaign. This was resented by Unionists who felt Eire was interfering in Northern Ireland’s affairs. 24

In addition to this, the South had assumed the name Irish Republic when it only included the 26 counties and not the full 32 counties. This was also resented by Northern nationalists. Republicans, in particular, continued to use the term Irish Free State, believing that the name Irish Republic should only be used when partition was ended and the 32 counties of Ireland were finally joined together.

British responses:

It was expected that Eire leaving the Commonwealth would cause deep divisions between Britain and the new Republic, but it was accepted quite calmly (although the British were worried that other Commonwealth countries would also want to break away). This may have been due partly to pressure on Britain from Canada and Australia, who did not want to see the good relations between Eire and the Commonwealth destroyed.

The British Parliament responded to developments in Ireland by passing the IRELAND ACT (1949), which promised unionists in N. Ireland that they would remain part of the UK as long as they wished to do so. At the same time, Irish citizens would be treated much the same as British citizens. They would not need passports, they would not need work permits to work in the UK, and they could also vote in British elections (there was a similar arrangement in the Irish Republic).

THE IRELAND ACT (1949)

WHY DID THE BRITISH GOVERNMENT INTRODUCE THE IRELAND ACT OF 1949?

The British government passed the IRELAND ACT (1949) in response to the Declaration of the Republic (1949). It wanted to reassure unionists in N. Ireland (who were worried that partition might be ended and that they would become part of a united Ireland) that they would remain part of the UK as long as they wanted. It gave the Stormont government the power to decide whether or not Northern Ireland’s position in the UK would change. In fact, it strengthened partition, and made the link between Britain and N. Ireland even stronger.

THE IRELAND ACT (1949)

The British government passed the IRELAND ACT (1949) in response to the REPUBLIC OF IRELAND ACT (1948) The Ireland Act recognised the Irish Republic, and stated that it would it would cease to be part of the Commonwealth. It also stated that it would not be regarded as a foreign country, and that its citizens would enjoy many of the privileges of British nationals.

1. Irish citizens would be treated as British citizens. They would not need passports, they would not need work permits to work in the UK, and they could also vote in British elections (there was a reciprocal arrangement in the Irish Republic)

2. In matters of trade, Eire would be given favourable treatment compared to other European countries. This meant that she shared some of the benefits of Commonwealth membership without actually being a member any longer. 25

3. With reference to Northern Ireland, the Ireland Act stated that it would remain part of the United Kingdom unless its Parliament decided otherwise.

HOW DID THE IRELAND ACT CHANGE RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN BRITAIN, N.IRELAND AND EIRE?

1. The Ireland Act recognised the Irish Republic. It also stated that it would not be regarded as a foreign country, and that its citizens would enjoy many of the privileges of British nationals. Irish citizens would be treated as British citizens. They would not need passports, they would not need work permits to work in the UK, and they could also vote in British elections (there was a similar arrangement in the Irish Republic for British citizens).In matters of trade, Eire would be given favourable treatment compared to other European countries. This meant that she shared some of the benefits of Commonwealth membership without actually being a member any longer.

2. The Ireland Act guaranteed the constitutional position of N. Ireland within the UK by declaring that no change would be made “without the consent of the parliament of Northern Ireland.” This meant that it would remain part of the United Kingdom, unless the Stormont Parliament decided otherwise. It guaranteed their position in the UK, and Unionists were reassured that there could be no change in the status of N. Ireland’s position in the U.K. without the agreement of the Stormont government. This strengthened the partition of Ireland, which pleased unionists but angered nationalists and the government of the new Republic. The Union could not be ended without the agreement of the parliament of N. Ireland, and the ties with Britain were reinforced by the royal visit to Belfast in 1949.

How did people react to the Ireland Act?

The reaction of the Republic’s government was one of stunned surprise, and the Dublin government blamed Britain for sustaining partition. The Republic refused to join NATO when it was formed in 1949 because they argued that the partition of Ireland, which had been strengthened by the Ireland Act, made it impossible to join Britain in a military alliance.

Northern nationalists felt even more isolated after the 1949 election, and their hopes for a united Ireland seemed further away than ever.

Unionists were reassured that there could be no change in the status of N. Ireland’s position in the U.K. without the agreement of the Stormont government. This strengthened the partition of Ireland, which pleased unionists but angered nationalists and the government of the new Republic.

THE ISSUE OF PARTITION 26

Partition remained an important issue and continued to make Anglo-Irish relations difficult. In reality, however, breaking the link between Eire and the UK (by becoming a Republic and breaking away from the Commonwealth) made a united Ireland even more unattractive to Unionists. Partition was only going to end if the South was made to appear attractive to Unionists, and the events of 1949 were to push North and South even further apart. The establishment of the Welfare State, and the raising of social standards to those of the rest of the UK, also helped to strengthen the links between N. Ireland and Britain, and made the re-unification of Ireland less likely.

THE IRELAND ACT (1949) ADDITIONAL INFORMATION

The Irish government announced in September 1948 that it was cutting all ties with the British Commonwealth. Brooke, the Northern Ireland Prime Minister, was concerned about the Irish government’s policy of ending partition, so in December 1948 he asked the British government to enact a law guaranteeing Northern Ireland as part of the United Kingdom.

To demonstrate Northern Ireland’s determination to remain in the UK, Brooke called a general election for February 1949. He wrote, ‘Our country is in danger. The British government has agreed to abide by the decision of the Ulster people. Our determination to remain under the must be overwhelmingly re-affirmed’.

The British governments’ Ireland Act stated that from 18 August 1949, Eire would cease to be a member of the British Commonwealth, that it would be known as the Republic of Ireland, that it would not be regarded as a foreign country and that its citizens would not be regarded as aliens. With reference to Northern Ireland, the Ireland act stated that it would remain part of the United Kingdom, unless its Parliament decided otherwise.

The Ireland Act settled anti-partition agitation. It showed how little had been changed by the Second World War. It settled Northern Ireland’s status within the United Kingdom and also its economic and social development into the 1960s. Standards were geared to those of Britain, although not always followed. Northern Ireland was bound even more closely to Britain and separated still further from the South. However, its economy continued to decay and sectarianism continued to riddle society.

On the Republic’s secession from the Commonwealth, Brooke claimed that the setting up of the Irish Republic showed how different it was from Northern Ireland in politics, religion and loyalties. He said “We look up at the Crown as a symbol of freedom, in the Free State (the Republic) it is a symbol of aggression.”