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The Role of Seagrass Meadows in Gazi Bay, Kenya As Carbon Sinks

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The Role of Seagrass Meadows in Gazi Bay, Kenya As Carbon Sinks THE ROLE OF SEAGRASS MEADOWS IN GAZI BAY, KENYA AS CARBON SINKS MICHAEL NJOROGE GITHAIGA A thesis submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements of Edinburgh Napier University, for award of Doctor of Philosophy School of Applied Sciences April 2017 Supervisors Director of Studies (DoS) Professor Mark Huxham School of Applied Sciences Edinburgh Napier University Signed _________________________________ Supervisor Dr. Linda Gilpin School of Applied Sciences Edinburgh Napier University Signed ________________________________ Supervisor Dr. James G. Kairo Hydrography and Oceanography Department Kenya Marine and Fisheries Research Institute Signed ________________________________ ii “We owe it to ourselves and to the next generation to conserve the environment so that we can bequeath our children a sustainable world that benefits all”. Prof. Wangari Maathai (2004). Front cover: Photo of Syringodium isoetifolium taken during low spring tide at Gazi Bay, Kenya. (Photo: Githaiga, 2016). iii Dedication To my family: Marion, Vanessa, Nelly, Diana & Eric and to all those that believed in me. iv Acknowledgement The road to this doctorate is one of the greatest and most fulfilling milestones in my life. It has been momentous, exciting and above all challenging but a lovely journey. I have utmost gratitude to the wonderful team that saw my passion, believed in me, nurtured my dream and above all was there to guide me in this academic endeavour. In particular, I am really grateful to my director of studies, Prof. Mark Huxham of Edinburgh Napier University for being such a tremendous mentor. Your financial support, the inspiration, the leadership and guidance throughout this research study are priceless. Dr. Linda Gilpin of the same university was instrumental in helping me nurture the writing skills through the regular review of my work, guided me and above all constantly reminded me of the basics that I ignored when writing but mattered most. I have special thanks to my local supervisor, Dr James Kairo of Kenya Marine and Fisheries Research Institute who introduced me into this field of marine ecology and was not only my academic mentor but provided me with the brotherly love and foresight during my academic sojourn in Gazi village. I sincerely thank the committee members at various stages during the development of this dissertation. In particular, the chair, Dr. Charlotte Chalmers of Edinburgh Napier University and the other panelist for the professional and brilliant comments plus all the suggestions that helped to develop a clear focus on the studies that culminated to the development of this thesis. I was lucky to work and learn from a team of experts: Professor Hillary Kennedy and Dr. Martin Skov, both of Bangor University, UK during our regular meetings and fieldwork activities in Zanzibar. The development of the thesis that culminated to the award of a doctorate would not have been possible without the dedication and able assistance of my two valuable field assistants, Laitani Suleiman and Tom Kisiengo. You ever remained my foot soldiers v in the field and laboratory work even during the periods I was away at Edinburgh, and for this, I salute you. My sincere thanks to the entire KMFRI fraternity both at Gazi station and at the headquarters for walking with me. Special thanks to Kimathi, Kathengi and Onduso for working tirelessly in processing the sediment samples. There are many of my colleagues that I want to thank in person, among them the UK team: Ankje Frouws, whom I shared a lot, Maria Potouroglou, Sasha Flannigan, Rose Adamson, Lucas Ruzowitsky, Connie McKay and the students from local Universities that I worked with: Reagan Okoth, Susan Gatune, Derrick Omollo and Jackline Mutisya. I am deeply indebted to the hospitable teams of Edinburgh Napier that ensured I enjoyed my stay during my regular visits. In particular, I salute Ann Akcan for the friendly welcome and for the arrangements on the logistics that made Edinburgh my second home. There are many friends both in social fraternity and in the field of academia who deserve mention and appreciation for the companionship and support, which made the walk enjoyable and fulfilling. My relatives were instrumental in prayers and moral support, which indeed strengthened my spirits and the drive to carry on. Though not mentioned in person, be assured that your support will be ingrained forever in my memory. I would be remiss if I fail to mention heartfully and by name the two extraordinary women in my life for their unequivocal and priceless service. First, my mother, Miriam Wairimu for her nurture as I grew up and role model on hard work, right from my childhood and above all the constant prayers for my success. Secondly, my dear wife, Marion Wambui who has not only remained a lifetime friend but a faithful and dedicated custodian of our home, the many years I was away. Lastly but not least is a big thank you to my offspring: Vanessa Wairimu, Nelius Njeri, Diana Njoki and Eric Githaiga for their love and the incredible amount of perseverance they vi had to contend with during their formative years; a long period of eight years of my post graduate academic pursuit. This PhD thesis was funded by Coastal Ecosystem Services in East Africa (CESEA) NE/L001535/1, a research project that was funded by Ecosystem Services for Poverty Alleviation (ESPA) programme. The ESPA programme is funded by the Department for International Development (DFID), the Economic and Social Research Council (ESRC) and the Natural Environment Research Council (NERC). Additional support was made through Edinburgh Napier University and Kenya Marine and Fisheries Research Institute (KMFRI) while a research permit (no NACOSTI/2/14/2443/769) for this study was issued by the National Commission for Science Technology and Innovation (NACOSTI) in Nairobi, Kenya to whom I am grateful. vii Preface Conservation of marine ecosystems is of intrinsic interest as their health integrity underpins their ability to provide the biodiversity and ecosystem services. Despite this value, these ecosystems continue being degraded overtime. The increasing quest at present for understanding their functioning is driven by an urge to develop strategies for their conservation in order to ensure the continued provision of the ecosystem services to the ever-growing global population in the wake of climate change. In line with these noble goals, this study was conceived with an aim of developing a thesis, titled “The Role of Seagrass Meadows in Gazi Bay, Kenya as Carbon Sinks.” The scope and structure of the thesis constitutes six chapters that have been developed in line with the objectives of the study. Chapter I: Introduction: This chapter gives an introduction of the seagrass ecosystem. It opens with a short description of the seagrasses and their habit and an enumeration of the biodiversity and ecosystem services provided by the seagrasses. It links seagrasses to the blue carbon awareness thus underscoring the importance of sound management and conservation of the ecosystem. It also gives a short description of the seagrasses of Kenya, narrowing to Gazi Bay, the site where this study was conducted and winds up by giving overall objectives of the study. Chapter 2: Biomass and productivity of seagrasses in Africa: This review chapter briefly discusses the seagrass ecosystem, its invaluable role in climate change mitigation and for the provision of ecosystem services. It brings forth the status of knowledge of the biomass and productivity of seagrass in Africa by collating and synthesizing all published and available grey literature on the topic of carbon stocks and flows in African seagrass meadows. It compares this information with the global literature and identifies key gaps. viii The findings in this review work underscores the limited knowledge of biomass and productivity of seagrass in Africa with only 32 papers and 8 theses/reports from African sites having been found with the majority of the studies having been done along the E. African coast and with no published reports of sedimentary organic carbon from seagrasses in Africa. A paper has been published from this chapter. Chapter 3: Carbon storage in the seagrass meadows of Gazi Bay, Kenya: The chapter provides detailed estimates of the carbon storage of the four dominant seagrass species of Gazi Bay: Thalassia hemprichii, Thalassodendron ciliatum, Syringodium isoetifolium and Enhalus acoroides. It looks at the variability in Corg between the sediment and the species biomass, compares the vegetated and un-vegetated Corg and also the interspecies variability in the Corg. It also reports on the key above-ground parameters of the seagrasses that include the shoot density, canopy cover and height as well as exploring the relationships between the sediment organic carbon and the above-ground biomass as well as whether there are some above-ground predictors for below-ground carbon stores. Key findings from this study were that sediment organic carbon was highly significantly different between species, range: 160.7 – 233.8 Mg C ha-1 compared to the global range of 115.3 to 829.2 Mg C ha-1. Vegetated areas in all species had significantly higher sediment Corg compared with un-vegetated areas and revealed a degree of spatial consistency and longevity in relatively small patches of seagrass meadows and bare areas thus demonstrating an exceptionally powerful effect of seagrass on carbon sequestration. Chapter Four: Experimental test of the impact of seagrass loss on sediment dynamics and on the benthic faunal communities: The chapter is an experimentally based research work in which seagrass canopies were artificially removed in randomly selected patches with controls to simulate the natural seagrass loss and hence investigate ix the impact on sediment dynamics and benthic faunal communities. Sediment – Elevation Tables (SETs) were established and monitored monthly over an eighteen month period. Carbon density, effect of seagrass disturbance on hydrodynamic energy reduction, litter decay rates, grain sizes and impact on the faunal communities were investigated.
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