Victorian Publishing Por My Husbtmd G,Aham and Our Solls Pe/Ix Aml Alexantler Victorian Publishing

Victorian Publishing Por my husbtmd G,aham and our SOllS Pe/ix aml Alexantler Victorian Publishing

The Economics of Book Production for a Mass Market, 1836-1916

ALEXIS WEEDON University of Luton, UK First published 2003 by Ashgate Publishing

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British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data Weedon, Alexis Victorian publishing : the economics of book production for a mass market, 1836-1916. - (The nineteenth century series) 1. Publishers and publishing - Great Britain History . 19th century 2. Publishers and publishing - Great Britain History - 20th century 3. Publishers and publishing - Economic aspects - Great Britain I. Tide 338.4 '70705 '0941 '09034

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Weedon, Alexis. Victorian publishing : the economics of book production for a mass market, 1836- 1916/ Alexis Weedon. p. cm. -- (The nineteenth century series) Indudes bibliographical references (p. ) and index. ISBN 0-7546-3527-9 1. Publishers and publishing--Great Britain--History--19th century. 2. Publishers and publishing--Great Britain--History--20th century. 3. Book industries and trade-• Great Britain--History--19th century. 4. Book industries and trade--Great Britain-• History--20th century. I. Tide. 11. Nineteenth century (Aldershot, England)

Z325 .W425 2003 070.5'0941--dc21 2002038374 ISBN 13: 978-0-7546-3527-7 (hbk) Contents

The Nineteenth Century Series General Editors' Preface Vll List of Figures ix

List 01 Plates Xl

List of Tables Xllll Acknowledgements xv

Inttoduction 1 1 Archives and Information Sourees S 2 The Growth ofche Mass Markee for Books 31 3, Trends in Book Production Costs 59 4 Looking aher theBo,ttom Lin,e 89 5 Educational Publishing 111 6 Publishing Strategies for the Mass Market: A Case Study 141 Conclusion 157

Appendices 1 The BookProduction Cost Database (BPCD) 163 2 Brief Sketches of the Histories of the Main ßPCD Firms and their Archives 169 3 Import and Export of Books Manufactured in Great Britain 185

8ib~iography 193 Index 207 This page intentionally left blank The Nineteenth Century Series General Editors' Preface

The aim of the series is to re fleet, develop and extend the great burgeon• ing of interest in the nineteenth century that has been an inevitable feature of recent years, as that former epoch has come more sharply into focus as a locus for our understanding not only of the past but of the contours of our modernity. It centres primarily upon major authors and subjects within Romantic and Victorian literature. It also includes studies of other British writers and issues, where these are matters of current debate: for example, biography and autobiography, journalism, periodicalliterature, travel writing, book production, gender and non• canonical writing. We are dedicated principally to publishing original monographs and symposia; our policy is to embrace a broad scope in chronology, approach and range of concern, and both to recognize and cut innovatively across such parameters as those suggested by the desig• nations 'Romantic' and 'Victorian.' We welcome new ideas and theories, while valuing traditional scholarship. It is hoped that the world which predates yet so forcibly predicts and engages our own will emerge in parts, in the wider sweep, and in the lively streams of disputation and change that are so manifest an aspect of its intellectual, artistic and sociallandscape.

Vincent Newey Joanne Shattock University of Leicester This page intentionally left blank List of Figures

1.1 Transcript of a page from John Menzies' account book illustrating the account for their Comic Annual of 1832 20 1.2 Chatto & Windus: the top of a page from Publication Ledger volume 2 21 1.3 George Bell & Sons: frequency of print runs 28 2.1 Declared value at customs of books manufactured in the UK and exported to the USA and to British pos sessions in Australasia, the East Indies, North America and South Africa 40 2.2 The total number of titles issued annually in Britain: a comparison of figures from the NSTC and the Publishers' Circular 46 2.3 Estimate of the increase in books manufactured compared with the growth of the reading public in England and Wales (1846=100) 50 2.4 The quantity of books manufactured compared with the total retail price of those books adjusted for deflation (1846=100) 56 3.1 The average size of paper used for book printing (1830-1910) 65 3.2 The average cost of paper used for book printing (1830-1910) 67 3.3 The cost of composition per square inch compared with the index of the mean money wage 78 3.4 The average factor costs for titles with print runs of 1000 87 3.5 Percentage spent on each factor cost on average for titles with print runs of 1000 87 4.1 Average print run by subject, showing the percentage above or below the overall average print run for individual Dewey subject catagories 93 4.2 Demand for English and American literature: number of copies printed in each price bracket 106 5.1 Patterns of demand for arithmetic books 131 5.2 Patterns of demand for Greek and Latin classics 133 5.3 Patterns of demand for geography books 135 5.4 Patterns of demand for science books 136 5.5 Pattern of demand for printed music and music books 137 x LIST OF FIGURES

6.1 The impact of the publication of a 6d edition of Wilkie Collins' The Woman in White on the rate of sale of other editions 146 6.2 Chatto &Windus' reprints of tbree of Ouilda's novels 150 Al.l An exampme of a reco~d on rhepubliShers' databa,se (BPCD) 164 List of Plates

1 Bindings oE tbe 1857, 1901 and 1909 editions of Mrs

Gatty's Parable$ fromNatur6,1 First Ser;es, published by George Bell &. Sons 82 2 Mn Gatty's own illustration for the tale 'Training and Restraining' born the 1857 edition ofher Parables {rom Nature, First Series, published by George Bell ~ Sons 83 3 Ho.man Hunt's illustration forthe tale -. Active and Passive' {rom ehe 1880 edition of Mn Gatty's Parables (rom Nature, First Series, published by George BeU &. Sons 84 This page intentionally left blank List of Tables

1.1 Number of books produced according to records gathered from publishers' and printers' archives for the BPCD sam pie years 24 1.2 George Bell & Sons: sampie years and re cords of book production costs 25 1.3 George Bell & Sons: Summary table of print runs 27 2.1 Centres of publication ranked by number of titles 36 2.2 Proportion of titles published in UK and foreign centres 37 2.3 Declared value at customs of books manufactured in the UK and exported to the USA and to British possessions in Australasia, the East Indies, North America and South Africa 39 2.4 NSTC titles per decade for place of publication (1801- 69): Calcutta and Madras in India, and Melbourne and Sydney in Australia 42 2.5 Genre analysis of NSTC titles giving Calcutta or Madras, India, or Melbourne or Sydney, Australia as place of publication (1801-69) 43 2.6 Index of the number of published titles: NSTC figures compared with the Publishers' Circular (1861=100) 46 2.7 Average print runs of books by decade 49 2.8 Estimated size of the reading public based on the ability to sign the marriage register, calculated for each age cohort of the population of England and Wales and weighted for the relative size of this cohort in the overall population 51 2.9 Estimated total retail value of the output of the UK book industry for the BPCD sampie years 55 3.1 The average size of paper used for book printing 66 3.2 The average cost of paper used for book printing 66 3.3 Machining cost of paper printed (pence per square yard) with an adjustment for deflation using the Twigger price index (1850=1) 72 3.4 The cost of stereos, electros and moulds as a percentage of the total cost of composition 74 3.5 Percentage of titles printed from stereos or electros listed in the Macmillan impression books 75 XIV LIST OF TABLES

3.6 The cost of composition (pence per square inch) compared with a compositors' wages index and the average money wage index 79 3.7 The average unit binding cost adjusted using Twigger's price index 86 4.1 Comparison of the number of titles in the NSTC with the BPCD by Dewey subject 91 4.2 The number of titles in each genre compared with the quantity of books printed (1836-76) 94 4.3 The number of titles in each genre compared with the quantity of books printed (1886-1916) 95 4.4 Return on capital invested on specimen costs by Society of Authors (1891) and Stanley Unwin (1926) 97 4.5 English and American literature: number of copies printed with known retail prices 105 5.1 Summary of content analysis of advertisements for educational works in the January educational issue of the Publishers' Circular 116 5.2 Elementary school attendance and cost per scholar for 1886 in Australasia, Canada and Cape Colony 123 5.3 The number of titles recommended for schools and the quantities of school books ordered by approximately 3800 schools between September 1856 and May 1859 129 6.1 The size and cost of paper used for Chatto & Windus' editions of Wilkie Collins' The Moonstone in the 1890s 145 6.2 Chatto & Windus' print runs of The Woman in White in the 1890s 146 Al.1 Four-figure paper codes used in BPCD 165 Al.2 Agreement codes used in BPCD 166 Al.3 Illustration codes used in BPCD 166 A3.1 Imports of books, stationery and printed matter from the UK to British India (1851-1901) 186 A3.2 Books printed in the UK and exported to British possessions and foreign countries (1828-68) 187 A3.3 Account of the quantities of printed books imported into the UK from colonies and re-exported to colonies (1828-68) 188 A3.4 Declared value of printed books manufactured in the UK and exported (t 853-98) 189 Acknowledgements

This project would never have happened without Simon Eliot and David McKitterick who originally proposed a quantitative survey of the cost of production of nineteenth-century books as part of the History of the Book in Britain project. They were my directors of research while I was a Leverhulme post-doctoral fellow from 1989 to 1992, the period in which I collected most of the data which went into the Book Production Cost database. The Macmillan data was collected by Peter Martland who became the Leverhulme fellow after lieft to join the Department of Media Arts at the University of Luton, and I arn indebted to hirn for the use of his data. I am also very grateful to the staff of the Academic Computing Service at the Open University who have given rne rnuch friendly sup• port in creating and maintaining the database. My particular thanks to Simon Rae who has been a storm-Iamp in the hurricane of statistical and database software. The members of SHARP-L (the listserv of the Society for the History of Authorship, Reading and Publishing so elegantly moderated by Patrick Leary) have answered queries I could not otherwise have resolved, and I am pleased to acknowledge their help. The annual SHARP conference has also been a great boon and avenue where I have tried out early versions of the ideas in this book, my thanks to all those who com• mented and made suggestions. To those friends, SHARP members and work colleagues, who kindly agreed to look at drafts of this manuscript my deepest thanks: Fiona Black, Peter Darling, Simon Eliot, Chris Stray, Jonathan Topharn. And my thanks too to William Baker, Ashgate's reader, and those unknown journal reviewers who have been generous with their ideas and time in looking at early drafts of this work. For access to archives and to their deep understanding of publishing and the book trade I am grateful to Michael Bott and Reading Univer• sity Archive Department, Jack Wallace at Wil1iam Clowes (Beccles) Ltd, John Handford at Macmillan, Basingstoke; and Simon Eliot and Stephen Colclough at the Open University archive, Parsifal House, London. William St Clair was kind enough to al10w me to consult his private collection of books from Frederick Warne. This work was carried out as The British Library was moving from The British Museum to St Pancras and in this especially busy time I cannot but praise the gracious patience with which the staff at the Humanities, Oriental and Indian, and Offi- XVI ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS cial Reading Rooms greeted my requests for information. Similarly, I am indebted to the staff at Cambridge University Library, The National Library of Scodand and The Bodleian. A grant from the Bibliographical Society enabled me to complete my collection of data from the archive of T. & A. Constable Ltd at the National Library of Scodand. The Department of Media Arts at the University of Luton granted me a semester research leave and I am grateful to them and my colleagues in the department for easing the burden while I was focusing on this work, in particular to my co-editor of Convergence: the Journal of Research into New Media Technologies, Julia Knight. Lastly, but by no means least, to Erika Gaffney, Frances Britain and the helpful and supportive team at Ashgate Publishing.

Chapter 6 was first published under the tide 'From Three-Deckers to Film Rights: A Turn in Publishing Strategies, 1870-1930' in Book History (1999) 2: 188-206, and is reprinted here hy kind permission of Penn State Press. My thanks to the editors, Jonathan Rose and Ezra Greenspan. Thanks are also due to Chatto & Windus for permission to repro• duce the illustration here as Figure 1.2 of their accounts book showing the costs of production of Mark Twain's Works, and the British Library for the three photographic images of Mrs Gatty's Parables From Nature, First Series, plates 1-3. Introduction

In 1996 Waterstones the booksellers asked their customers to vote for the hundred books which they thought would outlast the century. The list they finally published contained classics, from Virginia Woolf's To the Light House (1927) to Salman Rushdie's Midnight's Children (1981), books which had made the news such as Peter Wright's Spycatcher (1987) and Stephen Hawking's ABrief History of Time (1988), and some bestsellers such as Richard Adams' Watership Down (1972) and Delia Smith's Complete Cookery Course (1982). Yet there were so me striking omissions: where, for instance, were the crime novels of Agatha Christie? Books which had sold in their millions world-wide and been read and reread by thousands of readers. 'Classics' in their own right but not, apparently, in the sense the public understood the term. Waterstones' list showed the critics just how far apart the public's taste and the public's actual reading habits were. What readers recommended, or thought good enough to outlast the century, was quite different from what they were actually reading. If the Victorian public looked back in the final year of their queen's reign at the books published in the preceding century, what would they have said would survive? While we cherish nineteenth-century bibles and hymnals and today's publishers print revised editions of such land• marks as Mrs Beeton's Book of Cookery and Household Management (ed. Bridget Jones, 1992), Darwin's Origin of Species (ed. Gillian Beer, 1996) and Palgrave's Golden Treasury (ed. J. Press, 1995), in the nine• teenth century the scandals around such works as Robert Chambers' Vestiges of the Natural History of Creation (1844), Essays and Reviews (1861), Fergus Hume's Mystery of a Hansom Cab (1888) and Mrs Wood's East Lynne (1861) may have given them a greater awareness in the public mind. We can be sure that on the lists of 'best books', such as those produced by Sir John Lubbock or published by the newspapers for their readers, there would be many which would not be read far into the new era. As Pierre Bourdieu points out, economic success and artistic status rarely overlap in cultural industries. For the historian and literary critic whose period of study is the nineteenth century, the link between the author and the economic sys• tem within which he or she operates is a vital one. For it is in this per iod that commercial book publishing became a mass market business; struc• turing the market through variously priced editions to appeal to a range 2 VICTORIAN PUBLISHING of incomes; creating and building new markets in such areas as genre fiction, tra vel guides and educational series. In writing for this mass market, the author was an integral part of the economic system of publishing. Recent studies of author-publisher relations show that there is a need to update our understanding of the economics of Victorian British book publishing and contextualize it within a broader economic history of the period. We must, as Don McKenzie said in his Panizzi lectures, look at 'the construction of new texts and their forms' to examine 'the human and institutional dynamics of their production and consumption' (McKenzie, 1986, pp. 51-2). Much work has been done since groundbreaking studies such as Marjorie Plant's The English Book Trade: An Economic History or the Making and Sale or Books (1939) first detailed the historical evidence of wages, materials, conditions of work and costs of production. The use of computer databases and statistical packages has transformed the analysis of the economics of the book trade and aided studies of literacy in the nineteenth century (Schofield, 1973; Vincent, 1989; Eliot, 1994). More broadly, the pioneering studies in book history of Lucian Febvre and Henri-Jean Martin (1958), Elizabeth Eisenstein (1979) and Roger Chartier (1994) have revealed the multitudinous threads which tie liter• ary production to the commercial world. In addition, Pierre Bourdieu's theoretization of the relationship between the economic and cultural spheres has influenced literary criticism and put greater emphasis on the text as a commodity (Bourdieu, 1993). However, much empirical groundwork still needs to be done before we can answer the larger questions and see how the commercialization of book production affected the cultural significance of books in our society, the development of authorship as a vocation and the professionalization of publishing. Empirical studies of nineteenth-century publishing can show us the value of the publishing industry to the economy of Britain and the Empire and be a guide to the shift in the cultural and economic role of Britain within the English-speaking world. While this may take time - such a study is beyond the scope of any one book, research or doctoral project - through the jigsaw puzzle of scholarship the pieces can begin to be assembled. It is my contention that many individual literary or historical research projects would benefit from taking cognizance of quantitative methods in the study of publishing-related subjects. The pressures of production and the marketplace affect canonical writers as weIl as hacks, and literary critics should take account of author's renumeration, deadlines, editors and other commercial factors in their exegesis. John A. Sutherland has led the way by showing how, for instance, Anthony Trollope planned for and managed to write two three-volume INTRODUCTION 3 novels - Castle Richmond (1860) and Framley Parsonage (1861) - in nine months (Sutherland, 1976). (Unsurprisingly Trollope's health and his proof-reading suffered.) Sutherland has shown how other Victorian novelists rivalled this output, Mrs Oliphant for one was an inveterate worker, while others, such as Mrs Humphrey Ward, proceeded at a more modest pace. Elsewhere these details are found in biographies of canonical authors where constraints of family life reveal their financial needs. Such financial determinants, it has been argued, affect both artistic form and, in a commercial sense, the growth of genres. Lee Erickson has traced the pressures on the Romantic poets to turn their hand to the more fashionable and lucrative form of the essay after the periodicals began to provide a lively market for such wares in the 1830s and 1840s (Erickson, 1996); while Frank Mumby has related how publishers themselves guided the would-be literary author into more commercial pathways. One oft-quoted incident relates how the aspiring poet Eliza Acton called in at Longman's offices fuH of her designs, only to be advised by the publisher: 'it is no good bringing me poetry; nobody wants poetry now. Bring me a cookery book, and we might come to terms' (Mumby, 1954, p. 235). She took his advice and Acton's Modern Cookery for Private Families (1845) was a popular and endur• ing work. Such incidents highlight the business aspects of authorship; the de• mand for reading matter of different sorts, the turns of fashion in literature, and the financial underpinnings of authorship, publishing and bookseHing. Publishers' archives have hitherto been consulted for data on individual tides but much of the data gathered in this way lacks context. Michael Winship's detailed and fascinating insight into the American literary publisher Ticknor & Fields (1995) is an exception and I am indebted to his pioneering analysis of their business records. In the present study I have moved from focusing on one publisher to a survey of book production by several British publishers in order to pinpoint general trends - for instance, the number of impressions of the average novel, the costs of paper, printing, illustrations and binding, trends in copyright agreements and typical sales practices. Where there is sufficient information we can seek to calculate the turnover of popu• lar genres, access the strength of the market at horne and evaluate the trade in books abroad. This book takes a step along this path. By raising questions about how social, economic and industrial changes affected publishing prac• tice, it aims to open up the area for students and scholars. Using different methods and approaches in each chapter, it suggests the vari• ety of ways open for the analysis of book trade economics. In particular, it aims to show how an exploration of production accounts, both 4 VICTORIAN PUBLISHING financial and editorial, can reveal more about the growth of a mass market in book publishing. My perspective here is from the viewpoint of the student of publishing economics, rather than that of the literary, social or book historian. This necessarily entails a shift from the de• tailed biographies of individual titles, series and firms, towards a broader picture depicting economic trends, which is neverthelcss rooted in em• pirical data. Historical nuances of the personality of publishers and authors and of the character publishing houses or the history of a genre, have been cut away in order to reveal, at least partiaHy, the economic underpinnings of the industry. Book history is a diverse Held and there is room for a variety of approaches. Though the style of this book may be unfamiliar to literary or book historians, my aim has been to provide an approach which is of relevance to all those concerned with the process of literary production and the transmission of ideas, as weH as Victorianists, bibliographers and business historians. The opening chapter is a methodological introduction to the data used in the following chapters. It discusses the interpretation of publish• ers accounts and describes the setting-up of a database of production costs. Subsequent chapters compare this data with external statistics on the book trade from official or published sources. Chapter 2 traces the economic ups-and-downs of the period and asks how they affected the publishing industry. To answer the question a combination of this new data and published sources is used to provide an estimate of the total retail value of books published throughout the period. This suggests a possible scenario for the economic development of the industry. The scenario is developed in Chapter 3 which analyses the factor costs of book production concluding that the cheapening of print affected both the material form of the book and the book as an art form. Throughout the period there were changes in demand for different genres at different prices and this is addressed in the next two chapters. Strategies of market building in literary genres are examined in Chapter 4, followed by the constraints on educational publishing in Britain and the Empire (Chapter 5). Chapter 6 draws connections between publish• ing and the emergent film industry at the beginning of the twentieth century. By focusing on Chatto & Windus' sale of Ouida's and Wilkie Collins' novels it traces the effect on the author-publisher relationship of economic and technological changes in publishing in the 1880s and after. Bibliography

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1818 'Copyright: minutes of evidence', IX, p. 257 mf 19.48-50. 1840 'Select Committee on Fourdrinier's Patent', XXX, p. 853. 1864 '6th report of the medical officer of the Privy Council', XXVIII, pp. 383-415. 1864 'Copyright: minutes of evidence', IX, p. 1 mf 70.60. 1864 'Return on national education in Ireland', XLVI, pp. 417- 35. 1867-68 'Return showing the cost of last revision of the school books published by the commissioners of National Education in Ireland', LII, p. 795 and (1894) LXVIII, p. 1. 1866 'Childrens Employment Commission (1843), 2nd re port of the Commissioners', XXIV, V-VIII, pp. 1-52. 1852-99 Annual statement of the trade and navigation of the United Kingdom, 1852-53, XCVIII, p. 1; 1854-55, LI, p. 91, LX, p. 94; 1856 LVX, p. 101; 1857 XXXV, p. 123, p. 427; 1857-58 LIV, pp. 139-40; 1860 LXVI, pp. 141-2; 1861 LX, pp. 139-49; 1862 LVI, pp. 135-6; 1863 LXV, pp. 112- 13; 1864 LVII, pp. 116; 1865 LII, pp. 123-4; 1866 LXVIII, p. 123; 1867 LXVI, p. 126; 1867-68 LXVII, p. 124; 1868- 69 LVIII, p. 124; 1870 LXIII, p. 124; 1871 LXIII, p. 115; 1872 LVI, p. 1; 1873 LXIII, p. 84; 1874 LXIV, p. 84; 1875 LXXIII, p. 82; 1876 LXXII, p. 82; 1877 LXXX, p. 82; 1878 LXXI, p. 82; 1879 LXVIII, p. 82; 1880 LXXI, p. 82; 1881 LXXXVII, p. 82; 1882 LXVIII, p. 82; 1883 LXX, p. 82; 1884 LXXVIII, p. 101; 1884-85 LXXV, p. 99; 1886 LXIV, pp. 115-16; 1887 LXXX, p. 116; 1888 XCVII, p. 113; 1889 LXXV, p. 114; 1890 LXXII, p. 118; 1890-91 LXXXII, p. 118; 1892 LXXVII, p. 120-21; 1893-94 LXXXVIII, p. 127; 1896 LXXXIII, p. 145; 1898 XCL, pp. 296-8; 1899 XCV, p. 334. 1856-85 'Annual returns of Joint-Stock Cornpanies'. 1868-69 'Quantities and value of printed books irnported and ex• ported frorn UK', LVI, p. 365 mf 75.483. BIBLIOGRAPHY 205

1875 'Report of the Committee of the British Academy on science education (1867-68), 6th report, XXVIII, p. 59. 1878 'Royal Commission on Copyright', 1876-1878, XXIV, p. 163, evidence 253. 1888 'The state of e1ementary education in foreign countries and colonies', XXXV, pp. 527, 529ff. 1888 'Final report of the Royal Commission (England and Wales) on elementary education', XXXv, p. 1, evidence XXXVII. 1897 'Copyright committee', X, p. 232 1898 'Copyright: Select Committee on (1897-98)', IX, p. 251, mf 104.64-7. 1912-13 'Board of Trade, Census of Production.Final Report on the First Census of Production in the Uni ted Kingdom, 1907' vol. 109.

Periodicals

Accounting History (1976- ), Canterbury The Journal of the Account- ing History Society. Bell's Weekly Messenger (1796- ), London. Bent's Monthly Literary Advertiser (1829-60), London. Bookseller, The (1858- ), London. Investors' Review (1893- ), London. Printers' Register, The (1868- ), Gloucester, London. Publishers' Circular, The (1837- ), London (also a microfiche edition, Cambridge: Chadwyck-Healey). Times, The (1788- )., London. Printing Machine, The (1834- ) London. This page intentionally left blank