Bike-And-Ride in a Suburban Environment an Analysis of Methods to Increase Bike-And-Ride in Knivsta

DEGREE PROJECT IN THE BUILT ENVIRONMENT, SECOND CYCLE, 30 CREDITS STOCKHOLM, SWEDEN 2019

Bike-and-ride in a suburban environment An analysis of methods to increase bike-and-ride in Knivsta

HELGA MAGNADÓTTIR

KTH ROYAL INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY SCHOOL OF ARCHITECTURE AND THE BUILT ENVIRONMENT Table of Contents Abstract ...... 3 Sammanfattning...... 4 Preface ...... 5 1 Introduction ...... 6 1.1 Sustainability...... 6 1.2 Public transport ...... 6 1.3 Mixed-mode transport ...... 7 1.4 Aim ...... 8 2 Methods and theoretical frameworks ...... 9 2.1 Transit Oriented Development ...... 9 2.2 Theory of Planned Behavior, habits and resistance to change ...... 10 2.3 Delimitations ...... 12 3 Literature review ...... 13 3.1 Safety in cycling ...... 13 3.2 Bicycle paths ...... 14 3.2.1 Local bicycle paths ...... 14 3.2.2 Regional bicycle paths ...... 15 3.3 Bicycle parking and storage ...... 16 3.3.1 Bicycle parking ...... 17 3.3.2 Bicycle storage ...... 19 3.4 Indirect bicycle encouraging policies ...... 21 4 Case study: Knivsta municipality ...... 22 4.1 Introduction to Knivsta ...... 22 4.2 Current situation...... 26 4.2.1 Bicycle paths...... 26 4.2.2 Bicycle parking ...... 31 4.3 Towards the future ...... 39 4.3.1 Bicycle paths...... 39 4.3.2 Bicycle parking ...... 46 4.3.3 Indirect bicycle encouraging policies ...... 54 5 Discussion and concluding remarks ...... 55 References ...... 57

Abstract When striving to develop towards sustainability, reducing private car use is a crucial factor. The most convenient alternative is to replace the private car with public transport. Fast public transport types, such as trains, have large catchment areas, thus walking to the station can be time consuming and increases door-to-door travel time compared with the private car. An alternative to this is bike-and-ride, i.e. cycling to the transit station and continuing with public transport. This study aims to find ways to increase public transport use, focusing on cycling between the home and the transit station. This is done through a literature study and a case study in Knivsta, a suburban area of Stockholm connected to the city center through commuter trains. Improvements in the current bike-and-ride infrastructure in Knivsta are suggested, using the principles of Transit Oriented Development and Theory of Planned Behavior as guidelines. The most important aspects of high bike-and-ride proportions is the provision of separate bicycle paths and plentiful high-quality bicycle parking at transit stations. The current situation in Knivsta is inadequate with few separate bicycle paths and the bicycle parking does not fulfil recommendations. Suggestions for improvements are proposed, with developing a regional bicycle highway network in addition to other bicycle paths throughout the town of Knivsta, in addition to increased and improved bicycle parking at Knivsta train station to fulfil the requirements of the future as Knivsta is expected to double in population towards 2030. The changes proposed to the bicycle infrastructure in Knivsta have potential to increase public transport use, decreasing private car and park-and-ride use. Due to the bicycle network being convenient and accessible for virtually everyone, the municipality will develop towards environmental, economic, and social sustainability.

Sammanfattning Att minska privat bilanvändning är avgörande för utvecklingen mot hållbarhet. Det lämpligaste alternativet är att ersätta bilen med kollektivtrafik. Snabb kollektivtrafik, så som tåg, har stora upptagningsområden, vilket innebär att promenaden till tågstationen kan vara tidskrävande och restiden jämfört med bilen är hög. Ett alternativ till detta är bike-and-ride, dvs. att ta cykeln till stationen och fortsätta resan med kollektivtrafik. Denna studie syftar till att hitta sätt att öka kollektivtrafikens användning, med fokus på cyklande mellan hemmet och stationen. Till detta används en litteraturstudie och en fallstudie i Knivsta, en förort till Stockholm ansluten till stadens centrum med pendeltåg och regionala tåg. Förbättringar av den nuvarande bike-and-ride infrastrukturen i Knivsta föreslås, med hjälp av principerna för Transit Oriented Development (transitorienterad utveckling) och Theory of Planned Behavior (teori om planerad beteende) som riktlinjer. De viktigaste aspekterna till högt utnyttjande av bike-and-ride är att förse området med separata cykelvägar och riklig cykelparkering av hög kvalité vid tågstationer. Den nuvarande situationen i Knivsta är otillfredsställande med endast några separata cykelvägar och cykelparkering som inte uppfyller rekommendationer. Förslag till förbättringar läggs fram genom utvecklandet av ett regionalt snabbcykelnätverk samt andra cykelvägar genom hela Knivsta, förutom ökad och förbättrad cykelparkering vid Knivsta station som uppfyller framtida krav då Knivstas befolkning förväntas dubblas mot 2030. De förändringar som föreslås här till cykelinfrastrukturen i Knivsta har potential att öka utnyttjandet av kollektivtrafik, vilket minskar bilanvändning och hjälper samhället att utvecklas emot hållbarhet. Eftersom cykelnätet är lämpligt och tillgängligt för praktiskt taget alla, kommer kommunen att utvecklas mot ekologisk, ekonomisk och social hållbarhet.

Preface

This thesis is written as part of the Master’s programme Sustainable Urban Planning and Design, with emphasis on Urban and Regional Studies, within the school of Architecture and the Built Environment at KTH Royal Institute of Technology. It is written during the spring of 2019 and accounts for 30 ECTS credits. The research is done independently, with expertise and workspace provided by Iterio AB. I want to thank my supervisor Sofie Malm at Iterio AB for guidance during the research period, and Anders Karlström at KTH for valuable advice resulting in an improved final result.

Stockholm, June 2019 Helga Magnadóttir

1 Introduction

1.1 Sustainability Sustainability is defined by the Brundtland report as ‘development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs’, addressing economy, environment, and social equity simultaneously (WCED, 1987). Ever since the publication of the report, sustainability in all forms has gradually become a larger part of politicians’ and planners’ work (Hedegaard et al., 2013). The transport sector is directly connected to all three aspects of sustainability and has therefore great potential when it comes to developing society towards a more sustainable existence, whether it is environmental, economic, or social. Transport enables mobility, which is crucial for people’s access to employment and recreation, in addition to trading and the internal market, thus contributing to economic and social sustainability. However, transport also generates great concerns for environmental sustainability, as road transport and private car use result in e.g. massive greenhouse gas emissions, congestion, noise, air pollution, and substantial land use (White Paper, 2011; Nordfjærn et al., 2014). Private car dependency can also result in social discrimination, as those unable or unwilling to purchase and drive a private car do not have the same mobility opportunities as those who can and will. The Paris Agreement from 2015 addresses the necessity of avoiding, adapting to, or coping with coming climate change. Ambitious targets and actions to substantially reduce greenhouse gas emissions are crucial cornerstones to achieve this (Rogelj et al., 2016). In 2016, the transport sector contributed to 20% of total greenhouse gas emissions within the EU, excluding international aviation and maritime emissions (EEA, 2018). Emissions by road transport were 22% above 1990 levels (ibid), while towards 2050, the target is to have reduced emissions by 60% compared to 1990 levels (White Paper, 2011). Of the greenhouse gas emissions caused by the transport sector within the EU in 2016, 72% came from road transport, and 44% was caused by private cars (EEA, 2018). It is therefore clear that in order to reach the long-term emission reduction targets and increased sustainability, the use of private cars will have to decrease remarkably.

1.2 Public transport Private car use generates congestion, noise, air pollution, and land use, in addition to being more prone to accidents and injuries compared to public transport use (Nordfjærn et al., 2014; Albertsson & Falkmer, 2005). Reducing private car use is therefore crucial, while maintaining the freedom and mobility possibilities the private car allows. These traits can be upheld through promoting and developing a well-structured public transport system within urban environments, as it is remarkably more environmentally sustainable than private car use and can fulfil mobility needs with lower emissions (Ceder, 2007). Private car use has long exceeded acceptable societal costs, and choosing public transport rather than the private car reduces these costs, increasing the transport sector’s economic sustainability (Greene & Wegener, 1997). A well-executed public transport system also increases social equity, as it enables mobility and increases accessibility for those unable to purchase and/or drive a private car. In Stockholm, Sweden, the public transport system, consisting of commuter trains, metro, trams, and buses, is quite extensive, allowing most residents to easily access the public

6 transport system. The public transport in the Stockholm region has exceptionally good sustainability potential compared to the private car as all railway traffic is powered by electricity from renewable sources, and all buses by biofuel or electricity (Trafikförvaltningen, 2017a). It is therefore clear that increasing the share of public transport of all travels in the Stockholm region, thus reducing private car use, might reduce greenhouse gas emissions from the transport sector tremendously. Storstockholms Lokaltrafik (SL) emphasizes sustainable development, focusing on all aspects of sustainability, and works systematically towards increasing the share of public transport. In 2015, 49% of all travels in the Stockholm region were made by public transport, the goal for 2020 is to reach 51,5%, and the long-term goal is to reach 54% by 2030 (ibid).

1.3 Mixed-mode transport One of public transport’s weakest points is accessibility of stops and stations, which can often be inconvenient and time consuming. This inconvenience often results in a longer door-to-door travel time than if the private car is used, reducing the attractiveness of public transport (Martens, 2007). This is true for all types of public transport, even the fastest types, such as commuter trains (Rietveld, 2000). The most common access mode to public transit stops is walking (Keijer and Rietveld, 2000). However, this is a particularly slow transport mode. Train stations usually have considerably larger catchment areas than slower types of public transport, such as trams and buses (Martens, 2007), which results in a longer, thus more time-consuming, walk to reach the station, increasing door-to-door travel time even further. Under these circumstances, mixed- mode transport might be a good alternative to walking to the transit stop to reduce the door-to- door travel time, thus increasing the attractiveness of public transport. Mixed modes include replacing the walking component with bicycle (bike-and-ride), other public transport, or even private car (park-and-ride). As described above, private car use should be discouraged when developing towards a sustainable transport system. Despite the private car only being used as a feeder for public transport, other feeder modes are to be preferred, as cold starts generate high pollution, and emissions generated by combustion engines are a direct threat to the environment (Martens, 2004; Hedegaard et al., 2013). Moreover, air quality does not improve significantly through increased public transit use if most passengers use park-and-ride, and replacing park-and-ride with bike-and-ride can potentially decrease heat-island effects and oil runoff into streams in addition to other environmental benefits reached through reduced car use (Cervero et al., 2015). Using a private car to reach a transit stop is therefore to be avoided when working towards increased sustainability. An alternative to the private car as a feeder is another type of public transit, e.g. taking the bus to the train station. Buses usually have smaller catchment areas than trains, thus most people should be able to reach a bus stop within a few minutes walking from their homes (Martens, 2007). While this feeder mode can be convenient for some, it requires scheduling, and often additional waiting, especially in suburban areas where distance between bus stops might be longer and frequency of buses substantially lower than that in central urban areas. Taking the bus to the train is therefore not attractive for everyone, as it might increase the door- to-door travel time, thus reducing the attractiveness of this mode.

The third alternative to walking to a transit stop is cycling (bike-and-ride). The bicycle has a continuous character, requires no additional scheduling and eliminates the waiting component of relying on a second public transport mode. The bicycle is therefore substantially more convenient and flexible as a feeding mode than public transport (Martens, 2007). Furthermore, cycling is considerably faster than walking, with an average speed of 16-20 km/h (Wallberg & Hårdstedt, 2010; Eriksson et al., 2017), compared to the average walking speed of 4-5 km/h (Mohler et al., 2007; Fritz et al., 2009). The feeding component can therefore be sped up 4-5x by cycling to the train station rather than walking, potentially decreasing door-to-door time to an extent that it can compete with the private car. The time relation between public transport and private car can be decreased from 1.43 to 1.25 if the bicycle is used as a feeder, rather than walking or other types of public transport (Martens, 2007). Cycling is a reasonable option for virtually everyone not suffering from severe physical disabilities, as it requires no special clothing or equipment other than a bicycle, a secure bicycle lock, and preferably a helmet, which can all be easily obtained at reasonable prices. Cycling towards transit also extends the stations’ catchment areas at hardly any cost, compared to feeder buses and park-and-ride facilities (Pucher & Buehler, 2010). The bicycle is remarkably more sustainable than the private car through e.g. reduced energy use, air pollution, noise, and lower congestion (Martens, 2004&2007). In addition to direct environmental benefits, cycling can have great positive health effects through increased physical activity. A study carried out by the University of Glasgow showed that commuting by bicycle or mixed mode including cycling is related to a lower risk of all-cause mortality compared with non-active commuting or walking/mixed mode including walking (Celis- Morales et al., 2017). In the study, 80% of mixed mode cycling commuters achieved physical activity guidelines, whereas only 50% of mixed mode walking and non-active commuters did. Replacing the private car or the walking component of public transport with cycling therefore has great potential to increase people’s health and overall physical activity. In Stockholm, bicycles are not allowed on buses, the metro, and most light-rail systems, and is only allowed on commuter trains under strict restrictions (SL, n.d.). Due to these restrictions, the bicycle usually needs to be parked at the transit stop, and thus might only be available as a feeding mode in access trips (at the home end), and not in egress trips (at the activity end), causing asymmetry in bicycle availability, as most people store their bicycles at home. This asymmetry in bicycle availability might reduce the attractiveness of bike-and-ride, and can be difficult to deal with. The main solutions to this are to purchase a second bicycle, storing it at the activity end of the trip, or providing bike rentals/shared bicycles at main stations (Martens, 2004&2007; Keijer & Rietveld, 2000). Nevertheless, these solutions are not optimal as obtaining a second bicycle generates additional expenses, and rental bicycles are often not available. Despite various projects, including providing rental and shared bicycles at transit stops in countries with high cycling and bike-and-ride shares, the share of the bicycle in egress trips keeps four to nine times lower than in access trips (Martens, 2007&2004).

1.4 Aim The main aim of this study is to find ways to increase sustainability through high public transport use, focusing on the feeding component between home and the transit station. As the most preferable alternative to walking to transit stops seems to be cycling, this study will attempt to promote bike-and-ride use in a suburb of Stockholm already connected to the city

8 center through the commuter train. This will be done through assessing the current facilities and convenience of bike-and-ride in the area, and to suggest possible improvements to increase the use of bike-and-ride within the community towards the future, taking planned developments and expansions into account. Main emphasis will be put on improving the physical facilities, while promotional measures of a marketing nature will also be touched upon. The study is performed in Knivsta, a town of 8.200 in Uppsala region, which is connected to the city center and Uppsala with trains, and has high ambitions for increased sustainability towards the future.

2 Methods and theoretical frameworks In order to achieve the aim, a literature study is performed regarding the concepts of bike-and- ride and public transport in general, in addition to looking at bike-and-ride projects already executed around the world, focusing on western countries with high proportions of bicycling, such as the Netherlands, Denmark, and Germany. Moreover, the theoretical frameworks of Transit Oriented Development, the Theory of Planned Behavior, habits, and resistance to change will be explored and used to maximize the potential of implementing a successful bike- and-ride policy. The theories will be combined into real life through a case study that will be carried out in Knivsta.

2.1 Transit Oriented Development Transit Oriented Development (TOD) is defined by Carlton (2009) as ‘a mixed-use community that encourages people to live near transit services, decreasing their dependence on driving’. TOD is a powerful tool that has great potential to solve sustainability issues related to urban sprawl and car dependency, as it emphasizes public transport use, accessibility and mixed land use (Sohoni et al., 2017; Sahu, 2018). TODs are usually implemented through fixed rail systems (commuter trains or metro), or by high-quality non-rail systems, such as Bus Rapid Transit systems (BRT), with their guidelines being ‘the 6 Ds’; Density, Diversity, Distance to transit, Design, Destination accessibility, and Demand Management (Gratton et al., 2012). Density refers to population density; Diversity is a measurement of mixed land use; Distance to transit refers to the walkable and cyclable distance from origin to transit station; Design focuses on urban design principles such as parking, block size, cycling paths etc.; and Destination accessibility refers to the necessity of transit being accessible through availability, fare, frequency, and route (ibid).

Figure 2-1 Illustration of a well-structured Transit Oriented Development compared to a non-TOD area. Source: Barnett, 2013.

Figure 2-1 shows a typical structure of a successful TOD neighborhood, compared to a non-TOD area. Mixed land use with commercial buildings and high-density residential units are located closest to the transit stop, with lower density residential housing and parks located further from the station, still within walking/cycling distance from the transit stop. Utilizing TOD principles when planning for the expansion and development of an urban area could potentially result in a more attractive urban environment with higher public transport use and less car dependency. Here, the focus will primarily lie within public transport use and accessibility rather than land use and spatial planning; thus, the principles of Distance to transit, Design, and Destination accessibility will be emphasized. There are several travel-related objectives of TOD, e.g. increasing opportunities to fulfil daily needs through transit or walking/cycling, attracting new riders to use public transit, shift park-and ride towards bike- and-ride and walking, reducing car ownership and traffic, and improving the environment through less emissions (Evans et al., 2007). Emphasizing the transport related principles of Transit Oriented Development within this project should therefore be helpful when working towards reduced private car use and increased public transport use.

2.2 Theory of Planned Behavior, habits and resistance to change Merely providing necessary and convenient facilities for public transport use and bike-and-ride might not be enough to generate use of the facilities. People’s behavioral patterns and their willingness to change them is equally important – there is no point in the provision of high- quality bicycle facilities and public transport if people are not ready to change their behavioral patterns and use these facilities. Therefore, the theories of Planned Behavior, habits, and resistance to change are explored in order to enable successful use of bike-and-ride. People’s previous behavior has been found to influence future behavior, e.g. when the car has been used repeatedly over a period of time, the choice to take the car becomes a scripted behavior - i.e. a habit - rather than an actual choice (Gärling & Axhausen, 2003; Verplanken et al., 1997). The Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB), which is designed to explain and predict human behavior in certain contexts, questions these hypotheses (Ajzen, 1991). According to TPB, the likeliness of a person performing a certain behavior can be predicted through three types of intentions; an individual’s attitude towards the behavior, i.e. positive or negative evaluation of the behavior; subjective norms, i.e. whether the individual feels social pressure to perform or not perform the behavior; and their perceived behavioral control, the individual’s perception of how easy or difficult performing the behavior will be (ibid). Figure 2-2 shows the main aspects of TPB graphically. TPB’s significance and credibility has been tested by Nordfjærn et al. (2014), who carried out a research on the components of the Theory of Planned Behavior, car habit, and resistance to change, in relation to public transport use. The initial hypothesis was that repeated car use results in the development of a ‘car habit’, i.e. the choice of traveling by car is no longer an actual deliberate choice, but a result of scripted mental behavior. This again results in the person being less attentive to information on new behavioral alternatives, such as public transport, or bike-and-ride (Bamberg et al., 2003b). Moreover, a person’s predisposition towards routine changes can affect their intention to use public transport (Oreg, 2003). Nordfjærn et al. (2014) compared these three theories in connection to public transport use. The data was put into models, and, surprisingly, an isolated TPB model proved to have the best fit to the data, while the car habit and resistance to change models had a weak fit to the data.

That is, the criteria in TPB proved more influential on people’s choice of using public transport than those of car habit and general resistance to change, questioning Oreg’s (2003) hypothesis. Subjective norms and perceived behavioral control, two of the criteria in TPB, were found to be important for public transport use, contradicting previous findings by e.g. Gärling and Axhausen (2003), which suggested that habits influence mode use stronger than social cognition.

Figure 2-2 Graphic explanation of the Theory of Planned Behavior. Source: Ajzen, 1991. As found by Nordfjærn et al., (2014), transport mode use can be influenced through social pressure, encouragement from others, and through promoting the advantages of using public transport rather than the private car, such as environmental benefit, less congestion, better health and increased safety. Nevertheless, solely focusing on social aspects to reduce car use might not be adequate. Other research has found that habits could have the strongest influence on travel choice when conditions remain stable (see Bamberg et al., 2003a; Verplanken et al., 2008). When attempting to break the car habit within an area, policy makers and governments should strive to induce a change in context (Bamberg et al. 2003b; Yazdanpanah & Hosseinlou, 2017). However, the window of opportunity to influence people’s travel behavior is only three months after a context change (Verplanken & Roy, 2016), and planners need to be aware of this limited window when developing an area. The concepts of TPB will be useful in this project as it helps shed light on people’s expected use of bike-and-ride, and what factors encourage people to choose other means of transport than the private car. With the help of TPB for the bike-and-ride development, one should aim to positively influence people’s perception of the facilities and encourage positive dialogues within society. This could be done through advertisements, campaigns and other types of commercial promotion. The municipality should furthermore ensure that accessibility and user-friendliness of the bike-and-ride system is high, in addition to ensuring that people gain the perception of being in control of the situation and can easily use the public transport system. Through using TPB as a guiding tool, simple measures could prove to positively affect bike-and-ride and public transport use significantly.

2.3 Delimitations This research is primarily twofold; a literature review regarding cycling and bike-and-ride in general, and a case study in Knivsta. Although the literature review mainly includes research from countries and cities with high populations and high cycling proportions, it is performed with the small town of Knivsta in mind. Successful methods to increase cycling proportions that require high population, high density, frequent public transport, or other aspects characteristic for large cities are thus not considered and researched further. Policies requiring changes in national or international guidelines are avoided, focusing mainly on policies that can be implemented by a relatively small municipality. Moreover, the aspects of the theoretical framework are limited to the scope of this research, focusing mainly on the guidelines of Transit Oriented Development that concern transport and mobility, and people’s behavior in connection with transport, primarily cycling and public transport use.

3 Literature review The city of Stockholm focuses on encouraging sustainable travels, such as public transport and cycling, rather than relying on the private car throughout the region (Stockholms stad, 2018a). Roughly half of all commute travels to and from work are done with public transport, and the proportion for cycling is as high as 18% during autumn, but drops to 7% during winter (Stockholms stad, 2017; Stockholms stad, 2018b). Nevertheless, the bicycle’s share in all trips made is only 8%, and one of the transportation goals for the region is to increase the proportion of cycling throughout the year, reaching 20% of all trips by 2030 (Trafikförvaltningen, 2017b; Trafikverket, 2014). The countries with highest proportions of cycling for daily travel are the Netherlands, Denmark, and Germany, with up to a quarter of all trips being done by bicycle (Pucher & Buehler, 2008). It is therefore only natural to look to these countries when seeking inspiration and information on what measures have proven successful when increasing proportion of cycling and bike-and-ride. The bicycle’s success in these countries is based on multiple measures, mainly bicycle encouraging, but also car discouraging. Bicycle encouraging measures include ensuring safety in cycling, separate cycling facilities, plentiful bicycle parking, good integration with public transport, education and training of cyclists and motorists, in addition to promotional events to increase enthusiasm and support for cycling (ibid). Complementing these bicycle-friendly measures, driving is made expensive and inconvenient through taxes and restrictions regarding car use, parking, and ownership, in addition to several government policies concerning transport, land-use, development, and environment (ibid). Although cycling has been actively promoted for decades, active measures and investment to promote bike-and-ride were more or less absent until the 1990s (Martens, 2007). Various measures to increase cycling have been successfully implemented throughout the world whereas little is known about the effect of these measures on bike-and-ride proportions (ibid). Research and recommendations here will therefore be built on measures to increase cycling overall, while angling towards promotion of precisely bike-and-ride. Various policies will be looked at; safety, cycling paths, bicycle parking, encouraging bicycle policies, and car discouraging policies.

3.1 Safety in cycling Increased safety in cycling is crucial when promoting cycling and increasing cycling proportions (Rietveld & Daniel, 2004). Cycling in the Netherlands, Denmark and Germany is safe, with less than two fatalities per 100 million km cycled, despite the majority riding on inexpensive bikes, not wearing safety helmets or special cycling outfits (Pucher & Buehler, 2008). Several studies have and proven the principle of ‘safety in numbers’, i.e. the higher proportion of cyclists and pedestrians there is within a society, the fewer are killed and injured, proportionally (see e.g. Elvik, 2009; Jacobsen et al., 2009; Jacobsen, 2003). This decrease in fatalities and injuries is suspected to be due to increased awareness and attention to cyclists among motorists and pedestrians coinciding with an increased number of cyclists in traffic (Wallén Warner et al., 2018). Working towards increased cycling should therefore be expected to automatically result in safer cycling, consequently attracting even more cyclists (Jacobsen, 2003). Increased safety is directly connected to increased cycling, and numerous studies also show that the cyclists’ perceived safety while cycling is an equally crucial component in

13 increasing cycling proportions, as perceived danger has a significant negative affect on bicycle use (Rietveld & Daniel, 2004; Noland, 1995). In order to increase cycling safety, a coordinated, multi-faceted policy approach is needed (Pucher & Buehler, 2008). Undoubtedly, the most important measure to generate safe, convenient and attractive cycling is the provision of separate cycling lanes and paths, bicycle parking, and coordination with public transport, in addition to cycling priority at traffic lights, traffic calming and traffic education and training among cyclists and motorists (ibid).

3.2 Bicycle paths

3.2.1 Local bicycle paths Several studies have shown that provision of separate bicycle paths affect cycling proportions positively (see e.g. Pucher & Buehler, 2012; Dill & Carr, 2003; Parkin et al., 2008). However, for cycling to become convenient and safe, these facilities must be well-coordinated into a wholesome system, with off-street shortcuts and passages through dead-end streets (Pucher & Buehler, 2008). The bicycle lanes should enable the cyclist to choose the most direct route, while staying on separate lanes or lightly travelled streets for most of the trip (ibid). The foundation of the most successful bicycle countries is the vast provision of separate cycling paths, which increase cycling’s attractiveness and safety (Pucher & Buehler, 2008, Krizek et al., 2007). Although not sufficient, the provision of separate bicycle paths is essential to enable all social groups to cycle (Garrard et al., 2008). Multiple research shows that the most important aspect of a cyclist’s route choice is low travel time, although facility types have a significant effect on the route choice as well (Krizek et al., 2007). Surveys conducted by Tilahun et al. (2005) and Krizek et al. (2007) revealed that people are willing to travel up to twice as long and 67% farther from an unmarked on-road facility to reach an off-road bicycle path. Nonetheless, providing separate bicycle paths will not attract bike-and-ride users living far from the transit station. Over 70% of bike-and-ride users in the Netherlands, Germany, and the UK cycle less than 4 km to the train station (Martens, 2004) therefore the bicycle network should be concentrated within this distance of the transit station. Bicycle paths need to fulfil certain criteria in order to become safe, convenient and attractive to cyclists of all social groups. In Sweden a shared cycling and walking path is required to be a minimum of 2,5 m (Trafikverket, 2015c), but should preferably have separation between pedestrians and cyclists with a 2,0 m walking path and 1,3 m cycling path (ibid). The most preferred path is bidirectional bicycle path of at least 2,3 m separated from a walking path of at least 1,8 m (Trafikverket, 2015b). To ensure safety and use of bicycle paths throughout the day and year, the path needs to be lit with appropriate lighting and well maintained (Trafikverket, 2014). Relying on Figure 3-1 Recommended dimensions of a street lighting for bicycle paths along the street is often cycling and walking path along a street. insufficient, as the lighting is then unequal and some areas Source: Trafikverket, 2014. can become completely darkened (ibid). This can cause dangerous situations as the cyclist’s view is restricted, and perceived safety is decreased, which can affect the cycling proportions

14 negatively (ibid). In addition to sufficient lighting, the paths need to be well maintained throughout the year with sweeping and snow and ice clearance during winter. This is important as 40% of all single bicycle accidents are caused by lacking maintenance, and single bicycle accidents are 70% of all bicycle accidents (ibid). Snow clearance and salting is crucial in keeping up the bicycle proportions, as poor winter maintenance increases travel time by up to 60%, which decreases attractiveness of cycling, as the most important aspect of cycling is keeping travel time low (ibid; Krizek et al., 2007). 3.2.2 Regional bicycle paths In order to reach a high proportion of cycling commuters within an urban environment, a well- developed regional bicycle network is helpful. If well executed, they generate a network of passable and safe bicycle paths convenient for fast cycling, up to 30-40 km/h (Trafikverket, 2014), which tremendously helps the bicycle’s feasibility as a competitor to the private car. To maintain high convenience for all cyclists, the regional bicycle paths need to be wide enough to allow faster cyclists to overtake slower cyclists without conflicts (ibid). Recommendations by Trafikverket for regional cycling and walking paths are shown in Table 3-1 depicts the minimal width of different cycling paths. Table 3-1 Recommendations for width of regional bicycle paths. Source: Trafikverket (2014). Path type Minimum width High standard Bidirectional walking and 4.3 m – cycling path 2.5 m + 5.3 m – cycling path 3.5 m + cycling path walking path 1.8 m walking path 1.8 m Unidirectional cycling path 3.8 m – cycling path 2.0 m + 4.8 m – cycling path 3.0 m + with walking path walking path 1.8 m walking path 1.8 m Bidirectional cycling path 3.25 m 4.5 m Unidirectional cycle path 2.25 m 3.25 m In addition to fulfilling width requirements, regional bicycle paths need to be safely separated from car traffic and other obstructions, such as fences and trees. Increased traffic speed requires a larger dividing strip (Trafikverket, 2014). Separation should also be done between pedestrians and cyclists. This is usually done by a painted stripe on the ground or different paving, e.g. asphalt on the cycling path and tiles on the walking path - separation through different heights should be avoided as this is a safety hazard (ibid). The main purpose of separating traffic groups is to eliminate conflicts between them, thus increasing safety for all travellers, which in turn increases the attractiveness of cycling for all social groups (Pucher & Buehler, 2008). Table 3-2 shows the recommendations used by the region of Stockholm. Table 3-2 Separation recommendations between bicycle paths and car traffic and other obstacles. Source: Trafikverket (2014). Obstacle type Minimum distance Parallel obstacle – fence, hedge etc. 0.5 m Fixed obstacle – post, tree, bench etc. 1.0 m Dividing strip from road 1.0 m + kerb Dividing strip from road >60 km/h 0.5 m + fence Cyclists’ visibility range on a regional bicycle path should be at least 35 m at all times. This means that the path should be straight if possible, and curve radii larger than 40 m, as this

15 increases the visibility range and overall passability and comfort when cycling (Trafikverket, 2014). Regional bicycle paths should have smooth asphalt and be thoroughly maintained to keep similar standards as the largest roads for motorized traffic (ibid). Following these principles result in convenient, attractive, high-quality bicycle paths.

3.3 Bicycle parking and storage In addition to high-quality bicycle path networks, well-organized bicycle parking systems contribute to increased attractiveness of cycling (EC, n.d.a). One obvious aspect of encouraging higher bike-and-ride proportions is the provision of safe and convenient bicycle parking at transit stations (ibid), and part of the bicycle’s success in the Netherlands can be directly connected to this (Martens, 2007). The Dutch Ministry of Transport carried out a project, ‘Space for the Bicycle’, which emphasized increase and improvements in bicycle parking facilities at train stations. The project was a success, with bike-and-ride users’ satisfaction rates rising from 5.3 to 7.1 (of 10), in addition to a significant growth in number of bicycles parked at the upgraded facilities (ibid). The guidelines used for the project included facilitating a mix of secure and regular parking at all stations, ensuring that the walking distance between the secure parking and station entrance is no more than 200 meters; and parking facilities should be clearly visible from busy areas and streets to reduce theft and vandalism (ibid). Sufficient bicycle parking availability is also a key aspect, with a 20% overcapacity to simplify the search for a free parking space for bike-and-ride users (Martens, 2007). The standard of 200 meters’ distance is first and foremost aimed at secure bicycle parking. Swedish and Norwegian guidelines recommend a distance no longer than 25-50 meters for non-guarded bicycle parking if possible, as cyclists will park their bicycle as close to the station entrance as possible (Statens Vegvesen, 2014; Trafikverket, 2015a). If the distance between the parking and station entrance exceeds 50 meters, cyclists are likely to park their bicycles outside of the parking facilities, closer to the station entrance (ibid). Public bicycle parking systems are divided into two subcategories; parking and storage. Parking facilities are simpler, often for short-term use, e.g. outside shops, whereas bicycle storage includes protected spaces such as lockers and cycle centres, used for longer term parking, e.g. outside train stations (EC, n.d.a). Storage facilities are more expensive and thus usually paid-for facilities. Various parking facilities should be provided with secure as well as simpler parking facilities, as most cyclists prefer free parking (EC, n.d.b). In order to maximize usage of the parking facilities, some criteria should be strived for, including locating the parking facilities visibly on the main accessing route to avoid detours, minimal walking distance from parking to station entrance, and providing broad opening times on closed/supervised bicycle storage (ibid).

3.3.1 Bicycle parking The simplest and cheapest bicycle parking systems are racks designed to support a standing bicycle (EC, n.d.a). Although simple, the systems need to meet certain criteria in order for cyclists to choose to park their bicycle in them; stability, theft/vandalism protection, compatibility with various bicycle types, practicality, robustness, and easy maintenance (ibid; Celis & Bølling-Ladegaard, 2007). There are various types of bicycle parking systems, such as front-wheel grips and inverted U-shape bars, among multiple others (see Figure 3-2 throughFigure 3-2). Low front-wheel grip systems should be avoided, as they are unstable, and bicycles are in danger of falling over, often being damaged in the fall or on purpose by vandals (EC, n.d.a). Moreover, they are not well protected against theft as only one wheel (typically the front wheel) is locked to the stand which enables thieves to detach the wheel and steal the rest of the bicycle. Bicycle stands that enable the cyclist to lock the frame to the stand are preferred, as they are more secure against theft and vandalism, and are compatible with virtually all bicycle types (Stockholms stad, 2008). Figure 3-2 Low front-wheel grip systems are to be Systems allowing one parked bicycle per stand avoided. Södermalm, Stockholm, 2019-04-11. should be located 60 cm apart to optimize the space. Placing the stands at 50 cm intervals results in a risk that only every other stand will be used and increasing the interval to 70 cm often results in bicycles being parked between the stands if the parking facility is full (Celis & Bølling-Ladegaard, 2007). The inverted U-shaped bar is recommended throughout the world, as it allows the bicycle frame Figure 3-3 Bicycle parking racks of this type allow the bicycle’s frame to be locked to the rack, increasing to lean against the stand and enables the frame and safety. Source: Cyklos. one wheel to be attached to the bar with one lock (EC, n.d.a; Stockholms stad, 2008). Additionally, these frames are inexpensive, robust and easily installed, do not require much maintenance and their design can easily be adjusted to fit into the space (EC, n.d.a). The city of Stockholm uses inverted U-shape bars frequently, in addition to a structure with similar attributes, as shown in Figure 3-2. As each bar can take two bicycles, one on each side, they need to be placed further apart than systems holding one bicycle. The interval between each bar should be kept 90 cm, any more or less results in the same problems as discussed above (Tjärnberg, 2019; Stockholms stad, 2008).

Figure 3-2 The most common bicycle stands used by the city of Stockholm. Source: Stockholms stad, 2008. At busy transit stations, where bicycle parking should preferably be located within 25-50 meters of the station entrance (Trafikverket, 2015a; Statens Vegvesen, 2014), the parking might need to be more compact than regular on-ground parking facilities. A solution to this is two-tier bicycle parking (see Figure 3-3), which reduces the space needed for each bicycle by up to 50% (EC, n.d.a). If using high- low systems, where bicycles are parked at slightly different levels, the bicycles can be parked even denser, as the handlebars will not collide with each other. Parking a bicycle in the upper tier often increases the perceived safety against theft, which Figure 3-3 High-low two-tier bicycle racks are highly space saving. Source: VelopA. further encourages the use of the upper tier. Lifting a heavy bicycle to the upper tier is, however, difficult for the majority of people, and it should therefore be equipped with a slide-out bicycle rack with a lifting mechanism, making the storage simple and attractive to cyclists. This mechanism also prevents the upper tier to fall down unintentionally, further increasing the user-friendliness of the system (Orion- Bausysteme, 2018). Installing two-tier racks with no lifting aid often results in the upper tier not being used due to the large effort required to lift the bicycle onto the upper tier. For longer-term parking, cyclists usually value higher security and weather-protection for their bicycles, and are often willing to walk further to reach these parking spaces (APBP, 2015). Therefore, a substantial portion of bicycle parking at transit stations should be weather protected to increase attractiveness of cycling to the station. Most bicycle parking facilities discussed above are compatible with weather protection, which should be clear and open to increase insight and overview, decreasing chances of theft and vandalism. Weather-protecting roofs without outer constructive pillars are to be preferred as they increase accessibility to the bicycle parking (Cyklos, n.d.). Some producers even provide weather protection compatible with power outlets to charge electric bicycles with electricity produced by solar cells (ibid). To further encourage safety and usage of bicycle parking throughout the year, parking facilities should be sufficiently lit with appropriate lighting (ibid). Providing sufficient bicycle parking

at transit stations is crucial to encourage bike-and-ride within a society. There are no national guidelines for how many parking spaces should be present at a transit station, but the general reference used in Sweden is 5-15 parking spaces per 100 passengers (Trafikverket, 2014; Trafikförvaltningen, 2014). A general rule is to provide a 20% overcapacity of bicycle parking to simplify the search for a free parking space, and to eliminate problems arising from orphan bicycles, which are abandoned bicycles left at the bicycle parking (Martens, 2007).

Figure 3-4 Weather-protected bicycle parking is recommended at places with long-term parking, e.g. at transit stations. Source: Left: Cyklos. Right: Falco.

3.3.2 Bicycle storage Bicycle storage facilities are facilities designed to be used by cyclists for long-term parking (up to several days). They are usually more secure than regular bicycle parking stands, access- restricted, and are sometimes even supervised by staff (EC, n.d.b). There are a range of available bicycle storage facilities, such as individual or shared bicycle lockers or bicycle garages. These facilities are first and foremost provided for users that are especially concerned with safety and vandalism; typically those with expensive bicycles, or those planning to leave their bicycle overnight (Envall, 2018). Individual bicycle lockers can be installed in stations where high-quality theft and vandalism protection is needed, but supervised bicycle storage is not feasible or available, such as at small railway stations (EC, n.d.a). Individual bicycle lockers are ‘boxes’ that can hold one bicycle in addition to accessories such as helmets and clothes (see Figure 3-5). Stockholm Parkering strives to simplify and encourage sustainable travelling, e.g. through improving and increasing the availability of secure and weather-protected bicycle parking facilities in the form

Figure 3-5 Typical compact bicycle lockers, and lockers used by Stockholm Parkering. Sources: Left: Cyclesafe. Right: Stockholm Parkering.

19 of bicycle lockers. Located in several car parking facilities, varying from 1 to 10 boxes in each location, the lockers are leased beforehand, costing 100 SEK/month (Stockholm Parkering, n.d.). As shown in Figure 3-5, lockers can be stacked on two floors to save space. As lifting a heavy bicycle to the top locker is difficult, the top lockers are equipped with a slide-out bicycle rack with a lifting mechanism similar to that of two-tier bicycle parking racks, making the storage simple and attractive to cyclists (ibid). Locking and unlocking of these lockers can be done in various ways; with traditional ways such as keys and padlocks, or with technology- based locking such as access cards, keypads, and mobile apps (EC, n.d.a). Allowing unrestricted time in the lockers can be problematic as it might lead to monopolization of the lockers, or they can be used for other purposes than storing bicycles (ibid), thus reducing the attractiveness and purpose of the bicycle lockers. Using electronic lockers increases the flexibility, as one could book a locker in advance through a mobile app, and time restrictions could be added. Although bicycle lockers are secure, user-friendly, and inexpensive compared to guarded parking, they are quite space inefficient and can be difficult to integrate well into public space. They are also more expensive than other bicycle parking facilities and should therefore only be installed if there is a substantial risk of theft or vandalism in the parking area. Another option to secure bicycle storage is indoor bicycle garages, supervised or not. Construction and maintenance of these garages is quite costly and is only viable if the parking area is used by a large number of cyclists (EC, n.d.a; Celis & Bølling-Ladegaard, 2007). Bicycle garages are used widely in cities with high cycling proportions and limited ground space, such as Amsterdam, Muenster, and Odense. In smaller urban areas, where the number of cyclists does not reach that of making bicycle garages a viable option, smaller on-ground bicycle garages can be feasible. They are simpler, cheaper, and more flexible than full-blown garages. These have been introduced in multiple smaller urban areas of Sweden during the last years, e.g. in Umeå and Katrineholm. The garages have a fixed number of bicycle racks, with one or two tiers, are located on ground level, open 24/7, and are only accessible for registered users. Users need to register online for a subscription of 50-80 SEK/month, and gain access to the garage through their public transport cards (Katrineholms kommun, n.d.; Umeå kommun, 2018). The garages are made of glass, making the garage an eye- catching and attractive center point within the station area. Furthermore, the garage in Figure 3-6 3-7 Small bicycle garage, similar to those of Katrineholm and Katrineholm is equipped with Umeå. Source: Cyklos. lockers where cyclists can store their helmets and additional clothing, power outlets to charge electrical bicycles, a small bicycle service station outside the garage, and solar cells on the roof, providing the garage with electricity from renewable sources (Sveriges miljömål, 2018). The garages in Katrineholm and Umeå have been a success among users (ibid), but the income does neither cover the operating nor investment costs (Söderholm, 2019).

3.4 Indirect bicycle encouraging policies Governmental policies concerning increased cycling and bike-and-ride use through improving aspects of the physical cycling and bicycle parking environment are, as discussed above, crucial for the increase in satisfied users, however the world’s most successful bicycle countries use policies discouraging car use in addition, to indirectly influence bicycle use positively. These policies are both to make driving more expensive, through sales taxes on new cars and petrol, and high parking fees; and less convenient, through e.g. limited parking, narrowed streets, traffic calming in residential streets, and one-way streets (Pucher & Buehler, 2008). Campaigns promoting the positive aspects of biking and using bike-and-ride facilities can also prove successful (ibid). According to the Theory of Planned Behavior, people’s positive perception and intention to perform a certain behavior are highly influential to them actually choosing to perform the behavior (Ajzen, 1991). In addition to a context change, provided by the government’s initiative to improve bicycle parking, bicycle paths etc., promotional campaigns carried out within three months of the change in context can be positively influential to people’s change in behavior towards increased cycling and bike-and-ride use (Verplanken & Roy, 2016). The largest bicycle cities of the Netherlands, Denmark and Germany use various policies to increase bicycle use, including public awareness campaigns. Odense, the ‘cycling city’ of Denmark, is perhaps the city with the most creative campaigns. ‘Get rid of the sack’ was a campaign performed in Odense, aimed at overweight, middle-aged men, to encourage them to take up cycling through emphasizing the health benefits achieved from cycling (Pucher & Buehler, 2007&2008). The campaign included TV spots, advertisements, go-cards distributions in addition to ‘Meet the Sack’, a man dressed in a potato sack on the street distributing information on health benefits of cycling (Andersen, n.d.). The ‘Cycling Duckie’ is a campaign aimed at children, distributing balloons, candy, and bicycle accessories to children learning how to cycle (Pucher & Buehler, 2007&2008). Campaigns as these evidently have long-term goals of encouraging children to cycle more, thus eventually generating a high proportion of the adult population to be comfortable with cycling (ibid). A study performed by Pucher and Buehler (2007) on the two largest bicycle cities in the Netherlands, Denmark, and Germany, show that bicycle policies mainly focus on increased physical bicycle infrastructure, such as separate paths and parking, with the goal to increase safety and convenience of cycling, rather than marketing campaigns. Even in Odense, a study among cyclists showed that these measures are appreciated higher than promotional campaigns (ibid). It is therefore clear that improving cycling infrastructure is far more important than promotional campaigns and should therefore be emphasized when promoting and encouraging cycling within an urban environment.

4 Case study: Knivsta municipality

4.1 Introduction to Knivsta The municipality of Knivsta is part of Uppsala region, located 20 km south of Uppsala, and 55 km north of central Stockholm. Knivsta is connected to Stockholm and Uppsala by commuter and regional trains (operated by SL and SJ), and by the motorway E4 (see Figure 4-1). Inhabitants in the municipality are roughly 18.000, and the vision for 2025 is to have reached 25.000 inhabitants, which makes the municipality one of the fastest developing municipalities in Sweden (Knivsta kommun, 2018). Currently, 77% of the municipality’s residents live in Knivsta and Alsike, and this proportion is expected to rise towards the future as the main development will take place in the two towns (Knivsta kommun, 2017a). The built area within Knivsta and Alsike is primarily low-rise buildings (1-2 floors), only with high-rise buildings (3+ Figure 4-1 The geographical location of Knivsta municipality floors) scattered in Knivsta (see Figure between Stockholm and Uppsala. Data source: Lantmäteriet. 4-2). The municipality plans to expand and densify significantly during the coming decades, connecting the two areas of Knivsta and Alsike, with new residential buildings, light industry and green areas well connected through cycling and walking paths, with the primary development taking place within 1,5 km from the train station, which will double the number of residents in Knivsta (Knivsta kommun, 2017a; Knivsta kommun, 2018). Additionally, the municipality puts great emphasis on developing towards sustainability with inhabitants’ interests as guidelines, ranking social, economic, and environmental sustainability as equally important (ibid), as well as prioritizing walking, cycling, and public transport over the private car. Due to Knivsta municipality’s location, its access to commuter trains, and its ambitious visions and goals to expand and develop towards sustainability, the municipality was chosen as a fitting case study for this project.

Figure 4-2 Knivsta and Alsike are characterized mainly by low-rise buildings. Data source: Lantmäteriet. The town of Knivsta is the larger of two towns in Knivsta Municipality, with roughly 8.200 inhabitants in 2018, a 16% increase from 2010 (SCB, 2019). The main populated area is concentrated to the east of Knivsta station, which is serviced by commuter and regional trains (see Figure 4-2). Commuter train 40 operated by SL takes 45 minutes to Stockholm Central station, and the regional train operated by SJ takes Population at distance 30 minutes (SL, 2019). Both commuter and from Knivsta station regional trains take 10 minutes to Uppsala (ibid). On a regular working day, passengers on the 14000 commuter train are 1.800, which makes Knivsta 12000 station one of the smallest commuter train stations 10000 in the Stockholm region (SL, 2018). The vast 8000 majority of residents in Knivsta live within 1 km 6000 of the train station, and all 8.200 within 2 km, as 4000 shown in Figure 4-3. Within a 4 km radius of the 2000 train station there are 13.500 residents. The plan is 0 to keep new development within 1,5 km, focusing 0-1 km 1-2 km 2-3 km 3-4 km on development to the southwest of the train Figure 4-3 Inhabitants at distance from Knivsta station. station (Knivsta kommun, 2017a&2012). This Data source: SCB, 2017. development fits well with the ‘Density’ and 23

‘Distance to transit’ principles of Transit Oriented Development, and the ambition to include light industry within new residential areas strengthens mixed land use, following the ‘Diversity’ principle. Alsike is the other town in Knivsta municipality, located 3 km north of Knivsta. Alsike is far less populous than Knivsta, with its 4.300 inhabitants, but has grown faster than Knivsta, with a 55% population increase between 2010 and 2018 (SCB, 2019). Commuter train tracks pass through the western part of Alsike, but there is no train station in the town. Knivsta municipality aims to develop Alsike significantly, through densifying existing buildings and expanding the residential area, while preserving the characteristics of a small village (Knivsta kommun, 2017a&b). However, this ambitious development is dependent on the expansion of the railway to four tracks, and the addition of a train station in Alsike (ibid). The residential area of Alsike is currently located on the east side of the train tracks, and the planned future development will also be mostly concentrated in this area (see Figure 4-4) (ibid). Due to the uncertainties connected to the possibilities of development in Alsike and its dependence on a new train station, the focus of this project lies within the town of Knivsta.

Figure 4-4 Current development in Knivsta and Alsike compared to future development areas. The dark pink areas will be prioritized, provided that a new commuter train station will be located in Alsike. Source: Knivsta kommun, 2017a.

4.2 Current situation

4.2.1 Bicycle paths The current situation in Knivsta was assessed with a field visit on April 25th 2019, and emphasis was put on estimating the quality of bicycle paths and bicycle parking in proximity to the commuter train station. All pictures portrayed in this section are taken during the field visit in Knivsta by the author. Figure 4-5 shows a seemingly well-developed bicycle path system in Knivsta, and the region of Uppsala has expressed a wish to further develop a bicycle path network throughout the region, connecting the different municipal cores, and connecting the Uppsala region to Stockholm. As part of this regional bicycle network, a bicycle highway (‘snabbcykelväg’) is suggested between Knivsta and Alsike along the railway (Uppsala Cykelförening, 2017). Bicycle highways are designed to be smooth, focusing on passability and convenience rather than high speeds (Uppsala kommun, 2018). The commuter train station in Knivsta is well connected to bicycle paths, and has five separate bicycle parking areas, on both sides of the tracks, all strategically located in direct connection to bicycle paths.

Figure 4-5 The blue lines represent bicycle paths and/or lanes within Knivsta in 2013. Source: Knivsta kommun. As seen in Figure 4-5, Knivsta has a seemingly extensive system of bicycle paths stretching throughout most of the resident areas. Due to time limitations during the field visit, emphasis was put on assessing the quality and type of paths along the largest roads in Knivsta 26 leading towards the train station, with the possibilities of creating a network of bicycle highways in the town, to emphasize the ‘Distance to transit’ and ‘Design’ principles of Transit Oriented Development. The explored bicycle paths can be seen on Figure 4-6, and are divided into three categories; Paths with separation between cyclists and pedestrians, paths completely shared between cyclists and pedestrians, and regular sidewalks. The two former path types are separated from the streets with vegetation between, whereas sidewalks lie directly along the streets.

Figure 4-6 Bicycle paths along the largest roads in Knivsta, categorized between paths with and without separations between cyclists and pedestrians, and regular sidewalks. Orthophoto: Lantmäteriet. In total, 10.4 km of paths were looked at, of which under 5% are paths with separation between cyclists and pedestrians. The vast majority of the paths are shared between the two traffic groups, and a large portion is regular sidewalks, as can be seen in Table 4-1. Table 4-1 Distribution of bicycle path types as depicted on Figure 4-6. Length Percentage of total paths Separated paths 500 m 4.8% Shared paths 5,875 m 56.5% Sidewalks 4,019 m 38.7% Total 10,394 m 100.0% Separate bicycle and pedestrian paths Of all the examined paths, only four short stretches are paths with separation between cyclists and pedestrians, adding up to only 500 m in total (red on Figure 4-6). Furthermore, only the path going under the railway to the station’s main entrance has directional division on the

27 bicycle path, shown in Figure 4-7. This arrangement eliminates collisions and conflicts, both between cyclists and pedestrians, and cyclists coming from opposite directions. A prerequisite for this is of course that everyone knows which part of the path is reserved for what traffic group, and should be clearly marked on the path itself, and with signs. The markings on the path on Figure 4-7 clearly show which part of the path is reserved for which traffic group, and even have a clear distinction between cyclists in opposite directions. The path is well maintained, and the asphalt is smooth and convenient for cycling.

Figure 4-7 The only path with separation between pedestrians, and cyclists coming from opposite directions lies under the railway. The three other separated paths are on Apoteksvägen and Kolängsvägen in addition to a short part on the path along Gredelbyvägen, at the underpass under Gredelbyleden. These paths are not as well executed as the underpass for the railway, as they do not separate between cycling directions, and the markings on the ground have faded considerably, especially on Kolängsvägen, as shown on Figure 4-8. This lack of maintenance can cause problematic situations where people do not know or have a different perception on whether the path is separated between pedestrians and cyclists, or which half is reserved for which traffic group.

Figure 4-8 The markings on the separate paths lack maintenance, potentially causing dangerous situations. Left: Kolängsvägen. Right: Apoteksvägen Shared bicycle and pedestrian paths Over half of the examined paths are shared between cyclists and pedestrians, and separated from the street with vegetation, usually grass and occasionally by trees (red on Figure 4-6). Due to this separation from the street, most of the paths should have potential to be widened, and thus upgraded to separated walking and cycling paths, even with bidirectional cycling separation in addition, such as on Figure 4-7. A typical path of this nature is shown on Figure 4-9.

Figure 4-9 Typical shared cycling and walking paths in Knivsta. Here on Kolängsvägen and Gredelbyvägen, respectively.

Most of the paths are located along straight streets, and are thus straight themselves. There are, however, some exceptions to this, the most evident being along Gredelbyleden on the west side of the railway, and on Gredelbyvägen closest to the underpass at Gredelbyleden, in addition to multiple intersections forcing cyclists and pedestrians to take a detour to get to the street crossing. Cycling along a winding path not only results in a longer journey, but also reduces the cyclist’s view, increasing the chances of accidents, and often forces the cyclist to reduce their speed. The connection between the cycling paths on Gredelbyvägen and Gredelbyleden is currently quite inconvenient, as it forces cyclists to make a hairpin turn, subsequently slowing down remarkably, as shown on Figure 4-10.

Figure 4-10 The shared bicycle and pedestrian path on Gredelbyvägen is inconvenient as it is winding and ends in a hairpin turn when connecting onto the path on Gredelbyleden. Orthophoto: Lantmäteriet. Sidewalks The third type of bicycle path in Knivsta is on regular sidewalks, shared with pedestrians directly next to the street, as seen on Figure 4-11. These paths are quite problematic when it comes to improvement potential, as many of them are located along narrow streets surrounded by residential buildings, thus their spatial expansion potential, and alteration potential in general, is limited. This is the case on e.g. Kolängsvägen, Apoteksvägen and parts of Gredelbyleden, in addition to the bridge over the railway. The majority of the path along Gredelbyleden is separated from the street, except for 200 m, when passing Gredelby elementary school, due to the villa area’s proximity to the street. Soundproofing fences have been erected along this part to reduce noise pollution from the street for the residents of the area. The transition from path to sidewalk is quite unsafe, as the soundproofing fences create a blind corner which entails potentially dangerous situations, as shown on Figure 4-11.

Figure 4-11 Sidewalk on Ängbyvägen, and blind corner on Gredelbyleden due to soundproofing fences. Summary As discussed in section 3.1, one of the most important criteria to generate safe and convenient cycling is the provision of separate bicycle paths. The current situation in Knivsta does not reflect this, as not even 5% of the paths are separated between cyclists and pedestrians. Some paths are inconvenient due to their winding and intersections force cyclists and pedestrians to take detours to reach the street crossing. The seemingly extensive bicycle path system is, in a sense, rather a path system without the cycling component. Lighting is an important aspect of keeping a high perceived safety when cycling at night. While most of the examined paths have special lighting, the street lighting has been deemed sufficient in some areas. This is the case on e.g. Staffansvägen and large parts of Centralvägen. Although the street lighting flows onto the path/sidewalk, it might not be sufficient to keep perceived safety levels high enough for the paths to be used during darkness. 4.2.2 Bicycle parking Equally important as providing high-quality separate bicycle paths to induce bike-and-ride use is the provision of high-quality bicycle parking at transit stations. There are five areas of bicycle parking in direct proximity to the train station in Knivsta, their location is shown in Figure 4-12. Daily commuter train passengers in Knivsta are 1.800 (SL, 2018) in addition to the regional train passengers. A corresponding passenger number for the regional trains was not found, therefore the same reference number will be used as for the commuter train, i.e. a total of 3.600 passengers daily stepping on board trains at Knivsta station. The standard used by Trafikförvaltningen (2014) suggests that 180-540 bicycle parking spaces should be sufficient to serve these passengers. The five parking areas at Knivsta currently have 758 parking spaces for bicycles. During the field visit, a majority of these were occupied, suggesting that the guidelines are not sufficient for the situation in Knivsta. This suggests that one standard cannot be used for every situation, and other criteria need to be considered, such as population density and the quality and frequency of other public transport within the area, and other criteria affecting bicycle use. During the field visit the situation in each of the five parking areas was assessed with the following components in mind: number of spaces for bicycles, type of bicycle

31 rack and distance between each rack, number of parked bicycles in each area, proximity to the station entrance, and overall aesthetics and tidiness.

Figure 4-12 Locations of the five bicycle parking areas surrounding Knivsta station. Orthophoto: Lantmäteriet. Parking area 1

Figure 4-13 Parking area 1 northeast of the train station main entrance has 145 bicycle parking spaces. The first bicycle parking area is located northeast of the train station’s main entrance next to the bus center, has evidently been upgraded quite recently, and interacts well with the rest of 32 the centrum area of Knivsta. There are 145 spaces for bicycles; 75 weather-protected spaces, and 70 non-weather-protected. All bicycle racks are front-wheel grips with no option to lock the bicycle’s frame to the rack. Furthermore, the spacing between each rack is considerably shorter than the recommendations of 60 cm, with 50 cm between the racks without weather protection, and only 40 cm for the weather-protected racks, causing the bicycles’ handlebars to overlap (see Figure 4-14). Despite these inconveniences, the parking was overcrowded, with virtually every parking space occupied by bicycles, and dozens of bicycles wrongly parked outside of the racks. The walking distance from the parking to the station’s main entrance is 50-100 meters, which is slightly higher than the recommendations but is still less than one minute walking for most people. Moreover, the parking area is aesthetically appealing with swept tiled ground and vegetation. The area is wide and open and should easily allow for more parking spaces to be added in the future.

Figure 4-14 As the parking was overcrowded, there were multiple wrongly parked bicycles, and the short spacing between racks caused the bicycles’ handlebars to overlap.

Parking area 2

Figure 4-15 Parking area 2 has 220 bicycle parking spaces, many of which are defect and cannot be used. The second parking area has 220 parking spaces, all of which are front-wheel grips with no option to lock the bicycle’s frame. Furthermore, multiple of the racks are defect and not usable (see Figure 4-16). The parking area was half-full with few wrongly parked bicycles, and more or less every other space was used. None of the spaces are weather-protected, and the distance between each rack is only 40 cm, which might be a contributing factor to the low usage of the racks. This parking area is located closer to the station’s main entrance than the first area, with 50-70 meters walking distance, and should therefore be highly attractive to bike-and-ride users. However, the main bicycle paths of Knivsta lead more directly to other, more aesthetically pleasing parking areas, which might reduce the attractiveness of this parking area. The area is in serious need of renovation, and is aesthetically unattractive with weeds, leaves and uneven asphalt combined with areas of gravel, sand, and mud (see Figure 4-16). Although the area is restricted between the train tracks and bicycle and walking paths leading to the station entrance, the area is not fully utilized and could potentially be expanded.

Figure 4-16 Parking area 2 has multiple defect parking spaces, mud on the ground, and the front-wheel grip racks increase chances of theft and vandalism.

Parking area 3

Figure 4-17 Parking area 3 has 228 bicycle parking spaces. The third bicycle parking area is located to the west of the train tracks, and therefore mainly serves residents on the west side of Knivsta, who are currently considerably fewer than residents on the east side. There are 228 parking spaces; 160 front-wheel grip racks with weather protection and 68 non-weather-protected racks allowing the cyclists to lock the bicycle’s frame to the rack. The bicycle’s front wheel rests in a low front-wheel grip, and each rack is intended for two bicycles (see Figure 4-19). These racks do not have weather protection, and their design causes leaves, grass, and sand to accumulate under the rack, reducing the attractiveness of the parking. Furthermore, the racks are placed only 50 cm apart. The weather- protected front-wheel grip racks are similar to those in parking area 1, with 40 cm between each rack, also causing the handlebars to collide and overlap. Although there are 160 weather- protected spaces, numerous of these spaces are faulty or have simply fallen off the racks, resulting in fewer available parking spaces, and an overall less appealing parking area. The parking area was half-full during the field visit, despite being located only 35-60 meters from the train station’s main entrance. The most plausible explanation for this is the asymmetry in population on the east and west sides of the railway resulting in most bike-and-ride users choosing the parking areas on the east side of the train station. Excluding the defective bicycle racks and the accumulation of debris under the double racks, the bicycle parking is overall aesthetically pleasing, with smooth Figure 4-18 The frame-locking racks result in the bicycles’ asphalt on the ground. handlebars to not overlap each other, allowing the racks to be placed closer than regular double bicycle racks.

Figure 4-19 Some of the front-wheel grips have fallen off the rack and the frame racks’ design causes leaves and grass to accumulate under the rack, reducing the aesthetics of the parking area.

Parking area 4

Figure 4-20 Parking area 4 has 145 bicycle spaces in racks that allow the bicycles’ frames to be locked.

In addition to the three bicycle park areas in direct proximity to the train station’s main entrance, there are two parking areas at the southernmost end of the platforms. The platform is accessible through a railway crossing (see Figure 4-21), thus the walking distance from the bicycle parking to the platform is short. The larger of these two areas is located on the east side, and has 145 parking spaces, all of which allow the bicycle’s frame to be locked to the rack, identical to those in parking area 3. These racks are also 50 cm apart, and the parking area was virtually full, with few wrongly parked bicycles. Due to the railway crossing, the distance from the parking area to the platform is only 25-40 m, well within the Swedish recommendations. However, crossings as these are dangerous, and this crossing will be closed Figure 4-21 The railway crossing for pedestrians will be and replaced by a walking bridge to increase removed due to safety issues. safety. This will eliminate the platform access at the south end, and the distance to the station’s entrance will thus be roughly 300 meters, which is even further than the recommended 200 meters for secure bicycle parking, as discussed by Martens (2007). This parking area will therefore not be feasible in the future.

Parking area 5

Figure 4-22 Parking area 5 is by far the smallest, with its 20 spaces. The fifth, and last, bicycle parking in direct connection to the train station is also connected to the platforms through the railway crossing. It is by far the smallest parking area, with only 20 spaces in front-grip racks with 50 cm between each rack. The area is clean and aesthetically pleasing, with asphalt on the entire area. This area will also be eliminated as a convenient bicycle parking area when the railway crossing is closed.

Summary There are 758 bicycle parking spaces in five different parking areas in direct proximity to the train station in Knivsta, all of which are well connected to the municipality’s network of bicycle paths and located within 100 meters of an entrance to the train station. However, only 28% of these spaces fulfil the principle of enabling the cyclist to lock their bicycle’s frame to the parking rack, the remaining 72% are unstable and insecure front-grip racks, moreover multiple of these are faulty and cannot be used. None are so called secure parking spaces, which discourages those with expensive bicycles and others who are exceptionally worried that their bicycle will be vandalized or stolen to use the parking facilities, as discussed by Envall (2018). In addition to complete lack of secure parking spaces, there are no parking spaces reserved for cargobikes, forcing these cyclists to park their bicycle wrongly, outside of the racks. This increases the chances of the bicycle being stolen, thus discouraging use of these bicycles for bike-and-ride. There is clearly a need for parking spaces reserved for cargobikes, as there were three such bicycles parked by Knivsta station during the field visit. Moreover, the 235 weather- protected spaces are inconvenient as the spaces are placed too close together, causing handlebar jams. In order to prevent theft and vandalism at the bicycle parking areas, all front-grip racks should be replaced with racks enabling the bicycle’s frame to be locked to the rack, in addition to providing secure parking options, such as bicycle boxes or a garage. Furthermore, considering the high use of the current parking facilities, the number of parking spaces needs to be increased in correspondence with the planned population increase and the ambitions to increase bicycle and bike-and-ride use in Knivsta.

4.3 Towards the future

4.3.1 Bicycle paths As an important aspect of increasing bicycle proportions is providing high-quality separate bicycle paths (Pucher & Buehler, 2012; Dill & Carr, 2003; Parkin et al., 2008), this will be strived for along the largest streets in Knivsta. As the paths already exist, the emphasis will be on widening and smoothing the paths where possible, and through this, a bicycle highway network will be presented, with high-quality bicycle paths. Figure 4-23 shows the suggested bicycle network in Knivsta, with bicycle highways and other bicycle paths in addition to bicycle friendly sidewalks. The centrum area around the municipal building will be highly traffic calmed, even completely closed for car traffic, giving cyclists and pedestrians complete priority to ensure their safety.

Figure 4-23 Suggestion for a future bicycle network in Knivsta. Orthophoto: Lantmäteriet. Bicycle highways Bicycle highways are suggested on Gredelbyleden and along the railway, in addition to Knivstavägen. These highways are intended as part of a regional bicycle network, stretching towards Uppsala through Alsike, south towards Stockholm and west towards Enköping, as suggested by Uppsala municipality (2018) and Uppsala Cykelförening (2017). The paths are bidirectional cycling paths including a walking path, similar to that currently going under the railway at the station entrance (ref. Figure 4-7). Where possible, the walking path is separated from the cycling path with a strip of vegetation, and the general rule of thumb is that the cycling part of the path lies closer to the street. The bicycle highways should be straight with as smooth curves as possible (Trafikverket, 2014) to ensure a short and convenient commute with good overview of the path, and the cyclist is not forced to take detours and sharp turns when crossing streets. A comparison between two areas on the current and proposed paths is shown in Figure 4-24. .

Figure 4-24 Curves should be as smooth as possible without forcing cyclists to take unnecessary turns. Orthophoto: Lantmäteriet. At intersections with car streets, the bicycle should be given priority not only on bicycle highways, but on all bicycle paths, as discussed by Trafikverket (2014). The bicycle path continues straight without height difference at the intersections, as shown in Figure 4-25. This allows the cyclists to keep a high speed throughout the journey.

Two parts of the bicycle highway on Figure 4-25 Intersections should favour the cyclists Gredelbyleden have restricted possibilities to and pedestrians. Source: Trafikverket, 2014. upgrade to combined bidirectional cycling paths and walking path due to lack of space. These parts are the bridge over the railway and a portion of the road going through a narrow residential area in north-eastern Knivsta, as shown inFigure 4-26. The bridge currently has a walking and cycling path along the car lane, separated from the car traffic with a low fence. This path’s width is only approximately 3 m, thus not wide enough to hold a walking and bidirectional cycling path (Trafikverket, 2015b). Gredelbyleden is an important connection between the motorway E4 and the westernmost areas of Knivsta municipality, therefore the road needs to be open for traffic in both directions. The bridge holds a single car lane in each direction, thus not allowing the possibility of narrowing the car lanes and adding a cycling path. The only circumstance in which the bridge can hold a bidirectional cycling path, a walking path, and bidirectional car traffic is if the bridge is widened by a minimum of 1,5 m, or a separate cycling bridge built beside the current bridge. These solutions are expensive and the execution time- consuming, thus the first steps could be to keep the bridge unchanged, adding a separation between cyclists and pedestrians, e.g. with a painted stripe through the path’s middle, with clear signs on each end showing the path changing from bidirectional separated bicycle paths to a shared path for all cyclists and pedestrians. Separating the cycling and walking components 41 of the paths increases the convenience for cyclists and safety for pedestrians, as discussed by Pucher & Buehler (2008). The signs on both sides of the bridge are important to catch the attention of cyclists and pedestrians and raise their awareness of the changed path to avoid misunderstandings and dangerous situations. This is however suggested as a short-term solution, and the ultimate aim should be to upgrade the bridge to hold a bidirectional bicycle path with a walking component, as this increases convenience and safety, ultimately increasing cycling proportions (Pucher & Buehler, 2008 & 2012; Dill & Carr, 2003; Parkin et al., 2008).

Figure 4-26 The circled areas are challenging when it comes to developing a bicycle highway system. Orthophoto: Lantmäteriet Parts of Gredelbyleden in eastern Knivsta is currently on a regular, three-meter-wide sidewalk, and the area has limited possibilities to extend its cycling and walking paths. However, changes to the street can be made which allow a bidirectional cycling path and walking path. From the intersection at Högåsvägen and northwards past Gredelby elementary school, the street has villas on both sides and can therefore not be widened, however the lanes are separated by a traffic island, as shown in Figure 4-27. The width of the traffic island is minimum 1,5 m, and removing this island and shifting the south going lane towards the north going lane will generate a walking and cycling area of 4,5 m or wider, which is sufficient to provide a bidirectional cycling and walking path (Trafikverket, 2014). Nevertheless, this solution is not optimal as it does not leave any space between the cycling path and the street, thus, since the speed limit on Gredelbyleden is quite high, 60 km/h, a rail should be put up to separate the cyclists and cars, as discussed by Trafikverket (2015b&c).

Figure 4-27 Left: Traffic island separating driving directions on Gredelbyleden. Right: Gredelbyleden has expansion potential on the north going lane. Source: Google, 2018. The area around the remaining part of Gredelbyleden not wide enough to fit the bicycle highway only has residential buildings on the north side (right on Figure 4-27), and can thus be expanded to the south. Shifting both car lanes a minimum of two meters will be sufficient to fit a bicycle highway with walking path, i.e. ≥ 4,3 m. To ensure a smooth and safe transition, at least 150 m of the street is shifted, as this also eliminates the blind corner caused by the soundproofing fence, as discussed in section 4.2. This solution is also expensive, and forces closure of the street during the construction process. However, this part of the path is currently narrow and unsafe due to the blind corner, thus these changes are necessary in order to provide a high-quality bicycle highway. A minimum short-term change is to move the sound-proofing fence closer to the residential area and separating cyclists and pedestrians with a stripe in the middle of the path. This would generate a more straight, safe, and convenient bicycle path without blind corners. A simple illustration of this is shown in Figure 4-28.

Figure 4-28 Short-term option for Gredelbyleden, with bicycle paths in red and sound-proofing fence in black. Left: current situation. Right: Suggestion for a straighter and safer bicycle path. Orthophoto: Lantmäteriet. 43

The regional bicycle highway along the railway is a completely new path, and as it is spatially unrestrained the bicycle path can be bidirectional with a walking path separated from the cycling path, with a minimum of 1,0 m of vegetation between paths for increased safety (Trafikverket, 2015b). All paths on the bicycle highway network are lit with streetlights, and during snowfall prioritized for snow clearing no less than the largest streets, as suggested by Trafikverket (2014). These are simple yet effective measures to increase convenience and perceived safety and ensure usage even in darkness and during snowfall. Within a radius of 1,5 km from the train station, almost 90% of the current residents in Knivsta live within 500 meters of a bicycle highway, as shown in Figure 4-29. A large portion of the planned development areas are within this distance as well, thus the proportion of residents living within 500 m from a bicycle highway will remain high. Providing these bicycle highways enables cyclists to travel faster than currently possible, thus strengthening the ‘Distance to transit’ and ‘Design’ principles of TOD. The bicycle highways will be part of the regional bicycle network in Uppsala region, thus allowing residents outside of Knivsta to use bike-and-ride with a safe and convenient bicycle path, hopefully reducing the use of the private car as a feedering mode.

Residents at distance from bicycle highways 8000 7000 6000 5000 4000 3000 2000 1000 0

0-100 m 100-300 m 300-500 m

Figure 4-29 Over 7.000 of current residents in Knivsta live within 500 m of a proposed bicycle highway. Data source: SCB/Lantmäteriet. The bicycle highway network should be complemented with signs showing the direction and distance to certain destinations, such as the train station. These signs should be located on each intersection to help the cyclist choose the most direct route, and prevent new cyclists and tourists from getting lost (Trafikverket, 2014). Regular bicycle paths Paths depicted in blue on Figure 4-23 are not part of the bicycle highway system but keep a high quality and are convenient for cyclists. They will include separation between pedestrians and cyclists, and the bicycle paths will be bidirectional where spatially possible. The paths will be identical to that currently leading under the railway, i.e. separating pedestrians and cyclists by a painted stripe. The street in front of the municipal office, Staffansvägen, will be defined as a bicycle path with a bidirectional bicycle path and walking path. Similar to the bicycle highways, the bicycle paths are lit with appropriate lighting and be prioritized for snow clearance and salting to keep the paths clear of snow and ice (Trafikverket, 2014).

Where the bicycle paths connect perpendicular to the bicycle highway network, hairpin turns will be avoided through providing access lanes from both directions, as shown on Figure 4-30. The paths will mainly be upgraded already existing paths, with some exceptions. By the health center, several car parking spaces will have to be removed in order to fit a separated bicycle and walking path. Many of these car parking spaces can be replaced by the commuter parking directly across the street, however, as this is a health center it needs to be accessible by car for emergencies and those

Figure 4-30 Sharp turns will be avoided with access lanes. unable to walk long distances. Since removing Orthophoto: Lantmäteriet. a high number of car parking spaces at a health center might be regarded as unjustifiable, two options for cycling paths past the health center are provided. The first option along Ängbyvägen requires up to thirty car parking spaces to be removed. The other option utilizes the currently ill-used area between the health center and the railway which can easily fit a bidirectional bicycle path and walking path. Option 1 is more convenient for cyclists as it is better connected to the rest of the bicycle path network. However, this option requires the removal of several car parking spaces, which is highly inconvenient for the health center. Option 2 does not require any car parking spaces to be removed, and leads directly to one of the bicycle parking areas at the station, but is noticeably more inconvenient for cyclists than option 1. It is longer and more discontinuous, expecting cyclists to go around the health center rather than follow the street. However, for cyclists going towards the bicycle parking area 3 at the top right of Figure 4-31, option 2 is convenient as it leads directly to the bicycle parking.

Figure 4-31 Two options for bicycle paths by the health center. Orthophoto: Lantmäteriet. Sidewalks Unfortunately, not all desired bidirectional bicycle paths can be provided due to lack of space. These spaces are marked with purple on Figure 4-23. The areas in question are 400 m on Kolängsvägen and the intersection between Gredelbyvägen, Forsbyvägen and Apoteksvägen. Despite being uneligible for a bidirectional cycling path with walking path, they are all wide 45 enough to be separated between cyclists and pedestrians with a painted stripe, similar to that already present at Apoteksvägen, and they will also be given priority at intersections, as discussed above.

Summary Providing a bicycle highway network will allow for a smooth and fast bicycle commute for the vast majority of Knivsta residents, in addition to residents within 4 km of Knivsta station. Virtually all living further from bicycle highways in Knivsta have good access to other bicycle paths which keep high standards. The bicycle path network will be improved significantly, will be 20% longer, and the proportion of bidirectional bicycle paths will increase dramatically, as shown in Table 4-2. Table 4-2 Comparison between current and future path types in the bicycle path network. Current Future Length Percentage of total paths Length Percentage of total paths Separated paths 500 m 4.8% 11,373 m 90.2% Shared paths 5,875 m 56.5% 0 m 0.0% Sidewalks 4,019 m 38.7% 1,235 m 9.8% Total 10,394 m 100.0% 12,608 m 100%

4.3.2 Bicycle parking As inhabitants in Knivsta are expected to double in the coming decades, a significant increase in bicycle parking spaces surrounding the train station is necessary. The current 758 spaces are well used, and the goal is therefore to effectively double the number of bicycle parking spaces, while increasing the quality and attractiveness of the parking facilities. Since the land surrounding the train station is valuable building land for the municipality, the focus will be on optimizing the spatial use of the already existing bicycle parking areas rather than exploiting new areas for bicycle parking. The railway crossing at the southernmost end of the platform will be closed, thus parking areas 4 and 5 will be removed as they will be too far from the train station entrance. The increase in bicycle parking will therefore be distributed between parking areas 1 through 3, by optimizing the spatial usage, and expanding the areas as much as possible without compromising land use. The execution is shown in Figure 4-32.

Figure 4-32 Parking areas 1 through 3 and their potential expansion. Orthophoto: Lantmäteriet. Merely increasing the number of bicycle parking spaces is not sufficient, the quality of the parking is equally important, to ensure the facilities will be used. The most important criteria are providing parking with the possibility of locking the bicycle’s frame to the rack, and the spacing between parking spaces should provide a smooth parking experience, without collisions with other bicycles and their handlebars. When calculating the number of bicycle parking spaces, Swedish and Danish recommendations for spacing are used, as shown in Figure 4-33. Optimal intervals between parallel bicycles are set to 60 cm, and the manoeuvring distance between rows of bicycles 2.0 m. This results in each ‘section’ of bicycle parking requiring 6.0 m.

Figure 4-33 Danish (left) and Swedish (right) recommendations for distances in bicycle parking. Source: Celis & Bølling- Ladegaard (2007); Trafikverket (2010). Parking area 1 Parking area 1 is currently 40x12m and holds 145 parking spaces. It has expansion potential towards north and south, however, there are complications to each direction. On the south end, a large, beautiful tree restricts expansion. This tree is a certain landmark in the centrum area of Knivsta, and should therefore be preserved for aesthetic reasons. Towards north, a small restaurant prevents the expansion of the bicycle parking. The restaurant’s locale is mobile and can therefore be moved, and the suggestion here is to remove the eight southernmost spaces of the car parking area and replace them with the restaurant. Removing these eight car parking spaces will allow the bicycle parking area to extend from 40 m to 58 m, adding dozens of new bicycle parking spaces. In order to increase the number of parking spaces sufficiently, dense yet high-quality parking will have to be provided. As discussed in section 3.3, the densest bicycle parking is high-low two-tier parking. These should replace the current weather-protected parking spaces and be expanded north towards the car parking area. As the high-low system allows the distance between bicycles to be only 40 cm, this results in 290 weather-protected parking spaces, replacing the current 75. As the parking area is quite long, there is a chance that the cyclists will have difficulties finding their bicycle when retrieving them from the two-tier parking spaces. Dividing the parking area into sections with colour coding or numbering is therefore advised. The 70 non-weather-protected spaces will be removed, as they are front-wheel grips, and replaced with parking facilities where the bicycle’s frame will be locked to the rack. These facilities will also be expanded towards the car parking, increasing the capacity to the fullest. Providing 2,0 m for each parked bicycle, and the same for manoeuvring distance between rows of parked bicycles allows for nine sections plus one additional row, and with 8 m width, 13 bicycles can be fit onto each row. This results in 247 parking spaces replacing the current 70. 48

As a bonus, one row can be placed on each side of the large tree mentioned before, adding up to a total of 273 spaces. Table 4-3 summarizes the potential and Figure 4-34 shows the execution of the expanded parking area 1. Table 4-3 Parking area 1 has great potential to increase parking spaces.

Current Potential Increase Weather- 75 290 287% protected Non-weather- 70 273 290% protected Total 145 563 288%

Figure 4-34 Parking area 1 with suggested colour coding on the two-tier parking.

Parking area 2 Of the three future parking areas, this area is the most spatially restricted due to the railway and bicycle/ walking path leading to a pass under the railway and the main entrance. The current area is 30x12m and has expansion potential towards north, to 50m with a narrowing end. The ground surface needs to be renovated, therefore racks that are mounted to the ground are a good option. The suggested bicycle parking for this area is the inverted U-bar. With a 2,0 m manoeuvring distance between each row of bicycles and 90 cm between each bar, the area’s width allows for three rows of bars, however, the narrowing north end only allows two rows. This results in 154 U-bars, i.e. parking area 2 will have space for 308 bicycles as each bar can fit two bicycles. Weather-protection is not suggested here, however this can be added later if deemed necessary. These changes result in a 40% increase in parking spaces compared to the current 220, however multiple of the current spaces are defect and cannot be used; actual increase is therefore considerably higher. Table 4-4 Changes in parking area 2 result in a 40% increase in parking spaces. Current Potential Increase 220 308 40%

Figure 4-35 Execution of parking area 2.

Parking area 3 This area has by far the highest spatial potential to expand, as it is surrounded by vegetation and woods. In order to be close to reaching the goal of doubling the current number of bicycle parking, a minimum of 600 parking spaces should be provided in this area. As the area surrounding this parking area will be developed heavily with residential units and shops, a bicycle parking hub is suggested here, with plentiful bicycle parking, cargobike parking, and a small bicycle garage. The bicycle garage will primarily serve those with expensive bicycles and will be the only secure bicycle parking provided at the train station. As electrical bicycles and cargobikes are typically expensive, power outlets and parking spaces for cargobikes should be provided in the garage. Seeking information from the bicycle garage primarily in Katrineholm, which has 38 parking spaces and small lockers allowing users to leave their helmets and bicycle clothing, power outlets, and solar cells on the roof, providing the garage with electricity from renewable sources (Sveriges miljömål, 2018). As Katrineholm is more populous than Knivsta with an expected 40.000 residents by 2030 (Katrineholms kommun, 2018), a smaller garage is suggested for Knivsta. The initial suggestion is to provide a garage with 24 regular bicycle spaces, and three cargobike spaces. Half of the spaces should be provided with power outlets, and the number of lockers should be at least half of the bicycle spaces, i.e. at least 14 lockers. The garage should be accessible through the users’ transport cards, and a subscription cost 60- 80 SEK/month, similar to the cost of other bicycle garages in Sweden. The garage should be provided with wide sliding doors on both gables to ensure a smooth parking experience, and should preferably be made of units, which allow the garage to be enlarged in the future, if interest demands. Parking spaces in the garage should of course allow the bicycle’s frame to be locked to the stand, and should be made of glass to increase safety. Figure 4-36 shows a simple illustration of the suggested bicycle garage.

Figure 4-36 Schematic figure showing the suggested execution of a bicycle garage in Knivsta. All measurements are in meters.

Currently, there are no parking spaces reserved for cargobikes by Knivsta station. During the field visit, three cargobikes were parked outside of parking spaces, which indicates that there is a need for parking spaces for these bicycles. Cargobikes are longer, broader, and have a lower frame than regular bicycles, and regular bicycle parking racks can therefore not be used for cargobikes. A frequently used type of parking rack is a lower, longer inverted U-bar, as shown in Figure 4-37. These bars fit the cargobikes’ low frame well, in addition to being inconvenient for regular bicycles, thus reducing the chance of the spaces being occupied by regular bicycles (Happyride, 2016). Due to the cycles’ broad box, Figure 4-37 Cargobike parking in Malmö C. Source: the bars should be located 1,2 m apart to be Happyride, 2016. compatible with all types of cargobikes, and to ensure a smooth parking experience (ibid). For Knivsta station, a total of five cargobike spaces are suggested outside the bicycle garage. To increase the attractiveness of this parking, a weather-protecting roof should be provided. As the cargobike parking will be located in the open area in front of the garage, adding more spaces should be unproblematic in the future, if the demand increases beyond these five spaces. In addition to the bicycle garage and spaces for cargobikes, an abundance of regular bicycle parking racks with weather-protection should be provided. The parking area is restricted to 40 m width due to the railway and residential areas. Allowing for 2,0 m manoeuvring distance between each parking section results in the parking area’s width to allow for six sections of bicycle parking, i.e. 192 bicycles in each row. In order to fulfil the goal of 600 spaces in this parking area, three rows should be provided, giving a total of 576 weather- protected parking spaces. The total number of bicycle parking in area 3 will therefore be 608, a 167% increase from the current 228 spaces. An overview of the different bicycle parking types in Parking area 3 is shown in Table 4-5.

Table 4-5 The expanded parking area 3 will generate 608 parking spaces.

Current Potential Weather-protected 160 576 Non-weather-protected 68 0 Bicycle garage 0 24 + 3 cargobike Cargobike parking 0 5 Total 228 608

Outside the bicycle garage, a service stand is suggested, equipped with compressed air to pump bicycles’ tires and basic tools compatible with most bicycle types, in addition to water to clean bicycles, and even the possibility of filling water bottles. Figure 4-38 shows an example of bicycle service station, in Umeå, and Figure 4-39 shows the spatial execution of the whole expanded parking area 3, with weather-protected parking spaces, the garage, cargobike parking spaces, and the service stand on the open area Figure 4-38 Bicycle service station in Umeå. Source: Cyklos. in front of the bicycle garage.

Figure 4-39 Execution of the expanded parking area 3. 53

Summary Through expanding and optimizing the current bicycle parking areas 1 through 3, a total of 1.479 bicycle parking spaces will be provided; 866 weather-protected spaces, 581 non-weather- protected, 24 regular and three cargobike spaces in a garage, and five weather-protected cargobike spaces. The ambition of doubling the current number of parking spaces is therefore essentially fulfilled, as shown in Table 4-6. Table 4-6 Summary of the potential increase in bicycle parking around Knivsta train station. Current Potential Increase Parking area 1 145 563 288% Parking area 2 228 308 40%* Parking area 3 228 608 167% Parking areas 4&5 165 0 - Total 758 1,479 95% *Effective increase is higher as multiple of the current racks are unusable. 4.3.3 Indirect bicycle encouraging policies The main emphasis should be on providing high-quality physical bike-and-ride infrastructure (Pucher & Buehler, 2008), but other indirect policies can affect bike-and-ride proportions positively, as discussed in section 3.4. Using the components of the Theory of Planned Behavior, campaigns increasing the public’s positive perception of cycling and showing that cycling is viable for everyone are important. While the new bicycle network in Knivsta helps increase cycling within all social groups (Garrard et al., 2008), inexperienced cyclists might be negative towards bike-and-ride. Some residents might view cycling as a negative transport mode generating sweat and pain in the bottom area; this group therefore needs to be addressed particularly to normalize cycling as a transport mode. Policies increasing positivity towards bike-and-ride could e.g. be advertisement campaigns listing the health benefits of cycling and showing that cycling is a good transport option for all social groups, combined with cycling courses held by the municipality, aimed at inexperienced cyclists or others negative towards bike-and-ride. Broadcasting the improved bike-and-ride facilities when they have been constructed should also be done to raise awareness within the municipality. These campaigns should be made within the three-month window of opportunity discussed by Verplanken and Roy (2016), and be distributed strategically to reach as many users as possible, e.g. through social media rather than hanging flyers around the town. In addition to bicycle encouraging policies, car discouraging policies can be applied. Large policies, such as adding sales taxes on new vehicles and petrol needs to be done nationally, and is not in the power of the small municipality of Knivsta. However, the municipality can charge parking fees, reduce parking spaces, narrow streets, and add one-way streets in order to make driving less convenient, thus pushing the residents to rather choose other transport methods.

5 Discussion and concluding remarks As discussed in section 3.1, the most important criteria to generate safe and convenient cycling and high proportions of bike-and-ride is the provision of separate bicycle paths and plentiful high-quality bicycle parking at transit stations. The current situation in Knivsta does not reflect this, as not even 5% of the paths are separated between cyclists and pedestrians, and none of the 758 bicycle parking spaces fulfil both criteria of a 60 cm gap between each stand and enabling the bicycle’s frame to be locked to the stand. Some paths are inconvenient due to their winding and intersections force cyclists and pedestrians to take detours to reach the street crossing. The seemingly extensive bicycle path system is, in a sense, rather a path system without the cycling component. Providing a bicycle highway network will allow for a smooth and fast bicycle commute for the vast majority of residents in and around Knivsta. Virtually all living further from bicycle highways in Knivsta will have good access to other bicycle paths which keep high standards and lead directly to a bicycle parking at the train station. The bicycle parking will fulfil all cyclists’ needs as there will be plentiful bicycle parking, with close to 1.500 parking spaces, providing both regular and secure bicycle parking, and spaces for regular bicycles, electric bicycles, and cargobikes. All parking spaces will allow the bicycle’s frame to be locked to the stand, thus reducing the risk of theft and vandalism, and the bicycle garage encourages even those with expensive bicycles to use bike-and-ride. This research is not free from uncertainties and limitations. The economic aspect of the proposed changes in Knivsta was only slightly touched upon; some of the propositions are rather costly changes, and might not be feasible for the municipality to perform. Although most of the proposed bicycle paths are in areas already served by bicycle paths, thus not overlapping land currently serving other purposes, some propositions do. Landowners were not considered, and the bicycle paths might therefore go onto land not owned by the municipality. This could cause collisions of interest, and potential landowners might hinder the development of bicycle paths. This research has mainly been built on literature reviews and experiences from other countries with high cycling proportions; the Netherlands, Denmark, and Germany. Moreover, the main emphasis is on the physical aspects of increasing cycling, with less attention to other means of increasing cycling and bike-and-ride proportions. Further research in this field could be to investigate the qualitative aspects of cycling through the Theory of Planned Behavior, i.e. people’s behavior, habits and intentions. This research could also benefit from a deeper approach to Knivsta municipality, e.g. through taking interviews with and performing surveys among residents and planners in Knivsta to learn their views, intentions and preferences, thus maximizing the effects of proposed changes. Much of the literature relied on here is aimed at cycling for commuting rather than bike-and-ride, as not much research has been done in this field (Martens, 2007). It would therefore be beneficial to perform studies on precisely bike- and-ride, and whether there is a connection between measures and policies increasing cycling proportions and bike-and-ride proportions. Through the bicycle development proposed in Knivsta, Transit Oriented Development is also strengthened in the municipality; mainly the guidelines of Distance to Transit, Design, and Destination Accessibility (Gratton et al., 2012). The bicycle highway network will work to reduce distance to the train station, as the paths will be straighter and the separated bidirectional paths allow for faster cycling. This guideline goes somewhat hand in hand with design, as the upgraded design of bicycle paths in addition to bicycle parking at the train station allows for more convenient cycling. The ultimate destination’s accessibility is also strengthened due to 55 these changes, as cycling is fast, convenient, and continuous, eliminating any potential waiting component. The proposed changes to the bicycle path network and provision of bicycle parking in Knivsta has great potential to increase the proportion of bike-and-ride in Knivsta, reducing park-and-ride use and private car use in general for commuting, thus helping Knivsta municipality develop towards sustainability. Environmental sustainability will be increased through reduced car use, thus less congestion, noise and air pollution and overall greenhouse gas emissions. Social sustainability will be reached as virtually everyone is able to cycle and purchase a bicycle, whereas purchasing and driving a car is certainly not viable for everyone, thus social gaps will be smaller. Economic sustainability is increased due to the decreased societal costs generated by private car use, and the increased cycling generates better health throughout the society, evidently reducing societal costs for healthcare.

References Ajzen, I. (1991). The theory of planned behavior. Organizational behavior and human decision processes, 50(2), 179-211. Albertsson, P., & Falkmer, T. (2005). Is there a pattern in European bus and coach incidents? A literature analysis with special focus on injury causation and injury mechanisms. Accident Analysis & Prevention, 37(2), 225-233. Andersen, T. (n.d.). Experiences from Denmark. Frederica kommune. APBP (Association of Pedestrian and Bicycle Professionals). (2015). Essentials of Bike Parking. Selecting and installing bicycle parking that works. Expertise for Active Transportation. Bamberg, S., Ajzen, I., & Schmidt, P. (2003a). Choice of travel mode in the theory of planned behavior: The roles of past behavior, habit, and reasoned action. Basic and applied social psychology, 25(3), 175-187. Bamberg, S., Rölle, D., & Weber, C. (2003b). Does habitual car use not lead to more resistance to change of travel mode?. Transportation, 30(1), 97-108. Barnett, E. (2013). Density opponents push back against pro-transit strategy. Seattlemet. Retrieved from https://www.seattlemet.com/articles/2013/3/13/one-question-for-the- head-of-the-planning-commission-march-2013. [Accessed 2019-03-07]. Carlton, I. (2009). Histories of transit-oriented development: perspectives on the development of the TOD concept (No. 2009, 02). Working Paper. Ceder, A. (2007). Public transit planning and operation: Modeling, practice and behavior. CRC press. Celis, P. & Bølling-Ladegaard, E. (2007). Cykelparkeringshåndbog. Dansk Cyklist Forbund. Celis-Morales, C. A., Lyall, D. M., Welsh, P., Anderson, J., Steell, L., Guo, Y., … Gill, J. M. R. (2017). Association between active commuting and incident cardiovascular disease, cancer, and mortality: prospective cohort study. BMJ (Clinical Research Ed.), 357, j1456. Cervero, R., Caldwell, B., & Cuellar, J. (2015). Bike-and-Ride: Build It and They Will Come. Journal of Public Transportation, 16(4), 83–105. Cyklos. (n.d.). Dubbelsidigt cykeltak YPSILON. Retrieved from https://www.cyklos.se/produkt/dubbelsidigt-cykeltak-ypsilon/ [Accessed 2019-04-23]. Dill, J., & Carr, T. (2003). Bicycle commuting and facilities in major US cities - If you build them, commuters will use them. Pedestrians and Bicycles 2003, (1828), 116-123. EC (European Commission). (n.d.a) Bicycle parking and storage solutions. EC (European Commission). (n.d.b). Cycling facilities at interchanges. EEA (European Environment Agency). (2018). Total greenhouse gas emissions from transport. Indicator Assessment - Data and Maps, 13. Elvik, R. (2009). The non-linearity of risk and the promotion of environmentally sustainable transport. Accident Analysis & Prevention, 41(4), 849-855. Envall, P. (2018). Cykelparkering vid överdäckning av Centralstationsområdet. Stockholm: Trafikutredningsbyrån AB. Eriksson, J., Niska, A., Sörensen, G., Gustafsson, S., & Forsman, Å. (2017). Cyklisters hastigheter: Kartläggning, mätningar och observation. Evans, J. E. (2007). Traveler Response to Transportation System Changes: Transit oriented development (Vol. 95). Transportation Research Board.

Fritz, Stacy PT, PhD; Lusardi, Michelle PT, P. (2009). White Paper: “Walking Speed: the Sixth Vital Sign” : Journal of Geriatric Physical Therapy. Journal of Geriatric Physical Therapy, 32(2), 2–5. Garrard, J., Rose, G., & Lo, S. K. (2008). Promoting transportation cycling for women: the role of bicycle infrastructure. Preventive medicine, 46(1), 55-59. Gratton, D., Watson, L., Guèvremont, L., & Eljaji, H. (2012). Light Rail as the Catalyst for Ottawa’s Transit-Oriented Development. Sustaining the Metropolis, 279. Greene, D. L., & Wegener, M. (1997). Sustainable transport. Journal of Transport Geography, 5(3), 177-190. Gärling, T., & Axhausen, K. W. (2003). Introduction: Habitual travel choice. Transportation, 30(1), 1-11. Hedegaard Sørensen, C., Gudmundsson, H., & Leleur, S. (2013). National sustainable transport planning – concepts and practice. Technical University of Denmark, Transport. Jacobsen, P. L. (2003). Safety in numbers: more walkers and bicyclists, safer walking and bicycling, 205–209. Jacobsen, P. L., Racioppi, F., & Rutter, H. (2009). Who owns the roads? How motorised traffic discourages walking and bicycling. Injury prevention, 15(6), 369-373. Katrineholms kommun. (n.d.). Katrineholms Cykelgarage. Retrieved from: https://www.katrineholm.se/trafik--gator/cykla-i-katrineholm.html [Accessed 2019-04- 23]. Katrineholms kommun. (2018). Översiktsplan 2030. Katrineholms kommun – del staden. Comprehensive plan. Keijer, M. J. N., & Rietveld, P. (2000). How do people get to the railway station? The Dutch experience. Transportation Planning and Technology, 23(3), 215–235. Knivsta kommun. (2012). Fördjupad översiktsplan (FÖP) för Knivsta och Alsike tätorter. Comprehensive plan. Knivsta kommun. (2017a). Översiktsplan 2035 med utblick mot 2050. Del 1: Planförslag. Preliminary comprehensive plan. Knivsta kommun. (2017b). Knivsta kommun – PM framtida utvecklingspotential. Knivsta kommun. (2018). Om Knivsta. Retrieved from https://www.knivsta.se/sv- SE/Kommun-och-politik/Om-Knivsta [Accessed 2019-03-08]. Krizek, K. J., El-Geneidy, A., & Thompson, K. (2007). A detailed analysis of how an urban trail system affects cyclists’ travel. Transportation, 34(5), 611–624. Martens, K. (2004). The bicycle as a feedering mode: Experiences from three European countries. Transportation Research Part D: Transport and Environment, 9(4), 281–294. Martens, K. (2007). Promoting bike-and-ride: The Dutch experience. Transportation Research Part A: Policy and Practice, 41(4), 326–338. Mohler, B. J., Thompson, W. B., Creem-Regehr, S. H., Pick, H. L., & Warren, W. H. (2007). Visual flow influences gait transition speed and preferred walking speed. Experimental Brain Research, 181(2), 221–228. Noland, R. B. (1995). Perceived risk and modal choice: risk compensation in transportation systems. Accident Analysis & Prevention, 27(4), 503-521. Nordfjærn, T., Şimşekoğlu, Ö., & Rundmo, T. (2014). The role of deliberate planning, car habit and resistance to change in public transportation mode use. Transportation Research Part F: Traffic Psychology and Behaviour, 27, 90-98.

Oreg, S. (2003). Resistance to change: Developing an individual differences measure. Journal of applied psychology, 88(4), 680. Orion-Bausysteme. (2018). Fra 2-etagers cykelstativer til tredje etage. Mange cykler – begrænset areal – Her er løsningen! Parkin, J., Wardman, M., & Page, M. (2008). Estimation of the determinants of bicycle mode share for the journey to work using census data. Transportation, 35(1), 93-109. Pucher, J., & Buehler, R. (2007). At the frontiers of cycling: policy innovations in the Netherlands, Denmark, and Germany. World Transport Policy and Practice, 13(3), 8-57. Pucher, J., & Buehler, R. (2008). Making cycling irresistible: Lessons from the Netherlands, Denmark and Germany. Transport Reviews, 28(4), 495–528. Pucher, J., & Buehler, R. (2010). Walking and cycling for healthy cities. Built Environment, 36(4), 391-414. Pucher, J., & Buehler, R. (2012). Cycling to work in 90 large American cities: New evidence on the role of bike paths and lanes. Transportation, 39(2), 409–432. Rietveld, P. (2000). The accessibility of railway stations: the role of the bicycle in The Netherlands. Transportation Research Part D: Transport and Environment, 5(1), 71-75. Rietveld, P., & Daniel, V. (2004). Determinants of bicycle use: do municipal policies matter?. Transportation Research Part A: Policy and Practice, 38(7), 531-550. Rogelj, J., Den Elzen, M., Höhne, N., Fransen, T., Fekete, H., Winkler, H., … Meinshausen, M. (2016). Paris Agreement climate proposals need a boost to keep warming well below 2 °c. Nature, 534(7609), 631–639. Sahu, A. (2018). A methodology to modify land uses in a transit oriented development scenario. Journal of Environmental Management, 213, 467–477. SCB (Statistiska Centralbyrån). (2019). Tätorter 2015 – befolkning 2010-2018, landareal, andel som överlappas av fritidshusområden. SL (Storstockholms Lokaltrafik). (2018). SL och länet 2017. SL (Storstockholms Lokaltrafik). (2019). Time schedule Uppsala C - Södertälje centrum. SL (Storstockholms Lokaltrafik). (n.d.). Cykel ombord. Retrieved from https://sl.se/sv/info/resa/regler/cykel/ [Accessed 2019-03-06]. Sohoni, Thomas, & Rao. (2017). Application of the concept of transit oriented development to a suburban neighborhood. Transportation Research Procedia, 25, 3220-3232. Statens Vegvesen. (2014). Sykkelhåndboka – Veiledninger. Håndbok V122. Oslo: Statens Vegvesen. Stockholm Parkering. (n.d.). Cykelparkering. Retrieved from http://www.stockholmparkering.se/Pages/Cykelparkering.aspx [Accessed 2019-04-05]. Stockholms stad. (2008). Cykelparkering i staden – Utformning av cykelparkeringar i Stockholms stad. Stockholm: Trafikkontoret. Stockholms stad. (2017). Färdmedelsfördelning höst. Retrieved from http://miljobarometern.stockholm.se/trafik/resvanor/fardmedelsfordelning-host/ [Accessed 2019-04-12]. Stockholms stad. (2018a). Översiktsplan för Stockholms stad. Comprehensive plan. Stockholms stad. (2018b). Färdmedelsfördelning vinter. Retrieved from http://miljobarometern.stockholm.se/trafik/resvanor/fardmedelsfordelning-vinter/ [Accessed 2019-04-12].

Sveriges miljömål. (2018). Inglasat P-hus för cyklar gör succé hos pendlare. Retrieved from https://sverigesmiljomal.se/larande-exempel/inglasat-p-hus-for-cyklar-gor-succe-hos- pendlare/ [Accessed 2019-04-23]. Tilahun, N. Y., Levinson, D. M., & Krizek, K. J. (2005). Trails, Lanes, or Traffics: The Value of Different Bicycle Facilities Using an Adaptive Stated Preference Survey. In TRB Annual Meeting CD-ROM. Tjärnberg, P.Å. (2019-04-10). Personal interview. Stockholm: Trafikkontoret. Trafikförvaltningen. (2014). Utvärdering av kombinationsresande med cykel och kollektivtrafik. Stockholm läns landsting. Trafikförvaltningen. (2017a). Trafikförvaltningens hållbarhetsredovisning. Stockholm: Stockholm läns landsting. Trafikförvaltningen. (2017b). Resvanor i Stockholms län per kommun. Stockholm läns landsting. Trafikverket. (2010). Cykelparkering vid resecentrum. Den goda staden. Trafikverket. (2014). Regional cykelplan för Stockholms län 2014-2030. Trafikverket. (2015a). TRAST – Trafik för en attraktiv stad. Underlag till handbok. Utgåva 3. Trafikverket. (2015b). Råd för vägar och gators utformning. Borlänge: Trafikverket. Trafikverket. (2015c). Krav för vägar och gators utformning. Borlänge: Trafikverket. Umeå kommun. (2018). Vanliga frågor, Låst Cykelparkering. Uppsala Cykelförening. (2017). Förslag till regionalt cykelnät i Uppsala län. Uppsala kommun. (2018). Snabbcykelleder. Retrieved from https://www.uppsala.se/organisation-och-styrning/amnen/gator-och-trafik/cykel/mer-om- arbetet-inom-omradet-cykel/snabbcykelleder/ [Accessed 2019-04-03]. Verplanken, B., & Roy, D. (2016). Empowering interventions to promote sustainable lifestyles: Testing the habit discontinuity hypothesis in a field experiment. Journal of Environmental Psychology, 45, 127-134. Verplanken, B., Aarts, H., & Van Knippenberg, A. (1997). Habit, information acquisition, and the process of making travel mode choices. European journal of social psychology, 27(5), 539-560. Verplanken, B., Walker, I., Davis, A., & Jurasek, M. (2008). Context change and travel mode choice: Combining the habit discontinuity and self-activation hypotheses. Journal of Environmental Psychology, 28(2), 121-127. Wallberg, S., & Hårdstedt, B. (2010). GCM-handbok: utformning, drift och underhåll med gång-, cykel-och mopedtrafik i fokus. Sveriges kommuner och landsting. Wallén Warner, H., Niska, A., Forward, S., Björklund, G., Eriksson, J., Kircher, K., ... & Nygårdhs, S. (2018). En modell för säker cykling. Statens väg- och transportforskningsinstitut (VTI). WCED (World Commission on Environment and Development), B. C. (1987). Our common future. Report of the world commission on environment and development. White Paper. (2011). Roadmap to a Single European Transport Area – Towards a competitive and resource efficient transport system. European Commission. Yazdanpanah, M., & Hosseinlou, M.H. (2017). The Role of Personality Traits through Habit and Intention on Determining Future Preferences of Public Transport Use. Behavioral Sciences, 7(1), 8.

TRITA ABE-MBT-19445