Range Resources of Iceland
Item Type Article; text
Authors Thorsteinsson, I.; Olafsson, G.; Van Dyne, G. M.
Citation Thorsteinsson, I., Olafsson, G., & Van Dyne, G. M. (1971). Range resources of Iceland. Journal of Range Management, 24(2), 86-93.
DOI 10.2307/3896512
Publisher Society for Range Management
Journal Journal of Range Management
Rights Copyright © Society for Range Management.
Download date 25/09/2021 05:32:50
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Link to Item http://hdl.handle.net/10150/650012 changing winds. The summers are Range Resources of Iceland cool and the winters are relatively warm. There are, holwever, con- I. THORSTEINSSON, G. OLAFSSON, AND G. M. VAN DYNE1 siderable differences regionally. Agricultural Research Institute, Reykjavik, Iceland; and Natural Resource Table 1 shows the mean tempera- Ecology Laboratory, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, Colorado. ture and precipitation of the grow- ing season (May to September) Highlight and the winter for 1940 to 1960 at Animal agriculture in Iceland is second only to fisheries. At least half the six Lowland stations and for 1966 forage consumed by large herbivorous animals comes from rangelands. During to 1969 at one Highland station (see the period June to September most of the sheep and large numbers of un- also Fig. 1). The data show that, broken horses graze on mountain ranges where they roam freely in large in particular, the winters are colder grazing districts or commons. There is urgent need for land reclamation and range improvement. Only 25% of the country is covered with vegetation, in north than south Iceland and much of which does not provide adequate protection against soil erosion that the precipitation is greatest in and has low carrying capacity. With increasing population and demands upon south Iceland. Although the short rangelands for food production, an aggressive program of rangeland improve- and cold summers are the main ment and management, supported by adequate research, is essential. limiting factors for plant gro’wth in most parts of the co’untry, there Iceland is located in the North natural rangelands have been the is evidence to suggest that in some Atlantic ocean, barely south of the main source of grazing for live- parts the low precipitation is Polar Circle. Its area is 103,000 s tack. For many centuries after equally limiting. The severe con- km2. The country was settled by settlement possibilities for haymak- ditions for plant growth are illus- Norwegians and their Celtic slaves. ing were limited. The Lowland trated by the temperatures at a 600 The first settlers arrived in 874 ranges were used for grazing year- m elevation Highland weather sta- A.D. and, with the exception of a long while the Highland range- tion. few Irish monks, men had not pre- lands (above 300 to 400 m) were Since the time of settlement there viously inhabited the island. The grazed only in the summer. have been occasional serious cold present population of about 200,000 During recent decades feeding spells, which have lasted over a inhabitants is located in the coastal and management of the livestock period of years. The coldest of areas, while the Highlands are un- has greatly improved. Most live- these have been caused by drift ice inhabited. About 40% of the popu- stock are now fed indoors for six which sometimes is carried from the lation lives in the capital Reykjavik. to seven months during the winter. Arctic to the northern coastline of The principal industries of the Dairy cows graze in the summer Iceland by currents and winds. In country are fishing, agriculture, and almost entirely on cultivated pas- this century, however, this has various manufacturing and service tures, and sheep and horses graze rarely happened, and the glaciers industries. At present about 14% the native rangeland. Due to in- have been continuously receding in of the population is supported by creased number of sheep, the use arctic and subarctic regions. In Ice- agriculture. There are approxi- of cultivated pastures has not re- land air temperatures have been a mately 5,300 farms in the coantry, sulted in reduced grazing pressure little higher during the past decade most of which are combined dairy on the rangelands during the sum- than the normals from 1901 to and sheep farms. Grass is the main mer, although it is becoming a 1930. crop in Iceland as the short grow- more common practice that the ing season limits even the growth lambs are fattened on cultivated Geology of grains such as barley and oats. pastures two to four weeks prior Geologically, Iceland is a young The present area of cultivated to slaughtering (Palsson and Sveins- country. It contains two major pastures is about 100,000 ha. son, 1952; Palsson and Gunnarsson, geological formations, the Basalt Prior to settlement there were 196 1). In the perio,d June to Sep- and the Palagonite formations. The probably no such herbivores in Ice- tember most of the sheep and a first dates back to the Tertiary land as rodents, large mammals, great number of the unbroken period and consists largely of ba- nor important insects. Geese prob- horses graze on mountain ranges saltic lava sheets. This formation, ably were the only important native where they roam freely in large which occupies the central zone of herbivores. grazing districts or commons. the country, is comparatively water- The livestock which the settlers tight. The Palagonite formation is brought with them were the first Physical Characteristics younger, partly a mixture of sub- large herbivores in Iceland. The Climate glacial and subaerial eruptives and The climate in Iceland is cold partly consisting of glacial, fluvial, 1 Consultant to Icelandic Agricultural and aeolian deposits. With time Research Institute, July-August, 1967; temperate, moist, and oceanic and July, 1970. is characterized by frequent and this mixture has been hardened 86 ICELANDIC RANGES 87
Table 1. Mean temperatures in OC and mean precipitation in mm for six Soils selected Lowland weather stations, 1931 to 1969, and one Highland station, A simple yet practical classifica- 1966 to 1969 (see also Fig. l).l tion of Icelandic soils, is into dryland soils (well-drained) and Temperature Precipitation wetland soils (poorly-drained) (Hel- May- Oct.- May- Oct.- gason, 1966; Johannesson, 1960). Weather stations Sept. Apr. Annual Sept. Apr. Annual The well-drained soils are gen- Stykkisholmur, W 8.5 1.1 4.2 237 521 758 erally loessial material derived from Akureyri, N 8.9 0.4 3.9 157 317 474 frost weathering of the bedrock or Hallormssta ur, E 8.8 0.8 4.1 212 452 664 from material which has been Vik i M@dal, S 9.5 2.9 5.7 904 1352 2256 blown out in explosive eruptions. Sbmsstadir, S 9.6 1.8 5.0 374 727 1101 These soils are rather uniform in Reykjavik, SW 9.4 1.8 5.0 269 536 805 character all over the country. Hveravellira 4.2 -5.8 -1.6 289 398 687 They are rockfree and clayfree and * From Vedrhttan, 1954. are mainly silty loams. Accordingly, zA Highland station at 600 m above sea level. they are friable and erode easily, and their water-holding capacity and fertility is low. Alternately, into water-permeable rocks. Acid is 2,119 m. The Highlands (above they are easy to cultivate. Owing rocks occur in Iceland, but they are 300 to 400 m) are a more-or-less to the origin of the soils, low pre- of minor significance as a contribu- slightly undulating plateau with cipi tation, and short frost free tor to the formation of soil ma- single mountains and ridges pro- period, very little leaching occurs, terials (Johannesson, 1970). truding up to 1,000 m above the and profile formation is hardly In the Palagonite formation vol- surroundings. The great majority noticeable. canic activity has been continuous of farms are located below 200 m The poorly-drained soils (peat up to the present time. Since the elevation along the coast and in bogs), which are characteristic of settlement of the country at least the numerous valleys that extend arctic and subarctic regions, are 30 volcanoes have erupted, and the into the Highlands. Approximately number of recorded eruptions has 11 y0 of the country is covered with of organic origin. In Iceland, how- been about 150. Altogether the glaciers, most of which are in the ever, their mineral content is rela- number of postglacial volcanoes in southern part where the precipita- tively high due to inputs of vol- Iceland is close to ZOO. Icelandic tion is highest. canic ash and soil material trans- volcanism is predominantly effu- sive, producing more lava than ash. In some eruptions, however, great masses of pumice both of alkaline and acid composition are ejected, greatly affecting the formation and character of Icelandic soils over large areas. Hot springs are com- mon in Iceland as often is the case in volcanic areas.
Topography Iceland is mountainous yet does not extend to high elevations (Table 2). The highest mountain
Table 2. Altitudinal distribution (o/o) in Iceland.
Elevation Area Percent of (m) (km2) Iceland O-200 27,000 26 200-600 37,500 36 600-800 18,000 17 FIG. 1. A map of Iceland showing weather stations referred to in Table 1. Areas mapped under the range survey project also are shown. Large open (white) areas 21,500 21 Above 800 within the island are glaciers; small areas are lakes. 88 THORSTEINSSON ET AL.
TVith settlement through com- bined effects of uncontrolled grar- ing of livestock, cutting, burning, and other means of removing the trees, in only 300 to 400 years the forests were reduced to their pres- ent level, now covering only about 1% of the country (Hjarnason, 1942: Einar,son, 1962; Thorarins- son, 19Gl). The destruction of the tree cover and intensive land use rexdted in the start of soil erosion surpassed in intensity only in a few countries of the world (Fig. 3). The low-growing vegetation which succeeded the trees in dominance was, in many instances, unable to bind and pro- tect the loose soils against the ever-blowing winds in Iceland. This was especially the case in the High- lands. ported into the bogs from erosion. drained soils were then dominated Erosion increased with prolonged These soila cover about 407” of by low growing birch (Bet~lla pu- intensive grazing through the ren- vegetated land in Iceland. hcscens) with luxuriant under- turies, and it was accelerated by ash- The pH of the well-drained soils growth of forbs, grassa, and browse [all from volcanic eruptions and ranges from 5.5 to G.5 and of the (Fig. 2). The poorly-drained soils periodic cold spells. At present poorly-drained soils from 4.5 to 5.5 were dominated by sedges with about only 20 to 25% of the country (Jhhannesson, 1960). Hummocks scattered birches. is covered by soil and vegetation. caused by frost heaving are char- acteristic for almost all soil types in Iceland, while they are most prominent on poorly-drained soils.
The Vegetation Previous Vegetation and Soil Erosion When the first settlers arrived probably about GO% 01 Iceland’s surface was covered with vegetation (Einarsson, 1962; Thorsteinsson et al., 1969). Some 12,000 years had passed since the end of the last glaciation period and during that time the vegetation had developed without human or herbivore in- fluence. It can be expected to have been largely in balance with the prevailing growth conditions (Thor- steinsson, 1963; Thorsteinsson and Steindbrsson, 1967). Pollen analy- sis studies (Einarsson, 1962, 1963) have revealed that the vegetation at the time of settlement was greatly different from the present. This is also indicated by old sagas dating to the 10th and 11th century. On large areas in the lowlands the well- ICELANDIC RANGES 89
Table 3. The most common range plant species in Iceland. last ice age, while the rest have im- migrated mainly from Europe Grasses and (Steindorsson, 1964). The main rea- Dwarf shrubs Sedges grasslike plants son for the low number of species is Bet&a sp. Carex goodenoughii Festuca sp. the isolation from other countries Vaccinium sp. C. Bigelowii Agrostis sp. and the unfavorable climate. Empetrum sp. C. lyngbyei Poa sp. The floristic limits between the Salix sp. C. rostrata Deschampsia sp. Lowlands and the Highlands are Calluna vulgaris C. rariflora Juncus sp. between 300 and 400 m, varying Arctostaphylos uva-ursi Kobresia myosuroides from one part of the country to Eriophorum sp. another, while the height limits of Equisetum sp. fairly continuous vegetation are 700 to 800 m. The number of species Thus, in the course of nearly 1,100 caused by overgrazing and does not decreases very rapidly with increas- years, an area corresponding to 30 reflect current climate conditions ing elevation as shown by the fol- to 40y0 of the total area of the (Table 3). Unfortunately, relict lowing numbers: between 300 and country which formerly was vege- areas for comparison are very un 600 m above sea level 252 species tated has become denuded through common in Iceland. of fanerogams have been found, erosion. Wind has been the most The poorly-drained soils, cover- above 600 m 186 species, above 800 effective erosive force, al though ing about 40% of total area of the m 90 species, and above 1,000 m 38 considerable water erosion has also vegetated land, are mainly domi- species. The proportion of trees taken place (Lig, 1955). nated by sedges. The botanical and annuals decreases with eleva- Annual loss of vegetation and composition of these areas probably tion while low-growing browse and soil still exceeds what is being re- has not changed much during re- arctic species increase (Table 4). gained by natural regeneration cent centuries as the dominant The Animal Component and through resource management sedges are unpalatable and have efforts (Fridriksson, 1960). Only not been grazed heavily. This vege- Settlers brought livestock into the recently have Icelanders come to’ tation therefore probably resembles country mainly from Norway and the British Isles. The breeds have realize the destructive effects of climax conditions (Campbell, 1957). overgrazing the vegetation and Extensive areas, especially in the been kept almost pure since and have started to take measures to Highlands, are covered with moss import of livestock is now forbidden insure that vegetation is used ac- heath (Rhacomitrium) of very low by law, supposedly to prevent intro- cording to its carrying capacity. productivity. This vegetation is duction of disease. The numbers found on areas with unfavorable of cattle, sheep, horses, and wild Present Vegetation growth conditions or it occurs as reindeer in Iceland in 1968 were as The catastrophic effects of the successional vegetation on formerly follows: 52,000, 820,000, 35,000, and settlement on the vegetation de- eroded land. 2,700. scribed here were not only confined Another characteristic of the Ice- The cattle are mainly of dairy to erosion. They also resulted in landic flora is its paucity in spe- type; there are less than 500 beef great changes in the botanical com- cies. Presently there are only about cattle in the country. The dairy position of many of the most exten- 450 species of fanerogams which cows are small with an average sive plant communities. can be considered to be adapted live weight of about 400 kg. The The most striking feature of the or “natives.” Nearly 50% of these bulls, on the other hand, can present vegetation is the abscence are expected to have survived the weigh over 1,000 kg. of trees. Well-drained soils are mainly dominated by low-growing shrubs, sedges and moss, with low Table 4. Number of plant species and the distribution of life-forms (by Raunkiaer) at different elevations in the Icelandic Highlands (Steindorsson, palatability. Palatable forbs and 1964). grasses which formerly were abun- dant have gradually been decreas- Percentage by life-form+ ing mainly due to the overgrazing, Elevation Number (4 of species Ph Ch H G H.H Th A E and the forbs are now rare on open rangelands. 300- 600 239 1 19 51 13 9 7 54 46 The present botanical composi- 600- 800 186 1 21 58 12 5 3 63 37 800-l 000 90 32 58 8 2 81 19 tion of the well-drained soils prob- Above 1000 38 49 46 5 97 3 ably is, to a large degree, a result 1 Ph = phanerophytes, Ch = chamaephytes, H = hemicryptophytes, G = geophytes, of a retrogressive trend mainly H.H = hydrophytes and halophytes, Th = theronhvtes. A = arctic. E = sub-boreal. 90 THORSTEINSSON ET AL.
Table 5. The average annual milk Table 7. Average annual yield (kg/ha, dry matter) (i.e., peak community bio- yield (kg) per recorded cow in Ice- mass; 1961 to 1966) and the carrying capacity (ha/ewe/month) (May to Sep- land (4% butterfat).1 tember) of some common plant communities in Iceland (Thorsteinsson and Olafsson, unpubl. data). Year Yield Yield 1900 2000 1910 2200 Plant community Herbs Woody sp. Total Carrying capacity1 1920 2400 Moss heath 120 140 260 1.9 1930 2500 1940 2600 Dwarf shrub heath 190 1020 1210 0.7 1950 2800 Grassland 880 230 1110 0.3 1960 3200 Bogs 1050 70 1120 1.2 1965 3400 Snowpatch communities 460 390 850 0.5 1968 3600 l A 50 kg ewe with a lambing percentage of 130. l From Arb6k Landbbnadarins, 1950-1965.
The Icelandic horses are of the The carrying capacity of the The ability of the cows to con- pony type. The height at the Highland rangelands, which pro- sume hay is great, and it is not withers is about 140 cm and the vide summer grazing for most of the uncommon that a cow eats 10 to average weight 370 to 390 kg. For sheep, varies from 0.5 to 1.6 ha/ewe/ 15 kg good quality hay per day. In centuries the horse was the only month. There is less information recent decades the use of concen- means of transport in Iceland as available on the Lowland range- trates has increased greatly, and few roads were built until this cen- lands, but their carrying capacity is due to this and work in animal tury. Due to decrease in the num- somewhat higher. breeding the average milk yield ber of farms and mechanization of The Highlands of Iceland are has increased steadily (Table 5). agriculture, the number of horses divided into grazing commons by Dairy production is mainly in has greatly decreased. drift fences and natural barriers south, southwest, and north Ice- to livestolck movement such as land. Carrying Capacity and Present rivers, glaciers, and steep moun- Sheep raising, which is co,mmon Use of the Rangelands tains. Each common is utilized by throughout the country, is mainly The most extensive plant com- animals from a particular group of for mutton production while the munities on well-drained soils are farms in the Lowland. In the past wool is of minor importance. The moss heath and different dwarf the number of animals in a given ewes weigh about 50 to 60 kg and shrub heaths. The latter may give common has only rarely been regu- the rams about 100 kg. Improved fairly high total annual yields, but lated, and the sheep and horses are winter feeding, management, and in general they lack species pre- not herded in the commons. breeding work has not resulted in ferred by the livestock under sum- Through range research it has the expected increase in lamb car- mer grazing, i.e., grasses and certain become established that extensive cass weight. This is in part due to forbs. Grass-do’minated plant com- overgrazing of the rangelands is prolonged overgrazing of the sum- munities have declined the last few taking place in Iceland (Fig. 4). At mer rangelands. The production decades due to overgrazing, and the same time as the area of vege- per ewe has, however, increased, they are now uncommon on open tated land has been decreasing, especially the last 20 years (Table rangelands. The poorly-drained the number of livestock, other 6). This is due to higher fertility soils (bogs and marshes) also give than horses, has increased, and now which is now 1.3 lamb per ewe. high yields, but unless drained available herbage in the summer they are seldom grazed except in is the limiting factor in the animal winter and early spring. production. Overgrazing is most Table 6. Average annual meat pro- Table 7 shows the annual herb- severe in the heavier populated dis- duction (kg) per ewe and lamb age production of some common tricts in the south and southwestern carcass weight (kg), 1949 to 1969.1 plant colmmunities in Iceland, giv- parts of the country, while there Meat prod. Carcass ing averages of samples from 1961 are considerable unused range re- Year per ewe weight to 1966. The table also shows the sources in remote areas (Fig. 4). The carrying capacity of these communi- overgrazing is not only caused by 1949 13.7 13.5 too many animals compared with 1954 16.7 14.1 ties in the period May to Septem- available herbage but also by un- 1959 15.7 14.1 ber. In calculating this it is con- 1964 17.4 14.4 sidered “proper use” when 40y0 of even distribution of the sheep. The 1969 17.0 14.0 the weight of the most palatable palatable species on the well- species has been removed at the end drained soils, which are most sen- 1Personal communication with A. G. P&ursson. of the grazing season. sitive to overgrazing, will be grazed ICELANDIC RANGES 91
tion as does protection. Grasses be- come dominant and plant density increases. Generally, an annual ap- plication of 70 kg nitrogen and 70 kg phosphate per hectare for two successive years has proved suffi- cient for a satisfactory change in the botanical composition (Thor- steinsson and Sigurbjornsson, 1961). As yet it is somewhat uncertain how stable these changes are, and if it is possible to maintain without further fertilization the new com- position and increased herbage yield under proped grazing. Aerial application of fertilizers on range- lands was initiated some years ago by the Icelandic Soil Conservation Service. This method is especially suitable for the hummocky surface in Iceland and much of the High- lands due to their inaccessibility to machinery. based on range survey informat
FRIDRIKSSON, S., B. SIGURB J~~RNSSON, Univ. Res. Inst. Agr. Rep. 15: 114 THORSTEINSSON, I., AND G. OLAFSSON. AND I. THORSTEINSSON. 1963, Arss- p. (English summary). 1965a. Plontuval saudfjar og melt- k+-sla urn rannsoknir a grodri arid STEIND~~RSSON, S. 1961. Grodur a anleiki beitarplantna (Plant pref- 1961. (Annu. Rep. Plant Sci. Dep. Islandi (The Vegetation of Iceland). erence of sheep and digestibility of of Agr. Res. Inst.) Freyr 3:42-51. Almenna bokafelagid, Reykjavik. 1: the diet). Freyr 10-I 1: 157-163. (English summary). 186 p. (English summary). GR~DURKORT AF ISLANDI 1966-l 970. THORARINSSON, S. 1944. Tefrokrono- THORSTEINSSON, I., AND G. OLAFSSON. Vegetation map of Iceland. Men- logiske studier p5 Island. (Tephro- 1965b. Efnamagn og meltanleiki ningarsjodur. (Culture fund). 45 chronological studies in Iceland). nokkurra Jthagaplantna (The chem- bliid (45 sheets). Geogr. Ann. Stockh. 26: l-27. ical content and in vitro digesti- HELGASON, B. 1960. Nogle track af (English summary). bility of some common range plants: jordbundens egenskaper i Island. THORARINSSON, S. 1961. Uppblastur I). Sk+-sla Ranns. st. Landb. Agr. (Some properties of Icelandic soils). a fslandi i ljosi bskulagarannsokna Res. Inst. Rep. 17: 26 p. Nordisk Jordbrugsforskning 4:287- (Wind erosion in Iceland; a tephro- THORSTEINSSON, I., AND G. OLAFSSON. 290. chronological study). Arsrit Skogr. 1967. Fjarbeit i skoglendi og tithaga J~HANNESSON, B. 1960. The Soils of f&l. Islands. Yearbook Forest. Sot. (Plant preference of sheep in open Iceland. Rit Atvinnudeildar. Univ. Iceland 1961: 17-54. (English sum- rangeland and reforested area). Res. Inst. Agr. Rep. 13: 140 p. mary). Arsrit Skogr~ktarfelags Islands. Year- J~HANNESSON, B., AND I. THORSTEINSSON. THORSTEINSSON, I. 1963. Rannsoknir book Forest. Sot. Iceland. 1967: 6- 1957. Grodurkort og lfsing Gnu- a Bhrifum beitar a grodurfar Land- 14. pverjaafrettar (An ecological survey mannaafrettar (Studies on the effects THORSTEINSSON, I., AND G. OLAFSSON. of an alpine rangeland in South of grazing on the vegetation of an 1969. Efnamagn og meltanleiki Iceland with maps). Rit Atvin- alpine range). Natttirufraedingurinn nokkurra tithaga plantna II (The nudeildar. Univ. Res. Inst. ecol. 33: 187-203. (English summary). chemical content and in vitro di- maps 1. (English summary). THORSTEINSSON, I. AND A. GUDNASON. gestibility of some common range LAG, J. 1955. Litt om innvirkning 1964. Kvistlendi breytt i graslendi plants: II). J. Agr. Res. Inst. Ice- av vinderosion og eoliske sedimenter (The effects of herbicides and land 1:26-43. (English summary). p$ jordsmonnet i Island (The effects fertilization on rangeland vegetation THORSTEINSSON, I., AND B. SIGURB J~~RNS- of wind erosion and eolian sediments in Iceland). Freyr 5-6: 78-89. SON 1961. Aburdarathuganir a on soil formation in Iceland). Norsk (English summary). Biskupstungnaafretti (Studies on geografisk tidssdrift. Oslo 15: 20-28. THORSTEINSSON, I. 1964. Pliintuval effects of fertilizer treatments on PALSSON, H. AND R. SVEINSSON. 1952. saudfjar (Studies on the plant pref- Highland ranges in Iceland). Arbok Fitun slaturlamba a raektudu landi erence of sheep). Freyr 11:194-201. Landbbnadarins. Yearbook Agr. 1: (Fattening of lambs for slaughter on (English summary). 28-46. (English summary). cultivated pastures). Univ. Res. Inst. THORSTEINSSON, I., J. JONSSON, S. THORSTEINSSON, I., AND S. STEIND~RSSON. Agr. Rep. 5: 32 p. (English sum- SIGURDSSON, AND TH. EINARSSON. 1967. Islenzk beitliind (Icelandic mary). 1969. Grodureyding og landgraedsla rangelands). Rit Landbunadardeil- PALSSON, H. AND P. GUNNARSSON. 1961. (Soil erosion and land reclamation). dar. Agr. Res. Inst. Rep. 19: 40 p. Botun slaturlamba a raektudu landi Hid Isl. Natttirufraedifel. og Bskul- (English summary). (Fattening of lambs for slaughter on fdssamband Islands. Sot. Natur. VED~~TTAN. 196 1. (Icelandic Weather forage and kale). Rit Atvinnudeildar. Hist. Icelandic Youth Counsel. 8 p. Bureau) Reykjavik.
FIRST CALL FOR PAPERS 25th Annual Meeting, SRM, Washington, D. C. (SILVER ANNIVERSARY)
The Silver Anniversary meeting of the Society will be a Procedure-Those wishing to present papers at the meet- notable event. It is designed to provide for appropriate ing in our Nation’s capital should submit the following: reports and papers addressed to the occasion, but also to (1) title of paper, (2) a preliminary abstract of not more give scientists, technicians, ranchers, teachers, and adminis- than 200 words, and (3) a supporting statement indicating trators an opportunity to report new work and, if possible, the significance of the offered paper. The statement also the relationship of such data to the meeting theme, “Range- should specify the method of presentation-reading, charts, land Resources and Society’s Needs-a look ahead to the slides, special requirements, etc. 21st Century.” Volunteer papers of approximately 15 Deadline No. I-One (1) copy of the above documents minutes duration in the following topical areas of range- must be sent to the Program Committee by June 4, 1971. lands-economics, ecosystems, education, improvement, Send them to David G. Wilson, Program Chairman, SRM, nutrition, physiology, planning, recreation, wildlife (birds), Bureau of Land Management (390), Department of the wildlife (mammals), forest range, and new uses of range Interior, Washington, D. C. 20240. plants-from all contributors, Society members and non- members, will be considered. Accepted papers by students Deadline No. 2-The Program Committee’s final selec- -graduate, undergraduate, or high school-will be sched- tion of papers will be based on a review of the submitted uled in similar topical areas of the planned concurrent abstracts and supporting statements. The authors of sessions. accepted papers will be notified by September 3, 1971.