Agrekon, Vol 33, No 4(December 1994) Nkosi, Kirsten ,Bhembe and Sartorius von Bach

THE ROLE OF TRADITIONAL INSTITUTIONS IN RURAL I DEVELOPMENT: THE CASE BOGO§I(CHIEFTAINSHIP)

S.A. Nkosi Agricultural Division, Standard Bank ofSouth Africa, Johannesburg

J.F. Kirsten Department ofAgricultural Economics, Extension and Rural Development, University ofPretoria, Pretoria

S.M. Bhembe Industrial Development Corporation, Sandton, Johannesburg

H.J. Sartorius von Bach Department ofAgricultural Economics, Extension and Rural Development, University ofPretoria, Pretoria

1. Introduction therefore appropriate to discuss the characteristics, function and possible role of these organisations (or In most of the social science literature, no explicit institutions) in rural development in . This distinction has been made between "institutions" and paper discusses these issues in some detail and finally "organisations". The two words are used debates the role these organisations could and should interchangeably, though they do not necessarily refer to play in rural development. the same thing. It is therefore at the outset of this paper necessary to clarrify these concepts briefly. Uphoff 2. The nature of BOGOgI in South Africa. (1993) defines institutions as complexes of norms, rules, and behaviours that serve a collective purpose. The kgafi is the head of a group of people organised Organizations on the other hand are a structure of roles. into a community often referred to as a tribe (Schapera, 1966). He operates in consultation with the headmen While many institutions are organizations (e.g. and advisers comprising mainly of his brothers, and households, firms, co-operatives), many institutions are other influential people in the royal family. Some not organizations (e.g., money, the law, the African magoii tend to retain their fathers' advisers. This kind palaver, parallel markets) and many organisations are of continuity is similar to that of bureaucracy in the not institutions (a contract between two individuals, a modern stare. Councillors and advisers help the chief in particular grassroots organisation). A contract or a pursuing his expected functions. grassroots organization may become institutions if they are extensively, standardised and recognised(De Janvry, Bogo.fi is a birth right. No one can have a claim on it et al, 1993). unless he is the rightful heir to the throne. Rules of succession differs between ethnic groups. Among the Tribal authorities or the chieftainship (Bogaz) in Ngunis, Sothos and Vendas bogogi normally passes traditional African societies can be regarded as from father to son. The rightful heir is the eldest son of indigenous organizations. It is common knowledge that the Kgo.fi's great wife. The great wife is the chiefs wife these indigenous organisations have been systematically whose marriage is arranged by the tribe trhough undermined by the state and colonial powers in many planning, selection and enhancing. The kgogi normally African countries. In the same vane the Bantu Authority does not have a say about the selection of his wife. She system created by the government eroded the is normally selected from other magogi as a form of indigenous tribal organisations in many of the former promoting peace between tribes. In Shagaan-Tshonga a "homelands". kgogi is usually succeed by his brothers. The kgo§i's eldest son will be the father's heir only if his brothers do Rapid emergence of new social movements, better not have any offspring.Women are not normally understanding of the logic of cooperation, ability of a regarded as heirs, although they may at times act as variety of organizational forms to reduce transcation regents. But among the Balobedu tribes, the chief must costs and greater decentralisation of governance and always be a woman (Schapera, 1966; Tribute, 1994). democratic rules all give new space for experimenting She is usually accorded "male" status, and is expected to with and building new dynamism in civil organisations "marry" wives, and upon her death is succeeded by the such as indigenous and grassroots institutions. Several eldest daughter of her "great" wife. authors (e.g. Uphoff, 1993; Nugent, 1993; Bardhan, 1993) also refer to the role indigenous and grassroots Bogogi is decentralized in most cases and can therefore organisations in rural development as complements to be viewed as tre local or grassroots organisations. the state and market. In agriculture these organisations Magai differ in their levels of operations. There are can be effective in redusing transaction costs for peasant local magogi(headmen or indunas), district magogi and households and serving as mediating institutions in paramount magogi. The paramount kgogi is the supreme contracting with agroindustry. kgogi of all district magogi and his main task is to oversee and monitor the activities of district magogi. There seems thus an opportunity and a role to play for The district magogi are therefore the subordinates of the indigenous organisations, such as the tribal paramount kgai. Subordination to the paramount is chieftanships in rural development. For this reason it is characterised by payments of certain royalties, that are 282 Agrekon, Vol 33, No 4(December 1994) Mosi, Kirsten, Bhembe and Sartorius von Bach determined by district magai in their council. District 3.1 Settling of disputes magon, like paramount, have subordinates, namely the headmen and council members. Headmen are the kgo§i's The kgafi maintain law and order amongst his tribe. representatives He at village levels. plays an important role of settling disputes amongst tribe members. They have their own way of dealing with 3. The role and activities of the MAGOg/ cases. Cases are performed mostly through tribal courts. Tribal courts are composed of adult males of the Magai perform a variety of activities which often community, and even male strangers who happen to be differs from tribe to tribe. They are regarded as the in the area at that time are allowed to participate in symbol of unity in a tribe. They are rulers, judges, court deliberations. At such hearings the kgafi do not makers and guardian of the law and repository of necessarily participate in the deliberations. He only wealth. Their biggest obligation is to guard the interests participates when giving judgement or when he wants of their subjects, to and also keep themselves informed of get clarification on matters before the court. Whenever tribal affairs. The ubuntu is expected out of such an giving judgement he may not act against the general institution. They link the tribe with their ancestors. This feeling of the court. obliges them to be custodians of their tribes. In this case they gives ears to their subjects without discrimination. Women were not normally allowed to participate at Mbeki (1984) stressed that they have powers of tribal courts, but the situation have gradually changed controlling many economic activities in their areas. This such that if they are affected they are allowed to defend makes them to be executive heads of their tribes. Other themselves. In such situations where disputes have important activities they perform are settling of disputes been settled and one party has been found guilty, it is and problem solving, interaction with other outside fined, the fine is put in the coffers of the community. institutions and to determine points of investment and The money collected in this manner are put in tribal development within their areas. funds which is supposed to be used for community development projects. Although the activities could differe form tribe to tribe and from area to area, Table 1 actually indicates to some 3.2 Interaction with other institutions extent the similarity of activities performed by various levels of the tribal authority system in the previous Kgo.§i act as a link between the community and other different "homelands". Pairwise comparisons were institution. They serve as an entry and exit point performed of after specifying a model using fully major development activities. According to Hunter (M)ANOVA (Systat, 1993). The Bonferroni test was (1943) and Schapira (1966) nothing that is of used to determine significant differences between importance can be done without the knowledge of the "homelands". The table shows significant differences of kgoli. The kgafi serve as a spokesman and institutional roles between homelands by grouping them representatives of his tribe in all external relations. This into "a", "b" and "c"(eg all homelands with an a had the element is often abused by some magok. They same characteristics). think that this element mean that they are the thinking tanks of the whole community. Thinking that their ideas need The various activities and functions of magafi as to override those of the community. Forgetting that they observed by rural agrarian households are now briefly are/ supposed to be guardians of the whole community. discussed. Table 1 show the different roles of the tribal That is they need to be accountable to the whole authority, the chief, the induna and the tribal councillor, community. Indicating that their acts should be governed namely land allocation, to maintain law and order, by the entire objectives of the whole community. Each service provision and problem solving. From the table it and activity they perform, which is of interest to can be said that only the the and KaNgwane tribal community need to be governed by contributions it authoroty had the will same fuction with regard to roles make to the enrich it. That is if the kgai thinks while all other tribal of a authority of previous homelands project that is not approved by the community, should had different functions. With regard to the chief, not pursue it. Bophutatswana and showed the same functions. The induna in Kwandebele and had similar 3.3 Identify development points functions and those in and KwaZulu were the same. From all different institutions, the tribal Maga/ decide where a particular development councillor's functions were the most similar accrss endeavour is going to take place in the community. homelands, e.g. Bophutatswana, Kwandebele, , Though they do not use scientific approaches, they Ciskei, Venda and Lebowa were the same and KwaZulu consult with government institutions and other and KaNgwane were the same. institutions responsible for these aspects. This include on assigning sites for the erection of From the schools, clinics, above significant different groupings it is recreation facilities, agricultural development difficult to generate and other a conclusion. It is however evident practices that are of developmental nature. that the functions Besides of different tribal institutions are assigning sites for development, they are involved perceived different in accoring to region. Even when doing different developmental activities. They determine pairwise comparisons road on other variables such as type of construction, water supply, school construction, household employment or expenditure pattern, the latter recreational infrastructure. Most of these activities could not be associated are with the pattern of different performed jointly by community members. institutional functions. The community will provide, labour material and will try by all means to ensure proposed projects succeed.

283 Agrekon, Vol 33, No 4(December 1994) Nkosi, Kirsten ,Bhembe and Sartorius von Bach

Table 1: Functions of tribal institutions in different areas 1993 Effect Bophutha- Kwandebele Transkei Ciskei Venda Lebowa Gazankulu KwaZulu KaNgwane Significance tswana F-value Tribal authority: Land allocation a a a b a a ab a ab 5,822*** Law and Order b b a b a c b b b 5,417*** Service a a a a b a a b a 4,321*** Problem solve ab . b b a a a b a a 3,478*** Chief: Land allocation a a c b b a a a b 11,306*** Law and Order b a a ab a b a b b 4,125*** Service a a a a a a a b a 3,132*** Problem solve . b a a a , a b b a a 4,504*** Induna: Land allocation a ab ab b b a a b a 2,689** Law and Order a a b a a b a a c 13,144*** Service a a a a b a a b a 5,933*** Problem solve a b a a a a b a a 4,112*** Tribal councillor : Law and Order a a a a a a b a a 4,224*** Service a a a a a a a b b 5,011*** Problem solve b oh b b b b a b b 2,440**

284 Agrekon, Vol 33, No 4(December 1994) Nkosi, Kirsten ,Bhembe and Sartorius von Bach

Most of the schools (community schools) in the rural government from time to time for accomplishing certain areas are the result of tribal activities. The tribe through functions within the tribal authority. the influence of the kgogi and his government start by deciding about the school to the point where the school If a person is regarded to be disloyal to the kgogi, it would be completed. This involves writing applications becomes difficult for him to acquire for example, a to the government, and even building it itself. Towards permit to sell cattle. This will result in the person being building the school the community will contribute compelled to pay his or her arrears first before paying equally, in whatever that would have been determined for the permit. Therefore farmers who are not loyal to by the kgafi and his government. Also they will be in- the kgo.fi find it difficult to market their animals through volved in the actual erection of the school. This ap- official channels. In some cases, this forces them to proach is followed in all projects pursued by magogi in change their marketing behaviour. Those that are loyal their tribal areas. Thus the kgai and his government de- to the kgai do not encounter problems whenever cides and even ensures that an envisaged project is marketing their cattle and in some cases obtain their achieved. permits free, and those that are disloyal have it tough, with the result that they end up being unable to pay all Agricultural development projects also is an activity the necessary payments and in the end the opportunity where mago§i played important roles. Most of the of selling is also denied. This behaviour compels such agricultural development projects as they appear in farmers to market their animals through private people developing areas have been introduced with the or any other channel that will not give priority to the influence and through magosi. But though approving permit from the local government. them, they are in most cases not involved in the planning of such projects. They also lack the reason Magoli play an important role in appointing buyers of behind that project. This implies development livestock in their areas. They do have the final say in approaches, like rehabilitation schemes, betterment who are allowed to speculate in a particular area or planning, land allocation and stock reduction were region. Speculators are important buyers of livestock in introduced in this fashion (Letsoalo & Rogerson, 1984). developing areas, and their appointment is approved by Betterment planning involves an approach where tribal magogi rather than the farmers who are going to be lands were demarcated arable, grazing and residential served. In meetings where speculators are appointed, areas, so as to achieve "efficient agriculture" and soil farmers do not partake in the appointment of the conservation (McAllister, 1988; Yawitch, 1988; De Wet speculators. Only magogi perform this task. It puzzles & Liebbrabdt, 1994). This resulted with what is called most farmers as to how magai arrive at a decision "economies units". It lead to settlement schemes, result while they have no clue of what happens. This often in one plot one family. As a result most of the tribal results in controversial choices where most of the people today does not have the same boundaries as before chosen are often not in the good books of farmers betterment planning. Centrally managed projects were (Sepodumo, 1993). introduced upon the failure of betterment schemes (Sebotja, 1986, 1993). 4. The erosion of BOGO:Scl in South Africa

3.4 Agricultural activities Though important, bogaq in South Africa suffered major setbacks. It was never respected by the The kgai also plays an important in certain agricultural Government. The history of this disrespect dates back to activities including livestock marketing. Alagogi play a colonization of this country. Since this era the certain role in livestock marketing and several activities government devised ways of controlling Africans. To are executed that are of importance in livestock accomplish this the government decided on measures marketing. The most important activity is the issuing of aimed at minimising kgaffs powers. Through appointing permits authorising farmers to sell their animals. The magosi as government employees, Government was in a permit outlines the type of animal(s), the number to be position to manipulate the activities of magai. marketed, and in some cases the colour of the animals is According to Mbeki (1984) these actions turned magafi indicated. The purpose of the permit is to curb stock into mere figureheads. To lure support for magafi the theft and principally to ensure that livestock marketing government emphasised that they can be powerful if is procedurally accomplished. No animal may be sold in they obey goverment commands. Several techniques the formal channels without a proper permit authorising were employed which made magai to implement the owner to sell that animal. government policy against the will of the population. Most of these activities enriched magai at the expense Marketing agents and Government officials would not of their tribes. This self enrichment was enhanced market cattle (marketing points) without kgogi's through imposition of tax on communities, disregarding authorisation permit. To acquire the permit the owner the affordability of the affected people. This system pays an administration fee ranging between R 2.00 and encouraged most magaG to squeeze money from the R 10.00 per animal to be marketed. The amount tribe to tribal accounts, to which only =gal and the charged for administration fees depends on tribal magistrate had access. This resulted in some magai authorities' powers. Within the same tribal authority it engaging in corrupt activities. Many enriched differs with the loyalty of the farmers to the kgafi. themselves through implimenting government policy. Loyalty to the kgafi implies the satisfaction of the Some =gal were also placed in position where they necessary tributes liable to the kgo.G. These range from improperly used tribal properties. Most of the failed the payment of tribal levies to a range of payments that development policies like rehabilitation schemes, may be determined by the administration of the local betterment planning, land allocation and stock reduction were brought to communities through magogi. To 285 Agrekon, Vol 33, No 4(December 1994) Nkosi, Kirsten ,Bhembe and Sartorius von Bach introduce such schemes the magogi rewarded those who and will be able to properly contribute to the accepted the schemes. They were given appropriate development of our society. It proves that it is incentives, their land allotments were increased, special sustainable as it survived kinds of pressures of whatever stipends were increased, they were praised and were form aimed at neutralising it or even destroying it. taken to places of honour and finally This their rights as does not mean that magogi must perpetuate those government appointed magon continued. evil deeds which some of them performed. The present government also must not try to throttle This process made the Chief Magistrate on people of the area or through magogi as their predecessors deed. Let region to be the head of all magogi, including magogi paramount be given their rightful roles. Being rural based, they magogi. This resulted in magogi not performing their know different problems and might have ideas that duties. They became government watchdogs can on their help to overcome such problems. Through participative own tribes and communities. To a great extent the development approaches they can play a government outlined their duties. great deal in In this case major shaping strategies that will help most emphasis was on the maintenance of the problems of law and order, faced by rural communities. Magogi themselves enforcement of government laws and must orders, and change their approaches of dealing with things. dispersal of unlawful assemblies. This They resulted in the must work with the people not for the people. magogi being more accountable to Government Every officials thing that is of community interests must be discussed than their own subjects. These activities resulted in with the community at relevant and appropriate forums most magogi facing difficult situations with their tribes. where ideas can be shared between the community Some magogi were rejected by their own tribes. members and the kgogi. That is they must know what the community expect The introduction from them, and also in-turn must of the Bantu Authority system know what to expect (described above) from the community. In pursuing in the "homelands" minimised and their activities, they must even destroyed powers learn to respect human's right and role of paramount kgogis. and work according to it. Paramounts who were against the Bantu Authority System had their bogogi crushed. Mbeki (1984) refers References to the case of the Tembu tribe in Transkei which resisted the Bantu Authorities System because it DBSA.(1984). KwaNdebele. Introductory economic undermined the rights of their paramount kgogi. and This social memorandum. DBSA. Halfway House. lead to the appointment of kgogi K. D Matanzima the former head of Transkei. The same happened in DE WET C & LEIBBRANDT, M. (1994). Sekhuldmneland in the former Lebowa where Separate the developments:The different effect of homeland paramount kgogi's (kgosi Sekhukhune) powers policy on were two Ciskei Villages. DSA, Vol 11, No 2. crushed. The govenunent tried to impose Bantu HUNTER, M. (1943). Authorities in every tribe. Reaction to conquest effects of The tribe in turn resited the contact with Europeans whole move. As a result Kgo§i of the Pondo of South Africa. Moroamoche (Kgo§i Oxford University Press. London. Sekhukhune) and leading council members were banned. Kgogi Moroamoche was deported from his area McLLISTER, P.A.(1988). The impact of relocation (Mbeki, 1984). The village headmen and other district in a Transkei betterment. In Cross & Haines (eds). Towards magogi were appointed by the government as fully freehold. Options for land and development in South fledged magon, virtually eroding the bogogi. Before the Africa's black rural areas. Jutas & Co. Cape Town. implementation of the Bantu Authority system in Sekhukhuneland there were 14 magon, but now they MBEKI, G. (1984). South Africa's peasant are a total of 58. All of them appointed by revolt. the International Defence and Aid Fund for Southern Government as magogi. Even though the government Africa. tried to destroy paramount in Sekhukhune, it was SCHAPERA, I. (1966). revitalised, when on the 12 The Bantu-speaking tribes of February 1994, Rhyne Southern Africa: an Thulare was coronatated as ethnological survey. Maskew Miller the paramount kgogi Bapedi LTD,.Cape Town. ha ga Sekhukhune, thereby named Sekhukhune 111. SEBOTJA, 11986. The evaluation 5. A new role for BOGO:S/ in of Crokodilhuiwel rural and Coetzeesdraai. Unpublished development in South Africa B Agric Hons Dissertation. University of Fort Hare. Alice. Bogogi is part and parcel of African tradition. It is still SEBOTJA, I. (1993).A comparative evaluation of three going to be associated and involved in/with many irrigation schemes in Lebowa. Unpublished M Agric development activities that are going to affect our country. Bogai is not important, it is only the system SEPDUMO, M.(1993).Administrative officer that under which it operated that rendered it on Tribal less Authorities. Department of Justice. Schoonoord. important. It turned magogi more accountable to the government that their communities. Therefore most of THE TRIBUTE MAGAZINE 1994. the problems they experience are mainly due to the system under which they operated. But they are also YAWITCH, J. (1988). Betterment liable to blame as they perpetuated as a state policy. In the system's Cross & Haines (eds). Towards behaviour even though it created a hatred freehold. Options for between land and development in South themselves and the community. If most Africa's black rural of the problems areas. Jutas & Co.Cape Town. could be solved, such that bogogi hold its rightful place

286