Hist Ophthal Intern 2017, Vol.2: 61-72 61 The spectacles in Polish iconography from the 16th till 17th century.

Lech Bieganowski, MD.,PhD.

Summary Spectacles presented in iconography are important source providing reliable evidence of their actual appearance. Moreover, they make it possible to define the exact time of the introduction of this invention in a given culture. Iconographic evidence proving the existence of spectacles in Poland occur relatively late, namely in the 16th century. The article presents the images of spectacles from the 16th till 17th century in Poland. They can be found in various iconographic sources: books, woodcuts, sacral and secular paintings or frescoes. Due to the fact, that information concerning iconographic sources on spectacles has been scattered so far in various papers and monographies, it is gathered in this article. It must be underlined that several reproductions presented in the article have not been discussed in any paper devoted to the history of spectacles in Poland yet. The above-mentioned concerns the masterpieces of such painters as Michael Lancz from Kitzingen (Dormition of the Mother of God), Pieter Aersten (Christian charities), Martinus Claeszoon van Reymerswale (Tax collectors), and Michael Willmann (Self-portrait in Glasses, Saint Joseph gives name to Jesus)

Key words: spectacles, iconography, painting, woodcuts, books, frescoes, XVI-XVII century, Poland

Iconography is an immensely In Poland, iconographical source important source which provides a great deal materials appeared relatively late i.e. in the of invaluable information about the history 16th century. Information on glasses featured of material culture. This statement also in art pieces in the area of Poland is scattered concerns such artefacts as spectacles. The over numerous publications and, what is iconographical evidence allows to confront more, it is not particularly abundant. information about spectacles known from Therefore, in this publication it has been other sources, preserved genuine items or the decided that the presentation of images of existing descriptions of such items with real glasses will be done in chronological order images of these optical aids as depicted by according to the time of creation of the art artist painters. Painting is an undeniably rich pieces. This work will contain depictions of source of knowledge in this respect. Apart glasses found on woodcut relief prints on the from objects in the form of paintings, images covers of books printed by renowned printing of glasses can be also found in books, code houses, as well as those which served as books, song-books, or guild books. This type illustrations of scientific books. Moreover, it of sources appeared in western Europe will include reproductions of fragments relatively early as the first paintings which depict spectacles in religious paintings depicting persons wearing glasses appeared and frescos or lay prints found in Poland. as early as the beginning of the second half of Some of these art pieces were created by the 14th century(i) Polish painters, while others are by well- known Dutch or German painters, still others In their art pieces, painters tended to are works of anonymous artists. Some of portray figures of clergy, saints, scholars, these iconographical artefacts were created wise men and other respected, frequently in Poland, some appeared in the country as a elderly, characters as those wearing glasses. result of World War II, other exhibits are It is evident that this kind of presentations property of museums. has been a frequent cause of anachronisms which can be found in most of the paintings Supposedly, the first depiction of of that time. spectacles in Poland is the publication entitled Epithoma utriusquae musices by Stephanus Monetarius issued by Florian Lech Bieganowski, MD.,PhD. Collegium Medicum in Bydgoszcz Ungler printing house in 1515 (Fig. 1, page 63). Nicolaus Copernicus University in Toruń The cover of the publication bears a woodcut Poland relief print. Under the title there is a printed [email protected] 62 image of a choir consisting of six men. In the The museum in Kielce can boast center of the group there is a bespectacled another beautiful painting by Michael Lancz man holding sheets of musical notation. The of Kitzingen (titled Dormition of the Mother glasses have a characteristic acute- angle of God). The museum currently houses his nose bridge to which two separate lens masterpiece depicting an identical scene as frames are attached. These are so-called rivet the one mentioned above i.e. (titled Virgin spectacles(ii). The distance between the Mary Falling Asleep). The painting was framed lenses can be adjusted, which allows previously housed for many years in Saint some of the spectacles of this type to remain Wojciech's Church in Kielce. The composition mounted on the nose. of the piece, also created in 1525, bears a close resemblance to the scene from the It is noteworthy that this woodcut Wawel altar tryptych. Similarly, the painting relief print had a removable title wood block depicts two apostles kneeling over an open which could be replaced with another one book to the left of the Mother of God's bed. bearing a different inscription. In this simple One can see beautifully painted bow way, various publications could be printed spectacles lying on the open book.(Fig.9, p.64) with the same ornament and different titles (Fig.2 and Fig.3 - page 63). That was the case with The fact that Michael Lancz included the publication of Opusculum musice two figures with spectacles in the altar compilatum by Sebastian of Felstin dated paintings of bishop Jan Konarski at Wawel from 1518. A similar technique, taking Cathedral has been noted in the literature of advantage of the same woodcut print, was the subject[6]. Another depiction of eyeglasses used when publishing Opusculum musice in the aformentioned painting by Michael mensuralis in 1534 [1-4]. Lancz confirms the sugestion that this inclination resulted from the undeniable Another example connected with the relations of the artist with the city of depiction of spectacles as a specific object are Nürnberg which was a significant center of spectacles production at the time [6]. It must the outstanding pieces of art by Michael be stressed that the literature devoted to the Lancz of Kitzingen [5]. The painted scene of history of spectacles has, as yet, not from the Virgin Mary Falling Asleep mentioned this painting, although it has been tombstone chapel of bishop Jan Konarski in a subject of an M.A. thesis [7]. the Wawel Cathedral in Cracow dates back to 1525. In the painting, located in the right Another painting presented in this hand side of the altar, to the Virgin Mary's left, work dates from before 1546 and was created two Apostles are kneeling (presumably Saint by Marinus Claeszoon van Reymerswaele(v). Peter and Saint Paul) bent over an open book, The painting is entitled Tax collectors one of whom is using bow spectacles with a (fig.10,p.65). The central figure of the picture is characteristic curving bridge (Figs.4 & 5). wearing a meticulously painted attire and is using bow spectacles which remain mounted In this type of spectacles the lens on his nose. It is noteworthy that this frames are connected by a gently curving painting has not been mentioned in any bridge. The bridge resembles a bow (hence its Polish works devoted to the history of name) forming a single firm piece together spectacles(vi). with the lenses(iii). Another example of spectacles depiction can be found on a Before the Second World War very painting located on the external side of one of interesting frescos were discovered in Lublin the altar wings(iv). The artist painted there a in the Lubomelski townhouse (at Rynek 8), portrait of kneeling Saint Ambrose wearing in the so-called wine house. The name of the glasses [5]. author of these murals remains unknown, however, it is supposed that the painter came However, the way this portrait was from the painting school of German masters. painted makes it impossible to identify the The restoration works were halted by the type of spectacles frames. Nevertheless, one outbreak of the war. Professor J. Dutkiewicz may presume that, again, these are bow again mentioned those pieces of art by spectacles (Figs. 6 & 7, p. 64). pointing out that they date back to the second half of the 16th century [8]. 63

Fig.1. Stephanus Monetarius: Fig.2. Sebastian de Felstin: Opusculum Fig.3 Sebastian de Felstin: Opusculum Epithoma utriusquae musices, musice compilatum, Florian Ungler musice mensuralis, Florian Ungler Florian Ungler Printing House in Printing House in Cracow, 1518; owner: Printing House in Cracow, 1534; owner: Cracow, 1515. Princes’s Czartoryski Foundatiom in Princes’s Czartoryski Foundatiom in Cracow (własność: Fundacja XX. Czartoryskich w Photo Laboratory of the Department of Old Cracow (własność: Fundacja XX. Czartoryskich w Prints at Jagiellonian Library in Cracow Krakowie) Krakowie)

Fig. 4 Michael Lancz of Kitzingen: Virgin Mary Falling Fig. 5 Asleep. A painting from the altar reredos in the tomb Fragment of the painting chapel of bishop Jan Konarski at the Wawel Cathedral, from Fig.4. dating from 1525. Currently, the altar is housed at the Photo Laboratory of the National National Museum in Cracowin, bishop Erazm Ciołek´s Museum in Cracow. Palace. Photo Laboratory of the National Museum in Cracow. 64

Fig.6 Micheal Lancz of Kitzingen 1525. Portrait of St. Fig.7 Fragment of the painting from Fig.6. Ambrose from the side wing of the altar in the tomb chapel Photo Laboratory of the National Museum in Cracow. of bishop Jan Konarski at Wawel Cathedral. Currently, the altar is housed at the National Museum in Cracow in Bishop Erazm Ciołek's Palace. Photo Laboratory of the National Museum in Cracow.

Fig.8 Michael Lancz of Kitzingen: 1525 Dormition of the Mother of God from the church of St Wojciech in Kielce – Cathedral Museum in Kielce. Photo Laboratory of the Cathedral Museum in Kielce. Photo: rev. dr Paweł Tkaczyk

Fig.9 Fragment of the painting from Fig.8. Photo Laboratory of the Cathedral Museum in Kielce photo: rev. dr Paweł Tkaczyk 65

Fig.10 Marinus van Reymerswaele 1546: Tax Collectors. National Museum in Warsaw

Fig.11 Fresco from the „wine-house” in Fig.12 Reconstruction of the fresco from Fig.11 Lublin with the figure of Aristotle - (left) 2nd half of the 16th century 66

Among several frescos discovered there, one devoted to the history of spectacles.(Fig.15 is of particular significance for the history of &16). spectacles. It is a fresco which presents apocryphical version of Alexander the Great In 1590 in the Bernardine Church in being taught by Aristotle. The apocrypha Cracow a painting entitled Danse Macabre contained a story of Aristotle warning was created presumably by Franciszek Alexander against carnal temptations. Lekszycki (Fig.17 & 18). It is located in the However, Aristotle himself succumbed to chapel which can be accessed through the temptations of female body – hence the main entrance in the left nave of the church. painting contains a mirror(vii). The spectacles In the bottom part of the painting, whose on the fresco can be seen on a hand which is main theme is a dance performed by a group outstretched upwards (Fig.11, p.65). These of women of all social classes with skeletons, glasses have been mentioned in the literature there is a figure of a man playing a sort of of the subject [6]. Due to the fact that the keyboard instrument (possibly the spinet) fresco, even following restoration works, is not who is offered a game of cards by a skeleton clear enough to make out all the details, a (Death). The spectacles used by the musician sketch of the fresco made by Dutkiewicz has have a very unusual frame as the bridge been included, which enables the identification connecting the lens frames is bend of the spectacles held by Aristotle. [8] downwards. This iconographical artefact has been mentioned in the literature of the A hymnal entitled Piesne chwal subject [3]. bożskych (Songs of God's Glory) was printed in Aleksander Augezdecki printing house and The painting hanging in the cloisters published in Szamotuły in 1561 [1-4,11]. of the Franciscan monastery in Cracow in a small altar, over the altar stone, dates from This master printer, who was a 1604. The author of the painting entitled member of the Unity of the Brethren (Czech Christ Crowned with Thorns is Stanisław Boj Brethren), owned a printing house in Prague, (vel Wódka Janowiecki). Among the people where the hymnal was published for the first featured in the picture, a figure of an elderly time in 1541. He then left Bohemia and bearded man clearly stands out (Fig.19). He moved to Królewiec (Königsberg, Prussia), attracts the beholder's attention with his and subsequently he set up his printing characteristic hat and spectacles. The house in Szamotuły in 1557. It was there, painting was described in the literature over four year after settling down in Wielkopolska, [9] that he published, in the castle of Łukasz 100 years ago and information concerning Górka, the aforementioned hymnal dedicated it has been quite frequently included in [1-4] to the castle owner. It contains a woodcut publications . print with the title of the hymn collection and a image of a choir of several Czech Brethren. Interesting artefacts featuring the The conductor of the choir, facing the depictions of spectacles were created by the listeners, in accordance with the custom of outstanding painter Michael Willmann (1630 those times, is wearing bow spectacles with -1706), who had strong ties to Lower relatively large, round lenses. Bednarski Silesia(ix). In 1675 the artist created a very mentions that the woodcut print came from interesting self-portrait, wearing glasses(x). Prague where spectacles were quite popular at the time [1,2]. Moreover, in years 1692-1695 in St. Joseph's church in Krzeszów, he painted a In 1575 Pieter Aertsen created a series of brilliant frescos depicting scenes painting entitled Deeds of Christian from the life of the Holy Family. Among his Charity(viii). The picture depicts a set of genre numerous outstanding works of art found scenes which serve as illustrations of good there, there is a fresco entitled Saint Joseph Christian deeds towards fellow humans. One Gives a Name to Jesus(xi). The theme of the of the scenes presents a female wearing bow painting is the custom of circumcision spectacles typical for the epoch. The woman performed on Jesus Christ in which a group is helping a child to perform some hygienical of people is involved. Among the onlookers, tasks. This iconographical evidence has been one can notice a figure of a bespectacled man presented for the first time in a publication watching the procedure with curiosity [10]. 67

Fig.13 (left) Piesne chwal bożskych (Songs of God's Glory) Aleksander Augezdecki Printing House Szamotuły, 1561; owner: Princes’s Czartoryski Foundatiom in Cracow (własność: Fundacja XX. Czartoryskich w Krakowie)

Fig.14 Fragment of the hymnal from Fig.13.

Fig.15 (left) Pieter Aertsen Deeds of Christian Charity 1575 (fragment of the painting) Fig.16 (right) Magnified fragment from Fig.15, bottom left.

National Museum in Warsaw 68

The fresco is situated in the second chapel on It must be pointed out that a the right-hand side of the nave of the St. fragment of this print (presented in Fig. 28) has Joseph's church in Krzeszów. already been presented in the literature concerning spectacles in Poland (3). It is presumed that the figure with spectacles in the fresco is also a self-portrait However, another bespectacled figure of the author. The aforementioned works of who is hiding inside a barrel has not been Willmann (with spectacles motif) have not mentioned yet. (Fig. 29). been previously discussed in publications on the history of spectacles(xii). A portrait of a man wearing spectacles is also found in a textbook by An interesting painting artefact Georg Bartisch OΦΘΑΛΜΟΔΟΨΛΕΙΑ Das ist presenting the specific visual aid called a Augendienst dating from 1583 for use by monocle can be found in the Nicolaus doctors – barber surgeons treating eye Copernicus Museum in Toruń(xiii). In the diseases (including operations on a cataract). painting entitled A Portrait of a Scholar by (Fig.30, p.71). Krzysztof Lubieniecki, dating from the 17th century, a man standing in front of an open The provenience of the book is holding a monocle to his eye – a aforementioned historical issues of the books framed single lens with a quite long handle (predominantly incunables) or pieces of art held in one hand. It was an optical aid which allowing to establish the time when those could be worn permanently over one eye or works appeared in Poland is, unfortunately alternatively on either eye. Information on impossible to establish. An example of the this object has been published previously [11]. difficulties may be the attempt to establish the provenience of of the incunable by Another interesting work of art by Sebastian Brant Stultifera navis (Ship of the same author, found in the collection of the Fools) published in Basel in 1497, currently National Museum in Warsaw is the painting housed in the collection of the University entitled The Peddlar. The painting features Library in Toruń. On the inside of the cover a woman who is wearing a pair of glasses there is a bookplate bearing an inscription while another pair is being held by the man Bibliotheca Uhliana dated 1786. Apart from who is selling them (Fig.23 & 24). that information, neither its previous nor subsequent whereabouts, until its A separate discussion must be devoted incorporation in the collection of the Library to illustrations featuring spectacles which University, are not known. appeared in books printed in Western Europe or in the collections of old prints which are The presented overview of currently owned by Polish libraries. These iconographical artefacts including the are frequently images of archaic spectacles. A spectacles motif found in Poland is certainly good example of such glasses is a pair incomplete. One may expect that, as a result featured in the woodcut print depicting of numerous restoration works performed in Antistenes which is found in the World Poland both in sacral buildings and civil ones, Chronicle Opus de aetatibus mundi written further paintings and frescos featuring by Hartmann Schedel and published in 1493 images of spectacles will be discovered on (Fig. 25). numerous occasions. Furthermore, the depictions of this optometric aid may be A similar-looking pair of glasses is discovered in church paintings which so far used by a monk sitting behind a pulpit have not been examined in that respect (as portrayed in the satirical work of Sebastian was the case with the works of Michael Brant Stultifera navis (Ship of Fools) dating Willmann). Another valuable source of from 1497. The design of the spectacles knowledge in this regard may be the indicates that they are bow spectacles (Fig. 26). collections of prints held at the museums and privately owned ones, as well as museum This type of spectacles was also storage pieces which come from the discussed depicted in an excellent chalcography print period. Moreover, numerous collections, entitled Elck (Everybody) (Fig. 27). particularly those found in monastery 69

Fig.17 Franciszek Lekszycki Danse macabre, Bernardine Church and Monastery in Cracow, 1590

Fig.18 Fragment of the painting from Fig.17 (left)

Fig.19 Stanisław Boj (vel Wódka Janowiecki) Christ Crowned with Thorns Dominican Church in Cracow, 1604

Fig.20 Michael Willmann Self-portrait in Glasses, 1675 (missing) 70

Fig.21 Michael Willmann St. Joseph Gives Name to Jesus, St. Joseph's church in Krzeszów1692-1695 - (detail)

Fig.22 Krzysztof Lubieniecki (?) Portrait of a Scholar ( 17th c.), Nicolaus Copernicus Museum in Toruń

Fig.24 Fragment of the painting from Fig. 23 (left)

Fig.23 Krzysztof Lubieniecki Peddlar, National Museum in Warsaw

Fig.25 Portrait of Antistenes from the work of Hartmann Schedl Opus de aetatibus mundi. (Chronicle of the World) National Museum in Warsaw (photo: Piotr Ligier) 71

Fig.26. Image of a bespectacled monk in Sebastian Brant: Stultifera navis (Ship of Fools) from 1497 (fragment) University Library in Toruń

Fig.27. Pieter van der Heyden (printmaker), Pieter Bruegel I (drawer), „Elck“ (Everybody) chalcography; around mid-16th century, National Museum in Warsaw (Photo: Piotr Ligier)

Fig.28. Fragment of the previous illustration (left) a standing man with glasses

Fig.29 Fragment of the previous illustration (fig.27) A man wearing glasses in a barrel

Fig.30 Portrait of a man wearing glasses. See another pair (so called strap-spectacles) on the table.[12] (Georg Bartisch OΦΘΑΛΜΟΔΟΨΛΕΙΑ, Das ist Augendienst) The Main Medical Library in Warsaw 72 libraries, contain a considerable number of lens used for one eye and held in place thanks to the yet undiscussed treatises in various fields of contraction of eyelid muscles. knowledge. Therefore, it cannot be excluded that images of spectacles will be found in this Literature kind of written or iconographical artefacts. 1. Bednarski A.:Historia okularów w Polsce. Wiek XV- Notes XVII, ( The History of Spectacles in Poland. From the 15th to the 18th Century), Archiwum historji i filozofii iAt St. Nicolas church in Treviso there are frescos by medycyny oraz historji nauk przyrodniczych, 1927, v. VI., Tomas da Modena dating from 1352 depicting Cardinal issue.1, pp.1-11. Hugo da Provenza wearing rivet spectacles (Nietbrillen) 2. Bednarski A.:Historya okulistyki w Polsce w wieku XIII-XVIII (The History of Polish Ophtalmology in iiThey were known as rivet spectacles (in German: Poland in the 13th-18th Century,) Lwów, 1928 p. 99-100, Nietbrillen). The name, however, is misleading as those 3. Kwiatkowska-Kawecka Z.: Wynalezienie okularów i glasses did not contain a rivet but a bolt mounted in the ich rozpowszechnienie się ze szczególnym nose bridge (resembling to some extent a contemporary uwzględnieniem historii okularów w Polsce. (The rivet) which allowed to adjust the distance between the invention of spectacles and their Popularisation with a lens frames. Particular Focus on the History of Spectacles in Poland). Klinika Oczna 1971 (41) no.5, pp.753-759. iiiBow spectacles ( in German: Bügelbrillen). A fragment 4. Bieganowski L., Małłek J.: Neue Beitrage zur presenting the mentioned portraits featured on the cover Geschichte der Brille in Polen im XVI. Jahrhundert (Die Danziger Brille des Herzogs Albrecht von Preussen), of the book Love Understands Us by rev. Józef Tischner, Hist. ophthal. Intern. I, 287-299 (1980). Znak, Cracow 2000. Books graphics by Olgierd 5. Goetel Kopf M.: Tryptyk Wawelski Michała Lancza z Chmielewski. Kitzingen, Studia Renesansowe, (Wawel Tryptych of Michael Lancz von Kitzingen), Renaissance Studies, ivCurrently, the altar is on display at the National 1957, vol. II, p. 91, fig. 7 and 21. Museum in Cracow in bishop Erazm Ciołek's Palace. 6. Wyrobisz A.: Szkło w Polsce od XVI-XVII wieku (Glass in Poland from the 16th to the 17th century). Wrocław vMarinus van Reymerswaele (1490-1546) – a Dutch 1968, pp 159-163. painter. He specialized in painting genre scenes. Several 7. Radwańska Z.: Monografia obrazu „Zaśnięcie Matki of his paintings are on the same subject, differentiated Bożej” Mikołaja Lancza z Kitzingen z kościoła pod only by a few details. The painting from the collection of wezwaniem św. Wojciecha w Kielcach, praca the National Museum in Warsaw. magisterska, (A Monography of the Painting”Dormition of the Mother of God” by Michael Lancz von Kitzingen viThe painting was reprinted in 1967 on a 2.5 zloty stamp from St.Wojciech's Church in Kielce,) An M.A. Thesis at in the series of Polish Post stamps devoted to the Faculty of Humanities of KUL, 2011, supervisor: masterpieces of painting at Polish museums. prof. dr hab. Jadwiga Kuczyńska. 8. Dutkiewicz J. E.: Malowidła z XVI w. z tzw. winiarni viiWise man – before you start preaching to others, look w Lublinie, [w:] Studia renesansowe, t. II, (Murals from at yourself in the mirror. the 16th Century in the so-called Wine-house in Lublin), Renaissance Studies. 1957, vol. II, fig. 21 and 22. viiiPieter Aertsen (1508-1575) also called Tall Pete 9. Tomkiewicz S.: Przyczynki do historii kultury Krakowa because of his height. A Dutch painter specializing in w pierwszej połowie XVII wieku, (Contributions to the genre scenes. The painting is housed at the National History of Culture in Cracow in the first Half of the 17th Museum in Warsaw. A reprint of the painting is on the Century), Lwów, 1912 p. 171, fig. 27. cover of the book Panorama of the Renaissance by M. 10.Kościół p.w. Świętego Józefa, Historia Opiekuna Aston, Arkady, Warsaw 2003. Zbawiciela (St. Joseph's Church, The History of the Savior's Guardian) . Wydawnictwo. Sanktuarium Matki ixMichael Willmann (1530-1706), a Silesian painter of the Bożej w Krzeszowie – Kokot vel Kokociński, Nowa Ruda, Baroque period; worked at the royal courts in Prague 2012, p.22. and Berlin. Settled down in 1650 in Lubiąż and 11.Bieganowski L.: Zarys historii okulistyki, (An Outline performed numerous painting works, mainly for the of the History of Ophtalmology), Archiwum Historii i Cisterian monks. Filozofii Medycyny 1989, vol..52, part 2-3, p.175- 197. 12. Rossi F.: Die Brille, Edition Leipzig,1989, pp. 57, 59, xThe painting was lost during World War Two. Fig.34, 36. xiIn original (latin) language: S. Joseph imponit nomen Jesus. xiiAn interesting fact is that painters very rarely used their own likenesses while wearing spectacles; however the artist mentioned here did so in 1675 in his self- portrait. Unfortunately, the current whereabouts of the portrait are not known. xiiiThe name monocle is derived from the term manus (hand) as the device was held by hand in front of the eye. The name is close to the term monocle meaning a single