Originalveröffentlichung in: Bulletin of the National Gallery in , 7-8 (1997-1998), S. 54-66 MICHAEL WILLMANN'S WAY TO "THE HEIGHTS OF ART" AND HIS EARLY DRAWINGS

ANDRZEJ KOZIEL

In his letter to Heinrich Snopek, the abbot of ing J having adopted the methods of Jacob Backer Cistercian monastery in Sedlec, Michael Willmann and also of and others", took up "very recommended to the abbot his former pupil and strict excercises" and carried them on diligently stepson Johann Christoph Liska as a guarantor of "days and nights".- a possible continuation of his work on the painting Unfortunately, among the extant drawings of The Martyrdom of the Cistercian and Carthusian Willmann, there are no works which can be un­ Monks in Sedlec in 1421 in the following words: "...er questionably recognised as made in the period of schon in seinem hesten Alter unci in flatten mehreres learning and journeys of the artist.' Thus we do not gesehen oder hegriffen alji ich in Hollandt thun ken- possess direct sources that will enable us to say nen. Er ist auch in Imentirung der HiJMorien sehr something more about the self-teaching of geistrich in der Ordinanzen die Bilder mil in und Willmann. However, I believe that the set of twenty durcheinander lebhaffl auch gluhenden Colleritten engravings by Josef Gregory after the drawings of Summit wafi einem rechten Kunstmahler nettig er in "des beruhmten Meister Willmann", made in a Hem gutte wissenschaft (dutch die gnad Gottes) he­ 1794-95 and published in Prague in 1805, informs griffen hat.".' Liska acquired the complete knowl­ us in an indirect way about the character of the edge of these principles of art education, which are youthful exercises of the artist.1 So far only one essential for the "right" painter - he could inge­ work from the copied drawings of Willmann has niously "invent" a visual equivalent for a literary been found - the scene Unfaithful Thomas before "story", moreover, he could wholly "arrange" both Christ [Fig. 1, 2].s Comparing this drawing with the composition and colours of painting. The journey engraving made after it reveals extreme verity of the to Italy was crucial for obtaining these skills - the Gregory's work towards the prototype - the en­ pupil could there "see or learn" more than his teach­ graving accurately renders the strokes of the artist, er could have done in Holland. Of course, we differentiated in breadth and by technique of exe­ should read this opinion of stepfather about his cution (pen, pencil). It allows us to validate our stepson with an appropriate circumspection - its opinions about the lost drawings of Willmann for­ mercantile character is obvious - but we can agree mulated only on the ground of the set of with its general significance: the recommended Gregory's engravings. competency of Liska was the result of such an art The sketchy character of the drawings - their education, which Willmann could not have ob­ freshness which gives illusion that we deal with tained. Indeed, in the biography of Willmann pub­ specimens of the immediate records of ideas born lished in the Latin edition of Joachim von in the artist's mind - and the virtuosity of the Sandrart's Teutsche Academic.. - the biography artist's stroke made Willmann's researchers regard most likely based on the information sent to these works as the best drawings of the artist. Sandrart by Willmann himself - we can find a no­ Ernst Kloss emphasised the characteristic fury but tion, that although Willmann came to also the unusual intuition of Willmann's strokes "to gain more mastery of art", due to the shortage of who had rendered "the plenitude of conceptions" (die money he not only could not afford lessons "at Fiille der Einfdlle) by drawing." The lack of connec­ a very famous master", but also - forced "to earn liv­ tion with the paintings" inclined to judge this set as ing by his own work" - he was not able to leave for a group of autonomous works of Willmann, the Italy. Therefore Willmann's way to the "heights of drawings, which were not preliminary studies but art" was by necessity different - the role of art possessed - according to Jaromir Neumann's ex­ teacher had to be fulfilled by art itself and "nothing pression - "the importance of 'the drawn mono­ but talent and nature given hint by God" became the logue'" [povahu "kreslenych monologii"] of the guarantors of the artist's success. Thus during his artist." Such an independent character of the works stay in Holland and later, while travelling in but also their form built by vigorous strokes and and Poland. Willmann tried "to see all fa­ sharp hachuring and narration of scenes full of "the mous masterpieces" including renowned emper­ psychological tension of action" [psychologicke napeti or's gallery in Prague where "he learned especially deje] and "dramatic arrangements" [dramaticke stfet- much". For the money he would have had to pay nuti] differentiated in the eyes of researchers this a teacher he bought in Amsterdam a collection of set from other drawings of Willmann.'' An explana­ "prototypes", most likely copperplate engravings. tion of this phenomenon was sought, in accordance The artist, "already excellently experienced in draw­ with the conception of "influence", by indicating

54 / BULLETIN OF THE NATIONAL GALLERY IN PRAGUE F4f- /a M. L. Willmann, Unfaithful Thomas before Christ. Prague, Graphic Art r Collection, Strahov ri'^K. r. 30 Monastery, Museum o f Czech si Literature. Photo: National V Gallery in Prague.

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possible sources of the artist's inspiration. Fig, lh M. L. Willmann. Unfaithful Thomas before J. Neumann pointed out the influence of the work '01 Christ (verso). Prague, and attitude of Rembrandt - esspecially the draw­ Graphic Art Collection, ings from 1640s - therefore he dated the Strahov Monastery, Museum Willmann's drawings at the early, "rem- of Czech Literature. Photo: brandtesque" period of the artist's career.10 This i fcS National Gallery in Prague. supposition was questioned by Volker Manuth who emphasized cursoriness of the Willmann's depen­ dence on Rembrandt and doubted its exclusivity. - AT * " The German researcher pointed out some analogies to the Amsterdam drawings of Juriaen Ovens and Govaert Flinck, he also noticed Flamish borrow­ I. tr. i)M ings (e. g. a canon of human shape) in Willmann's drawings, which finally inclined him to state that Willmann merged in his works "influences of engravings of the circle of Rubens and the circle of Rembrandt"'." Hardly explicable differences be­ tween works etched by Gregory and other drawings of Willmann gave rise to the more serious thought: if the works different from others by form and char­ acter, considered to be the best ones of the artist, Fig. 2 J. Gregory after M. L. Willmann, Unfaithful Thomas before Christ. National are lost now, and we owe our knowledge about Gallery in Prague. Photo: National Gallery in Prague. them to the accidental and, most likely, fragmen­ tary records of Gregory, is it possible to judge the activity of Willmann as a draughtsman at all?

All these misunderstandings, leading to such pes­ simistic statements, originated from the fact that •sC M different form of the works from Gregory's set re­ fee a*, sulted from other than it had been thought function m of the drawings. These works are, as I want to ar­ gue, the records of individual excercises of Willmann, which - corresponding to teaching methods used in the Rembrandt's workshop - were based, however, on the artist's individual work with the collection of "prototypes" Willmann had bought in Amsterdam. In the case of thirteen draw­ W ings we can indicate definite graphic models Wiilmann took as a basis for his drawing excercises; the similar formal character of other works etched 3

BULLETIN OF THE NATIONAL GALLERY IN PRAGUE / 55 by Gregory lets me believe, that their function was the same. m mta I would like to begin their survey with a presen­ mm tation of those drawings, which are the records of a 1 the most elementary excercise - a study of an indi­ immi vidual human figure and a group of few figures (ti­ tles of drawings after J. Neumann): L rl m • Figural Studies with Melchisedech [Figurdlni studie s postavou Melchisedecha] [Fig. 3] - the fig­ ure of Melchisedech is based on the priest of Zeus temple adopted from the engraving 5/. Paul and S J. Gregory after M. L. WiUmann, Figural Studies St. Barnaba Refusing the Sacrifices Offered Them in with Melchisedech. National Gallery in Prague. the City of Lystra by Jan Saenredam after Karel van Photo: National Gallery in Prague. Mander [Fig. 4]," the other four figures: the walk­ ing man and three men at the door opening, com­ posed as one group, are copied from the work of after Baccio Bandinelli The Martyrdom of St. Lawrence [Fig. 5];14

• The Holy Family with young St. John the Baptist [Sv. Rodina s malym Janem KHitelem] [Fig. 6] - this scene was drawn after the central group of figures from the engraving Rest on the Ak. Flight into Egypt etched by Martino Rota after [Fig. 7]." m

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4 Saenredam after Karel van Mander, St. Paul and St. Barnaba Refusing the Sacrifices Offered Them in the City of Lystra (after The Illustrated Bartsch...). mL^

Fig. 6 J. Gregory after M. L. WiUmann, The Holy Family with young St. John the Baptist. National Gallery in Prague. Photo: National Gallery in Prague.

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Fig. 5 Marcantonio Raimondi after Baccio Bandinelli, The Martyrdom of St. Lawrence fi* (after The Illustrated Bartsch...). Photo: National Gallery in Prague.

56 / BULLETIN OF THE NATIONAL GALLERY IN PRAGUE I suppose that the drawings: The Lamentation of Christ [Oplakdvdni Krista], The Lamentation of Christ with a study of Virgin of Sorrow [Oplakdvdni 2S?H tO^m Krista se studii Bolestne Fanny Marie vlevo] and The t^mBSi * Old Testament Scene (The Salomon's Verdict?) i [Starozdkonni vyjev (Soud Salomonuy?)] are also the copies of separete figures or groups of figures "cut -zsm out" from the graphic prototypes. zStxtt m The redrawing of figures building up the whole scene or its most important - culminant - part was another type of Willmann's excercises. Unlike the previous study, now it was crucial to preserve the compositional character of the copied engraving as a complete scene:

• The Bearing of the Cross - Christ and St. Veronica [Neseni Kfize - Kristus a Sv. Veronika] [Fig. 8] - this work was drawn after the whole scene The Bearing of the Cross by Giovanni Battista Fig. 7 Martino Rota after Titian, Rest on the Flight into Egypt (after The Franco [Fig. 9];16 Illustrated Bartsch...). • The Massacre of the Innocents on the Stairs in Front of the Palace [ Vrazdeni Nevihdtek pfed paldcem] [Fig. 10] - this scene is redrawn from the central part of the reversed copy of the engraving The Massacre of the Innocents etched by Marco

Fig. 8 J. Gregory after M. L Wilhnann. The Bearing of the Cross - Christ SB. and St. Veronica. National Gallery in Prague. Photo: National Gallery in Prague. fi

jg- m?* « 1 Fig. 9 Giovanni Battista ^^mzjm*: Franco. The Bearing of the , ••. — Cross (after The Illustrated jfes Bartsch..,). B • i mm:. •v.

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BULLETIN OF THE NATIONAL GALLERY IN PRAGUE / 57 Fig. 10 J. Gregory after Denta (Marco da Ravenna) after Baccio Bandinelli M. L. Willmann, [Fig. 11];" trying to make the scene more complete, The Massacre of the Willmann added to the copied group the figure of Innocents on the Stairs a dead child, "cut out" from another part of the in Front at the Palace. same prototype. National Gallery in Prague. The drawing Unfaithful Thomas Before Christ Photo: National Gallery could also be seen as an attempt to render the in­ in Prague. .35 I tegrity of the set of figures from the "prototype". mgmtmm The next drawing excercise of Willmann consist­ .j^i ed in improving the copied figural scene - the main part of the composition - by adding new figures adopted from the same work or other prototypes, or Fig. 11 Marco Denta also, what is not unlikely, invented by the artist him­ (Marco da Ravenna) after self: Baccio Bandinelli, u • The Birth of the Virgin [NarozeniPanny Marie] The Massacre of the [Fig. 12] - redrawing the whole scene from the Innocents (after The w work The Birth of the Virgin, etched by Master G. R. Illustrated Bartsch...). after Gulio Romano [Fig. 13]," was the starting- Photo: National Gallery point for Willmann - he developed this arrange­ in Prague. I ment by adding a group of three persons discussing aside; • Christ Healing the Sick [Kristus uzdravuje nemocne'?] [Fig. 14) - the foreground group of fig­ m ures from the engraving The Visitation by Giorgio Ghisi after Francesco Salviati [Fig. 15]" constitut­ ed the basis for further work for Willmann, who brought redrawn figures closer together around the Fig. 12 J. Gregory after center and added two new figures at both sides of At. L. Willmann. The Birth IS* the scene, changing thus completely the original of the Virgin. National meaning of the composition; Gallery in Prague. • The Adulteress and Christ [Cizoloznice pfed Photo: National Gallery *5 Kristem] [Fig. 16] - the composition of this draw­ in Prague. ft ing resulted from the "overlapping" of the title scene, most likely redrawn from an unknown "pro­ totype", with the figures "cut out" from the engrav­ ing The Raising of Lazarus by Hans Collaert after S^S Lambert Lombard [Fig. 17]:;" the old man leaning on a stump (with silhouettes of two persons stand-

Fig. 13 Master G. R. after Gulio Romano. The Birth of the Virgin (after The Illustrated Bartsch...).

Fig. 15 Giorgio Ghisi after Francesco Salviati, The Visitation (after The Illustrated Bartsch...).

Fig. 14 J. Gregory after M. L. Willmann, Christ ^rtnTrrr'; Healing the Sick. National (Ml Gallery in Prague. Wm Photo: National Gallery a sw in Prague. : mmmW'/ikM\ A i

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58 / BULLETIN OF THE NATIONAL GALLERY IN PRAGUE ing behind him) and the averted digger; adding Fig. 17 Hans Collaert after these new figures to the scene distinctly rhytmized Lambert Lombard, The Raising of Lazarus (after and completed the original composition; Bilder nach Bildern...), • Twelve Years Old Jesus in the Temple I [Dvandctilety Jezi's v chrame] [Fig. 18] - this scene was made by the rearranging of the composition of the engraving Jesus in the Temple by Cornells Cort after Michel Coxie [Fig. 19]:21 Willmann replaced the key figure of teaching Jesus, situated at the back of the "prototypical" scene, by the sketched silhou­ ette of a sitting male figure at the foreground of the scene.

I assume that also the "rich" scenes: The Adoration of the Shepherds [Klaneni pastyfu], A Saint Converting and Baptizing Pagans [Svetec obraci a kfti pohany] and The Lamentation of Christ Fig. 18 J. Gregory after with On-lookers [Oplakdvdni Krista s prihlize/icimi] M. L. Willmann, Twelve were drawn in accordance with this principle. Years Old Jesus in the 3> Temple. National Gallery Undoubtedly the most creative excercises in in Prague. Photo: National Willmann's work with the graphic "prototypes" Gallery in Prague. were the attempts to construct an entirely new com­ position by an appropriate arrangement of separate fragments of one or two engravings: i • Studies of Biblical Figures [Studie biblickych postav] [Fig. 20] - this scene, with no specified meaning, is composed of the figures "cut out" from the engraving The Martyrdom of St. Lawrence by Fig. 19 Cornells Cort after Marcantonio Raimondi after Baccio Bandinelli Michel Coxie, Jesus in the [Fig. 5] - Willmann arranged them in the balanced Temple (after J. C. J. Bierens disposition with accents on the center and on two de Haan). centripetally turned figures at both sides of the U scene; X • The Figural Scene with Male Nudes - Lighting the Fire [Figurdlni vyjev s nahymi muiskymi postava- mi - rozdeldvdni ohne] [Fig. 21] - is formed by two "condensed" groups of figures, redrawn from the same engraving as the previous work - the reclining figure of St. Lawrence, binding these groups in the

Fig. 20 J. Gregory after M. L. Willmann, Studies of 7. Biblical Figures. National Gallery in Prague. Photo: National Gallery in Prague. r-.i

Fig. 16 J. Gregory after M. L. Willmann, The Adulteress and Christ. National Gallery in Prague. Photo: National Gallery in Prague.

Fig. 21 J. Gregory after M. L. Willmann, The Figural Kl •^ty.vPA- ' Scene with Male Nudes - ifefllife Lighting the Fire. National s • r- IV; ' iM- Gallery in Prague. Photo: -j , v^Sv.M U {-mMrK National Gallery in Prague. BUM mftm** m ms 'J* rV * A- IF f V I Jy M PI' 1 f Zj dtp

BULLETIN OF THE NATIONAL GALLERY IN PRAGUE / 59 Fig. 22 J. Gregory after "prototype", was omitted by Willmann in the draw­ M. L. Wittmann, ing which gave the scene an entirely different mean­ The Massacre of the ing and more coherent composition; Innocents with the Mother • The Massacre of the Innocents with the Mother Holding the Head of Her Holding the Head of Her Child [ Vrazdeni Nevindtek Child. National Gallery in s matkou drztci hlavu svelio decka] [Fig. 22] - this Prague. Photo: National scene, a rough compositional sketch, is arranged by Gallery in Prague. the contrasting juxtaposition of two groups of fig­ ures, which were redrawn from two different parts

•Mfc' of the reversed copy of the engraving The Massacre of the Innocents by Marco Denta after Baccio Bandinelli [Fig. 11] - the dispositon with the dra­ matic microtheme in the empty center is one of the best Willmann's compositional ideas; • The Massacre of the Innocents (with two men on horseback) [Vrazdeni Nevindtek] [Fig. 23] - the main part of this compositional sketch is formed by the group of figures adopted from the engraving The Massacre of the Innocents etched by Philips Galle after Frans Floris [Fig. 24];" Willmann en­ Fig. 23 J. Gregory after riched this simple scheme by adding the figure of M. L. Willmann, ip kneeling man and the group of two men on horse­ The Massacre of the back - as a whole, the composition seems to be an Innocents (with two men unsuccessful one, and as if abandoned by the artist; on horseback). National Gallery in Prague. Photo: • The Massacre of the Innocents [ Vrazdeni National Gallery Nevindtek] [Fig. 25] - a compositionally complete in Prague. scene, created by the arrangement of separate fig­ m 4» ures and groups of figures redrawn from two en­ R gravings with the scene The Massacre of the Innocents by Marco Denta after Baccio Bandinelli [Fig. 11] and by Philips Galle after Frans Floris [Fig. 24]; despite the dynamics resulting from the subject the scene obtained the balanced and rhyth­ mical disposition with distinct foreground accents at the center and both margins of the action. All kinds of Willmann's work with the graphic "prototypes" reveal the artist's basic intention: what attracted his interest were human figures and those relations between them, which led to the formation of the scene (istoria) as a significatnt arrangement of a form balanced around the center. An individu-

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Fig. 25 J. Gregory after M. L. Willmann, The Massacre l- of the Innocents. National Gallery in Prague. y Photo: National Gallery in Prague.

Fig. 24 Philips Galle after Frans Floris, The Massacre of the Innocents (after The Illustrated Bartsch...).

60 / BULLETIN OF THE NATIONAL GALLERY IN PRAGUE al human figure is for the artist in the first place an tion, but above all as a source of figures individual­ element of composition, a form of specified spatial ized by pose and gesture. The majority of the col­ shape and meaning, expressed by posture, gesture lection of graphic "prototypes" used by the artist and facial expression. By redrawing it from a "pro­ were Italian sixteenth-century engravings. These totype" Willmann interpreted specifically the visual works might have constituted for Willmann, forced form of a model - the most important for him be­ to base his further education exclusively on art, came the contour, the linear border of an individu­ a classical ideal of nude and composition - a poor al form, and those lines, which marked out the es­ substitute of a not realized journey to Italy.

sential anatomical partition of human body or folds Taking up - by necessity - individual drawing ex­ of garment, and also - if they were significant - the cercises based on the collection of engravings gesture of hands and facial expression, whereas Willmann adopted, as wrote, anatomical details and the details of attire were "the methods of Jacob Backer and also of omitted. This network of lines was covered then Rembrandt". These words, the matter in interpreta­ with hachuring, sharp drawn by strokes of differen­ tive disputes of the Willmann's researches, should tiated breadth, giving figures plasticity and uniting be understood, in my opinion, in the most literal them with the whole composition as well. While way.23 Willmann, who could not afford lessons "at line was the dominant element of constructing in­ a very famous master", imitated in his individual ex­ dividual figures, the hachuring provided a spatial cercises with the set of "prototypes" the methods of organisation of a scene and integrated separate ele­ teaching of composition used at that time by the ments of composition into one entirety - a shallow artists from the Rembrandt's circle.24 We are in­ light-and-shade "relier. A group of figures taken formed about these practices by the pupil of from a "prototype" was reduced in a drawing to two Rembrandt, Samuel van Hoogstraeten. in his perspective settings: a foreground domain of action Inleyding tot de Hooge Schoole der Schilderkunst: constituted by figures of expressive gesture and "The way to become certain and assured in composi­ face, and a background, where a human figure was tion is that one schould become accustomed to mak­ often marked out only by schematic outline. ing many sketches, and drawing many histories on pa­ Redrawing a scene from a "prototype" was there­ per... It will be most advantageous to the student, when fore an attempt of compositional interpretation of he is weary of the brush, to occupy himself in the a model, an attempt at rendering these elements evenings with drawing many histories from the imagi­ and relations of it, which consisted - let me use the nation, in which he sometimes makes use of that term used by Willmann himself - the Ordinanz of which he has studied from life. But I advise him that a visual representation. The excercises based on what he has designed in the evening, he should look improving a redrawn scene by adding new figures over the next morning... Sketch and sketch again, and can be considered as attempts to develop a compo­ play out the history, first in your thoughts; ...and sition of a scene on the basis of existing, adopted to­ don't give up until you have invented a pleasing com­ gether with redrawn figures, "organisation" of a pic­ position."-' Several hundreds of independent, not ture. Willmann's practices eventually resulted in connected with paintings, drawing sketches of his­ acquiring the skill of arranging a new scene by "as­ torical subjects made by Rembrandt, his pupils and sembling" groups and individual figures "cut out" followers have been preserved to our times, the from "prototypes" according to his own, new amount confirming the opinion that they were real­ Ordinanz of visual schema - the idea of contrasting ly produced days and nights. These sketches consti­ arrangement of the composition with the dramatic tute the largest single category of extant drawings microtheme in the empty center (The Massacre of both by Rembrandt and the artists of his circle, in­ the Innocents with the Mother Holding the Head of cluding those, who specialised in other kinds of Her Child) or, used by Willmann most often, "trip­ painting than historical pictures. William Robinson tych schema" with accented figures in the center pointed out the artistic outputs of two and both margins of the foreground (The Massacre Rembrandt's pupils: Philips Koninck, the excellent of the Innocents, Studies of Biblical Figures). In those master of the panoramic landscape painting, the cases a graphic model was used not as a source of artist, who rarely painted the historical subjects, but disposition, but was exploited as a collection of at­ often made sketches of historical themes, which tractive postures and gestures of human figures. form the main part of his drawing output, and This rule is reflected by the character of the "pro­ Nicolaes Maes, the specialist of domestic genre totypes" chosen by Willmann for studies - apart painting and elegant portraits, the author of only from the few-figure scenes with coherent composi­ five known pictures on Biblical subjects and more tion and uniform subject redrawn by the artist as than one hundred independent sketches of Biblical a whole (Rest on the Flight into Egypt by Martino themes among about two hundreds survived draw­ Rota or The Birth of the Virgin after Gulio ings by him.2'' Both Koninck and Maes cultivated Romano), the main part of the collection were the habit of the evening drawing long after they had the developed, consisting of more then ten figures, left Rembrandt's workshop. These sketches of his­ "digressive" images (The Massacre of the Innocent torical subjects, made in such a great number by the by Marco Denta or The Martyrdom of St. Lawrence master and his pupils, were compositional studies by Marcantonio Raimondi). The former engrav­ of scenes considered to be as well a disposition of ings, where an action was often replaced by a pre­ masses as a certain emotional construction, built by sentation of individual nudes, were used by gestures and facial expression of shown figures. It Willmann most often - never as a whole composi­ was Rembrandt's ability to grasp the external man-

BULLETIN OF THE NATIONAL GALLERY IN PRAGUE / 61 ifestations of human feelings by only few strokes of parts of scenes "cut out" from the engravings. the pen that was admired by descendants most of Willmann's collection of "prototypes" consisted all: "Connoisseurs are acquainted with hundreds of mainly of sixteen-century Italian engravings, which his pen sketches wherein the passions of the soul in all provided to the artist the "classical" (that is - time­ kinds of situations are so explicitly and artfully shown less) norm of correct composition and nude. The in the faces that is admirable. Anger, hatred, sorrow, choice of such "prototypes" allowed indigent joy, and so on, everything represented so naturally Willmann to compensate to the certain extent the that one can read the meaning from the very pen- lack of lessons "at a famous master" - if he could strokes themselves." - wrote in his book Arnold not afford a good teacher he at least had to base his Houbraken." Rembrandt gained this admired skill, own autodidactic work on the "prototypical" art as as it is commonly considered, mostly by the direct the Italian painting was considered at studies from life. Collective sessions of drawing af­ that time in Holland." Thus the art of predecessors ter a model and after "scenes" of historical subjects constituted in many cases virtually the construction arranged by pupils and visitors were often carried basis for Willmann's own art. out in Rembrandt's studio. This quasi-theatrical Such a method of learning composition of pic­ technique, advised also by Samuel van tures corresponded to the practice called in Hoogstraeten as the source of required poses, ges­ Netherlands rapen, the method, which was not eval­ tures and relations between individual figures, en­ 5 uated as the best, but was commonly accepted. '' abled Rembrandt and then his pupils to gain inde­ According to the rhetorical triad: imitatio, transla­ pendence from the conventional language of poses te, aemulatio a budding artist, already experienced and gestures evidenced in the art of predecessors.:s in making copies after the great masters, was en­ There are many studies of the composition of the couraged to "borrow" from the existing resources of same theme among the extant sketches of art also at the further stage of education. He had to Rembrandt an his school: the sketches differentiat­ practice that, though, prudently and, above all, skil­ ed by the arrangement of figures and the expres- fully, "...o Jiinglinge, betretet rasch den Weg der sional character, often made in quick succesion, as Arbeit, derm das Ende ist siiss. Malt, zeichnet, kritzelt, if day after day. but sometimes also after a many- beschmutzt frisch einen TeiI Papier, wovon ihrgewohn- year-period. Many drawings of the same historical lich viel habt. Stehlt Arme, Beine, Hdnde, Fiisse, es ist subject often make separate series usually including nicht verboten; die, die wollen, miissen den Rapiamus one work made by Rembrandt and several contem­ gut spielen. Gut gekochte Ruben geben eine gute porary drawings by his pupils. This didactic prac­ Suppe"'* - Karel van Mander advised young tice of the master must have been recorded by painters in 1603 quoting in the last sentence the Samuel van Hoogstraeten when he wrote in his trea­ well-known Dutch proverb expression (Goed tise: "/ advise masters, when they look over the draw­ gekookte rapen is goede soep), the sense of which re­ ings of their pupils, that they improve them by making sulted from the double meaning of the word rapen sketches of the same subject."1'1 Sketches made by the (this word means in Dutch both "scraping togeth­ master not only showed the pupils how to represent 5 er" and "turnips").' In the evaluation of what an a certain theme, but also challenged them to modi­ artist can and what cannot "borrow" from the pre­ fy and even to improve the composition of the decessors' works the sole criterion should be "recht teacher. Rembrandt used to prepare the drawing oordeel", that is a proper judgement, called by models for pupils also on the level of rendering an Philips Angel the most important skill of an artist. individual human figure - many of his drawings It was the "ghesontverstant" (the sound judgement) and etchings with compositionally unrelated hu­ of a painter that does not let this "eerdievery" (thiev­ man figures, busts and heads on one sheet served ery) injure the art of painting but often enables "on- this didactic purpose.'" According to the intention volmaecktheyt tot een meerder volmaecktheyt te of Rembrandt, who placed in the background of the brenghen" (imperfection to generate more perfec­ etching Tiro Male Nudes a scene of a child being tion). Angel yet warned the painters by quoting the taught to walk - an emblematic image of education words of a proverb: "De Rapen sijn wel goede kost, - these models should give young students of draw­ wanneerse wel ghestooft sijn" (The turnips are ing the necessary basis, which would enable them cooked well when the odds and ends are well to undertake the subsequent lessons of composition worked over): the copied fragments of other works of many-figure scenes of historical subjects.'1 ought to be smoothly merged together in a new painting. A spectator, even having recognised in the The course of teaching pupils how to invent young artist's painting the qoutations from other a proper composition of a scene of historical works, ought to be delighted by the look at how theme, based both on the drawing or graphic mod­ the conscious and skillfull use of the fragments of els provided by the master and on making drawings existing works in the new picture also opened the naer het leven after a model or arranged "historical new possibilities of their interpretation, how the scenes" by pupils themselves under the supervision known jewel was brightened up by the new setting. of the teacher, carried out in Rembrandt's work­ In case of too strong dependence on the works of shop, was imitated by Willlmann by using exclu­ others and too recognizable borrowings the artist sively the graphic "prototypes". Thus a study of would be ashamed of this trick."' This proverb with a living model was substituted by the redrawing of warning was illustrated by Gerrit Dou: in the paint­ required figures from graphic models, while the ing, formely exhibited in Schlesisches Museum der composing of the whole scene resembled the mak­ bildenden Kiinste in Breslau (Wroclaw), beside ing of a collage with the individual figures and

NATIONAL GALLERY IN PRAGUE a woman, peeling the turnips for a soup, there was on the whole on the engraving on the same subject a young painter's apprentice holding up a mouse­ by Cherubino Alberti after Rosso).4" through im­ trap with a mouse in it. Catching an artist practis­ proving the "prototype" by changing or developing ing rapen held him up to a ridicule." While using it (e. g. The Martyrdom of St. Andrew, based on the this method of "borrowing" from the work of others engraving on the same subject etched by Alexander acquired in the Netherlands around 1650 the quali­ Voet II after Rubens, enriched by adding among ty of a subtle game between the artist and the per­ other things the squatting figure of a man "cut out" ceptive public, at the same time in Germany the from the work The Martyrdom of St. Lawrence by practical advantages of constructing pictures in this Lucas Vostermann after Rubens).41 to arranging way were priced above all. This can be concluded a new picture from fragments of graphic "proto­ after reading the short theoretical work by an un­ types" (the most spectacular example surely is the known author entitled Kunstverstdndiger Discours ceiling of the great refectory in the abbot palace at von der edlen Mahlerey, the text added by the trans­ Lubiaz with the scene Triumph of the Hero of lator - Georg Andreas Bockler - to the German Virtues, 1692-93, the compilation of the engravings version of the Abraham Bosse's Der Radier- mid after Ribera, Carracci, Van Dyck. Rubens and Le Etzkunst..." The author of the "discourse" reflect­ Brun ). It was a reliable method of constructing the ing, I daresay, the condition of the whole theory of composition of a picture, a way of fast work painting in Germany before the issue of Joachim of the artist inundated by numerous orders, used von Sandrart's treatise, in the fourth part of his by Willmann throughout his career. The work named Von der Mahlerey Unterschied distin­ Willmann's attachment to graphic "prototypes" is guished three kinds of artists: these, who are "good' clearly exemplified by one of the paintings - The in inventing new forms, these, who are "good" in im­ Matryrdom of St. Thomas, which used to belong to itating and these, who use the work of others "wie Lubiaz set of Martyrdoms." Despite the opinion of die Schneider die aits einem Mantel ein Kleid some researchers44 the composition of this picture machen". This classification corresponds to the was not based on the painting of Rubens on the three kinds of "die Mahlerischen Erfindungen" spec­ same subject, since 1639 in the collection ified by the author: "/. Wann Mann eines andern Augustinian monastery in Prague, the picture Erfindung hachahmet and eben dasselbe jedoch mit Willmann surely must have seen several times dur­ ander Stelhmg aufreisset oder mahlet..." with the ex­ ing his sojourns in Prague, but it was based on the ample: "Ich sehe das Bild der Gerechtigkeit kunstar- graphic "prototype" made after this picture (revers­ tig gestellen. Ich mache daraus ein Friedensbild, be- ing the composition of the model) - the engraving halle die Sle/lnng gebe ihm aber in die rechte Hand by Jacob (Jacques) Neefs.45 eine Taube mit dem Oelblat an statt der Waages and To understand young Willmann's decision to einen Olivienzweig an statt des Schwertes.", "//. choose such a way of education and - as a conse­ Wann ich dergleichen Erfindung als ich bey andern quence - the method of his later work we ought to gesehen aussinne..." with the example: "Es hat einer try to reconstruct Willmann's attitude to the art of die vier Jahres zeiten mit einschichtigen Bildern unter the past. In this instance we are dealing with such der Gestalt defi Morgens, Mittages, Abends and des a model of the painter's education which, situated Mitternacht gemachel [...] ich mache vier andre Bilder beyond institution of teaching art - "academy", in Franzosischer Tracht xerdnderte Lanschaft mid be- which at that time meant a workshop of a rec­ halte doch den Morgen, Mittag, Abend mid ognized master - distressingly resemble by its Mitternacht als den Tag defi gantzen Jahres oder defi results the effect of a compulsory journey of vollendeten Somten Lauffs." and "///. Wann ich aits a young craftsman's apprentice who coming back gantz eigener Erfindung ohne Beyhiilff anderer from his trip was enriched not by rules of "true art" Meisterproben oder Kunststiicke mahle was mienes - ars - but only by a sketch-book full of models re­ Wissens kein andrer gemachet...". Just as painters drawn from the works of art that he had seen and are esteemed for their different predispositions also which were to be reused in his own work. Indeed, all three types of "inventing" gained the full ap­ based on the "all famous masterpieces" and the proval of the author of "the discourse about noble bought collection of "prototypes", Willmann's edu­ painting". cation can be considered in great part a result of fol­ lowing in the footsteps of an old trade tradition. Documented by Gregory's set, Willmann's self- However, I believe, there is a difference between teaching of the art of composition after the graphic a Late Gothic craftsman's apprentice and "prototypes" he had bought in Amsterdam deter­ Willmann in the conscious use of the existing re­ mined the methods of composing used troughout sources of art. It is significant that Sandrart, an ex­ his later practice as a painter. The choice of such ponent of a classical trend in the seventeenth-cen­ a way to "the heights of art" is in my opinion the rea­ tury art theory rebuking in his book Rembrandt for son of such a customary use of graphic models by his rejection of rules of art and exclusive reliance Willmann, the pracitse ascertained already by on nature, presented the artistic biography of E. Kloss, and confirmed by the recent studies pre­ Willmann in a particularly affirmative way. pared for the catalogue of the latest exhibition of Willmann's declared choice of the way to art Willmann's work.1" Among his numerous paintings through art, in practice realized by the purchase of we can easily find tsuch compositional schemes, a set of engravings, paradoxically corresponded which can be recognized as results of the youthful with the specific formula of eclectism promoted by excercises: from adopting the whole model (e. g. Sandrart not only in his theoretical works but also the painting The Martyrdom of St. Stephan. based

BULLETIN OF THE NATIONAL GALLERY IN PRAGUE / 63 in his own painting - the formula, which allowed to Wroclaw (22 October - 11 December 1994), achieve "the heights of art" also through solely copy­ Salzburg 1994, 145. ing masterpieces.46 The Willmann's conviction that 4 Historische Darstellungen in 10 Slattern nach dem good art = prototypes + talent can be regarded not on­ beriihmten Meister Willmann. In Kupfer gebracht ly as an effect of the role that model played in the und herausgegeben von Josef Gregory. trade's tradition but also as the result of at that time Kupferstecher und Zeichnungslehrer in Prag, common awareness both of great value of contem­ I. Heft, 1805 (10 engravings), II. Heft, 1805 (10 en­ porary art and of its pluralistic normative character, gravings) - Graficka sbirka Narodni galerie, Prague which was often manifested by the certitude that ev­ - Inv. No. R 55001-55020. ery great artist has a speciality he stands out in. 5 Prague, The Graphic Art Collection, Strahov Samuel van Hoogstraeten, pointing out the example Monastery, Museum of Czech Literature, pen and of "the Germanic artists", wrote then in his treatise brush in grey and black ink on grey paper, that: "Diirer was usually sensitive to the similarity of 165 x 259 mm. Acquired from the Karasek collec­ fabric in the garments, Lucas van Leyden prefered tion. See: Obrazdrna v Cechdch 1796 - 1918. Katalog modesty, Rubens rich arrangements, Antony van Dijk vystavy uspofddane Ng. v P. u pfileznosli dvousteho charm, Rembrandt favoured spiritual sufferings and vyroci zalozenl Obrazdrny Spolecnosti vlasteneckych Goltzius the proper rendering of some great masters' pfdtel umenl v Cechdch. exh. cat., Narodni galerie, hands'." This conviction of the existence of many Prague, ed. V. Vlnas, Praha 1996, No 1.1.1.28 artistic epitomes was summarised by the discussed (P. Preiss) and A. Koziel, Rysunki Michaela unknown author of "the discourse about noble paint­ Willmanna (1630-1706) [The Drawings of Michael ing" in the very short and pointed way: "Alles kann Willmann], Ph. D. dissertation, vol. 1-2, Wroclaw ein jeder nicht." Then he specified "Der Durschnitt 1998, No. II. 39. The second drawing from the Michael Angeli. die Cotilorit Raphaels, die Erfindung works copied by Gregory - The Lamentation of Parmesans, Bassans Ndchte und Diirers Bilder" as Christ with a study of the Virgin of Sorrow - has these achievements of the contemporary painting, apeared on auction No. 50 on 28th of November which "...sol/en den Alien Meistern gleichen und sie 1966 in Horst A. Rittershofer's auction house in 4S in vielen iibertreffen '. Thus the art of the past was (No. 358). Its present owner is unknown. for Willmann, the artist from provincial Konigs- 6 E. Kloss, Michael Willmann. Leben und Werke berg, neither an object of emulation nor a source of eines deutschen Barockmalers, Breslau [1934], 142. "influences" he passively absorbed. Willmann ex­ 7 We can indicate only two fragmentary analogies: ploited the existing works of art as a collection of the group of Christ and Veronica from the painting prototypical realizations produced by the genera­ The Way to Golgotha (Muzeum Narodowe, tions of artists from the early sixteenth century to Wroclaw) resembles the same group from the draw­ the times contemporary to the painter, a source ing The Bearing of the Cross - Michael Willmann which was easily accessible for him by the medium (1630-1706). exh. cat...., 122, No. 22; the reclining of graphic. He valued the art of the past not in re­ figure of sick young man from the painting The spects of style or territorial attachment but from Recovery of the Holy Cross (St. Francis, Prague) is the point of view of conformity and completness of identical with the figure shown on the drawing en­ prototypical solutions this collection offered him. titled by J. Neumann as Christ Healing the Sick. His attitude was an active one - armed with the ability of proper judgement developed by visiting 8 Neumann 1983 (as in n. 1), 207. galleries with "all famous masterpieces", the said 9 Kloss 1934 (as in n. 6), 142; Neumann 1983 (as "recht oordeel" put by Angel on the first place in n. 1), 207; Manuth 1994 (as in n. 3), 148. among the attributes of a good artist, Willmann was 10 Ibidem. making the choice of the most proper "prototype" 11 Manuth 1994 (as in n. 3), 146-148. for an artistic enterprise he planned to undertake, 12 See: Kloss 1934 (as in n. 6), 142; Manuth intending by doing this to bring his art the quality 1994 (as in n. 3), 143. of perfection. 13 The Illustrated Bartsch, ed. W. L. Strauss, vol. 4: Netherlandish Artists. Mathem, Saenredam, Midler, ed. W. L. Strauss, New York 1980, No. 113. NOTES 14 The Illustrated Bartsch.... vol. 26: The Works 1 The letter is dated 22nd of May 1702 - Statni of Marcantonio Raimondi and his School, ed. oblastni archiv, Tfebon, sign. XLVII/4. For more in­ K. Oberhuber. New York 1978. No. 104-1. formation about Willmann's work for Sedlec 15 The Illustrated Bartsch..., vol. 33: Italian Artists monastery see especially: J. Neumann. "Expresivni of the Sixteenth Century School of Fontainebleau, ed. tendence v ceske barokni malbe. 2" [The H. Zerner, New York 1979, No. 2. Expressive Trends in the Bohemian 16 The Illustrated Bartsch..., vol. 32: Italian Artists Painting. 2], Galeria. VIII, 1984, 175-195. of the Sixteenth Century School of Fontainebleau, 2 J. de Sandrart, Academia nobilissimae Artis ed. H. Zerner, New York 1979, No. 11-1. Pictoriae [...], Noribergae 1683, part II, book III, 17 The Illustrated Bartsch..., vol. 26..., No. 21. 393ff. 18 The Illustrated Bartsch..., vol. 33..., No. 6 as an 3 V. Manuth. O sztuce rysunku Michaela unknown engraver after Giulio Romano. Stefania Willmanna [About Michael Willmann's Art of Massari attributed the engaving to Master G. R. Drawing], [in:] Michael Willmann (1630-1706). from Verona - S. Massari, Giulio Romano pinxit et exh. cat. Residenzgalerie Salzburg (15 June - 25 delineavit. Opere grafiche, autografe di collaborazione September 1994) and Muzeum Narodowe in e bottega, Roma 1993, No. 97.

64 / BULLETIN OF THE NATIONAL GALLERY IN PRAGUE 19 The Illustrated Bartsch..., vol. 31: Italian Artists 29 S. van Hoogstraeten 1678 (as in n. 25), 192; of the Sixteenth Century, ed. S. Boorsch, J. Spike. quotation and translation after: Robinson 1987 (as New York 1986, No. 1-1. in n. 24), 249. 20 F. W. H. Hollstein, Dutch and Flemish Etchings, 30 J. A. Emmens, Rembrandt en de regels van de Engravings and Woodcuts ca. 1400-1700, vol. 4. kunst, Utrecht 1968. 154-159; J. Bruyn, On No. 27. Rembrandt's Use of Studio-Props and Model 21 J. C. J. Bierens de Haan, LOeuvre grave de Drawings During the , [in:] Essays in Not hern Cornells Con, Graveur Hollanders 1533-1578, Le European Art presented to Egbert Haverkamp- Haye 1948. No. 53. Begeniann on his sixtieth birthday, Doornspijk 22 The Illustrated Bartsch..., vol. 56: Netherlandish 1983, 57. Artists. Philips Calle. ed. A. Dolders. New York 31 Two Male Nudes, etching (B. 194). The explana­ 1987. No. 29. tion for the occurrence of a child being taught to 23 All artist's monographers considered this state­ walk in the background of this etching was given by ment to be the proof of close relations (at least Jan Emmens, who also pointed to the words of "master-pupil" relation) between Rembrandt and d'Argenville in his Abrege de la vie des plus fameux Willmann. Recently Riidiger KJessmann interpret­ peintres of 1745 (now impossible to verify), that ed Sandrart's words on the basis of arguments of Rembrandt's "//ire a dessiner est de dix a douze Rembrandt and Lievens against a journey to feuilles" - Emmens 1968 (as in n. 30), 157. Italy (recorded by Constantijn Huygens) as 32 For example see: K. Clark, Rembrandt and the Willmann's appeal to the encouraging example of Italian Renaissance, London 1966. Rembrandt and Backer, the artists who were not in 33 On the subject of rapen see: Emmens 1968 (as Italy, for an excuse of not undertaking a journey to in n. 30), 111-115; Bilder nach Bildern, the South - see R. Klessmann, Willmann Druckgraphik und die Vermittlung von der Kunst. i Niderlandy [Willmann and Netherlands], [in:] exh. cat., 21 March - 2 May 1976, ed. G. Michael Willmann (1630-1706). exh. cat..., 55-56. Langemayer, R. Schleier, Miinster 1976, esp. 24 The description of Rembrandt's method of 125-168 and B. P. J. Broos, Rembrandt en zijn learning and teaching of composition by making Voorbeelden / Rembrandt and His Sources, exh. cat., drawings of historical subjects after: W. W. (2 November 1985 - 5 January 1986) Robinson, Rembrandt's Sketches of Historical Rembrandthuis Amsterdam, Amsterdam 1985, Subjects, [in:] Drawing defined, preface and com­ 11-15. mentary by K. Oberhuber. ed. W. Strauss. T. Felker. 34 Quellenstudien zur Holldndischen Kunst- New York 1987, 241-256. On the subject of geschichte. ed. C. Hofstede de Groot, vol. VIII: Rembrandt as teacher see also: E. Haverkamp- Das Lehrgedicht des Karel van Mander, ed. and Begemann, Rembrandt as Teacher, [in:| Rembrandt trans. R. Hoecker, Haag 1916, 36-37. See the com­ After Three Hundred Years, exh. cat., Chicago 1969, mentary in: K. van Mander, Den grondt der edel 21-30; Bij Rembrandt in de Leer / Rembrandt as vry schilderkonst, ed. and comm. by H. Miedema. Teacher, exh. cat., Museum het Rembrandthuis Utrecht 1973. part 2, 388-389 and H. Miedema, Amsterdam, ed. P, Schatborn. Amsterdam 1984, Kunst, Kunstenaar en Kunstwerk bij Karel van passim; S. Alpers, Rembrandt als Unternehmer. Sein Mander, Ean Analyse van zijn Levensbeschrijvingen. Atelier und der Markt, trans. H. U. Davitt, Koln Alphen aan den Rijn 1981, 132-138. 1989, 80-197; J. Bruyn. Werkstatu 35 Emmens 1968 (as in n. 30). 196. Organisation & Produktion, [in:] Rembrandt. Der 36 Ph. Angel, Lof der Schilder-Konst, Leiden Meister und seine Werksiatt: Gemdlde. exh. cat., 1642. 35-37: my quotations are after: Emmens Berlin 1991, 68-89; P. Schatborn. Aspekte der 1968 (as in n. 30). 111-112. Zeichenkunst Rembrandts, [in:] Rembrandt. Der 37 Katalog der Gemdlde u. Skulpturen, VI. Auflage, Meister und seine Werkstatt. Zeichnimgen und Schlesischen Museum der bildenden Ki'inste, Radierungen. exh. cat., ed. H. Bevers. P. Schatborn. Breslau 1926, 26. There is also the author's repli­ B. Welzel, Munchen-Paris-London 1991, 10-21. ca of this painting in Musee Fabre in Montpellier - 25 S. van Hoogstraeten, lnleyding tot de Hooge W. Martin, Gerard Don. Des Meister Gemdlde, Schoole der Schi/derkunst: Anders de Zichtbarc Stuttgart - Berlin 1913. No. 124. The explanation Werelt, Rotterdam 1678, 191-192; quotation and of the meaning of the picture after: Emmens 1968 translation after: Robinson 1987 (as in n. 24), 241. (as in n. 30). 112. On Hoogstraeten's schooling in Rembrandt's work­ 38 Kunstverstdndiger Discours von der edlen shop see: C. Brusati, Artifice and Illusion. The Art Mahlerey, [in:] A. Bosse, Der Radier- und and Writing of Samuel van Hoogstraten, Chicago- Etzkunst..., Niirnberg 1652. This text undoubtedly- London 1995, 24-45. had not been written by Carlo Dolce as E. Berger 26 Robinson 1987 (as in n. 24). 254. See: W. supposed (Quellen fur Maltechnik wdhrend der Sumowski, Drawings of the Rembrandt's School, vol. Renaissance und deren Folgezeit. ed. E. Berger. 6, No. 1317-1527XX and vol. 8, No. 1758 and fol­ Munchen 1901, 442). Judging by the examples re­ lowing. ferred to in the text its author belonged to the 27 A. Houbraken. De Groote Schouburg der Nurnberg circle in the first half of the seventeenth Nederlantsche Konstschilders en Schilderessen. vol. 1, century. Willmann certainly knew this discourse Amsterdam 1718, 270; quotation and translation about painting because at least two prescriptions after: Robinson 1987 (as in n. 24), 244. for preparing etching from so called artist's notes 28 Alpers 1989 (as in n. 24), 80-197. (Strahov Library, Prague) are cribbed from the

BULLETIN OF THE NATIONAL GALLERY IN PRAGUE / 65 German translation of Abraham Bosse's treatise. 39 On the problem of the use of graphic models by Willmann see: B. Steinborn, O zyciu i tworczosci Michaela Willmanna [About Michael Willmann's Life and Work], [in:] Michael Willmann (1630-1706). exh. cat..., 18ff; Klessmann 1994 (as in n. 23), 56ff and Koziet 1998 (as in n. 5), vol. I, 94ff. 40 Warsaw, All Saints', oil on canvas, 360 x 280 cm. around 1682; on the engraving see: The Illustrated Bartsch.... vol. 34: Italian Artists of the Sixteenth Century, ed. S. Butta, New York 1982, No. 51-11. 41 Warsaw, the Cathedral Record Office, oil on canvas, 395 x 287 cm, 1662; on the engravings see: Hollstein's Dutch and Flemish Etchings, Engravings and Woodcuts 1450-1700, vol. 42, comp. Ch. Schuckman, ed. D. de Hoop Scheffer, Roosendaal 1993. No. 6 and vol. 43, comp. Ch. Schuckman, ed. D. de Hoop Scheffer, Roosendaal 1993, No. 88. 42 R. Nowak. "Zapomniane malowidta freskowe Michala Willmanna w palacu opackim w Lubiazu" [The Forgotten Fresco Paintings by Michael Willmann in the Abbot Palace at Lubiaz], Roczniki Sztuki Slqskiej. XrV, 1986. 97-116: Item. "Die Willmann-Fresken im Abtspalast von Kloster Leubus in Schlesien", Zeitschrift fur Ostforschung, XXXVI, 1987, 75-94. 43 Warsaw, All Saints', oil on canvas, 395 x 311 cm, 1662. 44 Klessmann 1994 (as in n. 23). 66. 45 Hollstein (as in n. 20), vol. 14, No. 20. 46 On the eclectic character of Joachim von Sandrart's art see: Ch. Klemm, Joachim von Sandrart. Kunst, Werke unci Lebenslauf Berlin 1986, 50-51. It is worth pointing out that Sandrart possesed "books" with drawing copies of various en­ gravings he had made in the early years as "LerntechniW - at least two of them were later used by the artist as compositional models for paintings - Klemm 1986, 15. 47 S. van Hoogstraeten 1678 (as in n. 25), 75. 48 Kunstversldndiger Discours..., 139.

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