Paper 2 (Human Geography) Name: ______

Topic Title Case Studies/ located examples 4 Changing Cities 5 Global Development India

6A Resource Management and Energy Germany China Paper 2 Topic 4: Changing Cities. Megacities vs. Primate cities: Megacities have a population of over 10 Key Terms million or more Urbanisation Primate cities are cities that dominate a the increasing percentage of people living in urban areas compared to rural areas. countries economic, financial and political Migration when people move from one area to another systems.

Natural increase birth rate minus the death rate of a population Urban Population Growth More than ______the world’s population now live Urban A built up area like a town or city in live in cities and this is expected to increase to 5 billion by the year _____ , with most growth occurring Rural A countryside area in the developing/emerging world. Megacity an urban area with a total population of more than ten million people Urbanisation in the Developed World- A slower process Favela a squatter settlement (an area of often illegal, poor-quality housing, lacking in Growth of urban areas occurred in the 18th century services like water supply, sewerage and electricity) in a Brazilian city due to the agricultural revolution: this was when… What is happening? Developed country Higher income country e.g. UK, Japan, Germany This caused people to migrate to urban areas The growth of urban areas was a result of industrial and because… Developing country Lower income country e.g. Ethiopia, Nepal, Afghanistan agricultural revolutions. At this time people moved from Emerging country Newly emerging economy e.g. Brazil, China, Nigeria, India rural areas to the urban areas to gain work in factories. Urban growth also happened during the 19th century Urbanisation has since been slow and has remained steady

countries (new jobs became available in Key content Developed since the 1980s factories). This pulled people to the urban areas because… Urban Growth Rate of urbanisation differs between countries that are richer and poorer. The growth of towns and cities has been rapid and has taken place over the last 50 years. More people are moving in than Urbanisation in the Developing/Emerging World-

and and cities can accommodate for! This is due to rapid population Faster growth

countries Emerging Emerging Rate of Very slow as urbanisation happened much earlier in HICs than in LICs and NEEs e.g. Developing growth and a lack of jobs in rural areas Growth here has occurred in the last 50 years and at a urbanisation in during the Industrial Revolution and so most of the population already live in urban much faster pace. Due to this speed, there hasn’t areas. HIC cities can be overcrowded and many people are choosing to leave them for developed quieter rural areas for a better quality of life made possible by high speed broadband Why? been time to build sufficient houses so many live in countries connections and good transport networks. ______. Other problems caused by rapid growth of the cities The reasons for the differences is that in developed countries include… Rate of most people already live in urban areas. Another reason is that

Urbanisation urbanisation in Varying rates of urbanisation are experienced in countries that have economic Emerging development that is increasing rapidly. Nigeria and China have rapid urban growth. developed countries have a low natural increase rate. Developing Reasons for growth in Developing/Emerging World countries countries have a high rural-urban migration rate and natural Natural Increase – B_____ rates are higher than d____ rates. Migrants tend to be young and fertile Rate of The fastest rates of urbanisation in the world are generally happening in less increase rate. adults with lower death rates so cities are dominated urbanisation in economically developed countries as not many of the population live in urban areas. developing by the young and fertility rates are high. Migration – People move from rural areas due to push Urbanisation is caused by this because more people are being born than are dying i.e. Natural increase factors such as... birth rate is higher than death rate. and migrate to urban areas due to pull factors such as A combination of push and pull factors causes rural to urban migration which leads to This rapid growth in developing/emerging countries

Causes Migration urbanisation. Younger ,working age people tend to migrate to cities to find better paid jobs. High rates of urbanisation leads to the growth of megacities. has resulted in the formation of megacities. A mega city is…

The majority of megacities are in Asia and in particular China and India. There is only Megacities one in with a slightly higher three in each of North America, South America and Africa. (2014) What is Urbanisation? UK urbanisation differences This is an increase in the amount of people living in urban areas such as towns or cities. In 2007, Population= the UN announced that for the first time, more than 50 % of the world’s population live in urban Distribution= areas. Choropleth= Where is Urbanisation happening? Density= Infrastructure Urbanisation is happening all over the word but in developing and emerging The UK has an uneven population distribution: countries rates are much faster than HICs. This is mostly because of the This means some areas have….. rapid economic growth they are Whilst other areas ……. experiencing. In urban areas there is a ______population density (lots of people in a smaller area) with a ______population density in rural areas. This is due to 4 main reasons: Physical Factors – The north and west have hilly areas (for example which are difficult to build on/ provide infrastructure and have poor soils so population density is… The climate in the north and west is also colder and wetter so…

In the south and east rich soils cause farming communities to grow which also have ______people Causes of Urbanisation living there because they’re rural areas.

Rural - urban migration (1) The movement of people from rural to urban areas. Historical Factors – The industrial revolution caused the growth of urban areas near to coalfields e.g. Push Pull B______and also to ports e.g. L______This caused population density in these areas to be….. • Natural disasters • More Jobs • War and Conflict • Better education & healthcare Economic Factors – Since the 1950s the UK has focussed on tertiary and quaternary industry which • • Mechanisation Increased quality of life. requires space and good access e.g. Swindon. Tertiary industry supplies a service to people e.g. retail • Drought • Following family members. • Lack of employment whilst the quaternary industry involves high levels of education e.g. medical research. Areas of the UK with higher education /skills and good access now have ______population densities. For example Natural Increase (2) When the birth rate exceeds the death rate. ______has continued to grow due to good access because of the excellent road, rail and airport Increase in birth rate (BR) Lower death rate (DR) links, high skills, a large market and large labour force.

• High percentage of population are child- • Higher life expectancy due to better living bearing age which leads to high fertility conditions and diet. Political Factors – L______is the centre of UK government and decision making and so attracts rate. • Improved medical facilities helps lower firms near to the area. • Lack of contraception or education about infant mortality rate. The south east of the UK is close to the EU so it is a convenient location to base businesses, these family planning. businesses increase the population density because… Key Terms Urbanisation is a result of socio-economic processes and change. The impact of migration on urbanisation— Formal employment (migration, national, international, urban economies, type of employment) National migration—This is migration that occurs within a country. In 1990, Chongqing in China Informal employment had a population of 2 million. By 2014, the population was 12.9 million due to large scale internal Urban economies Formal and informal employment migration. This was caused by: economic reform in China, the rapid growth of industries after Pre-industrial People who work in formal employment usually receive a regular wage and may pay 200, loss of farmland due to urbanisation. Migrants were attracted to the cities due to more Post-industrial tax on their income. In some countries they may have certain employment rights, such opportunities and better services such as healthcare and education. Industrial as sick leave or holiday pay. The formal employment sector includes factory workers, Clark-Fisher model office workers, shop keepers and governments. International migration—This is migration between 2 different countries. In 2001, had a Pull factors Informal employment activities are not officially recognised by the government. They population of just over 7 million people. In 2011, the population had increased by 14% to 8.1 Push factors generally work for themselves e.g. hairdressers. They don’t always pay taxes and have million. This is largely due to migrants from India, , Ireland, Nigeria and Pakistan. The pull Rural-urban migration no protection. factors that attracted the migrants to London were employment, entertainment and culture, Working conditions services and UK international transport network. Push factors also encouraged the people to migrate from their country of origin such as lack of jobs, healthcare, standard of living and potentially war.

Questions 1. Explain two differences between formal and informal employment (4) 2. Describe the main differences between the economies of cities in developing and emerging countries and economies in developed countries (4) 3. Explain why the informal sector creates issues for governments (4) 4. Explain why international and national migration have contributed to the decline of a major city in the developed world (4) 5. Explain two of the pull factors that attract people from other countries to migrate to cities such as London or Birmingham (4) Key Terms Cities change overtime and this is reflected in changing land use Similarities and differences between developed, developing and Urbanisation (How population, distribution changes overtime, characteristics of urban areas) emerging countries: Suburbanisation De-industrialisation The number of people living in a city, where they live within the city and how the city shapes itself all • Similarities: Most cities have a CBD, have areas with Counter-urbanisation change over time. A city may go through each of the following stages: industrial zones and are spread over a wide area. They have Regeneration • Urbanisation—In the most developed countries, such as the UK and USA, urbanisation was linked extensive suburbs They have issues with pollution and CBD to industrialisation. The industrial revolution and services such as railways, roads and a safe water traffic congestion. Accessibility supply attracted workers to the growing towns. As cities become urbanised, more factories were • Differences: The zones of industry and housing are more Availability built and growing numbers or rural migrants arrived to fill the jobs that were created. distinct and separate in developed countries. In developing and emerging countries affluent areas are close to industrial Planning Regulations • Suburbanisation—By the early 20th Century in developed countries, city centres had become zones or areas of squatter settlements. Most cities in noisy, crowded, polluted places. People who could afford to, moved out of the city centre to the Questions developed countries do not have squatter settlements. 1. Define new ‘suburbs’ on the edge of the city where land was cheaper and the air was cleaner. Cities in emerging and developing countries have not urbanisation (2) • De-industrialisation— The industry in the city begins to decline. Often this is the result of experienced counter-urbanisation. 2. Define technological change, failure to invest or competition from other countries (outsourcing). regeneration (2) • Counter-urbanisation—In the 1970s - 1980s, people in the UK, Europe, USA and Japan chose to 3. Explain how leave larger towns and cities to move to more rural areas. This led to a pattern of population Why functional zones form in cities? accessibility and decline in inner city areas and population growth in small towns and villages. Counter-urbanisation cost influence was possible due to increased car ownership and motorway construction, this allowed people to The centre of a city is the most accessible part of the city. Most urban land use commute to work. Progress in telecommunications and information technology also meant that land uses that need access to lots of people, such as shops and (4) people could work from home in remote villages. offices, must locate near the most accessible part. So there is competition between land uses. This means the rent charges for 4. Explain some of • Regeneration— Some older cities have started to redevelop their run-down inner-city areas in the main factors the city centre are higher, therefore only those who can pay the order to attract people to live close to the amenities of the city centre. New shopping centres, that influence high rents can afford to locate there. Shops and offices can afford land use in a city flats, houses and leisure facilities are built to give the city centre a facelift and attract businesses. this, other land uses like manufacturing and industry are found (4) further away from the city centre where there is cheaper land.

Factors influencing land use: Land use zones • Accessibility—Shops & offices need to be accessible to as many people as possible and so are usually found in city centres, which The CBD has a range of high-end shops and tall office blocks, have good transport links. Sometimes, the edge of the city is most accessible, often by motorway and this has led to the growth of together with multi- car parks. Close to the CBD are usually out-of-town shopping centres, which are multi-use. the rail and bus terminals, as well as markets (wholesale and • Availability– City centres tend to be heavily built up. The availability of land may also affect how land is used. When factories close, retail) and public buildings (town hall). These zones are the brownfield site may be used for housing, shops and offices. recognised by the area’s warehouses. Industrial areas are usually • Cost– Land in the city centre is often very expensive due to a lack of availability. Some land-uses such as shops and offices, can afford further away from the CBD and are recognised by low factory to pay high rents. buildings together with old canals and newer dual carriageways. • Planning Regulation—Planning also affects land use patterns. Planners try to balance different, often competing for land. The city's Residential areas have extensive zones of houses with gardens authorities often decide how they want a city to look and develop and plan on what type of land use is permitted in certain areas. and blocks of flats are away from the CBD. The structure of Birmingham Case Study of a major* UK city – Birmingham The central business district is one of the oldest areas of the city, dominated by department stores, specialist and variety goods shops, offices, theatres and hotels. This is the heart of the city and the centre of local government. Many buildings in the CBD are fairly new The location of the changing city of Birmingham following redevelopment projects such as the Bullring shopping centre. The quality of the environment in the CBD is quite high with some The city of Birmingham developed on a dry point site on a south facing, sandstone ridge overlooking a crossing green space. Because land here is expensive, the building density is high, with buildings both close together and taller than in the rest of point of the . Before the 19th century, Birmingham was a small market town on the Birmingham the city. plateau overshadowed by the surrounding towns of Stafford, Worcester and Warwick. Beyond the CBD are the 19th century inner city areas which were redeveloped in the 1970s into comprehensive development areas (CDAs). In the 18th and 19th centuries Birmingham urbanised as it developed its own industries of jewellery, gun Here the buildings are tower blocks of flats or high density terraces/ properties. There are few shops, even fewer factories and a few making, buttons and brass trade, to create high quality goods. These industries needed skilled labour and churches with limited open green space. small amounts of raw materials in the time before canals were built to carry bulky goods. New estates where built in a hurry in places like Small Heath, Selly Oak and for people and their children arriving from the By the 1920s as the population of the city increased Birmingham had to expand. The suburbs extend beyond the inner zone and occupy a countryside. large part of the city’s area. Some of the suburbs city areas where built in Victorian times, whilst others were built in the 1930s, 50s and 60s. Some are centres of council housing (many of which have been purchased) and others were built as private estates. Here the density From the 1830s, Birmingham began to spread rapidly outwards. This was when its situation in the centre of of buildings is low, and the land use is mainly housing with a few shops and some good quality green space. the Birmingham plateau and the middle of the country became so important. First canals and then railways connected Birmingham and other Midlands towns and the rest of the UK, enabling manufacturing to easily The industrial zones of the city stand out clearly, radiating from the city centre. There are two important zones radiating in an easterly and source raw materials and reach markets. north-easterly direction. Suburban industrial areas are also significant in the geography of the city and are usually located close to a main road. Today Birmingham is at the heart of the UK road and rail network. Birmingham is also a major global centre, based on its airport and its reputation as a conference centre. By the 1970s counter-urbanisation was boosted by the redevelopment of the city’s inner city areas. Here 5 new CDAs were created by demolishing all the old 19th century terraces and courts. The redevelopment forced people to move out either to estates on the edge of Birmingham’s Site / Situation / context the urban area or to new towns. Site= Birmingham is located on River Rea on solid sandstone land. This was originally a good site for the location of a settlement because… On the outskirts of the city is the urban-rural fringe. This is where town meets country. There is a mixture of land uses here, such as Situation = Birmingham was surrounded by the forest of Arden, useful for settlers housing, golf courses, business parks and airports. because….. The hilly landscape also gave protection from… Context= The West Midlands, Birmingham is close to nearby towns/cities of Many people now want to live close to the amenities the CBD offer. New apartments have been built near canals and in converted factories W______, W______and S______. across the city centre. Birmingham is in the process of giving itself a facelift by actively redeveloping parts of its CBD and inner city areas. Older tower blocks have been refurbished and new centres developed like the Mailbox: a mixture of shopping, leisure, offices and Birmingham’s stages of urbanisation: apartments. 1. Urbanisation of Birmingham= Late 1700s to 1900 Birmingham’s population CBD Inner city Suburbs grew because people were migrating there from rural areas and the high natural increase. In the industrial revolution Birmingham’s population grew Age of Oldest buildings Old 19th century Newest buildings 1930s – 1960s rapidly due to lots of pull factors. buildings Explain why these factors pulled people to Birmingham: Density of Land here is expensive so density is high, Still relatively high density: Low: semi detached and detached • Cadbury Factory opens 1879= buildings buildings are close together and taller than terraced housing, flats. housing • Rail line to Manchester (1837) and to London (1838)= the rest of the city • Birmingham connected to rest of UK by canal network= • Lots of gun and jewellery factories= Functions Department stores, offices, theatres, hotels Few shops, few factories, few High quality green space 2. Suburbanisation of Birmingham= in the early to mid 1900s Birmingham’s and local government churches, limited green space Large number of housing suburbs grew Land uses Commercial (Retail Offices) A little bit of retail, some Residential with a few shops 3. Counter urbanisation = In the 1960s-1990s Birmingham’s population declined manufacturing and some Council houses and estates (fell) = People left the city because parts of it had got really rundown and also residential because of a lack of jobs due to de-industrialisation. 4. Regeneration and Re-urbanisation of Birmingham 2005 onwards= Birmingham Environme High due to areas being redeveloped, some Low High has had A LOT of money spent on it as part of the ‘Big City Plan’ to improve the city. ntal quality green space This has helped people to want to live there again. How has Birmingham’s population, employment and services changed over time? The causes of national and international migration

Urbanisation • In the 18th and 19th century, urbanisation in Birmingham was based on the manufacture of jewellery, guns, buttons and brass. • Factory production in the 19th century led to rapid urbanisation.

Suburbanisation • New estates were built in a hurry in places like Small Heath, Selly Oak and Saltley for people and their children arriving from the countryside. • As the population of Birmingham increased, Birmingham has to expand and in the 1920s suburbanisation saw large estates of both council houses and private houses built; mostly semi-detached houses on large areas of land. • These estates often lacked shops and clinics. However, they were laid out with wide tree-lined roads and grass verges (the grassy strips next to pavements) in an attempt to maintain the quality of the environment. Counter • The redevelopment forced people to move out to either to estates on the edge of the urban area or to new urbanisation towns like Redditch. This was partly as they could no longer afford the redeveloped properties.

Reurbanisation • Since the 1990s there has been a shift in where some people would like to live- they want to live close to the amenities the city centre offers. National migration - Impact on International migration - Impact on Birmingham • New apartments have been built near the canals and converted factories across the city centre as Birmingham is reason Birmingham reason in the process of giving itself a face lift by actively redeveloping parts of its CBD and inner city areas. Retirement – people + less pressure on Shortage of workers – in the + willing to fill less desirable jobs and work • In the 1970s the inner city areas were redeveloped. Five new CDAs (comprehensive development areas) were decide to leave healthcare services in 1950s, UK encouraged for less built by demolishing all the old 19th century terraces and courts. Birmingham to retire Birmingham migration from India, the - Migrants stay and their families come over • Older two blocks have been demolished and new centres developed like the Mailbox; a mixture of shopping, somewhere near the + more housing and Caribbean, Pakistan and which can put pressure on resources; leisure,, offices and apartments. coast in infrastructure freedom Bangladesh to fill jobs (e.g. increase unemployment, etc. (example) - Less spending, can Textiles and transport) impact economy and Birmingham’s population compared to the UK average. growth Population characteristics of Birmingham? • Just over 1.1 million people live in Birmingham. Job prospects- people + more people to fill EU migration - Since 2000, -More competition for jobs • Since 2004, the population has often seek better jobs jobs many migrants have come - more pressure on resources increased by almost 100,000 people in cities (like -More competition from countries in Eastern + fills labour and less desirable jobs (this is an average of 0.9% a year). Birmingham) - could create job Europe for better jobs and + people paying taxes to improve economy shortages living standards • There are three key reasons for this: Rising birth rate Falling death rate UK and international migration Study – Usually -Using resources Flight from conflict – -Large number coming at once makes it • Birmingham is one of the UK’s most involves young (healthcare, etc.) and refugees from Syria and difficult to prepare diverse cities with 42% of its people and is not necessarily Afghanistan -Increase crime and tension inhabitants from ethnic groups other temporary or short contributing - increases inequality term + can fill up part + filling jobs with shortages than white. 22% of residents were born time/seasonal jobs outside the UK. + spending money which helps the economy Inequality in Birmingham How is inequality measured? How has globalisation and economic change created challenges for Birmingham? •The characteristics of different areas of a city can be measured using the Index of Multiple Deprivation (IMD). De-industrialisation is the decline of industries in a city. •The IMD measures 38 different characteristics and splits them into 7 categories: income, employment, health, education, crime, access to services and the living environment.

• 40% of Birmingham’s population live in areas of deprivation. • Deprivation in Birmingham is concentrated in a ring around the city centre. • The percentage of working-age people with no qualifications in inner-city Birmingham is double the national average. • Birmingham has the highest level of youth unemployment for the UK’s major cities (highest in Erdington, lowest in Sutton Why is there inequality in Birmingham? Coldfield).

• There may be some discrimination against newcomers and some racial discrimination, although this is being actively tackled and overcome. CAUSES OF DEINDUSTRIALISTION EFFECTS OF DEINDUSTRIALISTION • The large number of people arriving in a short time makes it hard to provide what is needed quickly, for example schools and Social health services Globalisation: this is the process by which cities become part of a Workers were made redundant. • Some areas in the inner-city have poorer schools and poorer health provision. world market. In Birmingham, this meat that its industries of car • Some of the suburban areas in the south and west have poor living conditions. motorcycle manufacture suffered badly in the 1970s from • Some of the suburban areas in the south and west have poor schools imported vehicle from the Japan and western Europe. (Global) • Areas in the inner-city have high unemployment. De-centralisation: the 1970s were also a time of decentralisation Some factories relocated to the • Many of the new jobs are only part-time or temporary and do not pay well. • in Birmingham when many inner-city areas were redeveloped. suburbs or to new towns like There are few factories, providing few local jobs with the result that people have to travel to find work and this adds to the expense. Economic Factories were either closed or demolished or they moved out of Redditch. • Many migrants are well qualified, for example, as doctors, dentists and lectures, but in the 21st century people with few the city. (Local) qualifications find it harder to find good quality jobs. • Economic chance is so rapid that cities find it hard to keep pace and cities like Birmingham have not had the money to do all Technological advances: the development of new technologies It left many brownfield sites with they would wish to in order to reduce the inequality in areas. associated with metal manufacture were slow to be applied to empty factories and warehouses • Some of the suburban areas in the south and west have high unemployment. the older factories in Birmingham. As a result, some firms went There was some large-scale pollution Environmental - Older houses in these areas can be damp and hard to heath and this can lead to health issues. out of business because they did not have the new technology of the land where former industries including the built which often made goods cheaper. (Global) such as metal smelting had taken environment) place. Transport developments: part of the redevelopment of central Factories closed. Quality of life is the degree of well-being felt by an individual or group of people in an area. It relates to jobs, wages, food and Birmingham in the 1970s was the construction of an inner ring There was large scale unemployment access to services road. To build the new road, older factories, warehouses and and the need to retrain many houses had to be demolished. Some of the factories never re- workers. opened and others moved away from Birmingham. (Local) Sparkbrook – inner city Sutton Coldfield – suburbs • Media dubbed area the gun capital of the • Relatively low crime rates What has caused this pattern of inequality? UK. • Dissatisfaction with rubbish Economic change increasing inequality • Less green space collection • Wide range of shops selling produce from • Lots of green space The economic structure of Birmingham has changed in the last 50 years following the decline of all over the world. • Complaints about noise and light manufacturing causing unemployment of people with lower skills / secondary sector workers. Higher • People are not generally unhappy with pollution skilled-educated workers can live on the outskirts and commute to the centre to work in new jobs in their quality of lives. • Wide range of shops finance and IT. As a result of this change, new patterns of inequality have occurred across the city. We • Some concerns over crime • Low air and water pollution can use the index of multiple deprivation to measure poverty in an area. Within Birmingham, the most • Some concern over pollution and rubbish deprived areas tend to be in the centre of the city, with claimants of benefits tending to be in the same collection. area. Birmingham’s changes in retail and regeneration Making urban living more sustainable and improving the QofL: Sustainable living in Birmingham Retail Change in Birmingham There has been a massive change in retailing within the city over the past 40 years. Sustainability or sustainable development is development that meets the needs of the present, without compromising the Why has Birmingham’s CBD changed? ability of future generations to meet their own needs • 19th century – People moved away from the city centre to the suburbs as it was noisy and polluted. • 1879 – Many factories moved away from the city centre to the inner suburbs e.g. Bourneville. Basic facts • 1970’s – Shops moved away from the CBD to the suburbs to create retail parks e.g. Merry Hill. This was Sustainable Cities Index tracks progress on sustainability in Britain’s 20 largest cities, ranking them across three areas: built on the site of a former steel works (Round Oak Steel Works) and provided competition for retail in environmental performance; quality of life; and future-proofing . the city, as a result trade declined. Retail parks are advantageous due to easy access, free parking and a range of indoor shops. This index includes a wide range of measures such as biodiversity, recycling, health, transport, education, climate change • Internet shopping – Most recently an increase in computer / smart phone ownership has meant internet and local food production. shopping has increased due to its ease and cheapness. Birmingham has combatted this issue through In 2010 Birmingham was ranked 15th of 20 – an improvement since 2007 where it was 19th. redevelopment- and offering a ‘day out’ rather than just shops. Strategy focus Detail THE FIGHT BACK – Birmingham’s CBD Redevelopment. In the 1980’s the CBD fought back against the out of town developments by: Green transport Birmingham Connected Scheme • Building flagship centres such as ICC and Symphony Hall. Building the new Central Library. Transport network important for economy and society in Birmingham. Building new infrastructure & extending tram network. Also have range of buses, (some gas powered) & network of bus lanes to reduce car transport • Making the city centre more pedestrian friendly. Encouraging stores to open until late. Electric charging points throughout city. • Adding new attractions such as the Sea Life Centre. CABLED project promotes use of electric vehicles • Redeveloping a previous Royal Mail sorting office into the Mailbox which includes high end stores such as Cycling: off road routes & round canal network & green spaces. Also on quite roads and main corridors. Harvey Nicholls. Health benefits for cyclists and others as reduces vehicle emissions • Building the new Bullring shopping centre in 2003 creating a modern shopping with parking. Bike North Scheme: learn to ride scheme promotes community involvement • Redeveloping New Street station into Grand Central in 2016 including shopping and restaurants. • Snow Hill Station was improved. Energy Birmingham District Energy Scheme: Trigeneration of heat, electricity and chilled water to prestigious buildings in town centre including town hall, council house & new Library. Interconnected areas; benefit businesses as energy, carbon & space saving. • The was redeveloped a bit- but it wasn’t successful – this area has high crime rates – Severn Trent Water: in addition to water & waste removal, generates renewable energy from sewage waste. Process of anaerobic especially burglary and violent crime. digestion to produce energy. Based in Minworth, Sutton Coldfield. Contributes energy to National Grid • A new area of growth of the CBD with new offices / retail / restaurants along the Hagley Road such as TGI Northfield Eco Centre: Energy, gardening and food growing. Energy assessment of public and private buildings. Funding for those in Fridays. fuel poverty. Plant fruit and nut trees in publically accessible areas; community gardens to teach skills, support public to grow food in • Another new area is where the Birds in has been turned into an arts centre and own gardens. ICT hub. Local Food Northfield Eco Centre: Energy, gardening and food growing. Plant fruit and nut trees in publically accessible areas; community Retail - the sale of goods to the public in relatively small quantities for use or consumption Production gardens to teach skills, support public to grow food in own gardens. Decentralisation – the movement of people, factories offices and shops away from city centres to suburban and edge of city locations Community 2012 community center opened in Sparkbrook, in an eco-friendly building. It serves around 15 000 local people. It has 3 GP practices, Out-of-town shopping - Retail facilities located on the edge of cities offers local council services, a library, rooms for community sue ad offices for startup enterprises. Internet shopping- form of electronic commerce which allows consumers to directly buy goods or services from a seller over the Internet. Building Efficiency Zero carbon house: no fossil fuels or new carbon for running house. Generates energy which makes an income as contributes to national grid. Background info on the core-frame model: Very insulated to prevent heat loss The CBD consists of an inner core, outer core and frame. Within the Rainwater filtered and reclaimed inner core department stores and offices can be found. Within the outer Natural light from above; needs only 1/5 of heat for the house core town halls and administration buildings are found as they cannot Recycling Birmingham is still low on this. In 2013 recycling rate for England as 43.5%, but Birmingham was only at 30.1% afford the rent of the inner core. Travel stations tend to be found within the frame. In some areas growth is occurring where old offices are converted to houses (zone of assimilation) where as some areas are retreating due to firms closing down (zone of discard). Case Study of a major city in a developing country* or an emerging country – Mumbai, India CASE STUDY—The location and context of Mumbai Megacity –influences, structure, growth & Key Terms function(Site, situation, connectivity, structure, functions) Site Situation Mumbai is India’s biggest city. It has a population of 12.5 million people living within the city limits, which makes it a megacity. Environmental factors • Mumbai’s site explains why people first settled here on a number of islands next to a safe harbour. Structure • Its situation explains why a small fishing village surrounded by mangrove swamps developed into a port city and an Function industrial city. Conurbation • It has a naturally deep harbour, accessible for container ships and it is located on the west coast of India, facing important regional markets such as the Middle East and international markets in Europe. The docks in Mumbai account for 25% of all India’s international trade. Mumbai is also well connected to the rest of India through extensive road and railway How has Mumbai’s structure developed? networks. This means people can easily travel to and from Mumbai across India. 1. Urban-rural fringe– Mumbai’s urban-rural fringe is hard to locate Industrial history—Britain was important to Mumbai’s industrial development. because it has spread out into a vast conurbation merging into • In the 19th Century Britain imported cotton from India. This helped develop rail networks to Mumbai’s port. Britain then other towns on the mainland with a population of 22 million developed textile industries in Mumbai this led to population growth as people come from across the region to work in the people. Rural areas are generally found where the environmental factories. factors around Mumbai mean the land is not suitable for building. • By the late 20th Century, Mumbai’s textile industries started to decline as did the port. However, other industries started For example: Marsh land, the National park area and floodplains. to take its place such as banking. Banking has always been important in Mumbai and is one of the world’s most important 2. Outer suburbs– This second area of suburbs was developed post- financial centres as globalisation connected economies around the world. Many of India’s biggest companies moved their 1970s as the settlement developed along the railway lines. This headquarters to Mumbai. Engineering, healthcare, pharmaceutical and IT industries grew fast. ‘Bollywood’, - allowed commuters to travel into and out of the city every day. language film industry, also developed in Mumbai. Its importance as an entertainment and media centre makes Mumbai New industrial sectors have now developed along the railway culturally significant in India today. • Site Problems– By the end of the 20th century, Mumbai’s population was growing very rapidly, fuelled by rural-urban networks as well. New Mumbai was planned as a low density migration. Mumbai could only expand North up its long narrow peninsula making it very crowded and unsanitary. In 1970 a suburb where lower land prices could create a better quality of life, proposal was made to develop a new suburb of Mumbai on the mainland. In 1980-90 the population of the island city of with less congestion for the commuters. Due to the cheap land Mumbai declined slightly as New Mumbai expanded rapidly. prices, more space to expand and availability of skilled worker’s DID YOU KNOW: industries relocated to New Mumbai from the peninsula. • Environmental factors: 3. City-Centre—The oldest parts of Mumbai are at the Southern tip of Mumbai is India’s economic powerhouse and a city that is In the north of Mumbai’s peninsula is the Sanjay Ghandi National Park. This is the world’s largest park in a city (100km² the peninsula. The CBD is located here, centred on the old banking sector of the city. The headquarters of important companies are important on a global scale. forest) which attracts 2 million visitors a year. The park has a small population of tigers. It is located on high steep • Mumbai generates more than 1/6 ground preventing urbanisation. Locals believe that it improves the air quality of the city. located here such as Bank of India, Bank of America, Cadbury India, of India’s GDP. Microsoft India, Tata, Volkswagen and Walt Disney. The old textile • 10% of all India’s industrial jobs are Location mills area has been redeveloped. The housing located here is Largest city in India (emerging country) located in Mumbai in a wide range Site: Number of islands next to a safe harbour. Low lying. Tropical climate extremely expensive due to its proximity to the CBD. Retail of different industries. (incl. monsoon) developments such as shopping malls are also found here. The port • 40% of India’s exports come from Situation: Surrounded by mangrove swamps. Small fishing villages created. Good access to the port and industry could thrive in the is still very economically active, as thousands of people work here Mumbai and is India’s top location naturally deep harbour. Links to coastal oil transportation. and live in slum housing. for FDI. Connectivity: Naturally deep harbour. Good access for container ships. 4. Inner suburbs– This area was developed to house workers in the • Mumbai has India’s busiest Good location for trade with Europe as its on the west coast of India international airport and India’s 2 (Suez Canal accessible). Good air connections. old textile mill area. Most of this area is now characterised by largest stock exchanges. Regional: Good railways connecting the outskirts of Mumbai to the squatter settlements and slums such as , Asia’s largest centre. • There are 10 universities and many National: Good road and rail network connects Mumbai to the port and slum. research centres specialising in IT rest of the country. Global importance: Historically, Mumbai exported cotton. Strong and engineering. economy, creative industries. Mumbai generates more than 1/6 of India’s GDP. CASE STUDY—Mumbai is rapidly growing Key Terms (Reasons for population growth and how it has affected the pattern of spatial growth and changing urban functions and land use) Population density Natural increase Mumbai’s population has increased by more than 12 times in the last 100 years. After 1970 most of the growth was not in the old island city of Push and pull factors Mumbai as this was already too congested. Instead the suburbs grew the most. Population density for the city it is 20,962 people per Km² (one of Economic growth the highest in the world). This makes living space very expensive and the city very congested. This means people and businesses try to relocate to less congested areas. They generally move along railways and road networks. Some rural-urban migrants have almost nothing, they can’t afford Push factors Pull factors to travel to work or afford rent. This leads to the development of slums, here the population density is very high, however the slums are close places where people can work and accommodation is cheap. Generally, slums are located next to expensive accommodation. • Difficult rural • Huge range of Megacity growth in an emerging country such as India is due to two main factors: conditions jobs • Few services in • Education • National/ international migration - The boom in Mumbai’s population growth from the 1970s onwards was fuelled by migration (mostly rural India opportunities rural– urban migration) from the region and around Mumbai. • Lack of education • Range of • Rates of natural increase - From 2001-2011 the population increased by 3.4 million in the conurbation as a whole, around half of this and healthcare healthcare increase was due to migration into Mumbai and half due to natural increase. In the old city centre, natural increase added 750,000 to the • New farming options techniques • Wages are much population, however 250,000 moved out during this time. The suburban district population increased by over 1 million people, mostly due meaning fewer higher to internal migration. jobs

Mumbai’s population growth creates opportunities and challenges Opportunities Challenges • The rise of the service sector— Jobs in manufacturing such as cotton manufacturing • Rapid expansion—Population growth has occurred faster than services can develop. This has created challenges such as reliable and car production is what encouraged rural-urban migration throughout the 20th electricity supplies and adequate water supplies. As well as this it has created huge pollution issues as the government struggles to century. organise waste disposal. There are an estimated 800 million tonnes of untreated sewage in the river. • By the 1980s these industries declined and Mumbai’s economy switched to the • Traffic congestion— There are over 1.8 million cars in Mumbai due to a rapid rise in private cars. Roads are often gridlocked. 90% service sector. Finance and IT services employed the most Mumbaikars. Foreign locals travel by rail rather than car; however, this has strained the railways (8 million travel on the suburban lines each day). direct investment due to globalisation meant that IT and finance industries brought • Housing—Finding affordable housing is extremely hard due to limited space. As the city spreads so does the population and density. in more international migrants to live and work in Mumbai. Other service sector There are 2 main types of housing in Mumbai. One type is Chawls (old tenement buildings over 100 years old) They are very industries developed as well such as taxi driver services, cleaners, hairdressers, overcrowded and aren’t maintained. The second type is Squatter settlements; this is when people put up market huts on land owned mechanics, waiters and street vendors. The main opportunity brought by urban by other people or the government. The poorest people live on the streets, under bridges and on sidewalks. Sometimes it is growth is employment, especially for those living in rural regions. Even if the living temporary but for others it’s a way of life. Some business owners try and charge people for sleeping on their pavement. Over 20,000 standards are poor, the opportunities for work are so high it encourages many to live this way. move. • Living with slums—People live in slum conditions as they can get to work easily and rent is cheaper. However as squatter settlements • Dharavi industries—Dharavi is located between two major railway lines. It has a are not official government or council locations the government doesn't have to provide them with infrastructure or services. This population of 1 million people in 1.5km²and is home to 5000 small-scale businesses provides many problems such as: lack of adequate water (generally there are stand pipes which only give out water from 5.30am to and 15,000 single-room factories. These businesses provide £350 million per year. 7.30am), sanitation issues (there are no sewage systems so people defecate in the streets, streams and rivers that run through the This is a result of poor people creating their own opportunities as they cannot afford settlement. When there is a latrine more than 500 people could share the same toilet at a price). Another issue with a lack of fresh Mumbai rent outside the slums. clean water is that families have to clean in the rivers and streams they pollute. A big issue for Mumbaikars is the value of the land as • Infrastructure benefits—Even when people live in slums like Dharavi, megacities the government and businesses have started clearing squatter settlements for property developments and new businesses. The provide many services and resources that cannot be found in rural regions. Such as government wants to provide better services, infrastructure and facilities for locals and businesses. However, when the homes are electricity, schools and hospitals. 6million people live in slums in Mumbai (40% of the cleared families are made homeless. population). More than 1 million Mumbaikars earn less than £10 a month. However, • Working conditions– Most employment is in the informal sector, this means there is no protection for workers. The working media companies realise they can still earn profits from poorer people by charging conditions are generally very poor with limited light, workspace, breaks, ventilation. Toxic fumes can fill factories; work can be them £1-2 a month for TV access. dangerous for little pay. Quality of life (QOL)—is measured according to different factors such as wages, how people feel, services. There is no Mumbai differences in QOL— Approximately 40% of Mumbai’s population live in squatter settlements, 20% live in Chawls, 10% on standard way to measure quality of life which can make it difficult to compare cities and countries quality of life. QOL in the streets and 30% or less who live in apartment buildings, flats or bungalows. Over 60% of the population work in the informal megacities is generally measured according to: level of air and water pollution, transport congestion rates, access to sector, meaning they can only afford to live in Chawls or squatter settlements. Generally, the slums are located next to areas with healthcare and education, crime levels, access to affordable housing, sanitation, quality of government services and good QOL. income. Reasons for differences in QOL—The main reason is due to rapid expansion. Other reasons are that to improve access to affordable QOL in Mumbai— Although this city is globally important it lacks a good QOL. Other emerging Asian countries have much housing, more houses will need to be built, however more money can be made by building expensive apartments. A second reason better QOL in terms of housing, pollution, healthcare and sanitation. Given Mumbai’s great wealth and FDI its quality of is to improve working conditions in the informal economy new laws and regulations will need to be put into place. Thirdly to life makes it a difficult place to live and work. There are 3 main problems for Mumbai. Problem 1 is the government is improve access to services, the city government would need to incentivise more companies to provide services in poorer areas. inefficient and bureaucratic which means it takes a long time for infrastructure improvements to be approved. Problem 2 Political and economic challenges of managing Mumbai—To improve QOL difficult economic and political decisions have to be is most of Mumbai’s properties are rent-controlled, meaning there is a limit to how high rents can be. This discourages made such as whether to clear slums for development, traffic congestion is a huge issue, however it is too expensive to improve and property owners from improving their residencies and redeveloping. The 3rd problem is corruption. The areas that were the government gets no taxes from the informal sector, which the government could use to improve QOL however it would be hard meant to be redeveloped into affordable housing such as the old textile mills were sold to property developers who built to change as locals would feel they are losing money. expensive apartments that only the rich can afford. CASE STUDY—Quality of life can be improved through What are sustainable cities? different strategies A city that provides a good quality of life for all its residents without using up resources in a way which would mean future generations would have a lower quality (Sustainable, Bottom-up, Top-down) of life. In a sustainable city there would be good public transport systems to reduce congestion and improve air quality, waste would be recycled, the residents would be energy efficient so less pollution is made. Everyone would have access to good services such as healthcare and education as well as affordable housing.

Top down strategies to improve quality of life Bottom-up strategies to improve quality of life These are big, expensive infrastructure projects generally developed and managed by governments. There would be multi-billion Organisations work with local residents to create community based projects to improve the quality of life for residents. dollar funds city governments can access to pay for the projects. They are known as top down as they are generally imposed on the Most of the organisations are non-governmental (NGOs). people by the government.

The Mumbai The Gorai Garbage Site Closure Project SPARC and community toilet blocks Hamara foundation Agora Microfinance India

The government decided in 2005 that a mono-rail would be From 1972-2007 over 1200 tonnes of Mumbai’s solid waste was Government toilet blocks that were There is over 200,000 street Squatter settlement residents a good solution to traffic congestion. deposited at the Gorai landfill site every day. It was a 20-hectare provided charged individuals for each use, children in Mumbai that have usually struggle to have a bank Advantages site in the north of the peninsula which is close to residential areas. meaning they were too expensive for most dropped out of school. Police account or get loans as they • Reduces the amount of traffic on the roads making families. The design of the toilets was also force them to move from any don’t earn enough money. them safer By 2007 the waste was 27m deep and emitting methane. Toxic very poor, without running water and no shelters they have created as Microfinance is a banking service • Constructed over built up areas without having to runoff was leaching into the nearby lake and polluting the local employees cleaning them. An Indian NGO some street children steal and that helps provide microfinance clear any roads/land. water supply. called SPARC works with communities to take drugs. The Hamara (small loans—mainly for women) • Carries passengers quickly and easily moves around build new toilet blocks that are connected to foundation creates social-work to slum residents to start the landscape In 2007 the supreme court ruled that it must be improved for city sewers and water supplies. Locals help services for these children to businesses, improve their • Government created a public-private partnership by residents. to construct the toilet block and families help them get an education, homes. There are also education 2008 with foreign engineering companies who from the community can purchase monthly improve their health and give loans available for people who provided their expertise. The government made a plan and implemented it within 2 years. permits for 25 rupees (25p) which is much them job skills. Between 2013- want to take classes. Group • Tickets are cheap (11 rupees per person –10p), cheaper than the government owned. Once 2014 327 children were loans allow people to take a loan Disadvantages: The site was reshaped into a hill, lined with material to prevent they have a permit they can use the toilets supported by the foundation. together. Individuals can get a • Construction began in 2009 with a deadline of 2011 - leaching and planted with grasses to create a 19-hectare park. as much as they want. The toilets have This foundation also provides loan of up to £300 with an only opened in 2014. electric lights making them safer and vocational training for 16-18 interest rate of 25%, paid in • The cost of the 1st section was £310 million. Methane capture technology has also been used to generate separate toilets for children. In 5 years, 800 year olds in computing, weekly instalments. Before a • Number of passengers has been lower than electricity cheaply for local residents. toilet blocks each with 8 toilets have been mechanics and hospitality. The loan is given, a guarantor has to expected - Only 15,000 each day created. Although some argue it should be issue is not many children are agree to pay the company £150 • Mainly used by tourists due to its location away In 2014, the site was awarded a prize for sustainable urban the government’s responsibility to provide being helped. if the loan is not repaid. from the main city. development. It was a very expensive project. toilets not NGOs. Paper 2 Topic 5: GLOBAL DEVELOPMENT 5.1 Definitions of development vary as do attempts to measure it a. Contrasting ways of defining development, using economic criteria and broader social and political measures. b. Different factors contribute to the human development of a country: economic, social, technological, Development is the idea linked to improving the quality of people’s lives. cultural, as well as food and water security. Quality of life includes: 1. Economic – Move from primary to secondary to tertiary employment for the majority of the • Physical i.e. diet, water supply and climate population. This increases the income and GDP for the country. Other factors include; growth rate • Psychological i.e. happiness, security and freedom of the economy, trade surplus/deficit and unemployment rate. • Social i.e. family, education and health 2. Social – Society moves towards a more equal distribution of wealth, with all children attending • Economic i.e. income, job security school and improvements in health care and living conditions. Other factors include; housing quality, Economic Development - A measure of a country's wealth and how it is generated (for example agriculture is considered less economically opportunities for leisure and recreation. advanced than banking). 3. Technological – More machines used by society, both in the work environment on farms but building Social Development - Measures the access the population has to wealth, jobs, education, nutrition, health, leisure and safety. of factories and in domestic situations. Other factors include; internet access, electrification. Political Development - The development of the institutions, attitudes, and values that form the political power system of a society. 4. Cultural – Women’s place in society is moving towards equality with men i.e. the are given the right Economic growth and political stability are deeply interconnected to vote. Other factors include; work-life balance, balance between traditional and imported cultures. 5. Food security – The country moves towards being to produce its own food or have the means to c. How development is measured in different ways: Gross Domestic Product (GDP) per capita, the Human Development Index, measures trade for food. In 2015, 800m people did not have enough food to lead a healthy, active life. The 3 of inequality and indices of political corruption strands of food security are: • Availability – sufficient amounts of food being available on a consistent basis 1. Gross Domestic Product (GDP) – Total value of goods and services produced within a country in a year. It is often broken up by per • Access – having sufficient resources to obtain appropriate foods for a nutritious diet capita (divided by the number of people in the country) to take into account the varying population sizes for countries. USA is ranked • Consumption – making appropriate use based on the knowledge of basic nutrition and care st 1 and Tuvalu is ranked bottom. 6. Water Security – The majority of the population have fresh piped water to their homes. For about 80 2. Human Development Index – Introduced in 1990 and ranges from 0 to 1 (1 = most developed). HDI of Norway is 0.944, compared with countries, 40% of the world’s population, lack access to water. The demand for water is doubling every Niger with 0.348. It includes 4 key measures: 20 years and there are issues with water quality and quantity. • Life expectancy at birth • More than 840,000 people die each year from water-related diseases • Mean years of schools for adults aged 25 years • 750m people lack access to safe water i.e. 1 in 9 people • Expected years of schooling for children of school-entering age • Women and children spend 140m hours a day collecting water. • Gross national income (GNI) per capita (this is similar to GDP but includes overseas income) 3. Gini Coefficient – Measures how equal people are within a country or between countries. A country is given a score between 0 and 1 (1= Reasons for variations in equality across the UK: one person has all the income, 0 = same income for everyone). 1. Relief - The South of the UK is flatter – this means urban areas can be more easily built there. The UK = 0.34, compared with Haiti of 0.60. North and West are more mountainous and therefore it is more difficult to build on and 4. Corruption Perceptions Index – Measures the perceived corruption in governments and the public sector. 100 is the perfect score, with 0 communications / transport routes are more difficult to put in place. th st showing a very corrupt public sector. Somalia is ranked 174 with a score of 8, compared with Denmark ranked 1 with a score of 92. 2. Climate - The South and the East have a better climate with less rainfall. This means more people want to live and work there, meaning more income is generated. Are these effective for measuring development? 3. Natural Resources - The Midlands, North and South Wales were richer in the Industrial Revolution ❑ All measures of development show averages only, so will hid the inequalities within countries i.e. GDP and until the mid-20th century due to coal mining. However, due to a depletion of these resources ❑ Data does not show everything and are not always accurate e.g. GDP does not include the cash economy. and governmental decisions, the coal mines are no longer open. GLOBAL DEVELOPMENT 5.2 The level of development varies globally 4. Position - The South and East are closer to Europe and so there is more communication and trade. It also attracts more companies and businesses to locate there, meaning there are more jobs. a. Global pattern of development and its unevenness between and within countries, including the UK 5. Politics - The Government is based in London, in the South East. This has made this a desirable Inequality between countries location for many businesses who want to be close to where the decisions are made. • The highest GDP per capita is found in N. America, Europe, Australia, New Zealand, Japan, South Korea and Singapore 6. Colonies - In the past the South was more powerful on the global stage as all the decisions made • The lowest GDP per capita is found in Africa and poor Asian countries e.g. Afghanistan and Cambodia about what happened in the colonies (like Kenya and India) were made in London. • The gap between these rich and poor countries is known as the development gap an it is thought to be increasing 7. Infrastructure - The infrastructure in London is the best in the country. All roads lead to the centre Inequality within countries – Named Example: The UK of London and companies who locate there can take advantage of this to trade across the UK and the • Gross disposable household wealth (GDHI) shows the following patterns: world. 1. London has the highest GDHI per person in the UK at £21, 446 – 27.7% above the UK average 8. Foreign Investment - Most foreign investment still goes into London, despite efforts by the 2. Northern Ireland has a GDHI per person of £13,902 – 17.2% below the UK average Government to encourage investment elsewhere (e.g. Honda in Swindon). This means the richest 3. Regional inequality in the UK is the highest in western Europe and is more divided than it was 30 years ago. global firms are most likely to provide jobs in London. GLOBAL DEVELOPMENT 5.2 The level of development varies globally ctd GLOBAL DEVELOPMENT 5.3 A range of strategies has been used to try to address uneven development b. Factors (physical, historic and economic) that have led to spatial variations in the a. Impact of uneven development on the quality of life in different parts of the world: access to housing, health, education, employment, technology, and level of development globally and within the UK. food and water security. Physical Factors 1. Access to housing Climate • People on low incomes have very limited access to adequate housing. • Affects water supply, disease prevalence, drought, flooding • Over 30% of the world’s population live in slums. • Dictates soil quality and what food (if any) can be grown​. If growing food is 2. Health difficult, have to pay for fertilisers or import it which also costs money. • Investment in health is crucial to development. • Certain diseases thrive in hot climates i.e. malaria – these make people weak and • Around 6.6 million children under the age of 5 die each year. unable to work. • About 70% of all HIV/AIDs deaths occur in sub-Saharan Africa – the world’s poorest region Presence of Natural Resources • The World Health Organisation (WHO) says that most could be saved if they had access to inexpensive vaccines, clean water and sanitation. • Governments use these to create wealth by selling the raw material or products 3. Education manufactured from them • More than 775 million people in poor countries cannot read or write. • Provide people with jobs. They pay tax which can be spent on improving living • Those with the least education have the largest families. standards • Large families are also common where child mortality is high. Geographical Location (terrain & position in relation to other countries) 4. Employment • Mountainous areas are hard to reach and can be isolated​ • The opportunities for employment are much more limited in developing countries where large numbers of people work in labour-intensive agriculture and • Countries without a coastline find it hard to trade their good. the informal sector. Natural hazards • Typical jobs are show-shiners, street food stalls, messengers, which are: generally low paid • Tectonic activity, drought, hurricanes are more likely to occur in some countries • Jobs are often temporary and/or part-time in nature; lacking in job security. than others. This diverts income to help recover from these events, rather than 5. Technology being used to develop the country. • Reaching a certain level of technology in a country requires investment in the technology itself and people with the necessary skills to operate it efficiently. Historic Factors • Appropriate technology can be better than more advances alternatives as it is generally: Aftermath of Colonisation ❑ Low in energy consumption and cost – appropriate to the local financial and geographical conditions • Countries given political systems, religion, education – which may not suit them ❑ Within the technical capacity of members of the community to operate and maintain themselves • Colonisers took better jobs, raw materials, set up unfair trading schemes ❑ Able to use locally sourced materials and spare parts that can be purchased and transported easily. Good Governance/Political Stability ❑ Something that involves the local community at all stages of development. • If unstable politically or at war, countries do not use wealth gains to develop 6. Food and water security • Countries looking to invest in other countries will be reluctant to invest in • Poor countries frequently lack the ability to import food, innovate in agriculture or invest in rural development. unstable countries • 805 million people around the world were affected by undernourishment. Economic Factors • Water scarcity has been identified as the underlying factor for many of the world’s environmental problems. Trade • Can create serious conflicts between neighbouring countries that share a drainage basin. • Trading blocs exist – groups of traders (e.g. EU) – these make it hard for countries GLOBAL DEVELOPMENT 5.4 A range of strategies has been used to try to address uneven development outside the group to trade • Fluctuating market prices of products affect wealth a. The range of international strategies (international aid and inter-governmental agreements) that attempt to reduce uneven development. • Countries focusing on selling primary products will make little money as these are International Aid cheap goods. Can be used to : Infrastructure • Pay for imports e.g. machinery and oil which are needed for development • Developed countries have a good infrastructure and therefore companies invest • Support the accumulation of enough capital to invest in industry and infrastructure in them because goods will be produced and more quickly. • Address a shortage of the skills needed for development. Foreign Investment • In 1970, developed countries promised to spend 0.7% of GNP on international aid. In 2013, only 5 countries achieved this. • African is home is 15% of the world’s population and received 5% of the direct Bilateral Aid – aid that is given from one government to another government e.g. USA gave aid to Europe to rebuilt after WW2. Usually given as apart of foreign investment. attached agreements e.g. India loaned money to Bhutan to built a HEP. India provided the engineers and the technology and will get electricity produced at a • Europe is home to 7% of the world’s population and received 45% cheaper rate than local people in return. Aid Multilateral Aid – Developed countries give money to international organisations such as the World Bank or the United Nations. These organisations then • Donations of money have ‘strings attached’ e.g. connected to trading/rates of distribute the money in the form of loans to poorer countries. interest Short-term emergency aid • Many countries have to repay millions of pounds a year as interest on loans​ Long-term development aid GLOBAL DEVELOPMENT 5.4 A range of strategies has been used to try to address uneven development GLOBAL DEVELOPMENT 5.5 The level of development of the chosen developing or emerging country is influenced by its location and context in the world Inter-governmental Agreements a. Location and position of the chosen country in its region and globally. 1. Debt Relief – Many of the world’s poorer countries struggle to make the annual repayments associated with the • In the Northern hemisphere and located in the continent of Asia loans that they have been granted. In 1996, the IMF and World Bank organised the HIPC (Heavily Indebted Poor • 7th largest country in the world (4.4 million km2) Countries) initiative to reduce the amount owed. It has helped to release some of the countries’ income to be • Southern part of India borders on the Indian Ocean used to improve the lives of their residents. • India shares its boarders with 6 countries including Bangladesh, Nepal and Pakistan • By 2015, debt reduction under the HIPC had been approved for 36 countries providing $76 billion in debt relief. • Has 2 islands groups: The Andaman and Nicobar islands and Lakshadweep Islands 2. Trade – Trade agreements such as removing trade barriers can reduce uneven development by helping b. Broad political, social, cultural and environmental context of the chosen country in its region and globally. developing countries to increase trade e.g. opening trade between EU and China. 3. Fair Trade – Producers work together to deal directly with retailers in developed countries, receiving fairer Political Context conditions and better prices for their goods. × Makes up less than 1% of total world trade Global Regional 4. Foreign Direct Investment – This is when a country invests in a company in a different country, and has some • Member of World Trade organisation, the • Largest country in the Indian Subcontinent control over what that company does. Commonwealth and the UN • Most of India’s population live in six states including • Brings in investment • Second most populated country in the world – 1.3 Madhya Pradesh, West Bengal and Andhra Pradesh • Brings in big brands – widens consumer markets billion people in 2015 • Over 20% of the population live in poverty • Foreign companies may be able to pay more = pushes up wages • Seventh largest country in terms of area × Big brands can outsell local products • Medium level of development – HDI – 0.61 × FDI not always reliable – investors can pull out × Lack of regulation can have negative impacts i.e. environmental pollution and industrial accidents. Social Context Difference between top-down (government or transnational corporation (TNC) led) and bottom-up development projects (community led). • Over 20 million Indian diaspora (scattered groups) are • Population is divided over 29 states – Rajastan = largest Their advantages and limitations in the promotion of development located in around 100 countries and Goa = smallest Top-down development • India’s globally –spread population generates income • Social ranks known as ‘castes’, assigned at birth, divide • Happens through governments and TNCs for its economy with money sent back $72 bill in India’s society. At the bottom are the ‘untouchables’ • Large-scale projects that aim at national level or regional-level 2015(remittances) and do menial jobs. • Very expensive projects, often funded by international banks • Adult literacy is less than 70% • Sophisticated technology that needs exerts to maintain and install. Example: 3 Gorges Dam, China Cultural Context • Supplies 22,500 mw to large cities • India has the 3rd largest Muslim population in the • Over 80% of India’s population at Hindu • Improved trade – allows container ships access world • Other religions include Islam, Sikhism and Buddhism • Controls flooding = improved agricultural • India’s film industry ‘Bollywood’, makes 1600 films a × 1.4 mill people moved from their homes year , seen by 2.7 bill × Costs $22 billion • Was a British Colony until 1947 × Led to extinction of the Yangtze river dolphin Bottom-up development • Happens through actions of NGOs working with communities Environmental Context • Local-scale projects that aim to benefit a village • Very cheap and usually funded by the community • Climate varies from tropical in the south • Experiences two monsoon seasons • Appropriate technology – can be maintained by locals • Temperate and alpine in the north • North-east monsoon occurs during cooler months Example: Micro-hydro dams • Hosts 3 biodiverse hotspots; western Ghats, Himalayas • South-west monsoon during the warmer months • Practical Aid provides small scale dams to provide energy and the Indo-Burma region • Generate 500kw of energy • Provides energy and jobs • Cuts down the need for fuelwood GLOBAL DEVELOPMENT 5.5 The level of development of the chosen developing or emerging GLOBAL DEVELOPMENT 5.6 The interactions of economic, social and demographic processes influence the development of the chosen country is influenced by its location and context in the world developing or emerging country a. Positive and negative impacts of changes that have occurred in the sectors (primary, secondary, tertiary and quaternary) of the chosen c. Unevenness of development within the chosen country (core and periphery) and reasons why country’s economy. development does not take place at the same rate across all regions Key Changes to economic sectors: • Rising inequality is an important issue in India. For example, the average (mean) GDP per 1. Large reduction in the contribution of agriculture from 37.2% to 14.5% of total GDP → rural-urban migration in search of work and breakdown capita is $1627. of traditional family units. • Bihar has the lowest ranking with $682 and Goa the highest with $4903 2. Rapid increase in contribution of services from 45.8% to 67.1% → rising air pollution, increased population density in cities and widening • The most advanced stated are a group of 4 states and territories in the N-W – Chandigarh, development gap between urban and rural areas. Delhi, Haryana and the Punjab and a line of states in the west and south – Gujarat, 3. Small increase in contribution of manufacturing from 16.9% to 18.4% → Increased employment opportunities and growth of GDP , Goa, Kerala. These two regions are the economic core regions. 4. Rise in quaternary sector from 0% to 6.1% (included in services %) → Increased investment by TNCs and over 1 million new ICT jobs created. • The Periphery is found in the northern and eastern states mainly due to difficult physical • India has focused on the service sector to fuel its economic growth, particularly software and ICT services - $100 bill in 2014/15. environments e.g. Rajasthan (far west, desert), Uttar Pradesh (north, mountainous) and • Global leader in outsourcing due to low-cost labour used to provide ICT services to developed countries. Madhya Pradesh (center, arid plateau) • Tourism sector rapidly growing with 22 million tourists in 2014. • In response, GDP grew slowly in 1950s, with more rapid growth in the 1990s. The economy has grown at a rate of 7%/yr. for the past 20 years. b. Characteristics of international trade and aid and the chosen country’s involvement in both international trade and aid Trade Maharashtra – Core Bihar - Periphery • Until 1990s India was relatively closed off to trade due to high tariffs on imports. • India reduced the barriers to trade to become more integrated into the global economy = large increases in exports and imports. • Contains Mumbai which is the • Population over 100 million = most • 2014 India was ranked 19th for exporting merchandise financial capita of India densely populated state (1106km2) • Ranked 8th for exporting commercial services Mumbai • High fertility rate = 25% growth • Key exports = oil products, gems and jewelry • Accounts for 7% of India’s GDP and between 2001 -2011 = large • Key imports = crude oil, gold, silver and electrical goods 25% of industrial output dependant population • Total trade has increased three-fold from 2006 to 2012. • Hosts the and • 80% of the population is rural and Aid the two largest stock exchanges work in agriculture • Historically India received large amounts of foreign aid. Shown between 2004-2012 India received more aid than given out. • Centre of India’s textile industry but • Limited FDI so mostly state • Aid has declined as the country has developed. diversified into chemicals, ICT, employment • India now sends aid to other countries e.g. Maldives, Nepal, Afghanistan. publishing. • Literacy rate = 63% • 2014/15 India’s foreign aid accounted for $1.3 billion • 40% of households live in slums • HDI score = 0.53 Changing balance between public investment (by government) and private investment (by TNCs and smaller businesses) for the chosen country. • Relatively low unemployment rates – Reasons: Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) 21 per 1000 1. Economy undeveloped during • The Indian government is keen to encourage FDI into developing the country’s infrastructure. • Literacy rate = 83% colonial times • FDI rose from $17,800 m in 2005/7 to $34,400m in 2014 • HDI score = 0.66 2. Poor governance since independence • 2014/15 main investors were based in Mauritius and Singapore 3. Poor development of infrastructure • FDI is dominated by large investments from TNCs i.e. power and irrigation Public Investment 4. Lack of investment in education and • Public investment in education, health and housing. India’s well-educated workforce is important to its ICT sector. health • India has been privatising public companies (selling off public companies) attracting more FDI. 5. Lack of FDI • Public sector still employs many people but since the 1990s there has been a reduced divide between the public and private sectors GLOBAL DEVELOPMENT 5.6 The interactions of economic, social and demographic processes influence the b. How technology and connectivity support development in different parts of the chosen country and for different groups of development of the chosen developing or emerging country people. There is still a digital divide , in 2013 61 million broadband connections, but 54% were in just 5 core states d. Changes in population structure and life expectancy that have occurred in the last 30 years in the chosen country 1985 2015 What is it? Benefits? How does it support Population size 782 million 1.3 billion development? Biometric identity Allocates a unique number • Helps to tackle fraud • Can raise more taxes Life expectancy 54 years 68 years (all) to every Indian • Crack down on drivers • Register voters Fertility rate 5.2 children 2.3 children using false licenses

Infant mortality rate 135/100 42/1000 Swasthya Slate Mobile platform allowing • Results received in • Improves health of the (all – particularly for rural people to perform health minutes nation = improved isolated people) tests on themselves • Reduces time required economic growth • Large increase in economically active population = improved economic growth for registering patients • Proportion of population under 15 have declined • Gives medical • Proportion of the population of 65+ have increased recommendations • By 2030, India will be demographically ageing Smartphones to educate SmartAgri – communicates • Benefit 500m small • These 500m farmers farmers with underground sensors farmers provide over 50% of e. Changing social factors (increased inequality, growing middle (primary producers) to provide data on soil • Provides crop price the world’s food supply class and improved education) in the chosen country moisture, mineral levels updates • Improve productivity = Improved education • Connects buyers and healthly labourers • 1991 the overall literacy percentage in India is 52.11 as compared to 43.56 ten years ago. sellers • The male literacy 63.86% while the female literacy 39.42% • it is free and compulsory for all children between 6 and 14. India has more than 1.4 million schools GLOBAL DEVELOPMENT 5.7 There are positive and negative impacts of rapid development for the people and environment of the Age at Marriage chosen developing or emerging country • In 1994, the mean age for marriage was estimated to be 23.1 years compared to 17 in 1981. Therefore the mean age of marriage has been continuously increasing​ a. Positive and negative social, economic and environmental impacts of rapid development for the chosen country and its Traditional culture​ people. • Poor parents produce children because they need them - 35 million child workers in India. • Families produce many children for sons to combat one’s family’s growing needs, the parents are forced to India has 2.4% of the world’s land area but 18% of the world’s population keep them out of school to supplement their household income. Social Food ✓ Better access to healthcare = reduced infant mortality rates (135/1000 in 1970s to 42/1000 in 2015) • Food safety practices in agriculture/ improved agricultural practices have lead to fewer famines, allowing ✓ Better jobs and income = reduced poverty farmers to sustain much larger numbers of people. ✓ Improved community spirit from newly formed groups • Machinery reduces manpower needed to farm while improved fertilizers and pesticides increase crop yields × Pollution in cities = poor health. Contains 13 out of 20 of the most polluted cities. Air pollution reduces life expectancy by 3.2 and reduce crops lost to pests.​ years in cities. Health Care × Lack of housing = slums and shanty towns (40% of households in Mumbai live in slums) • Advances in health care technology and medicine allow fewer individuals to die from injuries and illnesses. × Men/young people benefit most – women/older people left behind Standard of Living and Fertility • As the standard of living increases, better medical care leads to lower infant mortality rates and fertility Economic medications increase a woman’s chance for pregnancy. ✓ Rise in consumerism = strong economy Inequality ✓ Increase in tourism = jobs and state income • Low status of women in Indian society is hindering their development. Seen in tribal populations and low ✓ Larger workforce castes × Cost of dealing with environmental and social problems • Older people also don’t benefit as much as they haven’t benefited from recent improvements in education × Cost of installing new infrastructure and health = likely to stay in rural areas × Pressure and cost to provide more services • Some religious discrimination in poorer, rural areas GLOBAL DEVELOPMENT 5.8 There are positive and negative impacts of rapid development for the people Exam practice and environment of the chosen developing or emerging country Environmental 1. Explain one way of measuring economic inequalities within a country (2) ✓ Potential to invest in technologies = renewable energy 2. Define the term ‘GDP per capita’ (1) × Logging and land clearance – deforestation 3. Define the term development (1) rd 4. State one factor that contributes to increasing human development of a country (1) × Increased C02 emissions = climate change. India is the 3 largest emitted of C02 (5.8%) due to 5. Define the term water security (1) heavy reliance on coal (4/5ths of electricity produced this way). There are still 400m people 6. Explain one reason why food security contributes to the human development of a country (2) without electricity. 7. Suggest how indices of political corruption might be used to measure development (2) × More chemicals used in industry/agriculture = water pollution. Less than 1/3rd of sewage in 8. Explain how measures of inequality can be used as a measure of development (4) urban areas is treated before flowing into rivers. The Ganges ranks as one of the world’s 9. Suggest one of the consequences of uneven development (3) most polluted rivers. 10. Describe one impact that uneven global development has on education (2) 11. Define the term quality of life (1) × Desertification and deforestation = lower biodiversity. Around 68% of India is prone to 12. Suggest why uneven development has an impact on people’s health (2) drought, with the largest areas affected by desertification being Rajasthan and Maharashtra. 13. Explain why uneven development has an impact on (i) food and (ii) water security (4) b. How the chosen country’s government and people are managing the impacts of its rapid 14. Explain what is meant by the term international aid (2) development to improve quality of life and its global status. 15. Explain two ways international aid can help development (4) 16. Define the term bilateral aid (1) Improving quality of life 17. Explain how top-down development projects help to promote development (4) 18. Explain how debt relief can be used as a strategy to reduce uneven global dev (3) • Smart Cities Mission – Looks to improve equality and quality of life running from 2015 to 19. Describe two ways in which the scale of global inequality can be reduced (4) 2020. 20. Describe the cultural context of an emerging or developing country (2) • Covers 100 cities and focuses on 21. Explain the impacts of two economic changes in a named developing or emerging country (4) - Improved sanitation 22. Describe the geographical location of an emerging or developing country you have studied (4) - Health and education 23. Describe one environmental context of a developing or emerging country (2) - Efficient public transport 24. Explain the political context of your chosen developing or emerging country (4) 25. Explain how changing social factors are having an impact on a developing or emerging country (4) - Adequate water supply 26. Explain why the population structure of an emerging or developing country you have studied has changed (4) 27. Explain why life expectancy in a named developing or emerging country has changed over the last 30 years (4) Developing renewable energy sources 28. Suggest the impacts of (a) a growing middle class and (b) improved education on a developing or emerging country (4) - The Intended Nationally Determined Contribution (INDC) focuses on clean energy such as 29. Explain how technology has supported development in different parts of a named developing or emerging country (4) solar polar (40% by 2030) 30. Explain the meaning of the term geopolitics (2) - Plant more forests to absorb carbon emissions (2.5 to 3 billion tonnes of C02 stored by 2030) 31. Suggest how development of a developing or emerging country is affected by geopolitics (4) 32. Explain how improving connectivity can support development in different parts of a named developing or emerging country (4) - Invest in development programmes in areas vulnerable to climate change e.g. water 33. You have studied a named developing or emerging country. Explain how the government is managing the impacts of rapid resources, coastal regions development in order to improve its global status (3) 34. Explain how one impact of rapid development is being managed to improve the quality of life in a developing or emerging Improving global status country (4) • Member of G20 and is one of the BRICs nations 35. Explain two negative environmental impacts of rapid development for a developing or emerging country (4) • Pushing for a permeant seat in the United Nations Security Council 36. State one positive economic impact of rapid development (1) 37. Assess how a developing or emerging country’s government and people are managing the impacts of rapid developing in order • Pushing to be a bigger influence in big organisations such as The World Bank and the World to improve quality of life (8) Trade Organisation. Deforestation in Cameroon Oil extraction in Ecuador Overfishing in the North Sea Paper 2: Topic 6A Resource Management Location: West Africa 5°-10° N of the Equator Location: North west of South America along the Equator Location: North/North East of the UK In 2011, total world population reached 7 billion. By 2100 it is expected to peak at Reason why the resource is being extracted: Reason why the resource is being extracted: Reason why the resource is being extracted: 11.2 billion. There is growing concern Palm oil is grown where the forest used to be. The reason Oil is abundant beneath the Amazon rainforest and is Food for the UK and Europe – mainly cod. about the ability of Earth’s natural is because palm oil is very profitable and can be used in extracted by locals and oil companies for profits. resources to support this great increase in cosmetics and foods. numbers of people. Continued global Impact on the environment: Impact on the environment/people: Impact on the environment: population growth increases the need for • Loss of biodiversity, the rainforest contains thousands One of the most biodiverse places in the world is at threat. Unsustainable fishing has resulted in overfishing and a careful management of Earth’s natural of species of plant and animal. Cracks in the pipes lines lead to spills and waste pits to fill decline in the population of cod. This decline in numbers resources in order to sustain human life. • Deforestation also exposes the land to soil erosion. The with toxic sludge. This flows into rivers causing widespread would also affect other animal and plant life. soils will quickly lose nutrients and become unable to pollution. Abiotic resources (non living) – obtained support plants/crops. It means food cannot be grown The water will also be used by tribes and leave them from the lithosphere, atmosphere and there in future. The soil can also pollute the waters. unable to wash, cook and drink. hydrosphere – e.g. soil, sunlight and water. Biotic resources (living) – obtained from Global distribution of resources Natural resources in the UK the biosphere and are capable of Resources can have an economic influence on the country they are • Resources such as iron and coal helped fuel the industrial revolution, leading to the UK’s rapid reproduction – e.g. animals, plants and located in: development. fungi. • Gold and diamonds are found in volcanic areas – economic boost for • 75% of the UK is farmland. Non-renewable resources – cannot be the country • Pastural farming (grazing animals) is most common the uplands in the NW ‘remade’ and take millions of years to form • Iron is found in countries that are key global producers – e.g. China, • Arable (crops) is most common the warmer, flatter SE. – e.g. coal, oil, natural gas and uranium. Brazil and India. • Water is plentiful in the NW due to higher levels of rainfall in the uplands Renewable resources – can be reused and • Oil – main oil reserves found in the Middle East e.g. Saudi Arabi and • The SE suffers from water stress due to lower rainfall and higher population density – e.g. produced over a much shorter time – e.g. Iran. London. wind, solar and hydroelectric power. Wind energy is one of the fastest growing renewable resources. China is the leading Coal is an important world energy resource that is relatively cheap to produce. Consumption of resources producer of wind energy. In recent years, there have been considerable development in the In 2014, there was a 4% rise in consumption of coal but a 7% decline in • On average, someone who lives in North America efficiency and reliability of wind turbines, making them more efficient, powerful and cheaper. production. consumes 90kg of resources, whereas someone Advantages and disadvantages of using wind energy Advantages and disadvantages of burning coal living in Africa consumes only around 10kg per day. Advantages Disadvantages Advantages Disadvantages • Rapid population growth, increased economic It is one of the lowest priced renewable .Many people feel that wind turbines spoil Coal is used in power stations in many Open-cast mining of coal can have development and standards of living in China, energy sources for the consumer their view of the landscape countries around the world. It is an significant impacts on the India and Brazil have increased global resource efficient resource for generating large surrounding environment and consumption It is a clean fuel and does not emit Energy is only produced when it is amounts of electricity. wildlife habitats. • Distribution of food is highly uneven - Developed greenhouse gases. sufficiently windy to turn the turbine blades. countries (e.g. USA) consume much more Wind farms can be built on agricultural land, It is not possible to store the power There are still large quantities of coal Burning coal releases harmful calories than developing countries (e.g. Ghana) available in 70 countries worldwide. greenhouse gases into the • Water consumption depends on access – providing a source of income for the people produced for use on calmed days. who own the land. World coal supplies should last for atmosphere, causing air pollution. rainforests and mountain regions have a water another 200 years.. surplus (plenty of water) and places including New technology means turbines are more Offshore wind farms are far from where the North Africa (desert) have a water deficit (not efficient and make less noise. resource is needed, requiring expensive Mining is technically relatively easy and Mining of coal is dangerous and enough water). transmission lines. cheap. has caused many deaths Energy mix at different levels of development – located examples Reasons for differences in energy consumption

Description of energy consumption Impact of population on consumption Impact of income and wealth on consumption Impact of availability of energy supplies

Iceland Imports oil Only a small population 320,000 so easier Government and people can afford high cost of No fossil fuels so imports oil. Also because it is a Geothermal to manage resources. developing renewables. tectonically active area it has geothermal and HEP. HEP India Over 50% coal 1.2 billion people a high demand, so Low incomes and government capital reserves so Huge coal fields and 5.6 billion barrels of oil. Oil require cheap and available energy which cheapest forms of energy are used. Gas is non renewable. Some renewables and nuclear UK and global energy mix How is increased demand for energy being met?

Wind energy – The London Array wind farm Located off the South East coast of the UK, it is the world’s largest wind farm (172 turbines). Impacts on people Impacts on the environment The UK’s energy mix (Figure 2) – 60% of the UK’s total energy mix is from non-renewable resources. The turbines can lead to temperature changes in the air Turbines can produce noise – the older ones more than However, there is a decrease in the use of fossil around them – warming at night and cooling during the the newer ones, which are around 40 decibels (like a fuels compared to previous years. Alongside this, day time. light wind). the UK’s use of renewable energy is increasing. The London Array will have a generating capacity of It is predicted that the London Array wind farm will 630 MW of electricity, enough to power 470,000 save 925,000 tonnes of CO2 a year. homes. Although wind energy doesn’t create any CO2, some is The turbines can cause on average 4 bird deaths a year. still created during construction of the farms. This is still far less than the environmental impacts of coal, oil and gas.

Hydroelectric power (HEP) – Itaipu hydroelectric power plant in Brazil and Paraguay The HEP provides Paraguay with 90% of its electricity and Brazil 18%. This has made them a lot less reliant on non- renewables and just like wind they create no CO2 apart from in construction. Global variations in energy mix (figure 4) – Impacts on people Impacts on the environment dominated by non-renewable resources (more than 80%). This is predicted to slowly Families were forced to leave their homes and relocate The construction of the dam has destroyed a large area decline in the coming years due to the to make way for the new dam of forest on the Paraguayan side of the river. growing concern for the future of our planet. The production of HEP means people from the two HEP is a reliable, clean source of energy which countries are less reliant on non-renewable energy contributes to the energy needs of Brazil’s heavy resources. industries, reducing carbon emissions. Development of non renewable energy sources

Oil reserves – the Athabasca tar sands, Canada There is an estimated 180 billion barrels of bitumen here, which is refined into petroleum. This was economically viable for years, however due to the rising cost of oil and the development of new extraction technology has resulted in the commercial exploitation of these resources. Impacts on people Impacts on the environment Broken pipelines and leaks cause spillages. These are extremely difficult to clean up, leaving humans exposed to Large volumes of water are needed to extract the bitumen from the sands. As much as six barrels of water are harmful chemicals. needed for each barrel of oil produced. Extracting the resources and other jobs linked to the production process provide employment for 514000 people Most tar sand extraction is carried out by surface mining, which means vegetation has to be cleared and surface across Canada. This is expected to increase to 800,000 jobs by 2028. soil and rock removed over a large area, meaning a loss of local habitus. The energy required to separate the oil from the sand is provided by natural gas-enough to that 3 million Canadian The refining of bitumen releases 5-15% more CO2 into the air than does the refining of crude oil, there by homes. increasing greenhouse gas emissions

Natural gas – Fracking The process of fracking involves drilling down into shale rock deposits, then injecting water, sand and chemicals into the rock at high pressure, which frees natural shale gas from the rocks.

Impacts on people Impacts on the environment Fracking has made fuel prices in the USA much cheaper for consumers because the USA has large shale Producing and using natural gas releases approximately half the carbon emissions of coal, so it is better for deposits and so the country does not need to import energy from other countries. the environment to replace the coal-fired power stations with gas-fired ones. There is evidence that fracking can be linked with subsidence of homes, as rocks are disturbed deep The chemicals used to release the shale gas may leak into the contaminate groundwater supplies. This could underground. Fracking has also resulted in gas entering people’s homes – flammable gas coming through the damage ecosystems that rely o the groundwater (and could affect humans who use the water, too). taps, for example! Why do we need to protect our energy resources?

It is estimated that from 2013 to 2035 the global demand for energy will increase by 37%, driven Organisations – large companies such as McDonalds have begun to be more energy efficient. Methods include: mainly by rapid population growth in emerging and developing economies. If fossil fuels continue to • LED lighting instead of neon and filament bulb lighting – saves US$11 million in energy costs be used as the same rate, there could be catastrophic impacts on the climate. Therefore, it is • Reusing cooking oil from their restaurants as biodiesel in their delivery lorries essential that renewable energy is used more and there is less energy waste from everyone, • Installing half a million energy-efficient kitchen appliances – saves 500 GW of energy including individuals, organisations and governments. Governments have pledged to limit global temperature rise to below 2°C at the United Nations summit in Paris in Individuals can track the impact of their personal energy use by measuring their carbon footprint – 2015. Developed countries agreed to fund £100 billion to help developing countries convert to renewable energy. For this looks at their day to day energy use – e.g. using electricity and transport. the UK, this involves: • Domestic heating - 15% of an individual’s carbon footprint. Heat loss is reduced by installing • Limiting the amount of greenhouse gases the UK is allowed to emit. cavity-wall insulation, loft insulation and double glazing for windows. • Investing in low-carbon energy technologies and using a larger percentage of renewable energy so that it • Electricity – 12% of an individuals carbon footprint. Most of this electricity comes from fossil produces 80% less carbon in 2050 than 1990. fuel power stations. This can be reduced by installing solar panels on roofs. • Reducing the demand for energy with smart meters and other energy-efficient measures for industries, • Transport – 10% of an individual’s carbon footprint. This can be reduced by using public businesses and individuals. transport, riding a bike or car-pooling (sharing a car with others). • Public reporting of carbon emissions to allow people to assess their impact on climate change Case studies – Sustainable energy management in an emerging and a developed country Case Study – China, and emerging country Case Study – Germany, and developed country Issues Strategies Impacts Issues Strategies Impacts • Largest producer of CO2 • Government implemented the China ❖ $30 billion – although will pay for itself • Becoming too reliant Solar power – Bavaria ❖ Aims to reduces CO2 • 2014 29% of global carbon emissions Renewable Energy Law – by 2020 to within 10 years. on nuclear and fearful Solarpark emissions by more • 1% of all urban areas considered safe reduce dependency on coal ❖ 1.4 million people relocated of Japan’s Fukushima ❖ 26 hectares of solar than 100,000 tonnes breathing air ❖ 632 km2 of habitat flooded – although disaster in 2012 panels and encourage over the next 30 years • 7/10 most polluted cities HEP – The Three Gorges Dam prevented floods • Wants to reduce locals and businesses ❖ 215 million kWh of ❖ Worlds biggest producer of HEP ❖ Silt build up prevents nutrients flowing carbon emissions to use them clean power over 20 ❖ 98.8 billion kWh downstream bad for farmers years ❖ Preventing 100 million tonnes C02 ➢ Desert habitats destroyed Solar power – Gobi Desert ➢ Reduced C02 emissions Wind power ➢ Becoming one of the leaders of solar ➢ Replacing old turbines ➢ 6500 MW of 2020 energy and installing new off- ➢ Changing mentalities ➢ Power 1 million homes shore farms of the people into ➢ 10 m2 covering using renewable energies

Is this Sustainable? Germany is becoming more Is this Sustainable? The Three Gorges Dam has massively reduced the coal dependency of China sustainable and foreseeing future issues with and prevented flooding. However, 1.4 million people were displaced and 632 km2 of habitat was nuclear energy. The changing of attitudes the flooded. It is not a totally sustainable project because of the vast scale it was built on. population has been a success and will help Germany remain sustainable in the future.

Exam practice

1. Describe the differences between abiotic and biotic resources (3) 2. Describe the location of the areas with serious water stress in the UK (2) 3. Explain why these areas of the UK experience serious water stress (3) 4. Explain how using coal for energy has positive and negative effects on people and the environment (4) 5. Explain why energy consumption per person has increased in the last 100 years (4) 6. Describe the impacts of continued production and development of wind energy on people and the environment (3) 7. Assess the positive and negative environmental impacts of developing shale gas in the UK (8) 8. Explain why sustainable energy resource management is important 9. Assess the importance of renewable sources of energy for countries at different levels of development (8+4 SPAG) 10. Suggest how the development of a renewable energy resource can have both advantages and disadvantages (4) 11. For a non-renewable energy resource that you have studied, describe the effects of this resources on people and the environment (3)