Chapter 2 Chapter 2 Representative Groups

In the United States, there is a very large pies. This report is not intended to rank these number of groups and individuals preserving groups above others but to display the range biological diversity at the grassroots level, The of activities and contributions of such groups following showcase examples were selected and individuals to the maintenance of biologi- with the realization that numerous groups ex- cal diversity, ist which would provide equally suitable exam-

Synopsis of Groups Highlighted in This Background Paper ——— Page Grassroots group: Major activities number Abundant Life Seed Foundation: Regional seed exchange in the Pacific Northwest ...... , . . ,.. 38 American Cream Draft Horse Association: Registering, [certifying, and promoting a single breed of livestock ...... , , ...... , ...... 44 American Minor Breeds Conservancy: Coordinating conservation activities for rare domestic breeds of livestock ...... , ...... ,., 44 Center for Plant Conservation: Coordinating preservation activities of 18 U.S. botanical gardens and arboreta ...... , ...... , ...... , . . . . 27 Desert Botanical Gardens: Maintaining, researching, and displaying common and rare desert plants . . 26 Desert Fishes Council: Preserving species and habitats of fishes in arid regions of the Southwest . . .,. 16 Desert Tortoise Preserve Committee: Conserving the Desert Tortoise through establishment of a 38-acre tortoise preserve ...... , ...... 12 Florida Audubon Society: Regional society engaged in a broad range of ecosystem and species conservation activities ...... , ...... , ...... 22 Greater Yellowstone Coalition: Advocacy group and coordinating body for groups concerned with preserving the Greater Yellowstone ecosystem ...... 18 Individuals, agricultural animals: Maintaining and breeding one to several minor breeds of livestock . . 42 Individuals, American Federation of Aviculture: Organization serving individuals engaged in the keeping and breeding of nonnative birds ...... , ...... 31 Land Trust Exchange: Providing legal and technical support to land preservation groups ...... 13 Living Historical Farms: Recreating and interpreting historic agricultural settings ...... 39 Native Seeds/SEARCH: Collecting, preserving, and disseminating native crops and their wild relatives of the Southwest ...... 39 North American Fruit Explorers: Exploring, maintaining, and exchanging informaion on fro it and nut varieties ...... 37 Prairie Preservation Society of Ogle County: Preserving an 1 l-acre tall grass prairie site in Illinois . . . 10 Rhododendron Species Foundation: Collecting, preserving, and propagating wild species of Rhododendron ...... 24 Seed Savers Exchange: Preserving heirloom and endangered commercial varieties of garden vegetables . 3 5 Southeast Alaska Conservation Council: Advocacy group and coordinating body for groups concerned with management of the Tongass National Forest ...... 20 Texas game ranchers: Maintaining and breeding large, nonnative mammal species ...... 32 Wildlife Education Program for a Living Future: Environmental education with emphasis on human/predator interactions ...... , ., ...... , ...... 15

9 10

SPECIES AND ECOSYSTEMS--ON-SITE

Maintaining biological diversity of wild spe- The actions taken by these organizations cies on-site offers unique advantages over liv- range from relatively passive (e. g., comment- ing collections maintained off-site. On-site pres- ing on agency proposals) to confrontational (e.g., ervation permits efficient maintenance of far stopping construction of a dam). Indeed, a few greater species diversity than is possible through groups consider civil disobedience a valuable off-site methods. With on-site methods, entire tool. In most cases, however, lawsuits in State communities of species and their diverse or Federal courts are the intervention method habitats can be preserved with the result that of choice. Few of these groups explicitly pro- natural selection and evolutionary processes mote the maintenance of biological diversity, continue. In addition, both the known and cur- yet many of the programs and actions they en- rently valued as well as unknown and poten- courage have direct bearing on it, Environ- tially valuable species are maintained. Both on- mental advocacy groups often focus, refine, and site and off-site techniques are important com- articulate public needs by providing leadership, ponents in an integrated program for preser- information, or organization. They can be sen- vation of all segments of biological diversity (42). sitive and highly responsive to conditions or sit- uations overlooked by government agencies be- About 40 percent of all lands in the United cause they are diverse, local, and adaptable States are publicly owned. Within this Federal (43,45), They can, in addition, provide an ave- land system, a network of natural areas with nue for public comment on particular govern- various degrees of protection (e. g., national ment proposals, which may effect biological parks, wildlife refuges, marine sanctuaries, wild diversity. and scenic rivers, national forests, and wilder- ness areas) maintains components of biologi- The methods of on-site preservation vary and cal diversity. These Federal efforts are rein- include acquiring land, providing assistance forced by a number of private groups working to private landowners or local conservation actively to preserve land and the natural diver- groups, facilitating communication or con- sit y it supports. Some of these groups play a key certed action by mediating between large and political role in supporting legislative safe- sometimes competing interests, and environ- guards protecting natural areas. Others watch mental advocacy, The following descriptions over and care for specific areas that might other- illustrate the variety of activities and approaches wise suffer from neglect, inattention, or short- taken by on-site preservation groups. age of funding. Both the government and the private sector hold land, but private groups do Prairie Preservation Society so largely to fill in gaps where the government will not, cannot, or should not (43). of Ogle County Interested citizens and groups commonly pro- Prairielands are one of the most threatened vide information that aids in the administration ecosystems in North America. In Illinois, for of government programs. The efforts of con- example, studies indicate that less than 1 per- cerned citizens and organizations have precipi- cent of the original tallgrass prairie remains in tated government actions at the Federal, State, its native form (30). Prairies have been converted and local level. Individuals and groups have mainly into agricultural production and now worked to initiate, modify, or cancel govern- support the Wheat Belt and Corn Belt of the Na- ment policies and actions that affect the envi- tion’s Midwestern States. Many of the remain- ronment (43), They promote environmental ing vestiges of native prairie appear in old grave- quality in legislative, legal, and administrative yards, along railroad right-of-ways, and as arenas and, like the government, function at lo- private landholdings. Because these remnants cal, State, interstate, national, and international are scattered, Federal consolidation and pro- levels (43). tection is difficult, and local grassroots organ i- . . —

11 —.

v

Photo credit: Praire Preservafion Society of Ogle County Members of the Prairie Preservation Society of Ogle County, Illinois conducting a controlled burning of Bicentennial Prairie as part of their regular management activities for this preserve zations are attempting to fill this void in Fed- tion . . .,” particularly relating to local prairie eral ecosystem protection. habitats (54). The organization obtained funds from the State Bicentennial Commission with One of these organizations is the Prairie Pres- a matching grant from the County for purchase ervation Society of Ogle County, Inc., a land of a local prairie remnant. The organization be- trust of individuals concerned with native came fee-title owners of an 11½-acre parcel of prairielands in I11inois. The organization grew native prairie previously held by a private indi- from the collaboration of a Soil Conservation vidual in 1980. It was appropriately named Bi- Service soil scientist with a local “prairie en- centennial Prairie. thusiast” who also was a prairie nursery owner and prairieland restorer. Their idea was to pur- Most of the society’s 360 members are from chase a remnant prairie parcel to bring recog- Ogle County, Illinois, The governing body, of- nition to the native prairies in Illinois during the Nation’s 1976 Bicentennial Celebration. ficers, and consultants are all volunteers. Like many nonprofit groups, a core of about 20 indi- The society organized in 1975 as a not-for- viduals does most of the work of the organiza- profit organization whose purpose was to tion, including restoration work on Bicenten- " . . . engage in or promote charitable, scientific, nial Prairie. Work crews conduct controlled and educational activities in the fields of natu- burning operations on the site during the spring ral history and environmental quality protec- to restore the Prairie to pristine condition. They 12 also cut brush and wood to maintain the prai- Desert Tortoise Preserve Committee rie habitat. The prairie site is available for scien- tific and educational projects, and a checklist Less than 25 years ago, it was not uncommon of plant species on the site has been developed. for people living in southern California to take Many grade-school groups and college classes, trips through the local desert and return with as well as individuals, visit the site each year, a newly found family pet—the desert tortoise The society features programs for members on (Gopherus agassizii). A reptile of the deserts of activities and educational opportunities relat- the southwest United States, the tortoise was ing to prairie ecosystems. once common from northwest Mexico to south- west Utah (8). Reports of sightings of several Because of its success the society has become hundred per square mile were not uncommon an organizational model for individuals in other and populations may have exceeded 2,000 per Illinois counties concerned with prairie pres- square mile in some parts of the Mojave Desert ervation. Since the Ogle County organization (8). The tortoise today can no longer be found was founded, at least four other county level in many areas, and its numbers are declining prairie preservation organizations have become in others. incorporated in Illinois, The society sponsors local prairie workshops in the Midwest, and The desert tortoise is an example of an animal summaries of the society’s work also have been which, though still abundant in a few localities, distributed to others in the region, is declining in others. The species is confined to a narrow range of elevations in the lowland Finances severely limit the effectiveness of deserts of the Southwest and is particularly sen- the organization. Membership generates little sitive to disturbance of its habitat, Populations income because the minimal dues are a one- are rapidly declining and disappearing in areas time-only fee, Local fundraisers are another of California, Nevada, and Arizona. Only two source of income, since the society’s leadership populations in California remain somewhat in- is influential in the community. Labor and ma- tact (9). In September of 1985, the Fish and Wild- terials also are donated. For example, local con- life Service (FWS) found that listing the tortoise sultants in prairie ecology and restoration volun- as an endangered species throughout its range teer their technical or ecological expertise. The is “warranted, but precluded” by other pend- patchwork of donations has allowed the group ing proposals of higher priority (73). Additional to maintain their prairie and prepare a publicly data from several areas will be needed before available slide presentation on Illinois’ prairies. the desert tortoise can be designated as endan- In the future, they plan to continue the restora- tion of Bicentennial Prairie, support further educational projects, and perhaps acquire ad- ditional remnant prairie habitats along railroad right-of-ways within the county. Another impediment to the group’s effective- ness is the age of the members, At least half the current membership is over 65, and younger members are needed to perform the labor at the prairie site. perhaps future projects will bring to this organization the commitment of local young people necessary to protect and/or restore many prairie remnants in Ogle County. The Prairie Preservation Society is a showcase ex- ample of how local organizations with limited resources can maintain important natural eco- Adult desert tortoise (Gopherus agassizii) typical of systems by working together to preserve a those found in the Desert Tortoise Research Natural “piece of their own backyard. ” Area, DTNA 13 . gered. Where Federal agencies cannot act to mittee also has signed an agreement with BLM provide protection for locally threatened pop- to cooperatively manage the natural area. ulations of animals like the tortoise, a grassroots Funding for the committee has come from group may be willing and able to do so. sales of various products, including T-shirts and Tortoises are long-lived reptiles (60 to 80 years pendants. Contributions also have been received and over) that do not breed before 12 to 20 years from individuals, turtle and tortoise clubs, gar- of age in the wild. Once of reproductive age, den clubs, and gem and mineral societies, as a female may lay from 2 to 10 ping-pong ball- well as chapters of the Sierra Club and the Au- sized eggs in an excavated nest in late spring. dubon Society. The Desert Tortoise Preserve Hatchlings, which emerge from the nest in early Committee became a Project Committee of The fall, are about 2 inches long and very fragile. Nature Conservancy in 1976, and much of the Less than 5 percent survive to maturity as they money raised since then has gone to The Na- are food for numerous desert animals. Vandal- ture Conservancy for purchase of privately held ism, collection, and habitat deterioration also land within the natural area. About 2.5 square threaten the tortoise (8). miles of private parcels have been acquired to date and 11 square miles (about 400 parcels) The Desert Tortoise Preserve Committee was remain. formed in 1974 when several concerned desert residents of southern California banded to- The Desert Tortoise Preserve Committee de- gether with a biologist from the Bureau of Land votes considerable effort to monitoring the ac- Management (BLM). Their goal was to work tivities of a Federal agency—BLM—within their with BLM to establish a preserve for the tor- area of concern. Further, they are engaged in toise on a 31-square-mile parcel of land, Largely negotiations to purchase privately held lands as a result of the committee’s efforts, the pre- within the natural area. The committee is a serve was expanded to 38 square miles in 1976 grassroots group that is addressing a local con- and remains essentially the same size today. servation need and anticipating a more gen- BLM closed the area to off-road vehicles and eral future decline in the populations of a wild to sheep grazing in the 1970s. In 1980, BLM for- species. mally designated the preserve as the Desert Tor- toise Research Natural Area (DTNA) and an area The Land Trust Exchange of critical environmental concern. At that time, public lands within the preserve/natural area Local and regional organizations called land were officially withdrawn from the general min- trusts are preserving lands with special natu- ing laws to protect the habitat from mining. ral, scenic, recreational, agricultural, or historic qualities throughout the United States. They The Desert Tortoise Preserve Committee is maintain trout streams, forests, prairies, farm- entirely devoted to improving and acquiring lands, and historic sites among other things. Of land for DTNA and educating the public about the 500 or more land trusts, some are small, the need to protect the tortoise through preser- all-volunteer organizations; others are sizable vation of its habitat, The committee often lob- groups with paid professional staffs. Their ag- bies BLM to fulfill its mandated obligations to gregate membership is estimated at 350,000 in- maintain DTNA since much of the area is under dividuals (19),1 and their preservation activities BLM jurisdiction. Portions of DTNA are pri- encompass a total of 1.7 million acres of land vately owned, and the committee has raised (table 1). enough money for The Nature Conservancy to purchase some of those parcels. They have The Land Trust Exchange was formed in late helped BLM exchange land with private land- 1981 by the Brandywine Conservancy y in Penn- holders in other cases. Funds raised by the com- sylvania, Iowa Natural Heritage Foundation, mittee and a 1976 congressional appropriation 1~} comparison, “1’ho Nat~lrr (:(JIIs(;I.I;iII[.} an(i National ALl- to BLM paid for fences around much of DTNA dub on So(:if;ty hale memberships of approxl matf!ly 200,()()(1” d I)(1 as well as for an interpretive center. The com- 50[),000,” l.(;s])[:c;tii’~?l~. . . 74 . ——

Table 1 .—Distribution of the Total Acreage Finally, the exchange provides opportunities for Encompassed by the Land Conservation Activities land trusts to participate in group insurance of U.S. Land Trusts plans such as Blanket Bonding, Volunteer Ac- Percent cident Coverages, Property Coverages, and vari- Nature of holdings Acreage of total ous forms of liability insurance necessary for Owned by purchasing land trust . . . . 289,000 17 groups which hold land. Conservation easements ...... , 448,000 26 Transferred to a third party (e.g., The governing body of the Land Trust Ex- a National Park) ...... 975,000 57 change is a board of directors, which is elected SOURCE B E-mory Exec;[{ve Director Land Trust Excha; ge personal commu m cat I on Seriem her t 985 by the sponsoring organizations (the legal tax status of the exchange is derived from the tax status of their sponsors). The board is deliber- ately composed of land trust professionals from Maine Coast Heritage Trust, and Napa County different parts of the country. Land Trust in California. Their purpose was to establish “. . . a national communication net- Grants from private, national, charitable foun- work for local and regional private land con- dations, and a few corporations provide approx- servation groups. ” They emphasize local and imately two-thirds of the general operating regional preservation of land and water. The budget of the exchange. The remaining third list of sponsoring organizations currently ex- comes from sales of services as well as individ- ceeds 40, and a growing number of other organi- ual and group memberships. Sponsoring groups zations and individuals are associate members. contribute 1 percent of their administrative budget as their membership fee. To ensure that The Land Trust Exchange holds no land it- no single group can exercise excessive control self. Rather, they provide assistance and exper- over the organization the fee cannot be less than tise to conservation organizations throughout $100, or more than $1,000. Funds for special the United States. They publish a professional projects and programs come from foundation journal, Exchange, that includes in-depth case grants. The staff includes two full-time and two studies and articles on conservation techniques, part-time people in Maine and one part-time per- program development and management, and son in Washington, DC. public policy. They also distribute a series of memoranda on Federal tax matters affecting The organization hopes to develop a more sta- land conservation, a directory of land trusts, and ble base of support, founded on greater indi- numerous special publications on specific vidual membership and on a larger market for topics. One recent project is a national survey exchange services, Though the exchange has of all government and nonprofit conservation earned a reputation in the conservation com- easement programs in the United States. An- munity, that constituency has limited funds. other is a movie documenting the public benefits Consequently, they are continually seeking op- of conservation easements which features the portunities for increased support of their own Blackfoot River in Montana; Freeport, Maine; activities and those of their sponsors. and the Chesapeake Bay. Political sophistication, particularly about tax The exchange runs an information exchange law, is essential in the land trust community, service called the Peer Match Program which Changes in deductions for the value of donated allows a land trust with a specific problem to conservation easements have caused difficul- obtain low cost consulting help from another ties for some groups and individuals. The ex- land trust which has had a similar problem. The change has addressed this problem through both exchange also sponsors meetings and confer- its Washington representative and publications. ences which educate members, address policy The goal of these activities is to provide infor- issues, and stimulate exchange of ideas and in- mation to exchange constituents as well as to formation. A part-time Washington, DC, repre- make the political and conservation community sentative, supported by the exchange, responds more aware of the valuable role played by land to specific political issues affecting land trusts. trust groups, 15

The sole purpose of the Land Trust Exchange an integral part of the natural environment and is to improve the effectiveness of a segment of explain the interrelationships of all species. The the grassroots conservation community. The programs also explore historic and contem- organization’s framework is designed so it can porary attitudes towards nature and discuss be nationally representative, but locally ori- how nature is an integral part of our lives. ented. By providing technical conservation Ms. Atkinson-Berg uses a wide range of tech- skills and information to local and regional land niques to bring an ecological message to the gen- trusts, it allows organizations that lack inter- eral public. At one time, she visited schools with nal expertise to develop their programs in eco- a wolf born and raised in captivity to capture system conservation efficiently. the attention of the students. She later stopped this practice, concerned that it detracted from Wildlife Education Program the ecologic content of the program by en- for a Living Future couraging her audience to view the wolf as a Environmental education is a component of pet. Presentations with live wolves now are only most grassroots activities described in this back- held at the WEPLF premises in a “wolf woods ground paper, but for some groups education compound” which does not encourage visitors is the major thrust of their efforts. Environ- to view the wolf as a pet. These presentations mental education has been described as: commonly are accompanied by field trips into the woods for howling and tracking events. . . . the process of recognizing values and clarifying concepts in order to develop skills WEPLF also converted a bookmobile into a and attitudes necessary to understand and ap- traveling museum of exhibits and presentations. preciate the interrelatedness among man, his In addition to an extensive display on the his- culture, and his biophysical surrounding (71). tory of the wolf, the museum houses bird nests; animal pelts; skulls, bird, and mammal speci- The Environmental Education Act of 1970 was mens; and illustrations of ecological cycles in passed by Congress to provide funding in sup- nature. The mobile museum visits schools; civic, port of environmental education, and repre- social, and service organizations; and even in- sented a national commitment to its importance. terested individuals. Films, workshops, and Supporting these efforts are a large number of slide presentations on wolves, human attitudes, grassroots groups who focus, to varying degrees, or animal communication are also available. on the importance of maintaining biological diversity. Ms. Atkinson-Berg works with teachers One individual who has taken an active and throughout Minnesota to develop appropriate curricula on nature. She has developed a widely innovative approach to environmental educa- circulated educational packet on the coexis- tion is Karlyn Atkinson-Berg, co-founder of the tence, competition, and conflict between wolves Wildlife Education Program for a Living Future and humans which she promotes at National (WE PLF). Karlyn Atkinson-Berg has long been Science Teachers Conventions and Environ- interested in the timber (grey) wolves of north- mental Educators Conventions. Ms. Atkinson- ern Minnesota. She created WEPLF in 1973 to Berg feels that this educational package has bring her knowledge and insights to people of made an important contribution in presenting all ages who might not ordinarily be exposed a well-rounded picture of the wolf to the pub- to human-wildlife interactions. Her programs lic, Rather than designing separate programs, cover not only wolves and wildlife, but also envi- she encourages teachers to integrate consider- ronmental ethics of man’s impact on the natu- ral environment. ation of the natural environment and man’s in- teractions with it into other lessons. Through One of her objectives is to dispel popular her efforts, information on biological and eco- myths about predators, particularly the wolf, logical principles has been incorporated into so her programs demonstrate how predators are everyday learning. 16

The educational programs offered through Desert Fishes Council WEPLF are entirely supported by program fees and donations. Fees are based on travel, time, The native fishes of the American deserts are mileage, and the number of programs offered. increasingly threatened by the impacts of man, Though Ms. Atkinson-Berg hopes to continue The survival of many native fish species de- adding to the museum with cash or display-item pends on adequate water in the springs or water donations, the income from education programs drainages of this arid environment. Yet devel- and her other work is meager. opment in the deserts of the Southwest has en- dangered several species of native fishes by Beyond the problems of limited funding, Ms. blocking streams and rivers with dams, drain- Atkinson-Berg believes people may attempt to ing marshes, eliminating native vegetation along discredit her because she lacks a doctorate de- water courses, depleting groundwater supplies, gree (67). In addition, because she has devel- and causing silt deposition in fragile habitats oped a close, personal relationship with timber (52), Native fish also are threatened by the in- wolves, critics question her objectivity. None- troduction of game fish, which displace or de- theless, Ms. Atkinson-Berg has won wide rec- vour them (52). ognition for her work. She has served as a con- sultant on the Science Museum of Minnesota Human activities in the Southwest desert have exhibit, “Wolves and Humans” and assisted in caused the loss of habitat for many native fishes, the creation of a public television documentary, resulting in extinction for as many as a dozen “Legend of the Wolf, ” She travels around the species (51). Up to 50 other species and sub- country and has appeared on numerous radio species are considered threatened by the Fed- and television shows. In fact, her many activi- eral Office of Endangered Species or other Fed- ties on behalf of wolves have earned her the des- eral and State agencies. ignation “the wolf lady” (5). Ms. Atkinson-Berg, since 1978, also has been Growing concern about the overall decline active in public hearings and litigation involv- in desert fish populations, particularly the Devil’s ing wolf management, both directly and in- Hole pupfish, led a group of individuals to hold directly by contributing information on wolf a conference in 1969 and establish a Pupfish behavior and ecology to other environmental Task Force. At their second symposium in 197o, groups and attorneys. Although her philoso- 82 scientists, resource managers, and other in- phies and opinions on management practices terested individuals formed the Desert Fishes frequently are in conflict with those of other lo- Council. The council’s present membership of cal residents and government officials, her nearly 400 includes scientists and researchers presentations and dedication have earned her from Federal and State agencies, universities, a high degree of respect, even from some who representatives of conservation organizations, disagree with her approaches. and other interested citizens. Despite real or perceived limitations, Ms. The Desert Fishes Council engages in inten- Atkinson-Berg has raised the environmental sive efforts to preserve desert aquatic commu- consciousness of many people in Minnesota and nities and their associated life forms. Council across the Nation, by making an active effort members conduct research projects to deter- to reach many different people with her knowl- mine the best management strategies for par- edge about wolves and the importance of a bal- ticular species. They help local fish populations anced environment. Her programs help people recover by manually rebuilding stream areas understand that predators are not creatures to and reintroducing native stocks into them. The be eradicated but a necessary part of the natu- council lobbies on behalf of desert fish habitat ral world. Her efforts may reduce destruction with Federal and State agencies which make of natural predators in Minnesota and else- decisions on land and water use, particularly where, helping to maintain these elements of when those decisions would divert water from biological diversity. streams or springs where native fish are found. 17

Photo credit: D.W. Sada, U S Fish and Wildlife Service Photo credit: LouIs Myers, Bureau of Land Management Jackrabbit Spring after installation of the irrigation Jackrabbit Spring in the Ash Meadows Conservation pump. The Desert Fishes Council has been instrumental Area as it appears today and before the installation of in bringing about FWS acquisition and restoration of an irrigation pump In 1970 by a private landowner Ash Meadows. The council has reintroduced two FWS endangered fish species to this spring, the Ash Meadows Amargosa pupfish, Rhinichthys osculus nevadensis, and the Ash Meadows speckled dace, The extensive labors of the membership have Cyprinodon nevadensis mionectes resulted in several successes. For example, the council worked with Federal and State officials to protect the spring habitat of the Devil’s Hole recent editorial on the Devil’s Hole pupfish, de- pupfish by reducing pumping that was deplet- scribed the Desert Fishes Council as”. . . a tiny ing underground water in the area. Because of group–but fierce” (3). this action, coupled with reintroductions and Funding for the Desert Fishes Council is min- creation of some artificial habitats, the fish pop- imal. Most of their annual budget of approxi- ulation appears to be slowly recovering (53). mately $6,000 comes from the small annual dues Other successes include the protection of Fish and is used primarily to finance its publications. Slough in eastern California and Ash Meadows Virtually all other funds come from individual in western Nevada, both important fish habitats members. The council has never applied for a which represent unique clusterings of plant and grant to support its efforts, though members animal species. have little doubt that such funds could assist In addition to field research and conservation them greatly, When additional funds have been efforts, the council conducts annual symposia needed, registration fees for their annual sym- on desert fish species and related problems. Pub- posium were increased slightly, Publications lications and other educational materials also are distributed free to members and at cost to are available through the council, and individ- libraries and others. ual members publish articles concerning des- The survival of this group is largely depen- ert fishes in professional journals. dent on the enthusiasm of its leadership and the The success and strength of the council ap- willingness of its members to donate consider- pears to lie in its scientific and technical exper- able time, effort, and expertise. A few members, tise. When information is needed on individ- affiliated with government agencies or univer- ual populations, the knowledge usually can be sities, receive funds for travel to some meetings, found among the council members. Though the but most must travel and work at personal ex- group has maintained a high degree of partici- pense. One group member says: pation among its members, it remains small and No doubt we could be more productive with flexibile enough to focus its attentions quickly better funding, but a high level of participation and effectively where the need is greatest. One from a group of low-income members, many 18

of them graduate students, has been the key even with human pressures a total ecosystem to our success. We are therefore reluctant to can be preserved and managed (38). increase dues much beyond the current $10 per year (53). The Greater Yellowstone Coalition (GYC) was formed and incorporated in 1983 to coordinate The Desert Fishes Council illustrates how a the activities of several national and regional grassroots organization with a high level of tech- organizations. One of their goals is increased nical expertise and commitment can be effec- national public awareness of the Greater Yel- tive in preserving animal species. The issues lowstone ecosystem, particularly the special surrounding desert fishes and their habitats fall values and legacy of the ecosystem and the mul- under multiple jurisdictions and several Fed- tiple risks facing it. The organization articulates eral and State species protection laws. The coun- the collective concerns of its members and co- cil feels they have been particularly effective ordinates the actions and activities that stem in an arena where Federal and other agencies from those concerns. are unable or unwilling to move swiftly and effi- ciently. As a consequence, its efforts contrib- GYC proposed national legislation recogniz- ute significantly to the biological diversity of ing the Greater Yellowstone ecosystem as a species, habitats, and ecosystems of the South- unique entity at its 1984 annual meeting. They western deserts, want all Federal lands in the ecosystem to be managed to give highest priority to preserva- Greater Yellowstone Coalition tion of wildlife habitat and populations. In addi- tion, GYC has been working with the Forest Early in 1872 president Ulysses S. Grant made Service as that agency develops forest manage- what has been characterized as a “daring polit- ment plans mandated by the National Forest ical act” (56) by signing the Yellowstone Park Management Act (Public Law 94-588). GYC’s Act (13) which set aside 2.2 million acres as a annual meeting includes scientific sessions in park to be the “flagship” of the American Na- which environmental scientists discuss issues tional Park System (13). The scenic wonders and important to conservation within the region. geologic curiosities of Yellowstone include ma- Conservation groups, representatives from Fed- jestic waterfalls, geysers, forests, wildlife, and eral agencies and State governments, and Mem- historic structures from the early days of the bers of Congress have participated in annual National Park System (13). Today, however, the meetings. future of Yellowstone is largely affectedly activ- One of the coalition’s first members, the Jack- ities and influences from private landholders son Hole Alliance for Responsible Planning, and national forestlands outside the park’s works for protection of the scenery, wildlife, boundaries (13). and recreation of Jackson Hole, Wyoming. Its Yellowstone National Park is part of the 850 members, primarily residents and land- Greater Yellowstone ecosystem, considered by owners in the Jackson Hole region, participate some to be one of the largest essentially intact in the planning process for public lands such terrestrial ecosystems in the temperate zone (10). as Grand Teton National Park, the Bridger Te- This area covers more than 6 million acres and ton National Forest, and the National Elk Ref- is governed by more than 25 separate political uge. Specifically, they want development of pri- jurisdictions. Within the ecosystem are two na- vate lands in Teton County to be compatible tional parks (Yellowstone and Grand Teton), two with the preservation of ranching, wildlife hab- national wildlife refuges, six national forests, itat, and open space. Through GYC, the Jack- portions of 3 States and 13 counties. Speaking son Hole Alliance obtains regional support for of the Greater Yellowstone ecosystem, William the local issues they encounter. Penn Mot-t, Jr., Director of the National Park The coalition amplifies the voice and influ- Service, said: ence of smaller groups within the organization. . . . the time has come to take positive, creative, For example, GYC worked with an ad hoc group and forceful steps to set an example of how known as the Grizzly Caucus to develop a posi- . —

Photo credit: Haynes Foundation Collection, Montana Historical Society Helena MT Lower Yellowstone Falls taken from Red Rock in Yellowstone National Park by F. Jay Hayne, 1899 tion statement on the Grizzly bear (Ursus arctos), and individual donations. Income from sales They later modified the statement to make it of a book about the region are modest because applicable to the greater Yellowstone region and the aim is more to educate the public than to then formally adopted it. These actions delin- raise money, Though private corporations do eated the concerns of a small group so they could not provide support at this time, the group plans be disseminated to a larger audience. to approach them and has enlisted the aid of a private marketing firm. GYC is administered by a board of 15. Nine of the board members represent the 45 mem- As might be expected, the size of the Greater ber organizations, 3 are elected by the general Yellowstone region makes it difficult to man- membership of approximately 1,000 individ- age GYC programs. Nonetheless, the group uni- uals, and the remaining 3 are chosen by the fies its member organizations making it more board itself, This structure keeps the board re- likely that they will attain their goal—preser- sponsive to the concerns of member organiza- vation of an intact ecosystem. Their regional tions, Three paid staff members carry out the approach, if successful, can provide an impor- coalition’s work. tant model for preserving other broad geograph- ic areas, such as the Chesapeake Bay ecosys- A relatively young organization, GYC receives tem. Although GYC members are vocal about half its support from foundation grants. Most their desire to maximize preservation of the of the remaining funds come equally from dues area, they also are making serious efforts to 20 gain the support of Federal agencies with in- tional economies of the area. The organization terests in the region. Certainly, GYC makes it remained an informal coalition until 1976 when clear that successful regional conservation ef- it incorporated. Today issues important to forts should include input from numerous, and SEACC remain essentially the same: protection often competing, agencies, citizens groups, pri- of critical fish and wildlife habitat, preserva- vate landholders, and corporations. Such efforts tion of local economies, and multiple-use man- maintain biological diversity by promoting the agement of the Tongass National Forest. One preservation of species and ecosystems. of SEACC’s products is “A Citizen’s Alterna- tive” to the Tongass Land Management Plan Southeast Alaska Conservation of 1979, which proposed protection for 45 sites council with unique formations, environments, or stands of old growth forest, The American people and the residents of Southeast Alaska enjoy a priceless natural re- The 1980 passage of the Alaska National In- source heritage—our public lands. Our Na- terest Lands Conservation Act (ANILCA) (Pub- tional Forests, National Parks and Monuments, lic Law 96-487) gave SEACC a stronger voice State Forests and State Parks all have one thing in the affairs of the Tongass, ANILCA requires in common. They are owned by all of us: each that a report on the status of the Tongass Na- citizen has an equal right to hunt, fish, trap or tional Forest be prepared in cooperation and recreate on these lands. Every citizen has an consultation with several interested groups in- equal right to speak out and participate in de- cluding SEACC. Much of the group’s efforts cisions regarding the management of public have gone into evaluations and alternative man- lands and their resources. agement plans for the National Forest. Public lands are managed, in theory, by pub- lic servants and agencies who should take Presently, SEACC’s membership includes ap- direction from the people. In reality, corporate proximately 600 individuals and 9 community- interests continually pressure the public agen- based organizations’ with a total membership cies to favor their narrow concerns. Organized of approximately 2,000 (35). The board of direc- citizens bear the burden of reminding our pub- tors is composed of a representative from each lic servants that their responsibility is to the sponsoring organization and an approximate- people who live here (59). ly equal number of at-large representatives. This statement from the Citizen’s Guide to the SEACC’s paid staff ranges from three to six, de- Tongass National Forest clearly defines the role pending on the number of special projects (35). of on-site groups concerned with environmental The organization provides its member groups, advocacy in general and the Southeast Alaska interested individuals, communities, and other Conservation Council (SEACC) in particular. parties with information and support on issues SEACC, a nonprofit group, devotes its energies of land use and management in the Tongass, to issues surrounding the management of the SEACC’s funds come from a variety of Tongass National Forest which covers 17 mil- sources. Membership dues and donations pro- lion acres in southeast Alaska (figure 1), The vide the major share of the budget. Member group reacts to and helps shape management groups are not required to provide any finan- plans and legislation which has a direct bear- cial support, but all are encouraged to do so, ing on the ecological diversity of the region. and a few make large donations of $1,000. SEACC began in the late 1960s as a loose coa- SEACC raises additional money by selling T- lition of environmental groups in southeast shirts or raffle tickets and by sponsoring an Alaska. Its purpose then was to improve com- munication and cooperation with one another ‘1. ynn Cana] Conservation, ]uneau GFOUp sierra C]ub, Sitka and to address mutual concerns about roads, Croup Sierra Club, Narrows Conservation Coalition, Sitka Con- servation Society, Taku Conservation Society, Tongass Conser- logging, and mining in that region. The group vation Society, Friends of Glacier Bay, and Wrangell Resource also wanted to protect the subsistence and tradi- Council. 21

Figure 1.— Map of the 17-MiIlion-Acre Tongass National Forest Which Encompasses Most of Southeast Alaska, Showing Distribution of the 14 Wilderness Areas (transportation within the region is complicated by the numerous long fjords which separate major land areas)

Legend U Wilderness areas 71 Waterways t–- Glacier Bay National Monument

VICINITY MAP % SEATTLE ~

SOURCE Southeast Alaska Conservation Council 22 annual pledge drive. An important portion of Florida Audubon Society their funding for operational programs and some special projects comes from the Alaska The National Audubon Society was formed Conservation Foundation.’ Though SEACC re- at the beginning of this century to conserve ceives some money from national foundations, mammals and birds, particularly species under the time-consuming application process diverts pressure from hunters, Today as one of the larg- staff efforts from other projects (35). SEACC oc- est grassroots conservation organizations in the casionally receives support from local recrea- United States, the society’s activities have ex- tional, fishing, and native interests as well as panded to include preserving natural areas, edu- local businesses. cating the public, and lobbying for legislation to protect plant and animal life. Operating in the southeast region of Alaska adds to SEACC’s costs. Transportation in the In 1900, shortly before the founding of the Na- region frequently is difficult, very expensive, tional Audubon Society, the Florida Audubon and subject to unpredictable weather. Tele- Society (FAS) was organized to end destruction phone, rent, and supplies all are more expen- of the State’s wading bird populations by the sive than in other regions of the country. Peri- millinery trade. FAS was and remains adminis- odic visits to Washington, DC, to participate in tratively independent of the National Audubon congressional hearings or agency reviews also Society and their focus has grown to include are a significant expense. ecosystems preservation. The 46 chapters of the society within Florida range in size from 100 SEACC’s location also makes communica- to 3,000 and have a total membership of 35,000. tions a major problem, both inside and outside Most local chapters are associated with both the region. Within Alaska, geography and cli- FAS and the National Audubon Society, so mate complicate communications between when Florida residents join the National Au- member individuals and organizations. Groups dubon Society they become members in FAS in remote, rugged areas frequently are isolated and part of their dues goes to it. Some people by adverse weather and lack of adequate tele- join just FAS, and FAS shares those dues with phone facilities. Further, the group’s lack of ex- local chapters. posure in the “lower 48, ” makes it difficult for them to get a hearing nationally. Local chapters of FAS are essentially inde- pendent groups that vary not only in size but Despite the hardships of working in a remote in involvement with environmental issues. They area, SEACC staff derives considerable satis- receive assistance from the State group in de- faction from the “real sense of community” in veloping programs and pursuing local environ- the region. As an advocacy group whose inter- mental issues. In turn, the State organization ests are centered on a specific region, SEACC often seeks local support for its issues. Local provides an important link among diverse chapters participate in field trips and national groups in southeastern Alaska which allows activities such as the annual Christmas Bird them to have a greater voice in development of Count. A chapter also may elect to manage one legislation and future management plans for the of the 38 wildlife sanctuaries that have been do- Tongass National Forest. nated to FAS. While the society retains legal ownership, the local chapter assumes care- taking responsibilities for the sanctuary. Funding for FAS comes from a number of sources. Besides membership dues, which are 3Alaska Conservation Foundation was established to provide shared with local chapters, the society has sev- funding to four environmental groups in Alaska. While funds eral corporate sponsors. When necessary, spe- provided are only a portion of their total funding, they are largely for general operations, a budget item that is often difficult to fund cial appeals are made to the membership, Some (35). In this respect they are very important to SEACC, programs of the society are supported by grants 23 from government agencies or industry organi- zations. Fundraising activities are handled by a full-time staff member and part-time secretary. FAS supports a paid staff of 24 and is governed by a 31-member board. FAS seeks cooperative working relationships with industry, business, and developers on envi- ronmental issues. To avoid difficulties, includ- ing possibly damaging litigation, FAS tries to enter consultations on environmental matters at an early stage. Their programs encompass such broad ranging issues as water quality; air pollution; protection of the Everglades; oil ex- ploration; rescue of injured birds of prey; ma- rine turtle conservation; environmental educa- tion through films; television, workshops and public appearances; and protection of the West Indian Manatee (Trichechus manatus). FAS’s Save the Manatee Committee is one ex- ample of how grassroots activities can draw at- tention to the plight of a species. Manatees are large coastal mammals protected by both Fed- eral and State statutes. They are frequently killed or injured by human activities such as fishing and motor boating. Working with State and Fed- eral agencies, the committee has increased pub- Photo credit: U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. Denver Wildlife Research Center lic awareness of the need to protect the mana- and Blue Spring State Park tee through a newsletter, a network of “Save West Indian Manatees (Trichecus Manatus) regularly the Manatee Clubs, ” and an “adopt a manatee” winter at the Blue Spring State Park near Orange City, Florida. This animal, a large male, is part of the “Adopt program that provides donors with information a Manatee” program sponsored by the Florida Audubon and updates on a particular animal. The result Society to raise support and awareness for the is increased public consciousness not only of conservation of these animals the manatee itself, but also of the legal protec- tion it receives from Federal and State law. FAS is an example of a State organization that FAS has also been active in environmental aids its chapters in addressing local issues and issues within the State. They successfully op- also unifies those chapters to address broad re- posed oil drilling in Florida’s estuaries and gional issues. They have a record of effective worked for passage of the State’s Water Qual- and informative interaction with Federal and ity Assurance Act of 1983 which protects sur- State agencies, as well as with private indus- face and groundwater from hazardous wastes. try. Their programs have helped maintain bio- The society continues to lobby for and inform logical diversity by encouraging preservation its members of important legislation and pol- of important environments as well as protec- icies affecting the Florida environment. tion of specific species, 24

WILD PLANTS AND ANIMALS--OFF-SITE

For most wild plants and animals, on-site pres- These grassroots activities include individual ervation maintains a far greater range of spe- efforts to maintain private collections of indi- cies than is possible through off-site preserva- vidual species, plant societies with amateurs tion, However, where interest is focused on and professional members, and institutional particular animals or plants or when a species activities, such as botanical gardens and ar- is nearing extinction in its natural habitat, off- boreta, that maintain extensive living collections site methods of captive propagation maybe nec- of wild plants. The contributions and motiva- essary and expedient. Many groups and indi- tions of these various groups vary considerably. viduals maintain various species of wild plants The conservation impact of grassroots activ- and animals, though not always for the purpose ities is somewhat clouded by individuals who of conserving biological diversity. This section think of collecting wild plants as a hobby much highlights the efforts of groups who, for a vari- like stamp collecting. Their overcollecting, in ety of reasons, maintain wild species of plants some cases, is actually a significant threat to and animals away from their native envi- rare wild plants. This threat, however, is in- ronments. creasingly counterbalanced by national and in- ternational legislation with penalties for over- Off-site Preservation of Wild Plants collection of species from the wild. In addition, An estimated 3,000 of the approximately specialist plant societies have begun to empha- 20,000 plant species which comprise the flora size conservation as an objective, thereby be- of the United States are threatened or endan- coming important contributors to efforts to gered, and equal numbers are in serious decline maintain biological diversity (36). (68). Most of these plants are wild and threats The following highlights three examples of to them include agricultural and urban expan- groups maintaining living collections of wild sion, pollution, road construction, forest clear- plants in the United States. The Rhododendron ing, recreational activities, and wild plant col- Species Foundation exemplifies groups which lecting. seek to preserve a single taxonomic group of Conservation efforts to date have focused on plants. The Desert Botanical Garden illustrates preserving the natural habitats of entire plant the contributions that locally supported botan- communities. While there is broad consensus ical gardens and arboreta can make in conserv- that this on-site approach should remain the pri- ing both exotic and regionally threatened plants. mary method for protecting this biological diver- Finally, the Center for Plant Conservation typi- sity, these conservation efforts are now being fies the contributions a network of regional bo- supplemented through living collections of wild tanical institutions can make to preserving in- plants (11). digenous, threatened, and endangered plants.

A heightened public awareness of the need The Rhododendron Species Foundation to conserve plant diversity has emerged only within the last 15 years, This concern at the Fed- Many horticultural societies and organiza- eral level led to the Endangered Species Act of tions exist to disseminate, collect, and exchange 1973. Individual States also have implemented information on a particular group of plants. programs to conserve native species. In addi- Some people associated with these groups have, tion, a number of private institutions, societies, in the past, contributed to loss of rare species and individuals are working actively to preserve in the wild by overcollection. Recently, how- threatened plant species, in some cases by pre- ever, groups like the American Orchid Society serving and promoting living collection of wild have become concerned about protecting plant plants indigenous to the United States. species in the wild; some even encourage re- 25

Photo credit Rhododendron Species Foundation

Propagation greenhouse facilities of the Rhododendron Species Foundation display some of the approximately 10,000 plants which are produced and distributed annually search on reintroducing plants into their former garden on a 24-acre site on its corporate head- habitats (36). The collections of these groups, quarters property near Puget Sound in Wash- or individual members, in many instances, con- ington State. The property is leased at no cost tain a greater diversity within the taxonomic to the foundation, and ownership of all improve- group than is available anywhere else. ments on the property was transferred to the foundation in 1979, The foundation provides Early in the 1960s, several members of the for all further development, maintenance, and American Rhododendron Society formed a operation. group to collect Rhododendron species from the old, established gardens of Great Britain. They The taxonomic genus Rhododendron in- soon realized that they needed a permanent gar- cludes nearly 1,000 species which are found all den site to ensure the survival of these plants. over the world. The largest diversity of species The Rhododendron Species Foundation was is in eastern Asia, from south China to the Hima- incorporated in 1964 in Oregon, and a garden layas and Japan (82). Species native to North was established in Eugene on the estate of one America are second in abundance. The famil- of the group’s founders. Seven years later the iar ornamental rhododendrons or azaleas avail- collection moved to Salem, Oregon, to the prop- able throughout the United States represent only erty of a retired director of the Strybing Arbore- a small variety of the genus which ranges from tum of San Francisco. Finally, the Weyerhaeu- forest trees to alpine creepers. Some species of ser Co. prepared a permanent home for the rhododendron are nearing extinction because of deforestation in many parts of Asia, and de- members. The reference library, for example, velopment endangers wild species in Florida was organized by a committee of retired profes- and British Colombia (50). sional librarians and educators; the finance committee includes knowledgeable people with The foundation’s purpose is to create a cen- backgrounds in business and finance. ter for acquisition, study, cultivation, display, and distribution of rhododendron species. They To improve their financial stability, the foun- already have what is probably the largest col- dation hopes to establish an endowment to pay lection of rhododendron species in the world for the daily operation of their programs. They with at least 600 documented species and more have solicited grants, private contributions, and than 2,000 clones. The species have come from bequests. They have continued to improve the existing British, American, and European col- garden and hope to expand their income from lections, as well as expeditions to collect wild visitor programs by completing a visitor’s cen- material in East Asia, the Himalayas, Europe, ter. and America. Although the collection provides The Rhododendron Species Foundation illus- a broad species diversity for this genus, it does not encompass the genetic diversity within trates how a grassroots group can use limited those species which would be available in on- resources effectively to develop an important and widely respected plant collection. Their site reserves. association with the Weyerhaeuser Co. is an ex- A recently completed Master Plan for Devel- cellent example of how private industry can help opment provided a 22-acre display garden ar- a grassroots effort to become established by pro- ranged according to botanical subdivisions of viding significant assistance at an early stage. the genus. During the spring and fall, visitors pay a nominal fee to tour the garden. The foun- Desert Botanical Garden dation produces printed materials about rho- The 270 public gardens and arboreta in the dodendrons and shares a large array of plant United States vary greatly in size, profession- material with its members, botanic gardens, Na- alism, and perceived function (4,14). However, tional Plant Germplasm System (NPGS), and these gardens exist in general for public display, other interested parties. The foundation con- education, research, and conservation. Their tinues to collect species, with particular empha- priorities are usually plants with ornamental sis on variants with cold hardiness or heat toler- or scientific interest rather than economic value ance. The foundation also sponsored the Third (61). International Rhododendron Species Sympo- sium which brought together professionals and Botanical gardens are logical repositories for amateurs from around the world to discuss a living collections of endangered plants because variety of topics related to the biology and hor- they are integrated into the scientific commu- ticulture of rhododendrons. nity and have in-house expertise in plant propa- gation, specimen maintenance, and taxonomy. Approximately half of the foundation’s oper- Despite this, only 4 percent of the threatened ating budget comes from sales of plants and pub- or endangered plant species in the United States lications and the garden Visitors Program. The are cultivated in public gardens (7). Historically, rest is from membership dues and, to a lesser gardens have placed low priority on conserva- degree, grants and contributions from individ- tion, in part because visitors are attracted by uals and private foundations. Even though they showy ornamental. Most endangered plant maintain a paid staff of six to eight, the founda- species lack such esthetic appeal (61). tion depends on volunteers to assist in tending the garden, distributing plants, maintaining the Several developments in recent years, how- library, and doing general office work. The ever, have encouraged botanical gardens to cul- volunteers are organized into committees with tivate the conservationist role. The American responsibilities that reflect the expertise of the Association of Botanical Gardens and Arboreta, 27 for example, established a Plant Conservation/ staff members still have difficulty propagating Endangered Species Committee in 1984. The rarer plants and often must use trial and error newly formed Center for Plant Conservation to discover suitable techniques to germinate also has encouraged individual gardens to as- seeds and establish cutting, sume greater responsibility for cultivating en- The garden supports itself by membership dangered and threatened indigenous wild plant (currently 2,271), contributions, and admissions species. While only a handful of gardens have (12). The benefits of membership include a risen to this challenge, the number appears to magazine; discounts on classes, lectures, work- be growing. shops, and field trips; and bonus packets of des- One such garden is the Desert Botanical Gar- ert plant seeds. The garden also maintains ties den, a nonprofit institution located on 150 acres with other similar institutions through several of Arizona desert surrounded by the Phoenix professional associations. It is the lead desert- metropolitan area. The garden site was part of region institution for the new consortium, the Papago Saguaro National Monument, founded Center for Plant Conservation, and propagates in 1914 to preserve the biological richness and U.S. endangered species in association with the unusual rock formations of this area. The land U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) and Of- reverted to State control when the monument fice of Endangered Species (OES). Although was abolished by Congress in 1930. Under that genetic conservation is only a part of the Des- authority the Arizona Cactus and Native Flora ert Botanical Garden’s mandate, it makes a sub- Society, a hobbyist group, was granted a peti- stantial contribution for its size, tion to build the botanical gardens. Their aim was to develop “a natural garden of desert plants from the deserts of the world, so arranged that Center for Plant Conservation it will be pleasant for the layman to view and yet can be studied by scientist. ” The center was formed in 1984 to create a net- work of regional botanical institutions with the The garden boasts a naturalistic display of goal of preserving living collections of all threat- about half the world’s cacti and other succu- ened and endangered U.S. plant species. These lents as well as trees and shrubs from arid re- collections are intended to supplement rather gions of Asia, Africa, Australia, and the Ameri- than replace efforts to maintain species in their cas. It maintains 33 species of crops or their wild natural habitats. The center’s role is: relatives native to the North American center of diversity. Fifty-six species are listed in its in- .,. to coordinate a permanent, comprehen- dex Seminum, which catalogs seeds available sive, systematic, and accessible living collec- tion of rare and endangered plants native to to other botanical institutions, research stations, the United States [and] through use of this col- and universities (12). The garden also harbors lection, . . . [to] promote botanical research, plants that have endangered species status. public education, and distribution of plant ma- The Desert Botanical Garden is a science and terial (61). research-oriented operation, using the best tech- The two organizations spearheading this ini- nology available to botanists. Its staff has grown tiative are the Arnold Arboretum, which serves over the last decade from a few self-trained as the headquarters for the center, and the New amateurs to several biologists and horticul- England Wild Flower Society. The arboretum turalists with advanced degrees, Records for the is a major botanical research center maintain- collection are computerized. Seeds are carefully ing over 7,000 varieties of plants on 265 acres, replenished by methods that prevent inadver- funded solely through its own endowment, tent outcrossing, and are maintained in good membership dues, and contributions. The New quality, medium-length storage facilities. Living England Wild Flower Society is a private non- collections of vegetatively propagated materi- profit organization which maintains the largest als receive considerable weekly care. Garden landscaped collection of wildflowers and na- 28 tive plants in the Northeastern United States. 4, Support of research and education activi- The society maintains the 45-acre Garden in the ties furthering public awareness and scien- Woods in Framingham, Massachusetts. Six ad- tific understanding of the issues of species ditional sanctuaries in New England total 438 extinction. acres (11). The center cites several reasons for its pro- Thus far, 18 major gardens and arboreta oper- gram. First, botanical institutions are integrated ating in 14 designated regions across the United with the scientific community. Second, their States have committed themselves as partici- staff members already have expertise in such pating institutions (61) (figure 2). areas as plant propagation, transplants, and tis- sue culture. Third, they have unique opportu- The center’s Program Development Plan out- nities to raise public awareness of species ex- lives four components: tinction, The center also has identified specific 1. A national network of botanical gardens, functions that could be fulfilled by a botanic gar- arboreta and other scientific institutions den/arboretum-based conservation program which will collaborate in endangered spe- (11), It seems, however, many of these functions cies preservation. These institutions will could be carried out only by larger botanical serve as scientific advisors to provide the institutions (61): center with the most up-to-date informa- emergency sanctuary for populations or tion about species endangerment and re- whole species facing imminent extirpation search efforts, Selected institutions will also in the wild; serve as regional programs to house the live a cooperation in a “species alert” network plant collections for their respective areas among botanical and conservation insti- of the country. tutions; 2. A computer-based Information Manage- critical species research facilities to study ment System and Endangered Species Data a target population which begins to decline, Bank having two parts: even on protected land; ● a national inventory of species in need propagation of rare plants for applied re- of ex situ protection; and search and horticulture, thus decreasing ● a listing of accessions held by the coop- collection pressure on wild populations; erating regional programs, together with development of new cultivation techniques horticultural information gathered from for the handling and growth of rare plants; them. propagation of plants for reintroduction The data bank thus will allow coordination into the wild, in reconstructed or protected among the member institutions, and guide habitats; the center in selecting priorities for acces- research on species biology, in many cases sion and research. the first opportunity to perform even basic 3. A comprehensive live collection of planted study on these species; and specimens, seeds, and cutting, maintained public awareness of species extinction, in- by the cooperating regional programs. The cluding unique living exhibits of regionally collection emphasizes species of national rare flora. significance, especially those with particu- lar research, horticultural, or educational The 1985 annual budget for the center is about potential, Propagation capabilities will be $150,000 to $200,000. The 1986 budget is ex- an integral part of the live plant collections. pected to be about double this, largely reflect- This will enable the center to provide liv- ing an increase in plant collection and manage- ing material to other gardens and arboreta; ment activities. Financial support for the center to botanical, medicinal, and horticultural comes from grants and gifts from foundations, research; and to conservationists engaged corporations, and individuals with two foun- in species reintroduction and habitat recon- dation grants comprising about three-quarters struction. of the total budget (69), — — 29 30

It is too early to assess the potential of this their status in the wild, The existing public and program in meeting its goals. Nonetheless, by private collections of fish, apart from those of cultivating the conservation potential of exist- interest to hobbyists, are almost entirely assem- ing botanical institutions, the Center for Plant bled and replenished from the wild (36). While Conservation is making an important contribu- breeding of the American alligator (Alligator tion in maintaining biological diversity of wild mississippiensis) and Indian mugger (crocody- plant species, lus palustris) has been highly successful, the management and breeding of reptiles and am- Off-site Preservation of phibia in zoos is a relatively new field. Inver- Wild Animals tebrates have scarcely been considered,

4 Zoos have made the major efforts to breed di- Grassroots activities to preserve wild animals verse wild animal species in captivity (36), Most are diverse both in terms of the people involved of these institutions have evolved beyond their and the nature of their efforts. They range from earlier mission to gather and display a diverse individuals raising or breeding wild birds at collection of animals and devote a great propor- home to consortiums collecting animals from tion of their resources to the maintenance of the wild, protecting and reproducing them in rare species of birds and mammals. Zoos, how- a network of zoological gardens, and reintroduc- ever, are limited by the size of their facilities, ing them to their original habitats, A number and decisions about which species should re- of groups are concerned with the large popula- ceive their limited resources are a chronic prob- tions of formerly domestic animals now found lem. In addition, responsible genetic manage- wild (feral) primarily on public lands (28), Ex- ment requires maintenance of large populations amples include the wild burros (Equus asinus) which may be impractical for a single facility. of the West which are remnants from the early gold rush era and the wild pigs (Sus scrofa) and The American Association of Zoological goats (Capra hircus) of Hawaii which are Parks and Aquariums (AAZPA) is a professional descendants from animals left by the early Euro- organization representing approximately 175 pean explorers, These animals are viewed va- facilities in the United States and Canada (23). riously as potential reservoirs of disease, detri- Its primary objective is to conserve species by ments to preservation of native species, and coordinating the efforts of the zoo community sources of valuable genetic resources (28). to gain the greatest benefit from the available space. The AAZPA Species Survival Plans (SSP] Concern about maintenance of diversity currently oversee proper genetic management among wild animals is unequally distributed of some 30 captive animal species (l). among taxonomic groups (36). By far the great- est efforts have been made on behalf of “mam- Some efforts to preserve wild animals focus mals ranging from the large and awe-inspiring on maintenance of viable populations on-site. to the small and cuddly” (36). One survey re- This requires captive breeding of a species, in vealed that 17 of the 19 known orders of mam- some instances, so it can be reintroduced to its mals are represented by species in captivity (60). native habitat. Zoos have participated, through Captive breeding of birds has tended to concen- AAZPA, in such efforts, but rarely for native trate on relatively few species, notably parrots animal species. By contrast, the FWS Patuxent and birds of prey, chosen for factors other than Wildlife Research Center has bred and rein- troduced over 60 threatened species of reptiles, ~Some disagreement exists over use of the terms ‘‘wild and birds, and mammals native to the United States ‘‘exotic. For many, wild species are those foo nd i n natural envi- (21,36), They also have been successful inbreed- ronments and exotics refer to feral populations of domestic a ni- ing desert fishes in captivity at the FWS National mals. 1 n other cases, exotics are simply wild an i mal.s not nati~’e to this continent (e.g., African antelope species). In this back- Fish Hatchery in Dexter, New Mexico. ground paper, wild animal species are those presently or pre\ri- ousl} found to exist in the ~t’ild i n essent ia 11} the same form as The efforts discussed in this section illustrate i n their capti~re state. two very different ways in which grassroots 31 groups contribute to the maintenance of bio- bers’ interest. A bimonthly magazine, The AFA logical diversity, The American Federation of Watch bird, informs members of important na- Aviculture (AFA) supports a large number of tional and regional matters related to keeping private individuals who keep and breed exotic wild, nonnative, bird species. The group also birds and is an example of wild animal hobbyists funds conservation projects, and research on groups, On the other hand, Texas game ranchers avian diseases and the conditions necessary for collect and breed animals on a scale even greater the maintenance of healthy animals. They have than most zoos. encouraged cooperation of members on projects involving captive breeding of birds. American Federation of Aviculture One example is their recent cooperation with Many private citizens maintain collections of AAZPA to develop a breeding consortium for birds, reptiles, and mammals, For some of these the rare Black Palm Cockatoo (Probosciger ater- hobbyists maintaining diversity is a conse- rim us) (58). Approximately 100 of these birds, quence, not a goal, of their efforts, Animals, for brought into this country illegally in the fall of example, are usually raised for reproduction, 1983, were intercepted by U.S. Department of with the hope of profiting from sales of their the Interior officials. Through a concerted ef- offspring. On the other hand, many privately fort by AFA and AAZPA, DOI allowed these owned reptile and bird collections are exten- birds to be distributed among consortium mem- sive and professionally managed to conserve bers. AFA members are maintaining a breed- species. It is claimed that their efforts to repro- ing registry and will participate in a master plan duce species which are difficult to breed under overseen by AAZPA designees at the Baton controlled conditions, when successful, may Rouge Zoo in Louisiana. Such cooperation has discourage the illicit trade in endangered and been possible, in part, because private citizens threatened species by lowering prices enough have both the capabilities and facilities to ac- to make collection in the wild unprofitable—a cept these birds. point of considerable disagreement. National and regional societies support indi- viduals interested in captive breeding of wild animals. The sophistication and scope of such groups varies with the interests and goals of the individuals involved. Some simply exchange cultural information; others are making efforts to establish detailed records of the breeding his- tories for captive species to assure genetic diver- sity of the animals, The World Pheasant Association of the United States (WPA/USA) is an example of a small con- servation-oriented association with the twin goals of habitat and species preservation (58). Field studies are supplemented by captive breeding programs with qualified breeders. The organization, with its small membership, has had to rely on intensive public and private fund Photo credit U S Fish and Wildlife Service, Division of Law Enforcement raising endeavors to accomplish its goals. Black Palm Cockatoos (Probosciger aterrimus) at the National Zoo, Washington, DC, February 1984. Amateur AFA is a large, well-organized, national orga- bird breeders, in cooperation with the American nization that serves private breeders of exotic Federation of Aviculture, the American Association of Zoological Parks and Aquariums, and Federal agencies bird species, AFA holds an annual convention have formed a consortium for the captive breeding of and is politically active in support of its mem- this rare bird 32

AFA conducts a regular survey to determine Individuals keep wild animals for diverse rea- the type, population, and reproduction success sons, ranging from personal taste to a desire to of bird species being maintained in captivity. conserve rare and endangered species. Most of While not exhaustive, this survey provides bet- these people keep animals as a hobby and prob- ter information on the private breeding and ably contribute little to the overall preservation maintenance of birds than is otherwise avail- of biological diversity. However, the success of able. Such information is essential to locate in- a few private breeders with some exotic, endan- dividuals for breeding programs like that de- gered species may, it is argued, reduce the prices signed for the Black Palm cockatoo. They also for those species and make collection from the monitor the success of individual captive breed- wild unattractive. By monitoring the activities ing efforts and award successful efforts as well of individual breeders, groups like AFA can be as those member activities which encourage important links to a large, diverse sector from other bird keepers to gain and pass on skills in which accurate, well-maintained records of captive breeding. activities are otherwise unavailable (58). Such records can provide breeders with valuable tech- Some people are concerned that private col- nical information and access to larger, more ge- lectors contribute to the trade in endangered netically diverse populations. species, particularly native birds of prey. Nu- merous statutes limit the possession of such Texas Game Ranches birds (25), and at least one State forbids the sale of any wild collected bird in order to limit trade Individual interest sparks some grassroots in endangered and illegally imported animals. conservation projects, including the present Private collectors argue that such laws restrict efforts to breed exotic animals on ranches in legitimate efforts to propagate rare species and Texas, Colorado, Missouri, New Mexico, Flori- actually encourage illicit trade (34,37). Societies da, and Hawaii (77,83). The work, which began such as AFA discourage illegal activities by more than 50 years ago in Texas, has been both refusing membership to persons who have”. . . highly praised and sharply criticized. Although been convicted of violation of any State or Fed- these efforts are similar to those of other indi- eral law concerning the importation, interstate vidual collectors previously discussed, the scale shipment, possession or inhumane treatment of these operations as well as the high costs asso- of any avian species” (76). Such peer pressure, ciated with acquisition and maintenance of ex- while not fully effective, can make the market- otic mammalian stock restricts this pursuit to ing of illegally imported animals more difficult. a few individuals whose inclination is backed by adequate resources. A second problem is that importing exotic bird species may inadvertently introduce diseases The first Texas game ranch dates back to the of serious consequence for domestic fowl. For 1930s when the King Ranch purchased several example, the discovery that the highly conta- Nilgai (Boselaphus tragocamelus), a prolific spe- gious Newcastle’s disease (Velogenic Viscero- cies of Asian antelope (83). In their south Texas tropic Newcastle Disease) can infect exotic birds home, the antelope readily grew into a sizable, has been of great concern to aviculturists and though reportedly ill-tempered, herd. Another animal health officials. Finding a single infected Texas ranch in the 1940s established herds of bird generally requires the destruction of a col- blackbuck antelope and exotic deer species. lection. AFA has established telephone net- Intrigued by this latter success, other Texas works among its members to alert them of emer- ranchers soon boasted varied collections of Afri- gencies such as disease outbreaks. They also are can and Asian species. Ranchers, by 1960, were working to gain improvements in postquaran- allowing interested parties to hunt exotics (some tine holding and transfer facilities that would nearing extinction in their native lands) for prevent healthy imported stock from being mixed trophies. They began, over the next several with infected birds already in this country. years, to form associations with zoos to gain ac- 33 — cess to animals which were otherwise restricted from some ranches have been reintroduced into by USDA quarantine, In many cases, ranchers former native habitats, The potential to “recre- purchase parent stock, donate them to zoos, and ate” lost populations of animals in their origi- purchase the offspring. nal lands is often cited as justification for work- ing with exotic animals nearing extinction. The present scope of exotic wildlife ranch- ing in Texas is impressive (figure 3). The Texas Because space limits the captive breeding pro- population of the blackbuck antelope (Antilope grams in zoos, participants in AAZPA’s SSP (see cervicapra), for example, exceeds that in its na- p. 30) have turned to Texas ranchers for help tive Asia (58). Texas has at least 600 ranches, in breeding large vertebrates such as Grevy’s and “private reserves” are forming in other zebra (Equus grevyi), Scimitar-horned oryx regions (77), The success of many ranches has (Oryx tao), and black (Diceros bicornis) and made the United States a net exporter of some white (Ceratotherium simum) rhinos. The ranch- species of exotic deer, antelope, and other hoofed ers provide land, fencing, shelter, and mainte- animals (77). Trophy hunting still occurs, and nance for the designated animals; AAZPA con- a market has developed for the meat from sur- tributes selected animals and a comprehensive plus animals, Many ranchers also are becom- management plan. Some ranches have been re- ing more conservation oriented and animals luctant to join because AAZPA restricts hunt- ing of the offspring in such programs. Nonethe- less, the program has grown to include ranches Figure 3.— Major Exotic Wildlife Species Held by outside Texas. A New Mexico ranch, for exam- Private Ranchers in Texas ple, is cooperating with SSP on a plan to propa- gate Grevy’s zebra (Equus grevyi), Przewalski’s horse (E. przewalski), and the Tukmenian ku- lan (E. hemonius kulan). 31 640/0 Some of the efforts of Texas ranches have been controversial. When five black rhinos were im- ported for breeding on two Texas ranches, some observers hoped the project would contribute to the preservation of a rapidly disappearing spe- cies (6,83). Those hopes were dashed when one rhino died shortly after arrival and two others I 15.63%. died within the first year (77). In addition, the animals were found to be carrying an exotic tick 128100 12.37% 12.19% species which could be a hazard to livestock. The incident raised questions not only about 8.74% the importation of wild animals by ranchers but 6.62% also about the quarantine practices which ad- mitted the infested animals (83). Another concern is whether individual ranchers have the expertise to breed exotic ani- mals. Conventional wisdom says that people who successfully manage large domestic herds can be equally successful with exotics. Though this certainly has been true of many species, such as the axis deer (Axis axis), blackbuck (An- tilope cervicapra), and sika (Cervus nippon; fig- a“Others” consists of at least 49 species w!th populations statewide ranging from 1 to 5,636 For 32 of these the total animals in Texas IS less than 50 ure 3) (83), it may not hold for species such as SOURCE Texas Parks and Wildlife Department, 1985 the rhino. Without long-term genetic manage- 34 ment some experts fear these animals may be- uals. As such, they may not survive unless they come so adapted to their ranch environments provide sufficient income to at least cover the that they will no longer survive if reintroduced costs. Many ranchers have made efforts to pro- into their native habitats. The growing numbers vide long-term stability by establishing founda- for some species in Texas, however, presently tions, donating stock to universities or zoos in exceed those found in their declining natural Texas, or other mechanisms which would con- populations. Numbers can, in some cases, be tinue the work beyond their lifetimes (70), somewhat misleading as the animals may all Limited resources of zoos make it difficult to be descended from a very few initially imported save many large vertebrates, Individual ranchers, individuals. The large number of Nilgai, for ex- by providing much needed space and resources, ample, can all be traced back to the original im- can make a valuable contribution. Many organi- ports by the King Ranch. zational and long-term management problems Finally, ranchers are frequently reluctant to still exist, but ranches have the potential to pre- institutionalize or to allow their projects to be serve numerous large animal species in large, managed by outside experts. These collections, genetically diverse populations. as big as they are, still belong to private individ-

AGRICULTURAL CROPS AND LIVESTOCK

Conservation of a broad range of genes in Even corn and most of the bean and squash va- seeds, gametes, and living organisms is neces- rieties, on which much of the native American sary for the development of new crop and live- Indians depended, were developed from spe- stock breeds as well as other advances in agri- cies introduced much earlier from what is now culture including scientific study to understand Mexico, and Central and South America. Early the life processes of agricultural crops and live- immigrants to the United States quickly learned stock. The historical or cultural significance of that, if they wanted their traditional crops, they some breeds or crops (e. g., the place of Texas would have to bring seeds and plants with them Longhorn cattle in U.S. history) also provides (72). As wave upon wave of immigrants came a motivation for their conservation. to this country, the diversity of introduced crops grew. The groups highlighted in this section repre- sent examples of a wide range of activities and Introducing new crops became an official gov- motivations. They are united by their concern ernment activity in 1819, when the Secretary for plants and animals of agricultural signifi- of the Treasury enlisted the help of foreign diplo- cance. Their methods reflect constraints of mats and U.S. Navy personnel to collect plants finances, expertise, and facilities with which from abroad. Prompted initially by the desire they operate. to introduce new plants into the United States, and later by concern over inadvertent loss of Preservation of Agricultural Plants crop germplasm and the narrowing genetic base of American agriculture, the Federal Govern- The greatest service which can be rendered ment instituted various national systems to to any country is to add a useful plant to its collect, describe, maintain, evaluate, and dis- culture. tribute plant germplasm, These activities have —Thomas Jefferson evolved to what is today known as the National If Americans had to subsist on those food Plant Germplasm System (NPGS) (81). crops native to the United States, staples such NPGS historically has focused on foreign as cereals and potatoes and most standard fruits germplasm, collecting landraces and wild rela- and vegetables would be absent from their diets. tives of commercial crops from their centers of 35 diversity located primarily in developing coun- and addresses of all members with the seeds they tries. Relatively little action has been taken to have available for exchange and those they are ensure that traditional American varieties are trying to locate. The 256-page yearbook includes preserved—particularly heirloom vegetables 3,500 varieties, most unavailable from commer- and fruits, In addition, some concern now ex- cial sources. During the last 10 years, SSE mem- ists over how little Federal attention has been bers have supplied other gardeners with enough paid to the preservation of many commercial, seed samples of heirloom or unusual garden va- open pollinated varieties of garden seeds being rieties to make an estimated 300,000 plantings dropped by major seed companies in the United of noncommercial vegetable varieties that were States—an accelerating trend that has been asso- not in any seed catalog and were, in some cases, ciated with consolidation in the U.S. seed in- on the verge of extinction (41,80). dustry (32,79), Although the yearbook’s primary function is Grassroots individuals and organizations to facilitate seed exchanges between members, today are preserving a significant amount of it includes other features. A plant finder serv- crop genetic diversity not found in government ice assists those who are searching for historic or institutional collections (24,33,41). The rapid seed stock or for varieties that are no longer com- increase in membership in these organizations mercially available because they have been over the past decade is evidence of the growing dropped from seed catologs. Articles by experts interest in, and concern for, threatened tradi- educate members on backyard techniques for tional varieties. This section of the background maintaining genetic integrity of rare seedstocks paper highlights a number of grassroots groups and maintaining viability of stored seeds. Pub- addressing the two gaps in the Federal germ- lished correspondence informs members about plasm system described above—lack of atten- other organizations and individual curators who tion to traditional varieties and to varieties no are conserving rare vegetable varieties and pro- longer available from commercial sources. vides a forum for discussion of genetic conser- vation and related agricultural issues (41). The Seed Savers Exchange SSE also is concerned with endangered com- The Seed Savers Exchange (SSE) is a network- mercial varieties of garden vegetables, An SSE ing and seed banking organization which stands publication, The Garden Seed Inventory, is an out not only in the scope and importance of its effort to document the loss of garden vegetable work but also in the role it plays in the grass- seeds offered commercially. The 448-page in- roots genetic conservation movement (24,41). ventory covers 239 seed companies in the The organization’s founder, Kent Whealy, be- United States and Canada and describes the came involved with heirloom seeds in the fall 5,785 nonhybrid vegetables they still sell, While of 1973 when his wife’s grandfather gave him the inventory illustrates impressive diversity in seeds of three garden plants his family brought the vegetables available commercially, it also to the United States from Bavaria four genera- reveals some disturbing facts (table 2). Of most tions earlier. Sparked by a determination to pre- concern is the revelation that 2,792 varieties serve those varieties and a curiosity about the (48,3 percent ) of all nonhybrid garden varieties prevalence of heirloom plants, Whealy formed were available from only one of a possible 239 SSE which began, in 1975, as a loosely knit net- commercial sources, and 3,434 varieties (59.4 work with six members who exchanged seeds percent) were available from only one or two and information on heirloom plants. It has since commercial sources. The number of open pol- evolved into a not-for-profit, tax exempt organi- linated varieties dropped by the seed compa- zation whose 450 member/gardeners are work- nies increased during the course of the 3-year ing together to save heirloom and endangered inventory (79,80). garden seeds from extinction (80). Using the inventory as an early warning sys- The backbone of the organization is its year- tem, SSE has identified those varieties most book, The 1985 Winter Yearbook lists names threatened with commercial extinction and is 36

Table 2.—Open Pollinated Vegetable Varieties Dropped From Seed Company Catalogs

Companies Number of Dropped during Percent of Year inventoried varieties that year the total 1982 ...... :, ...... 138 — 117 — 1983 ...... 184 — 237 — 1984 ...... 239 5,785 263 4,5 ”/0 SOURCES K Whealy (ed ), The Garden Seed Irrvenfory (Decorah, 1A Seed Saver Publlcatlons, 1985) K Whealy, “Role of the Seed Savers Exchange In Mairrtatntng Genetic Diversity, ” discussion paper prepared for the Of ftce of Technology Assessment Workshop on U S Grassroots Actlvlties In Maintaining Blologlcal Diversity August 1985 trying to acquire as many of these varieties as Figure 4.— Numbers of Bean and Tomato Varieties possible. They purchased 1,200 of these vari- Held by Seed Savers Exchange Contained in the eties in 1985 and intend to double this number U.S. National Seed Storage Laboratory in 1986. Whealy’s own collection of heirloom 1,80 material now totals 4,000 accessions; including 1.70 2,200 beans, 600 tomatoes, 400 squash, 200 pota- 1.60 toes, 200 corns, 100 peppers, 100 watermelons and 100 muskmelons. One recent study found that the SSE collection contains a significant number of varieties not maintained by NPGS, In each of five crops investigated (beans, toma- toes, watermelon, spinach, and beets) a large percentage of the SSE collection was not in- cluded in the National Seed Storage Laboratory (NSSL) [24) (figure 4).5 A Growers Network of amateur gardeners helps multiply and replenish SSE seedstock, Though many growers are reliable, the network 0.30 as a whole returned seed with a “mistake” fac- 0.20 tor of 8 to 10 percent, raising serious questions 0.10 -1 about whether such a network can permanently maintain such a large collection (80). As a backup to the Growers Network, Whealy plans to grow out his entire collection, using a 3-year rotation, on a rented 5-acre field in Decorah, Iowa. In the first grow-out in 1985 Whealy, assisted by his son and one volunteer SSE mem- ber, planted some 2,000 vegetable varieties. All SSE hopes eventually to develop its own vine crops and corns were hand-pollinated, and “preservation farm” with a large trial garden peppers were caged to preserve seed purity. The as well as a system of specialized greenhouses grow-out also allowed Whealy to evaluate unique and underground root cellars. The organization characteristics and record valuable data on the also would like to expand its conservation activ- relative performance of the varieties. ities to include livestock, poultry, fruits, nuts, berries, and wild relatives of food crops. Ulti- mately, it hopes to develop a network of a dozen ‘This stud}’ only examined which SSE varieties were held at such farms in different climates around the the NSSL, While, in principle, NSSL is responsible for maintain- country, maintaining and evaluating such col- ing duplicate samples of all varieties held in other National Plant lections (80). SSE will have to broaden its fund- Germplasm System (NPGS) collections, this has not been the case in practice. Thus, numbers cited for the NSSL may not reflect ing base significantly to accomplish all this. Cur- total collections in the NPGS. rently, SSE operates on an annual budget of .—

37 —.

$40,000 mostly from membership and sales of publications. Grant funding, averaging about one-quarter of SSE’s budget, has been received from private foundations, and for one project, from a private seed company. In sum, SSE serves to maintain biological diversity by maintaining its own collections of heirloom and commercially endangered vari- eties; promoting the adoption of these rare va- rieties among other gardeners; and educating its members and others on issues important to the maintenance of biological diversity. As a network organization, it has been able to pool the dedication, knowledge, and resources of a core group of vegetable growing enthusiasts, enhancing their overall contributions to vegeta- The now rare “rusty coat” apple being maintained by ble variety protection than would be possible NAFEX member Dr. Elwood Fisher. It originated in the if these individuals did not interact. SSE also Southeastern United States some 200 years ago, and was commonly grown by early pioneers because of has become a focal point for information ex- its good keeping qualities change on rare varieties, a clearinghouse of in- formation on what heirloom vegetable varieties are being maintained at the grassroots level, and Although they call themselves “hobby ists,” where to acquire them. In this capacity, SSE NAFEX includes many amateur horticultural- could serve as an intermediary between the nu- ists with specialized skills in plant propagation. merous grassroots individuals preserving crop They share their technical knowledge with diversity and the government activities with others through workshops on grafting, air-layer- responsibility to do so. ing, pest control, and plant propagation and management techniques (24,40). The organiza- tion also maintains a lending library through North American Fruit Explorers the mail, and they occasionally give small re- search grants. Moreover, they sponsor groups NAFEX, the North American Fruit Explorers, to evaluate and research some 30 types of fruit. is a nonprofit organization of 3,000 hobbyists In many cases, the collections of NAFEX mem- who locate, test, and preserve superior or spe- bers contain rare clones or varieties not avail- cial fruit and nut varieties regardless of their able elsewhere. Members frequently seek aban- commercial importance, NAFEX deals regu- doned orchards to locate and rescue unique or larly with 21 woody, nut- or fruit-bearing spe- threatened varieties. cies native to the North American continent (46). One NAFEX member for whom preserving NAFEX began with a few dedicated fruit en- biological diversity is a major goal is Dr. Elwood thusiasts circulating round robin letters in the Fisher, a biology professor from Virginia, who early 1960s. This informal network had grown maintains what is believed to be the largest pri- so large by 1967 that it took 2½ years for the vate collection of heirloom fruit in the United collection of letters to get through the entire States. On only half an acre of land, he has cre- group, so the group decided to publish a quar- ated a preservation orchard containing 840 terly magazine called The Pomona after the Ro- kinds of apples, 160 pears, 52 cherries, 27 plums, man goddess of fruit. Today the leadership and 15 peaches, 47 apricots, 20 grapes, 21 blueber- membership of NAFEX are widely dispersed, ries, and many varieties of other fruits and ber- Its president lives in Michigan, its vice-president ries—about 2,000 different varieties in all (24). in Indiana, The Pomona is edited in Illinois and printed in Wisconsin. The 1985 annual meet- Although NAFEX had difficulties obtaining ing was held in West Virginia (24), samples from the USDA regional plant intro- 38 duction stations during its early years, a more Regional Seed Exchanges reciprocal relationship has been developed with Many regions of the United States now have certain scientists at Federal Clonal Repositories either a nonprofit seed exchange or a small seed and Plant Introduction Stations. While some company specializing in garden vegetables, grassroots groups such as NAFEX praise indi- fruits, or wildflowers which are adapted to lo- viduals in government for their support, they cal soil and climate. Most of these organizations remain critical of the lack of formal government are less than 10 years old. Many have arisen commitment to greater cooperation with and from grassroots concern over trends in the seed support for grassroots genetic conservation industry, particularly the tendency for larger work (24). seed companies to replace regionally adapted While NAFEX is a relatively strong and grow- varieties with more profitable all-purpose vari- ing grassroots organization, its limited funding eties (41). While this trend toward consolida- restricts its potential. Its staff is unpaid and tion is not unique to the seed industry (reports funds are raised through membership. No out- of mergers and buy-outs in various industries side funding from government or foundations have become a staple in the media), its conse- has ever been sought or received. Currently, the quences are particularly unsettling in the seed organization uses a computer only for its mail- industry because varieties which lose the pro- ing list, but members would like to create a com- tection of a seed company may become extinct, puterized list of fruit and nut varieties and their contributing to the loss of biological diversity. locations—a grassroots version of the Federal Small regional seed companies often encoun- Government’s Fruit and Nut Germplasm Inven- ter unique problems. For some, customer de- tory (24), Although such a database could help mand is too great for them to grow their own identify threatened varieties which exist only seed yet too small to justify the relatively large in private collections, current funding does not minimum orders required by commercial seed permit such an ambitious project. growers. Some States assess an annual regis- Government breeding activities have focused tration fee for each variety marketed, While the largely on preserving and developing fruit va- fees generally are inconsequential for large high- rieties with qualities suited to commercial pro- volume companies, they can be substantial for duction, including appearance and transport- a small company selling only a few packets each ability. In contrast, NAFEX members are less of a relatively large number of varieties. The concerned with these commercial qualities, greatest problem, however, is that small com- focusing more on maintaining fruits with ex- panies cannot generate enough customers to be ceptional qualities such as particular taste, tex- self-supporting. Regional nonprofit seed ex- ture, or qualities well suited to backyard changes are one solution to this problem. gardeners. The Abundant Life Seed Foundation is an ex- NAFEX members are thus engaged in main- ample of a small seed company that became a taining, promoting, and researching a broad nonprofit regional exchange. Abundant Life range of fruit varieties that would otherwise be was founded 10 years ago as a small solely ignored. Their research, acquisition of foreign owned seed business. Forest Shomer, its varieties, and breeding activities have enabled founder, gradually decided that his goal was to them to enhance the quality and growing range distribute seeds rather than profit from them, of numerous types of fruits which, in some so he formed a nonprofit organization dedicated cases, has encouraged public or commercial re- to teaching people about growing and collect- search activities on a particular variety. To this ing seeds, The 10,000 member organization, lo- end, their activities in genetic conservation has cated in northwestern Washington State, deals served not only the interest of their member- mainly with indigenous or naturalized plants ship but, more broadly, the public interest. of the Pacific Northwest. Its services to the peo- 39 ple of that region include seminars, apprentice- interested gardeners, but free to researchers, ships, a catalog of seeds and books for sale, and individual native American families, and non- a calendar listing seed-collecting time for 350 profit organizations. wild plants. Proceeds from these activities pro- The organization also pays native American vide the foundation’s annual budget (in 1983) farmers to replenish the seed to encourage them of $80,000 (64). to farm rather than work elsewhere for wages. The Abundant Life Seed Foundation sells To encourage the local use of these plants, nu- seeds of 500 species (44). Of those, they grew tritional and other information is provided their own seed for 200 crops on 2 acres of land through cultural education programs. in 1985. They hope to expand their propagation Support for the activities of Native Seeds/ efforts in the future to increase stocks of her- SEARCH comes from membership dues and the itage varieties received from other collections, sale of seeds and publications. The bulk of their as well as regionally adapted varieties that have operating expenses is provided by grants from become commercially scarce (2). Another goal private foundations with some additional proj- is to gather 2,000 plant species native to the ect-specific support coming from a private cor- region. poration. This foundation support is critical to Native Seeds/Southwestern Endangered the continuation of the broad range of Native Aridland Resource Clearing House (Native Seeds/SEARCH activities. Seeds/SEARCH), another regional nonprofit Regional seed exchanges like Abundant Life group, is concerned with conservation of agri- Seed Foundation and Native Seeds/SEARCH cultural crop varieties and their wild relatives provide very specific, local assistance to farmers of the American Southwest, They are particu- and gardeners. They commonly preserve and larly concerned about traditional native Amer- distribute varieties that have been overlooked ican crops threatened with extinction and use or abandoned by large companies. Further, they on-site and off-site techniques to preserve the play an important role in the preservation of diversity of these crops. Specifically, their goals little-known native crop varieties. Such ex- are to preserve specific genetic types, conserve changes also allow interested individuals to dis- lands where wild crop relatives are found, and tribute a broad range of seed varieties without restore traditional agricultural systems of na- the restrictions associated with operation of tive Americans in the Southwestern United small seed companies. States and northern Mexico. The activities of Native Seeds/SEARCH are Living Historical Farms many and varied. Staff members have accom- Living Historical Farms are open-air muse- panied national and international expeditions ums that re-create and interpret the agricultural to remote areas of the Southwest to locate and activities of a particular time and place in his- collect seeds of wild plants which are closely tory (84). Some 200 such museums are believed related to modern crops. Seeds of these plants to exist in North America, and at least 10 mil- are collected, multiplied, and stored. lion people visit them each year (48). The group also works with the Arizona chap- Historically, these institutions meticulously ter of The Nature Conservancy to promote pres- have re-created the architecture, hardware, ervation of specific areas which contain impor- costumes, and other objects associated with tant populations of wild crop relatives and they farming in the place and period they portray, have sought endangered species protection for The crops and livestock displayed frequently critical and rare crop relatives. have been anachronisms, Many museums pur- Native Seeds/SEARCH seeks out traditional chase modern varieties of vegetables to plant crop varieties found in native American gar- in their gardens or plow using animal breeds dens. These are provided at modest charge to not appropriate for the time period (28,33,84), 40

A number of these institutions more recently have committed themselves to researching and displaying historical varieties of crops and appropriate breeds of livestock. Much of the impetus for this activity comes from the Asso- ciation of American Living Historical Farms and Agricultural Museums (ALHFAM) which formed a Seeds and Breeds Committee in 1981. The committee split into separate committees specializing in seeds and animal breeds in 1984. During workshops at the 1985 ALHFAM con- vention both committees reported on efforts at some museums to incorporate historically ac- curate crops and breeds in their interpretive pro- grams, The workshops became a forum encour- aging better communication among member Photo credit: National Colonial Farm organizations, appropriate government agen- Interpreter describing herb garden to visitors at the cies, private companies, and other grassroots National Colonial Farm, Accokeek, Maryland programs (84). The conference also outlined how living his- torical museums could contribute to the pres- older visitors, the importance of biological diver- sity to modern agriculture. The goal is to make ervation of plant and animal genetic diversity visitors aware that, although some older vari- both by actually maintaining historical breeds eties look less productive or appealing, the and seeds and by educating visitors about the genetic material they contain has enabled plant importance of biological diversity to agriculture. breeders to develop the more productive and Public education seems to have the greatest po- disease-resistant varieties available today (49). tential in part because living historical museums can expose such a large segment of the public The Genesee County Museum, a re-created to the genetic preservation issue (84). A good 19th century village in Mumford, New York, example is the National Colonial Farm (NCF), educates its visitors about the value of heirloom an 18th century tobacco plantation run by the vegetables, They spread the word about genetic Accokeek Foundation in Accokeek, Maryland. diversity through an annual harvest festival After 20 years of collection, preservation, and which features displays of old varieties of fruits research on old plant varieties, NCF is at the and vegetables as well as old livestock breeds forefront in agricultural interpretation for liv- that are rare today. Seeds from their heirloom ing historical farms. The foundation’s research vegetable garden are on sale every spring. These programs on agricultural history, restoration programs make gardeners aware that these old of the American chestnut tree, heirloom plant varieties, like the other historical artifacts that varieties, land preservation techniques, and na- the museum displays, are heirlooms that should tive flora provide background for their interpre- be preserved (33). tive programs (41). The success of the program The Oliver H. Kelley Farm in Elk River, Min- stems from an institutional commitment to pre- nesota, is another living historical farm that ac- serving old varieties as reflected by the pres- tively educates visitors on the historical impor- ence of a full-time horticulturist on the staff. tance of old crop varieties. Although surveys NCF intends to increase its educational activ- indicate that visitors to living historical farms ities by developing a permanent exhibit which are more interested in crafts demonstrations will explain genetic diversity. They also are than crops, Tom Woods, the director at the farm, working with local schools to tailor interpreta- feels that educating the public about old crops tive programs which teach students, as well as is one of the most valuable roles a museum can 41 play. Accordingly, Wood weaves the history of eties of crops and rare breeds of livestock diffi- the old varieties being grown on the farm into cult if not impossible (28), Because no tradition the farm’s interpretative program (33,84). of plant curation and animal breeding exists, directors at many institutions are not particu- Each of these institutions is committed to re- larly interested, Even committed institutions searching and maintaining historically accurate varieties, an effort that can consume consider- face problems including limited budgets, lack of expertise, and staff shortages and turnovers, able staff time and funding. Tracking down or Although these factors limit the potential of most re-creating old varieties by back-crossing can living historical farms for long-term germ plasm be particularly time-consuming, Dedicated in- maintenance, they have greater potential in rais- dividuals in these institutions have solicited ing public interest, understanding, and concern assistance and seed stock from outside sources, about the importance of biological diversity to including universities, USDA Plant Introduction agriculture. Stations, private seed companies, and grassroots seed exchanges. By sharing information and seeds, these pioneer programs have made it Preservation of Agricultural Animals easier for other living— history farms to begin sim- ilar programs, Concern for conserving domestic animal germplasm stems largely from the knowledge that Maintaining livestock also is an important fac- production and market conditions can change. tor in re-creating farm environments of the past Genotypes lost in the past may, in fact, be the (20). Yet because they lack space, financial re- very ones most suited for future environments sources, and skilled personnel, 80 percent of ALHFAM’s 600 members have no livestock pro- or markets, The potential to transfer genes between species using genetic engineering is grams of any kind (20). Old Sturbridge Village another reason for conserving rare and unusual (Massachusetts), Colonial Williamsburg (Vir- genomes so the y will be available for future use ginia), Plimoth [sic] Plantation (Massachusetts), (22), More esoteric rationales for conserving and Sleep y Hollow Restoration (New York) are threatened breeds of livestock include their in- among the exceptions. trinsic, cultural, and historic values. Because they want breeds that look histori- cally accurate, museums have put an emphasis While extinction of domesticated animal spe- cies is unlikely, the loss of specific genes or geno- on re-creating physical appearance (phenotype) types is occurring. This loss of biological diver- rather than genetic accuracy (genotype) of the sity usually happens when particular breeds or original breed (28). Today, an emerging inter- strains are dropped from the commercial main- est in rare breed conservation has sparked in- creased concern for preserving genotypes (28). stream or do not have obvious economic value, The U.S. animal agricultural system concen- Avoiding detrimental inbreeding in livestock trates on modern breeds and management tech- requires populations larger than can be kept at niques because its primary concern is improved most living historical farms. Old Sturbridge Vil- food production, Yet failure to maintain old or lage has maintained Milking Devon cattle and unusual breeds reduces the genetic diversity of Tamworth pigs by cooperating with local breed- animal germplasm (15,26), ers who maintain large breeding herds and who An estimated 60 to 100 minor breeds of sheep, supply animals to the museum (63). Old Stur- cattle, pigs, horses, and goats exist in the United bridge Village is also one of very few living his- States. None are indigenous to this country, but torical farms to fund the collection and storage some are now extinct in their country of ori- of semen from bulls of rare breeds (28), gin, Others have the same name as foreign The exemplary programs highlighted in this breeds but, through years of separate selection section are exceptions. Most living historical by humans and the environment, have devel- farms find long-term preservation of old vari- oped“ into quite different strains. Still others are 42 unique combinations created in and restricted ple are, in effect, maintaining a resource, often to the United States (26). without realizing it and seldom with any encour- agement or support, The number of old-fash- Despite a recognition that sampling, evaluat- ioned breeders and the minority breeds they are ing, preserving, and using exotic and endan- preserving are dwindling under commercial gered sources of domesticated animal germ- pressure and USDA recommendations to re- plasm would be in the national interest, no place or crossbreed these stocks with modern, organized program currently exists, either in more productive strains (26), the United States or internationally (15,74). Commercial breeding companies and, to a great- Mulefoot hog breeders area typical case, The er extent, artificial insemination companies do mulefoot is a large (males weigh 600 lbs), nor- preserve some animal germplasm, but neither mally black, hairy pig. The hog is known for its have significant programs, particularly for the mild temperament, superior mothering ability, maintenance of living collections of minor and its ability to thrive outdoors. Its unique char- breeds of livestock. acteristic is a single, fused toe on each foot, rather than the normal cloven hoof. Some The purpose of this section is to report on con- breeders feel that this characteristic could solve tributions of individuals, breed associations, the problem of splayed feet typical of hogs which and network organizations in maintaining the are raised in enclosures with concrete floors. biological diversity of domesticated animal spe- In 1910, 235 breeders were registered in 22 cies in the United States, More specifically, it States by two separate Mulefoot Hog Associa- examines grassroots activities which, for vari- tions. Because the hogs do not thrive under in- ous reasons, maintain living collections of so- tensive confinement management with high called minor breeds—agricultural animals that protein diets, their numbers dwindled. The last are not commercial at this time. breed association dissolved 8 years ago and individual Animal Breeders today, the only major breeder is R.M. Holliday of Louisiana, Missouri (28). Individual breeders maintain most of the mi- Holliday, whose family has maintained mule- nor breeds in the United States. Various circum- foot hogs for over 75 years, rears at least 300 stances and motivations have allowed them to market pigs a year, He keeps his own breeding perpetuate these breeds despite pressures to re- place or crossbreed stocks with modern, more productive strains. Many minor breeds are maintained by a dwindling number of old- -fashioned farmers and breeders who never made the capital investment to replace their stock or who maintain a breed because its qual- ities are well suited to their lower inputs and management practices, In a few cases a breeder may find or develop a specialty market for a product derived from a rare breed. Yet others may maintain minor breeds as a hobby or to show competitively. Finally, a few breeders maintain a particular rare breed at their own expense because they are concerned about its long-term survival of a particular breed. R. M. Holliday.—Although agriculture has de- veloped rapidly in the past 40 years, many peo- Photo credit: American Minor Breeds Conservancy ple still farm in traditional ways with breeds Mule-footed hog, a minor livestock breed notable for of livestock they have always used. These peo- its single-fused toe on each foot 43 .- records and, until recently, sold breeding stocks to interested farmers. For various reasons, in- cluding costs associated with selling pigs in other States (veterinary certification and other paperwork costing on the order of $50 per pig], Holliday has been forced to restrict his opera- tions to the production of pigs for the local meat market (28). The survival of this hog breed largely depends on the determination of one man, now in his late sixties. I. Painter.—A small number of people in the United States are committed to the concept of rare breed conservation per se and are prepared to maintain those stocks even in the face of re- duced income. one example is Ingrid Painter of Seattle, Washington, who is working to con- serve the old type Navajo sheep. Descended from the Churro sheep introduced by the Spanish in the early 1600s, the Navajo sheep is highly adapted to the climatic extremes on the Navajo reservation. Its wool is used to produce Navaho rugs, a major source of cash income for the reservation. To improve carcass quality and salability of wool produced on the reservation, State and Federal extension agents on the reservation have since 1883 encouraged the use of short wool meat sheep to replace the * Navajo sheep. Consequently, less than 500 old- Photo credit: American Minor Breeds Conservancy type Navajo sheep remain, mostly in the most Four-horned ram of the old-type Navajo sheep, This remote areas of the reservation. A small con- now rare breed was once used extensively by Navajo Indians because of its adaptation to climatic servation program for the “old-type Navajos” extremes on the reservation is run by Utah State University, but otherwise the survival of the breed is dependent on en- otherwise vulnerable. To be effective, such con- thusiasts such as Ingrid Painter. tributions need to be identified, monitored, and Because of her interest in American weaving, encouraged. Efforts to date have been in- particularly that of the Navajo Indians, Ms. adequate. Painter purchased some old-type Navajo sheep in 1974 and has since been collecting good ex- Animal Breed Associations amples of the breed ever since. She has pub- Breed associations are unions of farmers who lished a small book on the breed; produces a maintain and produce the same pure breed. regular newsletter which circulates to over 400 They provide pedigree registration and certifi- interested people; and gives lectures on the cation services to their members, and they pro- breed as well as Navajo weaving techniques. mote and market their breed commercially. Or- Ms. Painter’s efforts illustrate how the moti- dinarily, breed associations try to improve their vation and expertise of an individual could be stock by encouraging selective breeding which, enlisted to conserve important minor breeds of by definition, removes “less desirable” geno- livestock in the United States. Individual efforts, types from the population and gradually reduces however, often are financially unstable and the genetic variation within the breed. As a re- 44 suit, breed promotion and breed improvement association started in 1935 but by the 1960s can be detrimental to the maintenance of genetic horses were no longer a primary source of pow- diversity. However, if every breed has an asso- er, and the larger herds disappeared along with ciation and their standards and proposed char- the farming breeders. Activity in the associa- acteristics differ, the combined efforts of breed tion nearly ceased, although the registration associations could contribute to conserving service remained open if unused. The secretary genetic diversity (28), of the association convinced that the breed was doomed to extinction, made plans in the mid- Alternatively, one breed may dominate mar- 1970s to give all of the association’s records to kets, forcing others out. The most notable ex- the Iowa State University library so that at least ample is in the American dairy industry. Cur- its history would survive (27). rent pricing policies for dairy products favor low milk-solids content. Holstein cattle, having A small group of breeders reestablished the superior whole-milk production per cow, ac- American Cream Draft Horse Association in counted for 79 percent (in 1981) of all U.S. dairy early 1983. Among them they maintain 28 pure- cattle registrations (29), despite the fact that their bred mares and 6 stallions, Of the four major high production requires high levels of concen- breeders, three are in their sixties and only one trated feeding (15). With efficient sire selection, still works his farm with the breed. Although artificial insemination, and embryo transfer the association maintains the records necessary programs, the Holstein Association will prob- to avoid the problems of inbreeding, it has little ably continue to acquire a greater proportion money to advertise the breed. Even if a market of the market at the expense of other breeds and could be generated, it is unlikely that these the national pool of genetic variation in dairy breeders could accommodate it. In the absence cattle (28). of semen storage and distribution facilities, mares sold to new buyers without access to The associations of the declining breeds (e.g., American Cream Draft stallions, in effect, are the Jersey, Guernsey, Ayshire, and others), in lost to the breed (27). fighting for their share of the market, are work- ing to conserve biological diversity, These asso- The American Cream Draft Horse is typical ciations keep breeders in touch with one of numerous minor breeds that owe their exis- another, record pedigree information that can tence to the officers and members of a breed prevent serious inbreeding in small populations, association. The case of the American Cream and promote the breed in a number of ways (28), Draft Horse Association demonstrates how their Active associations are important for the sur- activities can contribute to the preservation of vival of minor breeds, but they are dependent diversity, even though most breed associations on member contributions and, in the case of do not consider the conservation of diversity small associations, are frequently member-run. as one of their major goals. Paradoxically, the Consequently, a small group of breeders that most threatened breeds are the least likely to really needs the support of an association to pro- have a breed association capable of protecting mote their breed may not be able to sustain one and promoting them, (16), American Minor Breeds Conservancy The tenuous dependence of a minor breed on its breed association is illustrated by the Amer- Improved networking will be necessary to ican Cream Draft Horse Association. Developed capitalize on the scattered contributions of the in Iowa in the early 1900s, the American Cream numerous grassroots individuals and associa- is related to the American Belgian and is the tions currently maintaining U.S. living collec- only draft horse breed developed in America. tions of minor breeds. Such activities, to date, It gained popularity in the Midwest during the are few and seldom focused on maintaining bio- 1930s through the 1950s, and teams were regu- logical diversity. The one exception is the Amer- larly shown at Midwestern fairs (27). A breed ican Minor Breeds Conservancy (AMBC), the 45

information base will a low AMBC to set priorities for its rescue and preservation efforts. 2. Promote rare and endangered breeds by focusing national attention on those most severely threatened. Interested farmers and potential breeders will be able to locate sources of breeding stock through AMBC. 3. Facilitate preservation of breeds by stimu- lating discussion between breeders, en- couraging formation of breed associations, and providing technical help and advice to existing breed associations. 4. Establish a computerized registry for all breeds without an active registry. The Photo credit: American Minor Breeds Conservancy project also will help existing registries American Cream Draft Horse. The only breed of draft identify and locate unrelated breeding horse developed in the United States lines, Although these coordinating activities could only network organization in North America have great value, they are unlikely to be accom- whose primary goal is conserving rare domes- plished by an organization as underfunded and tic breeds of livestock, understaffed as AMBC. However, the establish- AMBC was established in 1977 as a small orga- ment of a National Animal Genetic Resources nization run by volunteers. Initially, no animal Board, as has already been proposed elsewhere breeders were involved, A 1981 article, pub- (15,74) could provide the national support, ex- lished in the popular press, focused national pertise, and direction such an organization attention on the organization and prompted in- needs. What SSE (seep. 36) has done for vegeta- terest from breeders’ groups. Although AMBC bles, AMBC could do for livestock by becoming is still not financially secure, it recently received an intermediary between individuals maintain- modest outside funding which allowed it to hire ing living collections of endangered livestock a full-time project director and an administra- and a national program conserving animal ge- netic resources. tive assistant (63), The organization launched the AMBC Rare Although frozen storage of gametes and em- Breeds Rescue Project (RBRP) in the spring of bryos of agricultural livestock is preferable to 1985 to survey minor domestic and feral breeds maintaining living collections for both genetic in the United States. The project also plans to and economic reasons (65,66), there are biologi- cal and cultural reasons for maintaining living establish a national network system for regis- tration and referral of stock, as well as breed- collections of minor breeds of livestock. For one thing, frozen storage cannot currently be ap- ing, and research activities in minor breeds (28). plied to all livestock (22). Since a Federal pro- Plans for the RBRP include four main elements gram to maintain living collections of all mi- (62): nor breeds in the United States is unlikely, 1. Assess the current status of rare breeds, in- preserving this diversity depends on the activi- cluding publication of the first “endangered ties of grassroots individuals, groups, and net- species list” of farm animal breeds, This works like AMBC.