OSU Policy Analysis Laboratory

! Crossing the Finish Line

!

On-Time Graduation Rate in Corvallis, Oregon

OSU Policy Analysis Laboratory (OPAL) Authored by: Katie Archambault, Brittany V. Gaustad, Anna Kelly, Trang Chau Tran

Crossing the Finish Line On-Time Graduation Rate in Corvallis, Oregon

Table of Contents EXECUTIVE SUMMARY ...... 2 THE PROBLEM ...... 3 LITERATURE REVIEW ...... 4 DEMOGRAPHICS ...... 4 ECONOMIC DISADVANTAGE ...... 4 FAMILY BACKGROUND ...... 5 TRANSITION TO HIGH SCHOOL ...... 5 MOTIVATION ...... 6 CHARACTERISTICS OF EFFECTIVE INTERVENTIONS ...... 6 CORVALLIS IN CONTEXT ...... 6 MEASURING HIGH SCHOOL GRADUATION ...... 6 METHODOLOGY ...... 8 QUANTITATIVE ...... 8 QUALITATIVE ...... 9 FINDINGS ...... 10 ON-TIME GRADUATION ...... 10 ALTERNATIVE GRADUATION ...... 15 SCHOOL CLIMATE ...... 18 SUGGESTIONS FOR IMPROVEMENT ...... 19 LIMITATIONS ...... 21 RECOMMENDATIONS ...... 22 REFERENCES ...... 23 APPENDIX A ...... 30 INTERVIEW QUESTIONS ...... 30 APPENDIX B ...... 31

Crossing the Finish Line

1 Executive Summary

The on-time high school graduation rate in the Corvallis School District (CSD) was found to be 72.3 percent for the 2009 cohort of interest, which is slightly above the state average but lagging behind the national average. Through the utilization of CSD data as well as interviews with 13 CSD professionals, the present study creates a profile of the students who graduate on time as well as characteristics associated with students who tend not to graduate on time. Additionally, factors that contribute to on-time graduation and non-graduation, school climate information, and suggestions for improvement were identified during interviews. The characteristics associated most with delayed or non-graduation include: minority group membership, English Language Learners, presence of a disability, and those living in poverty. Findings and recommendations are included at the end of the report. The present study makes clear which students need more support in the pursuit of on-time graduation.

Crossing the Finish Line

2 The Problem In 2009, the graduation rate of the United States of America ranked twenty-first out of twenty-six among OECD countries1 (Cardoza, 2012). Failing to graduate from high school on time leads young adults down a risky life path, with both individual ramifications as well as challenges for society. Non-graduates have a higher likelihood of being unemployed and on public assistance (Christle et. al, 2007; Battin-Pearson et al., 2000; Khatiwada, Sum, McLaughen, & Palma, 2009). An educated population is essential to a nation’s prosperity and economic competitiveness (Baldwin & Borrelli, 2008). For this reason, there is a minimum goal of basic high school academic proficiency for every student in the nation. In both 2009 and 20012, President Barack Obama addressed the need for Americans to be educated in order to remain globally competitive. In 2009, he said:

DROPPING OUT OF HIGH SCHOOL IS NO LONGER AN OPTION. IT’S NOT JUST QUITTING ON YOURSELF; IT’S QUITTING ON YOUR COUNTRY – AND THIS COUNTY NEEDS AND VALUES THE TALENTS OF EVERY AMERICAN (OBAMA, 2009).

Again in 2012, the president stated, “The nation that out-educates us today is going to out- compete us tomorrow. To continue to cede our leadership in education is to cede our position in the world” (Obama, 2012). In a country with a growing need for a highly educated work force (Messacar & Oreopoulos, 2013), finishing high school is crucial to securing well-paid employment in adulthood. Those who do not finish high school are generally paid less than their counterparts, even if they have demonstrated the same level of knowledge with a general high school equivalency certificate (GED) (Cameron, Heckman, & Cameron, 2014; Pharris-Ciurej, Hirschman, & Willhoft, 2012; Tyler & Loftstrom, 2009; Tyler, 2014; Cameron & Heckman, 2001). Although a GED is proof of comparable knowledge and skills, it does not confer the same job opportunities as a high school diploma. Not only do those who fail to receive a high school diploma have less income, they have lower overall health as well because individuals

without a high school diploma are less likely to receive pensions and employer-sponsored health insurance (Tyler & Loftstrom, 2009). Thus the lack of a high school diploma is expensive for both the individual and for society at large (Pharris-Ciurej et al., 2012). One of the most telling areas of public damage from having non-graduates is in the prison system. High school dropouts make up the majority of the United States prison system, representing 68 percent of total prisoners (Khatiwada, Sum, McLaughen, & Palma, 2009). Crossing the Finish Line

3 1 OECD is the Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development

Moreover, half of all mothers receiving Temporary Assistance to Needy Families (TANF) lack a high school diploma; they are also more likely to live in extreme poverty than mothers with a high school diploma (Upchurch & McCarthy, 1989). Using a case study of the 2009 high school cohort from Corvallis, Oregon, this study will identify some of the common factors among those who fail to graduate on time through an analysis of student records and interviews with school district personnel. The report will begin with a literature review of some of the main predictive factors that influence a student’s likelihood of high school graduation, then will compare Corvallis to the national and state graduation rate. The report then outlines the methods, findings, study limitations, and proposes some recommendations.

Literature Review

Demographics Widely documented key indicators that increase the academic achievement gaps among high school students include race and ethnicity (Rumbaut, 2005; Caro et al., 2009; Suh, 2007), economic disadvantage (Laird et al., 2007; Christle & Jolivette, 2007), family instability (Manski, 1992) and insecure neighborhood (Sirin, 2005). Firstly, educational deficiencies of students from minority racial groups are explained because of the lack of academic skills when they initially enter school (Duncan, 2005) as well as their lagging behind in school readiness and engagement compared to white students (Ream & Rumberger, 2008). Students who are brought up in Hispanic or black families are more likely to experience economic loss and material inadequacy, family disruption and psychological hardship (Duncan, 2005), mother’s irritability and irresponsiveness and low parental human capital (McLanahan, 2005). These factors have seriously hindered minority students in attaining academic development, and have delineated the gap in student’s test score relative to white students (Rock, 2005; Card & Rothstein, 2007) and emphasized the striking number of black and Hispanic dropouts in high school (Fry, 2010; Chapman et al., 2011). Noticeably, the concern has been raised to look at the interrelation between race and gender, race and the broader context that might differently influence the escalation of dropout rates. Cairns (1989) found that the coalescence of disadvantages has held more black males than white males back for at least 1 year, and this stagnating stage tends to exacerbate problems from their prior school failure.

Economic Disadvantage

Economic disadvantage, particularly illustrated by parental income and poverty, has been seen as a powerful predictor of student dropout. Economic disadvantage discourages an educational home environment, leading to a lack of student books and other learning materials. Inadequate childcare and maternal depression (Sum et al., 2009) have been identified as having a direct relationship to dropping out, and according to Wilson (2012), poverty interferes and alienates students from enjoying learning. The author identifies economically disadvantaged Crossing the Finish Line

4 students as suffering more hardships resulting in achievement gaps compared with non-poor students (Wilson, 2012). Economic disadvantage leads to the adolescence’s perception that education does not matter. Parental low income is associated with difficult learning conditions, poor health and other development challenges (Fagan, 2013). The focus of Jamos (2008) study is placed on the cycle of poverty where parents who are poor and do not attain high school diplomas are less likely to raise high school graduates. A study by Ensminger (1992) challenged the idea of the cycle of poverty by showing that young learners can still achieve high grades even when flagged as economically disadvantaged.

Family Background Family background is found to be closely associated with academic development. Attitudes towards school achievement and learning time taken at home, differences in parental levels of education and occupation, different language spoken at home, family income, family structure and single parenthood, encouragement and help with school work (Strohschein & Roos, 2009; Rumberger, 2011) are determinants of whether or not the student feels enthusiastic about education. Family instability relating to parental divorce, separation, cohabitation, early or step- parenthood are found to be associated with the absence of learning materials and educational opportunities (Marjoribanks, 2005; Christensom & Thurlow, 2004). These factors also affect a student’s social and academic well-being (Edin & Kissane, 2010; Waldfogel & Craigie, 2010) and significantly increase the probability of a student’s not graduating on time (Montiel, 2012). Family mobility is another factor that impacts a student’s likelihood of graduating high school. Christenson and Thurlow (2004) found that even one school change between the ages of 13 and 18 can increase the likelihood of non-graduation by a factor of two.

Transition to High School The success of the transition from middle school to high school is a commonly recognized factor affecting eventual high school graduation (Cohen & Smerdon, 2009; Suldo & Shaunessy-Dedrick, 2013). Many studies evaluate the importance of a successful 9th grade year in eventual high school graduation (Langenkamp, 2010; Neild et al., 2008; Neild, 2009; Pharris- Ciurej et al., 2012). Cohen and Smerdon (2009) compile much of the available research on high school transitions and find that the most important aspects for transitional success are partnerships between the middle school and the high school, parental involvement, and early interventions for struggling freshmen (Cohen & Smerdon, 2009). Cohen and Smerdon (2009) and Suldo et al. (2013) noted that girls may have a harder time with the transition than boys.

Neild et al. (2008) identified predictors of high school dropout using logistic regression, and found that students with D’s and F’s during the transition to high school are more likely to dropout than peers who had never failed a class (Pharris-Ciurej et al., 2012).

Crossing the Finish Line

5 Motivation Motivation is a predictor of academic achievement (Ryan & Deci, 2009; Guay & Vallerand, 1997; Meece, 2005; Propero & Vohra, 2007). Ryan and Deci (2009) found that motivation needs to be intrinsic for good results, which they showed using test scores from students who reported enthusiasm about their education. Guay and Vallerand (1997) looked at 1,623 ninth graders and 1,098 tenth graders and revealed that higher intrinsic motivation and academic confidence are related to higher academic achievement. Meece et al. (2005) showed that students display better academic achievement motivation when their school emphasizes mastery and understanding over ability and that competition in the classroom is associated with poor outcomes. Prospero and Vohra (2007) looked at the impact of motivation and integration on first generation students. Using survey data, they found that motivation and integration are significantly related to academic achievement for first generation students (Prospero & Vohra, 2007).

Characteristics of Effective Interventions Interventions to catch at-risk students are effective tools to increase student success, especially among at-risk populations (NDPC, 2014; NEA, 2008; Almeida et al., 2010; Jepsen & Rivkin, 2009; Deming & Dynarski, 2008; Pharris-Cierej et al., 2012). Interventions include increased academic support, adjusting class size, personalizing the education, and health support. Academic supports include learning opportunities outside of normal school hours, tutoring, and affordable field trips (Almeida et al., 2010). Jepsen and Rivkin (2009) found that class size is negatively correlated with student success. Multiple studies support that personalized education plans increase student involvement and help students connect with the material (Deming & Dynarski, 2008; Pharris-Ciurej et al., 2012). Additionally, guidance provided by teachers and counselors, as well as coordinated efforts to direct students to resources when necessary, can make the difference between a high school graduate and non-graduate (Lehr et al., 2004).

Corvallis in Context

Measuring High School Graduation High school graduation is defined as the “acquisition of a standard high school diploma after four years of continuous high school enrollment” (Battin-Pearson et al., 2000; Christenson & Thurlow, 2004; Heumann & Simon, 2009; Upchurch & McCarthy, 1989). High school completion, on the other hand, refers to the attainment of a high school equivalency (GED), alternative credential, or delayed graduation (Warren & Halpern-Manners, 2009). It is important to differentiate between the two because of potential earning capacity, quality of life, educational dissemination to younger generations, and lastly, for accurate and complete records. The graduation rate measure that allows for national comparisons across states is the regulatory Adjusted Cohort Graduation Rate (ACGR). The ACGR is the number of students who graduate in four years with a regular high school diploma divided by the number of students who form the

adjusted cohort of the graduating class (U.S. Department of Education, n.d.). Crossing the Finish Line

6 According to a 2014 report released by the National Center for Education Statistics (NCES) and the U.S. Department of Education (DOE), 80 percent of students from the 2008 cohort graduated on time from high school in the United States (Stetser & Sabel, 2014). The 2008 cohort is the most recent year that national data is available. Within this national rate, it is important to keep in mind that significant disparities exist among different populations. See Table 1 below.

Table 1: National 2008 average cohort graduation rate by population

So, where does Oregon rank? For national comparison purposes, Oregon data for the 2008 cohort from the NECS and DOE report will be presented first; then state-level data for the 2009 cohort will be presented since that is the cohort of interest for this study. According to the authors of the national graduation rate report, Public High School Four-Year On-Time Graduation Rates and Event Dropout Rates, Oregon’s 2008 four-year cohort graduation rate is just 68 percent – the second lowest out of all 50 states, only Nevada has a more unsuccessful graduation rate at 59 percent (Stetser & Stillwell, 2014). See Table 1a for a comparison of the Oregon graduation rate to the national rate by population for the 2008 cohort.

Table 1a: Oregon 2008 average cohort graduation rate compared to national 2008 average cohort graduation rate by population

Crossing the Finish Line

7 The Oregon Department of Education (ODOE) has state level data available for the 2009 cohort, which is the focus of this study. According to ODOE, the four-year 2009 cohort graduation rate for Oregon students is only 68.7 percent. See Table 2 below for a breakdown of graduation rate by various populations (Oregon Department of Education, 2014).

In analyzing the school data provided by the Corvallis School District (CSD) for the 2009 cohort, we found that the average district-wide graduation rate was 72.3 percent. The following graphic (Figure 1) shows the graduation rates for Corvallis High School and Crescent Valley High School, but excludes all students attending College Hill or enrolled in an alternative learning environment. The results we obtained regarding graduation rate by various populations, e.g. race, socioeconomic status, etc., will be presented later in the report.

Figure 1: Average 2009 cohort graduation rate by school Table 2: Oregon 2009 cohort graduation rate by population

Methodology

Quantitative This study examines the non-graduation rate from a single 9th-12th-grade cohort in the Corvallis, Oregon school district from CHS and CVHS with a total sample size of 549 students2. Students earning a GED, finishing school in the summer, and 5th year students are considered to be non-graduates for the purposes of this evaluation. The variables used include credits passed Crossing the Finish Line

2 The sample decreases from N=870 after cleaning the data 8

freshman year, freshman year GPA, gifted and talented flags, economic disadvantage flags, English language learner flags, race, sex, and disability are all used to evaluate the likelihood of graduation in 4 years. The technique used to test for the likelihood of graduation for different groups is called logistic regression. Logistic regression is a type of statistical test that is used when measuring an outcome with only two options, such as graduate and non-graduate (Studenmund, 2006). The quantitative analysis serves to differentiate between students who graduate on time and those who do not as well as the relative magnitudes of characteristics that influence the likeliness of on-time graduation. However, there are other influences on graduation not included in this analysis that are less obvious, like turbulent family lives, the importance of support systems, and the lack of a sense of belonging, among other factors.

Qualitative To get at the more nuanced factors that can have an effect on students’ ability to graduate on time, interviews were conducted with school personnel from Crescent Valley High School, Corvallis High School, and College Hill. A Corvallis School District representative provided the research team with a list of potential interviewees. An email was sent to this is list of people, eliciting their participation. Of the 16 individuals contacted, 13 agreed to participate. The sample includes teachers, counselors, and administrators. No monetary compensation was given for their time. One-on-one, semi- structured interviews were conducted by the graduate student researchers and each lasted approximately 30-60 minutes. Pre-determined, open-ended interview questions were created and approved by the principal academic advisor prior to the first interview. See Appendix A for the list of interview questions used in the study. Some of the interviews were recorded and later transcribed. When the conversations were not recorded and transcribed, detailed notes were taken during the interview by the researcher. In analyzing the interview data, a coding scheme was created to identify common themes. The eight identifiable categories that emerged revolved around the specific questions asked in the interview: 1. Key factors that contribute to a student graduating on time 2. Key factors that contribute to a student not graduating on time

3. Factors that contribute to a student turning it around 4. Changes to the graduation rate over time 5. The effect of school climate on graduation rates 6. Populations that have more trouble graduating on time 7. Programs currently in place that are most helpful in assisting students graduate on time 8. Suggestions for how to improve the on time graduation rate Crossing the Finish Line

9 A standardized coding scheme was employed with each interview transcript and commonly cited themes emerging within each category; these will be discussed in the findings section. The findings mentioned in each category represent the opinions of the respondents interviewed and may not be representative of all personnel at the local Corvallis high schools.

Findings The Corvallis School District 2009 high school ACGR is 72.3 percent, which is a little more than 3 percentage points higher than the Oregon state-wide average for the same cohort (Oregon Department of Education, 2014). The data collected from the school district records gives insight into the different characteristics associated with graduates and students who do not graduate on time or at all, and the interviews provide themes that identify major determinants of graduation. Four major categories emerge from the qualitative data and include: factors that influence on-time graduation, alternative routes to graduation, school climate, and suggestions from interviewees on how to improve the graduation rate. The findings in each category represent the opinions of the respondents interviewed and are specific to Corvallis public high schools – CVHS, CHS, and College Hill – and their associated student populations.

On-Time Graduation

Perceived advantages To initiate our conversation with school personnel, interviewees were asked about the key factors that they saw as contributing to students successfully graduating on time. Overwhelmingly, the most commonly cited factor was external support. Family support, in particular, was mentioned most often followed by support at school in the form of positive relationships with teachers, mentors, and counselors. Community support and peer support were mentioned as well. One respondent speaking about the importance of having support for a student to graduate on time, especially for those already struggling, stated: "If you are struggling in school, I think the biggest key is having family and community recognize early and work together to get you back up to speed.” When trying to help students graduate on time, it is imperative to ensure that they have a positive support system in place.

The second most mentioned positive factor was motivation. Whether it be brought on by external forces, such as a mentor constantly encouraging and pushing them, or internal forces, like having personal goals and a plan for graduation and beyond, motivation was commonly cited as an important contributing factor as to why students graduate on time, a finding backed by much of the relevant literature (Ryan & Deci, 2009; Guay & Vallerand, 1997; Meece, 2005; Propero & Vohra, 2007).

Crossing the Finish Line

10 Though less frequently mentioned, some other factors respondents associated with students who graduate on time include:

Early interventions Clear expectations High social and academic engagement Valuing education Preparedness

Student preparedness is supported by the quantitative analysis of school data. See Table 3 below.

Table 3: The effect of freshman year credits passed and GPA in freshman year on graduation rate

Pharris-Ciurej and Hirschman (2012) explained that the number of credits completed freshman year and GPA are significant predictors of eventual high school graduation. The logistic regression analysis output in Table 3 concurs, showing the odds of graduating on time for students who finish freshman year with differing numbers of credits passed and GPAs. When predicting on-time graduation based on credits taken freshman year and GPA, the relationship is highly significant regardless of which controls are used (Table 3). For example, a student who has passed only one credit freshman year has almost a zero percent chance of graduating on-

time, whereas a student who has passed seven credits has more than a ninety-nine percent

chance. The pivotal number of credits3, as shown in Table 3, Model 3, is five credits passed freshman year. A student who passed 4 credits worth of classes has a 26 percent chance of graduating, but when they hit 5 credits, their likelihood jumps to 70 percent. The pivotal point for GPA is a 2.0 GPA. An increase in GPA from a 2.0 to a 2.5 increases the likelihood of on- time graduation from 68 percent to 81 percent.

Crossing the Finish Line

3 The pivotal number of credits is the minimal amount of course credits students must pass freshman year in order to have a 50 11 percent chance of on-time graduation.

Students who turn it around When interviewees were asked about factors that assist students in turning it around and graduating on-time, the most commonly cited response was a student’s determination. According to the respondents, a strong will to succeed was present in students who decided to turn it around. This involved defining a goal and working hard to achieve it. As one interviewee stated:

If you got something that has you really looking forward to it that makes a huge difference for some kids. So helping them find a project, a program, something, even a job, something they can be aiming towards can be very motivating.

Within this determination category, several respondents expressed their appreciation when students finally decided to work hard to fulfill their personal choices. One interviewee had this to say about one of her students:

She wasn’t really interested in taking the OAKS test and didn’t really think it was that big of a deal and we pulled her out of a class she really liked and told her she had to be in this class because she hadn’t passed yet and lo and behold two weeks later, she passed her OAKS test without any problems because she wanted to be back in the art class.

The interviewees also said that when students are given the time to explore their talents, and then recognize a talent they never knew they had, it gives them a sense of confidence and motivates them moving forward. Moreover, respondents mentioned that minor steps of achievements along the way can help position students on an upward trajectory. The second most cited factor by respondents that helps students to turn it around was interventions. Interviewees cited skill workshops for writing and math and engagement of mentors as providing the needed assistance to help students get back on track and graduate on time. The effectiveness of early and persistent interventions from external sources has been acknowledged in the relevant literature (NDPC, 2014; NEA, 2008; Almeida et al., 2010) as a way to catch at-risk students and to improve on-time graduation outcomes.

Though less frequently mentioned, some interviewees noted that the support from different sources yield positive influences to a student’s performance. Respondents said that by linking their assistance and partnership closer to the in-need families, the community has made a lot of changes in encouraging students’ willingness to learn. Providing a liaison, resources and transportation help for poor families, and communication between the highly mobile students’

parents were cited as ways that the community greatly contributes to the “turning back” success Crossing the Finish Line

12 of at risk students. The support from an adult or a peer who has a positive influence was also mentioned as being important; someone who is “part cheerleader and part finger wag” to encourage a student to turn keep pushing forward and graduate on time.

Promising programs CSD utilizes several intervention programs that the interviewees cited as being effective at mitigating non-graduation. First, programs that respondents across institutions found to be helpful will be discussed, followed by programs that were most commonly mentioned by interviewees associated with specific schools. Respondents at both CVHS and CHS cited Response to Intervention (RTI) as the most helpful program in assisting students to graduate on-time. The importance of freshman year success is supported by the quantitative results of this research, as well as by the literature (Cohen & Smerdon, 2009; Langenkamp, 2010; Neild et al., 2008; Neild, 2009; Pharris-Ciurej et al., 2012). Some of the respondents did comment on the need to figure out how to effectively transition this program from the elementary schools to the high schools where there are more rigid schedules and therefore potentially less time for interventions. Once this is accomplished, however, one respondent said:

[RTI] is going to be a big component in finding those students and getting them into supports before it’s their senior year and trying to work at not just where they are lacking academically but a huge portion I think of the graduation piece is not just academically but also the behavior piece.

Another helpful program mentioned by respondents from CHS, CVHS, and College Hill was Running Start, which allows high school students to take courses for college credit while still in high school. While it was mentioned that this is a wonderful program, one interviewee expressed a desire for more students to know about it and have access to it. The respondent said the population that can take advantage of Running Start is limited, but that it is an “incredible program”. Respondents across all three schools also mentioned the importance of College Hill in helping students graduate on time, especially the non-traditional students. One respondent stated:

College Hill is wonderful. They have a structured program and a lot of students find success there. For a more non-traditional student it is a wonderful program. It has helped a lot of students get what they need. Crossing the Finish Line

13 A commonly cited intervention program by interviewees associated with CHS that helps students graduate on time was Advancement Via Individual Determination (AVID). One respondent commented:

AVID is something kids apply for, kids that are disenfranchised but good students and on-track but they don’t have the money or that home background. They will be the first ones in their family to go to college. They apply to get in and they teach them all sorts of methods for becoming a great student.

The literature cites family background, particularly low socioeconomic status, and other complications that co-exist with poverty (e.g. homelessness, family hardship and turbulence, lack of necessities), as a factor that may prevent a student from graduating on time (Strohschein & Roos 2009; Rumberger, 2011; Wilson, 2012). As explained by an interviewee, AVID tries to eliminate the knowledge gap that exists between the socioeconomic classes by targeting these students specifically and teaching them the skills needed to be academically successful (Lee, 2002; Sirin, 2005). Respondents from CHS also mentioned the importance of the Rock Star Mentoring program that was piloted this year with positive results. The most helpful school-specific programs mentioned by respondents at CVHS were the writing and math workshops. One interviewee said, “[T]he math workshop and the writing workshop I think go a long way towards capturing those seniors their senior year." More general intervention programs that were commonly mentioned by respondents as being helpful in assisting students graduate on time were tutoring, summer school, and alternative education and online education pathways. Interviewees talked about how not all students thrive in a traditional classroom environment, so the alternative education and online education options are helpful for these types of students. Speaking about the importance of alternative education, a respondent stated:

Some students need a slower pace or do not thrive in regular classroom environment so it is nice for them to have other options and those really fill a lot of our holes and a lot of needs.

Another interviewee praised the advantages of the summer school program, particularly for the students who have fallen behind, as “really powerful for students to take advantage of."

Crossing the Finish Line

14 Alternative Routes to Graduation

Perceived obstacles According to interviewees, the key factor that contributes most to students not graduating on time is the family background of the student, particularly low socio-economic status, which is supported by the relevant literature (Lee, 2002; Sirin, 2005; Strohschein & Roos, 2009; Rumberger, 2011). When asked about why some students do not graduate on time, an interviewee stated, "Socioeconomic plays into it too with the poverty level higher now with the recession you do see more kids struggling because at home they don't have those supports." Also within this category of family background is cultural and language barriers. Several respondents cited these barriers as reasons why some students struggle to graduate on time. Closely following socio-economic background of the student, interviewees said lack of motivation was an obstacle to graduating on time, just as the presence of motivation is a strong influence on graduating on time. One interviewee stated, “Kids who really struggle get no joy from their achievements at school so it's like why would you [try]?" According to respondents, a lack of motivation can come from such things as not having a long-term goal or having a “doesn’t matter” attitude. This motivational aspect causes a student to become disengaged. Respondents also cited that students with no sense of belonging, a negative self-image, and lack of self-confidence are traits of students who do not graduate on time. All of these previously mentioned factors could affect a student’s motivation and thus the time it takes to complete high school. Another common factor mentioned among the respondents was lack of support. As shown by the interviewees’ responses regarding factors that contribute to a student’s being successful, of which support was overwhelmingly number one, it makes sense that lack of support would be frequently mentioned by respondents as a reason why students struggle to graduate on time. Again, family support was cited as the most important. Interview respondents identified a student’s disengagement to school due to other commitments as another obstacle. Respondents explained that sometimes there are things more important to a student than school and that they may have more immediate concerns such as being the primary caregiver for family, e.g. having to work to support the family or being a caretaker for younger siblings. One respondent addressed this issue directly by stating:

You know we have students working to pay the rent for their house and so coming to school is not, in their mind, the highest need at the moment. And just so you know when students are having to make those kinds of decisions in terms of this sort of hierarchy of needs, school is not always at the top and they just don’t have the ability to see how in another few years it’s going to be a really big deal. Crossing the Finish Line

15 Other contributors cited by respondents that make it more difficult for students to graduate on time include:

Lack of preparedness Lack of accountability Lack of a sense of belonging Low attendance Increase in state and federal education requirements

The last factor mentioned is outside of the control of both the student and the schools, apart from contacting legislators to reform educational standards.

Populations at risk Respondents were asked about the populations they perceived as being the most at risk for not graduating on time. Students with a low socioeconomic status (SES) were most frequently identified as an at risk population by interview participants. As one interviewee stated:

I don’t know if I would have noticed it but I know the statistics for our school, and our students of color and minority students struggle more and our socioeconomically challenged ones struggle more.

Low SES as a predictor for non-graduation is also supported by our quantitative analysis as well as the literature (Caro, 2011; Rumbaut, 2005; Rumberger, 2011; Sum, 2009). Figure 2 below displays the graduation rate by risk factor type based on our analysis of the CSD data.

Moreover, the combination of low SES and Hispanic/Latino background was mentioned as a Graduation by Risk Factor particular population that is at Non Graduate Graduate risk of late graduation. As is shown in Figure 2, the school 38% 34% records indicate that students 54% who are flagged as disabled, 89% 66% 62% economically disadvantaged, or 46% who have limited English 11% proficiency have a lower Gifted and Economically Limited English Disability Flag Talented Flag Disadvantaged Flag Proficiency Flag graduation rate than other students. Figure 2: Graduation rate by risk factor type

Crossing the Finish Line

16 Almost half of students flagged as being economically disadvantaged and more than half of students with limited English proficiency and disabilities fail to graduate on time. However, the data show that membership in the Gifted and Talented program has a mitigating effect on at-risk students, increasing their graduation rate by almost 25 percentage points than that of their peers. Figure 3 below shows the differences in on-time graduation between different racial categories in the CSD 2009 high school cohort. White students make up the majority of the high school population with about 72 percent of the total. Hispanic students make up about 11 percent and the aggregate of all other racial groups make up about 17 percent of the student population. Graduation rates between the groups range from an 8 percentage point difference between students identified as white and students identified as other, and a 25 percentage point difference between students in the white category and students identified as Hispanic (Figure 3). Almost half of CSD’s 2009 cohort Hispanic population failed to graduate in four years with a regular high school diploma.

Graduation by Race

Non Graduate Graduate

51% 76% 69%

49% 24% 31%

White Other Hispanic

Figure 3: Graduation rate by race

Several respondents expressed concern that first generation migrants and foreign students who came to America a long time ago but still speak their native languages, are facing particular hardship. This pattern was elaborated upon by one interviewee, who stated:

The students who just come to school from their country and don’t

know much English, they start English Language Development (ELD) 1, ELD2, these students seem to have much lower rates of graduation rather than the student who came in kindergarten, no longer taking ELD and still speaking their own language.

Crossing the Finish Line

17 Students who have difficulties with motivation and lack positive study habits was the second most mentioned population at risk of not graduating on time, a theme that is supported by the school records (See Table 3). Interviewees repeatedly cited students who are habitually low- academic performers and who are considered high risk from the beginning as the students that often struggle to graduate on time. Moreover, students with attendance issues and who fail to show up to classes are cited as susceptible to not graduating on time as well. According to the respondents, students who display motivation and study difficulties are more likely to not complete their homework, not put forth an effort, not fit in socially with other kids, and have behavior issues. All of these factors get in the way of academic success and can translate into delayed graduation. Though less frequently mentioned by respondents, students with learning disabilities, particularly those who have special learning needs, were identified as another population that faces a higher risk of not graduating on time. This group also consists of students who bear impaired IQ, students who have mental health issues and whose families are associated with mental ailments or sustained abuse. While these populations of students are interrelated and have raised significant attention among all interviewees, the responses suggest differences among the schools in identifying their most vulnerable population. CVHS staff cited motivation and attitude as strong determinants in identifying which populations have trouble graduating on time. College Hill interviewees cited stronger concern for mental health support and substance abuse problems, student homelessness and poverty, and minority status in identifying the populations that are more at risk. CSD respondents highlight the pitfalls of homelessness, mental disability and high mobility as identifying factors associated with populations that do not graduate on time.

School Climate

Learning environment A positive school climate has consistently been linked to higher academic achievement in the literature, and higher achievement increases the likelihood that a student will graduate (OECD, 2009; Haahr et al., 2005). Establishing a positive school climate “sets a tone in the school and it is really contagious,” in the words of one interviewee. The climate at the three high schools was generally described as positive by the interviewees, with some concern for bullying

and cyber-bullying. Since there are different climates at each school, the responses for this

category will be delineated by school. The school climate at Crescent Valley High School was only described in positive terms by respondents; however, student relations at Corvallis High School was described as having a history of being more racially divided. The upside to this is that Corvallis High School’s climate had also been described as improving. School staff and teachers were described at all of the Corvallis area high schools as caring, supportive, hardworking, accepting, and going above and beyond to help students. Students at College Hill High School are on independent study plans, so this question was less applicable to interviewees Crossing the Finish Line

18 from College Hill. Overall, the school climate is positive with some room for improvement. According to one respondent:

We all have the need to be loved and cared for. Students really need to feel that, especially when they are struggling with academic, social, or emotional issues. They need to know that there are people who care about them and will help them.

Changes in the graduation rate Interviewees were asked about their perceptions regarding the changes in the graduation rate for Corvallis’ public high schools over their tenures at the institutions. The majority of respondents who replied with a response other than “do not know” said the graduation rate has remained consistent during their tenure, with the possibility of a minor increase in recent years. However, one interview participant noted that the way students view on-time graduation has changed, commenting:

First an extra credit was added statewide and then adding in the essential skills and that definitely changes for them what a diploma means. Especially the essential skills; you could pass all of your classes and still not necessarily graduate. That’s a pretty big deal.

This insight from school personnel helps us to understand that while the overall graduation rate may remain consistent over the years, it is important to note that what “on-time graduation” means is continuously evolving as new requirements are added. In addition, it is possible that changes in graduation requirements may impact graduation rates without the students or parents individually understanding the impact of the changes. This last point was outside the scope of our study and would require interviews with students and parents.

Suggestions for Improvement The interviewees suggested a number of ideas about how to improve the on time graduation rate for Corvallis high school students. The most frequently endorsed suggestion for improving the high school graduation rate is to improve the quality of classroom instruction. One

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19 interviewee echoed a concern held in common by almost all of the interview participants, which is the need to hire more school staff and reduce class size:

I still see class size as number one. In fact, it ticks me off that we are willing to spend huge amounts of money in all these other directions that might work and what we know for absolute certain is that class size affects student learning yet we are unwilling [to invest in decreasing class size].

According to participants, there is an influx of students who need intensive services, but a shortage of staff, which translates to less support per student. The need for more time devoted to the following activities was identified: Class preparation, collaboration with other school personnel to address at risk students, and time to coordinate with teacher aides before class. As one interviewee explained, “high school has a rigid schedule and interventions can only fit in tiny places.” Several interviewees suggested the need for the alignment of norms and expectations across grades levels and schools, who see inconsistency as a source of difficulty for some students. According to one interview participant, “while essential skills are necessary, high stakes testing is not.” Another insight yielded from interviews is the need to strengthen targeted support and prevention programs. An area for improvement would be to follow up to ensure that students and their families seek the community resources they are referred. The need for more funding, resources and teaching materials to support early identification and intervention for at-risk students is also needed. High school preparation was also identified as an area of improvement. More frequent reporting and timely (electronic) updates for the at-risk population as well as long-term follow-up to assess student outcomes were commonly mentioned. The importance of adult investment and mentoring was emphasized. As explained by one interviewee, “students need a mentor that isn’t their parent.” Smooth transitions between schools were mentioned by a few interviewees as vital to a good start in high school. Finally, the need to strengthen opportunities for teacher training, especially in Spanish language classes or how to identify troubled students, was identified. The need to address basic needs and student well-being was another concern shared by multiple interviewees, especially for those in “deep poverty” and students living in inadequate

housing situations. Also mentioned was the need to address substance abuse problems by directing families to necessary services, good family communication and extra support at school. Interview participants suggested that mental health support and personal guidance can be improved, especially in the follow-up of adverse life events. Finally, interviewees revealed the need for the direct provision of substantive support to poor students as well as the effective and collaborative referral of families to community resources. Crossing the Finish Line

20 Several interview participants mentioned the need for school administration and teachers to work together to break social barriers, which is a source of isolation for many students. A few interviewees mentioned the need to improve student-teacher relationships, especially with poverty-stricken and English Language Learner students. Establishing rapport and regular communication with students’ families is another priority identified in interviews. The opportunity to break language and cultural barriers through Spanish language training for educators was another suggestion made by respondents. The need for more adult leadership to improve the pattern of relations within the school was also identified. An example of this mentioned by several interviewees is the provision of school-organized activities or events geared towards freshmen in order to establish a sense of belonging during freshman year, which is established as the year most crucial for on-time high school graduation (Neild et al., 2008; Pharris-Ciuvej et al., 2012; Suldo & Shaunessy-Dedrick, 2013). Several other examples that were mentioned by one interviewee include: the need for targeted LGBTQ4 support, increased dissemination of progress and updates for at risk students, and more effective utilization of parent volunteers. Finally, respondents verbalized how important it is to provide more opportunities for student choice, which can help develop student autonomy, motivation, and sense of belonging, which are all crucial to on time graduation. Several interview participants stressed the need for more electives, student clubs and extracurricular activities, which provide the opportunity for students to develop their interests. Additionally, extended and project-based learning opportunities have been found to foster student autonomy, motivation and engagement (Ryan & Deci, 2009). Finally, other opportunities can be provided, e.g. career and technical options that may be more relevant for at-risk students. As stated by one interview participant, “extracurriculars can really get kids motivated.”

Limitations To the degree possible, we have attempted to integrate the quantitative findings with the results obtained through qualitative interviews to illustrate the current graduation trends as well as to highlight some of the factors that help or hinder students from graduating on time. It is important, however, to mention some potential limitations of this study. In regards to the qualitative portion, there may be some sampling bias due to the fact that the list of potential

interviewees was not a random sample; rather, it was a sample of convenience. Given the time constraints of this project, interviewees were not selected by random by the researchers; instead, they were intentionally selected and provided to us by the client. There are also limitations with the data used in the quantitative analysis that may bias our results. A problem with the limited English proficiency data is that it is a temporary flag on a student’s account that disappears when the student is no longer considered to have limited

Crossing the Finish Line English proficiency, so the students listed as limited English proficiency are only those with the

21 4 LGBTQ: Lesbian, gay, bisexual, transsexual, queer

flag at the time of measurement, at the end of 2013. The implication of this is that the impact of not being proficient in English on freshman year credits passed and GPA will not be represented for students who became proficient in English during high school. Economic disadvantage flags may be underreported. Conversations with school district officials about the data exposed a potential problem with using free and reduced lunch participation as an indicator of economic disadvantage. It seems that for high school, the families are no longer required to fill out the same comprehensive level of paperwork that they were in primary school, leading to underreporting of the hunger needs of the students. This may indicate that the data representing economic disadvantage is underrepresenting the proportion of students in economic distress at the Corvallis School District. The variables used to indicate academic achievement, the number of credits passed freshman year and freshman year GPA, are not reported numbers but averages for each student. The Corvallis School District attendance statistics include students who have been re-enrolled multiple times in one year. This happens after a continuous absence of 30 days or more. If a student has been un-enrolled and then re-enrolled in one year, the sum of their enrollments and absences is used in the analysis. Due to the nature of education statistics, this means that individual students will have more than one GPA and more than one number for credits taken in a given year. In order to get a snapshot of one year of attendance, the mean of both freshman year credits and GPA per student is represented as a new variable. It is also important to mention the lack of generalizability that this study affords. Since only Corvallis School District data was utilized and personnel from within the district, the results are not generalizable to a greater population. However, given our clients’ needs to know more about their district, this is not necessarily a limitation as it was never the main objective.

Recommendations Based on the findings previously discussed, our recommendations to the CSD to improve the on-time graduation rate are as follows, all of relatively equal importance:

Recommendation #1: Provide extra support freshman year for all students, to help establish a positive sense of belonging in the year identified as most critical for academic achievement

and graduation.

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22 Recommendation #2: Provide targeted support prevention and intervention programs for students flagged as ELL, low SES, and disabled.

Recommendation #3: Reduce class size and improve mentoring by effectively utilizing parent volunteers, Oregon State University volunteers, interns, and in cases where funds are available, hiring more teachers and support staff.

Recommendation #4: Provide opportunities for student choice in order to foster student motivation and autonomy (e.g. more electives, assignment options, student clubs, and extracurricular activities).

Recommendation #5: Standardize data collection and automate flags of at-risk students. It would be ideal if the district had a master list for student data that auto-syncs with the smaller lists for flags, attendance, and other records.

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29 Appendix A

Interview Questions

1. What is your role at the school? How long have you worked there? 2. In your opinion, what are some factors that play a role in why students successfully graduate on time? 3. In your opinion, what are some factors that play a role in why students do not graduate on time? 4. Have you noticed any particular population that has more trouble graduating on time than others? 5. Can you think of an example of a youth who was not going to graduate on time but then turned it around, what do you think contributed to that 6. Have you noticed any changes with regards to the on-time graduation rate since you have been at the school? 7. In what ways do you think the school climate here helps or hinders the on-time graduation rates? 8. Which programs currently in place do you think are the most helpful in assisting students graduate on time? Why? 9. Do you have any ideas or suggestions for how to improve on-time graduation rates in Corvallis’ public high schools? 10. Is there anything you would like to add on this topic that we have not covered in this interview?

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30 Appendix B

This is raw data that shows the data-cleaning process.

Table 2. Graduation Rate Frequency Percent Cumulative Percent Non Graduate 167 27.65% 27.65% Graduate 437 72.35% 100.00% Total 604 100.00%

Table 3. Corvallis High School and Crescent Valley High School

School Name Frequency Percent Cumulative Percent CHS 335 52.26 52.26 CVHS 306 47.74 100 Total 641 100

Table 4. Graduation by School CHS CVHS Non-Graduate 21.79% 14.38% Graduate 65.97% 70.59% Total 294 260

Table 5. Gender distribution of district with missing data

Gender Frequency Percent Cumulative Percent Female 336 38.62% 38.62% Male 360 41.38% 80.00% Missing 174 20.00% 100.00% Total 870 100.00%

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31 Table 6. Gender distribution Gender Frequency Percent Cumulative Percent Male 316 52.32% 52.32% Female 288 47.68% 100.00% Total 604 100.00%

Table 7. Graduation by Gender

Male Female Total Non-Graduates 30.06% 25.00% 27.65% Graduates 69.94% 75.00% 72.35% Total 100.00% 100.00% 100.00%

Table 8. Racial/Ethnic Categories with Missing

Frequency Percent Cumulative Percent White 504 57.93% 57.93% Hispanic 74 8.51% 66.44% Other 118 13.56% 80.00% Missing 174 20.00% 100.00% Total 870 100.00%

Table 9. Graduation by Racial Categories

White Hispanic Other Non Graduate 23.71% 48.53% 31.46% Graduate 76.29% 51.47% 68.54%

Table 10. Students flagged as Disabled Frequency Percent Cumulative Percent Not Disabled 785 90.23% 90.23% Disabled 85 9.77% 100.00% Total 870 100.00%

Table 11. Graduation by Disabled flag

Disabled Not Disabled

Graduates 33.77% 77.99%

Non-Graduates 66.23% 22.01%

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32 Table 12. Students flagged as Gifted and Talented (TAG)

Frequency Percent Cumulative Percent Not in TAG 656 75.40% 75.40% TAG 214 24.60% 100.00% Total 870 100.00%

Table 13. Graduation by Gifted and Talented TAG Not in TAG Graduate 88.78% 63.91% Non-Graduate 11.22% 36.09%

Table 14. Students flagged as Economically Disadvantaged with Missing

Frequency Percent Cumulative Percent Not Economically Disadvantaged 627 72.07% 72.07% Economically Disadvantaged 243 27.93% 100.00% Total 870 100.00% Note: students with a missing outcome type are not included in the final analysis. See Table 15 for adjusted inclusion.

Table 15. Students flagged as Economically Disadvantaged

Frequency Percent Cumulative Percent Not Economically Disadvantaged 382 63.25% 63.25% Economically Disadvantaged 222 36.75% 100.00% Total 604 100.00%

Table 16. Graduation by Economically Disadvantaged Flag (ED)

Not ED ED Total Non Graduate 17.02% 45.95% 27.65% Graduate 82.98% 54.05% 72.35% Total 100.00% 100.00% 100.00%

Crossing the Finish Line

33 Table 17. Limited English Proficiency with missing outcome type included Frequency Percent Cumulative Percent Not Limited English Proficiency 835 95.98% 95.98% Limited English Proficiency 35 4.02% 100.00% 870 100.00%

Table 18. Limited English Proficiency Frequency Percent Cumulative Percent Not Limited English Proficiency 578 95.70% 95.70% Limited English Proficiency 26 4.30% 100.00% Total 604 100.00%

Table 19. Graduation by Limited English Proficiency (LEP)

Not LEP LEP Total Non Graduate 26.12% 61.54% 100.00% Graduate 73.88% 38.46% 100.00% Total 100.00% 100.00%

Crossing the Finish Line

34