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...AJ: ■■*i IUCN The W orldConservationUnion Thiss i oneofanumberofregionalactionplansbeingpreparedbythe CommissiononNationalParksandProtectedAreas(CNPPA)asaresultofthe IVWorldParksCongress(Caracas,Venezuela,1992)andascontribution a tothe implementationoftheCaracasActionPlan.

The preparationoftheplanwasguidedbya SteeringCommittee,which includedrepresentativesofIUCN-CNPPA,theIUCNEuropeanProgramme,the FederationofNatureandNationalParksofEurope(FNNPE),theWorldWide FundForNature(WWF)andtheWorldConservationMonitoringCentre (WCMC).ThemembersofthisCommitteewere:

ProfessorAdrianPhillips(Chair) DrArnoldBoer(Netherlands) Professor AitkenClark(FNNPE) Lars-Erik Esping(Sweden) Jeremy Harrison(WCMC) Dr MattiHelminen(Finland) DrHartmutJungius() DrZbigniewKarpowicz(IUCN) Jean-l.uc Sadorge(France) David Sheppard(IUCN) Dr MagnusSylven(WWF-Intemational) Hugh Synge(ProjectCoordinator) Marija Zupancic-Vicar()

The planwaspreparedbyHughSynge,whocoordinatedtheprojectandwrote thetextbasedontheinputofover200individualsandinstitutions(listedinthe Annex)andcontributionsfromseveralinternationalconferences,inparticular theRegionalMeetingofCNPPA(Nykoping,Sweden,June1993).Thefulltextis availableinEnglish,French,SpanishandGerman.

The SummarywaswrittenbyRobHume(TheRoyalSocietyfortheProtection ofBirds,UK)andisbeingprintedseparatelyinasmanylanguagesaspossible.

Cover designbyRobinPadian,RSPB Base maps(includingcover)MountainHighMaps1MCopyright1993Digital Wisdom,Inc Cover photographs:ASH/RSPB;RSPB/C.H.Gomersall;WWF/JanSevcik Paper: Metsd-SerlaOy/StudioProNatura115g/m2 Cover: GalerieArt300g/m2 ReproductionTextopOy Printedy b MartinpainoOy Parks forLife: Action forProtectedAreasinEurope

Thl s One

NLSP-8KX-RBC1

Parks forLife: Action forProtectedAreasinEurope yPreparedb

The IUCNCommissiononNationaland ParksProtectedAreas(CNPPA) aspart oftheIUCNProtectedAreasProgrammeandtheIUCNEuropean Programme inassociationwith

TheFederationofNatureandNationalParksofEurope(FNNPE) TheWorldWideFundForNature(WWF) TheWorldConservationMonitoringCentre(WCMC) BirdLifeInternational

with supportfrom

The SwedishEnvironmentalProtectionAgency TheMinistryofAgriculture,NatureManagementandFisheries,The Netherlands TheFinnishForestandParkService,Finland TheMinistryofEnvironment,Norway TheCountrysideCommission,UK BundesministeriumfurUmwelt,NaturschutzundReaktorsicherheit, Germany TheNationalForestandNatureAgency,MinistryoftheEnvironment, Denmark TheWorldWideFundForNature(WWF) TheRoyalSocietyfortheProtectionofBirds(UK) FinnishForestIndustries SmeltInternational,Slovenia SalzburgerNationalparkfonds(Salzburg,)

AsacontributiontotheevolvingEnvironmentalProgrammeforEurope,being preparedonbehalfoftheEnvironmentMinistersofEurope

IUCN-TheWorldConservationUnion

1994

IUCNH O wy % BirdLifeBirdi Th.VltortdConMmrton Th.orfd W CorawvrtonUnionUnion \"\Xi^TWg,/\S-\ELiSfWSy ^^W^« ..~„.„™.,WRLDCONSERVATION„„„.„„.. INTKMIMKKNATIATIONAl WWF MONITORINGCENTRE PARKSOR F LIFE

PublishedbyIUCN-TheWorldConservationUnion,RueMauverney28, CH-1196Gland,Switzerland

Copyright:1994InternationalUnionforConservationofNatureandNatural Resources(IUCN)

Reproductionofthispublicationforeducationalorothernon-commercial purposesisauthorizedwithoutpriorpermissionfromthecopyrightholder. Reproductionforresaleorothercommercialpurposesisprohibitedwithoutthe priorwrittenpermissionofthecopyrightholder.

Citation:IUCNCommissiononNationalParksandProtectedAreas(1994). ParksforLife:Actionfor ProtectedAreasinEurope,IUCN,Gland,Switzerlandand Cambridge,UK.154pp.

ISBN: 2-8317-0230-5

Designed andtypesetbytheRoyalSocietyfortheProtectionofBirds,UK,and printedthroughtheFinnishForestandParkServiceinFinland,inbothcasesas donationstoIUCN.

Availablefrom:IUCNPublicationsServicesUnit,219cHuntingdonRoad, Cambridge,CB3ODL,UK.

Thepresentationofmaterialin thisbookandthegeographicaldesignations employeddonotimplytheexpressionofanyopinionwhatsoeveronthepartof IUCNconcerningthelegalstatusofanycountry,territory,orarea,orits authorities,orconcerningthedelimitationofitsfrontiersorboundaries.

Printedn o environmentallyappropriatepaperprovidedbytheFinnishforest industry. PARKSOR F LIFE

PREFACE

Protectedareasencompassthemostexciting,dramaticandinspiring landscapes,completewiththefinestwildlifesystemsandsomeofthemost enduringhumanculturesofEurope.Likeparks,naturereservesandprotected landscapeseverywhere,theyfaceanuncertainfuture.YetinmanywaysEurope isfortunatecomparedtootherpartsofourstressedworld.Itenjoysagenerally stablehumanpopulation,relativeprosperity,surplusagriculturalcapacity,a newclimateofcooperationamongnations,andanincreasinglyconcerned public—allofwhichcreateaclimateofopportunityforprotectedareasin Europe.

ParksforLife:Actionfor ProtectedAreasinEuropeisaresponsetothisopp ortunity.ItisalsoaresponsetothecalloftheWorldParksCongressinCaracas in1992forregionalplanstolinkglobalaimstonationalandlocalaction.Itis, too,afollow-uptothedecisionsoftheEarthSummitandthepleaformore sustainablelivinginCaringfortheEarth.

ParksforLifeisaremarkabledocument,bothfortheunprecedentedpartner shipofhundredsofpeopleandorganizationswhoworkedonitspreparation, andforthethoroughnessanddetailofitscontent.ToallIUCNmembersand partnerswhohavebeenengagedin thisventure,Iofferawarmthanks.

Nowcomesthehardpart:makingarealityoftheplan.I callonallIUCN membersinEuropetorespondtotherecommendationsandjoinin implementingthepriorityprojects.Thereisa roleforinternationalbodies,for governmentsandgovernmentagencies,fornotleastfornon-governmentaland communityorganizations—andforworkingattheEuropean,nationaland locallevels.

Tohelpgetthemessageacross,ParksforLifeissupportedbytwoother documents,bothmadeavailablefortranslationintonationallanguages.A summarydistilsthemainpointsof thetext;anda briefdecision-makers'version hasbeenbuiltaroundthepartners'sharedvision ofplace theofprotectedareas inEuropeatthestartofthenextcentury.

This lan paddressesEurope'sprotectedareaneeds.Butmanyofthekeythemes —communityinvolvement,theneedtoplanandmanageprotectedareasin theirwidercontext,andtheimportanceofseizingopportunitiesaswellas respondingtothreats—arerelevanteverywhere.Soisthecollaborativeprocess bywhichtheplanwasprepared.ThroughCNPPAandthewiderIUCN membership,IUCNwilladaptandhelpapplythelessonslearnedinregional plansforprotectedareasinotherparts ofworld the—aswellasworkingto implementthisplan.

DavidMcDowell DirectorGeneral IUCN-TheWorldConservationUnion

PARKSOR F LIFE PARKSOR F LIFE

IUCN-TheWorldConservationUnion.Foundedin1948,TheWorldCon servationUnionbringstogetherStates,governmentagenciesandadiverse rangeofnon-governmentalorganizationsinauniqueworldpartnership:over 800membersinall,spreadoversome125countries.AsaUnion,IUCNseeksto influence,encourageandassistsocietiesthroughouttheworldtoconservethe IUCNintegrityanddiversityofnatureandtoensurethatanyuseofnaturalresources The WorldConservationUnion isequitableandecologicallysustainable.TheWorldConservationUnionbuilds onthestrengthsofitsmembers,networksandpartnerstoenhancetheir capacityandtosupportglobalalliancestosafeguardnaturalresourcesatlocal, regionalandgloballevels. The CommissiononNationalParksandProtectedAreas(CNPPA),oneofsix standingcommissionsofIUCN,istheleadinginternationalprofessional networkontheselection,establishmentandmanagementofnationalparksand otherprotectedareas.AspartofIUCN'sworkatregionallevel,IUCN's EuropeanProgrammehastheaimofachievingEurope-widecooperationinthe protection,restorationandsustainableuseoflivingnaturalresources.

The FederationofNatureandNationalParksofEurope(FNNPE)isapan- Europeanorganizationwhosemembersarenationalparks,regionalparksand natureparks,aswellasNGOsandgovernmentagencies,acrossEurope.FNNPE has198membersin33countries.MembersusethenetworkoftheFederationas aforumtosharemanagementexperience,andtopromoteandextendtheideals ofconservation.FNNPEholdsyearly assemblies,whichhaveaseriesof workshopsonspecificthemes,suchastrainingneedsandtourismappropriate toprotectedareas.

The WorldWideFundForNature(WWF)isthelargestworld-wideprivate natureconservationorganization.WithnationalorganizationsinmostWest EuropeancountriesandagrowingprogrammeinEasternandCentralEurope, WWFworkstoconservethenaturalecologicalprocessesessentialtolifeon earth.InparticularWWFfocusesonwetlands,coastalareasandforests.In ti Europe,itsworkincludestheestablishmentandmanagementofprotected WWF areas,inparticularfordeltas(Camargue,CotaDonana,Volga,)and coastalwetlands(WaddenSea).

Theorld W ConservationMonitoringCentre(WCMC)isanindependent,non profitorganization,establishedtosupportconservationandsustainable developmentbyprovidinginformationandatechnicalservicetoimprove informationmanagement.WCMCoperatesundertheauspicesofIUCN,UNEP andWWF.Itsprotectedareasprogrammehasdevelopedanextensivedatabase ontheworld'sprotectedareas,incorporatingtext,datatablesand computer WORLD CONSERVATION MONITORINGCENTRE maps,aswellas alargelibraryofprotectedareasliterature.Theinformationis availableforusebythoseinterestedinprotectedareas.

BirdLifeInternationalisaworldwidepartnershipoforganizationsworkingfor thediversityofalllifethroughtheconservationofbirdsandtheirhabitats. BirdLifeundertakesresearchonbirdsandtheirhabitats,andidentifiespriorities foraction.Itsupportsthedevelopmentofnationalconservationorganizations, andimplementsaprogrammeoffieldprojectsonidentifiedprioritiesthrough BirdLifetheseorganizations.InEurope,BirdLifehasidentified2500ImportantBird INTERNATIONALAreas,andisnowcoordinatingacampaignin23countriesfortheirprotection, isdevelopingActionPlansforgloballythreatenedspecies,andisdeveloping HabitatActionPlanscontainingmeasuresnecessaryfortheprotectionofbirds inthewidercountryside.

ORPARKSF LIFE PARKSOR F LIFE

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

IUCN anditsCommissiononNationalParksandProtectedAreasareindebted tothemanyorganizationsandindividualswhohavehelpedproducethisplan. Ithasbeenextraordinarily an ambitiousexerciseinparticipation.Over200 institutionsandindividuals,fromeverycountryinEurope,havecontributedto thetext;theirnamesarelistedattheend.

Morethananyotherdocumentofitskind,ParksforLifecanthereforeclaima wideparentageamongthosewhocareforEurope'senvironment:inter governmentalbodies,governments,non-governmentalorganizationsand individualexperts.Whileitsrecommendationsare theresponsibilityofIUCN andthepartnerbodies,alltheparticipantsshouldfeelarealsenseofownership abouttheplan.

ThesteadfastfinancialandotherhelpoftheSwedishEnvironmentProtection Agencyhasbeenparticularlyvaluable.TheGovernmentsofDenmark, Germany,Netherlands,NorwayandUnitedKingdomalsocontributed financially,somethroughtheirconservationagencies,asdidtheWorldWide FundforNature.SmeltInternational,Slovenia,sponsoredaworkshoponthe needsinSouthernEurope.TheGovernmentofFinlandandFinnishForest Industriesgenerouslydonatedthecostsofprintingtheplaninfourlanguages. ContributionsfromIUCNmembersinFrance(throughtheFrenchCommittee forIUCN),Germany(WWF-Germany)andSpain(ICONA)enabledtranslation intothreelanguagesotherthanEnglish.ParksforLifewasdesignedbyThe RoyalSocietyforProtectionofBirds(UK);thissocietyalsoprovidedtheservices ofprofessional a forthe writersummaryanddecision-makers'version.

In addition,manyorganizationshaveofferedtoorganizeorsupportthelaunch ofParksforLifeinSeptember1994.Thiseventwillbeusedtopublicizetheplan acrossEurope,andtoinitiatenationalactiontofollowuponitsrecom mendations.Ifthespiritofcooperationwhichhasbeenthehallmarkofthe preparationof theplanissustained,theprospectsforitsimplementationshould begood.

/iHuecAcc/itfi/)

AdrianPhillips On behalfof theSteeringCommittee

ORPARKSF LIFE AIM

The aimofParksforLifeistoensureanadequate,effectiveandwell-managed networkofprotectedareasinEurope—toconservethefulllandscapeand biologicaldiversityofthecontinent.Theplansetsoutthepoliciesandthe actionsneededtoachievethis.

Europe hasmanyimpressiveprotectedareas,butthenetworkstillhas deficienciesandgaps.Thereismuchtobedone,butalsotherearemany opportunities.

ThenextWorldParksCongress(2002)willprovideagoodpointtoreview progressinachievingtheaimsoftheplan.

What wouldanadequate,effectiveandwell-managednetworkofprotected areaslooklikein2002?

In eachcountry:

Integration

■ Thenetworkwouldbewellintegratedintoallotherpartsofnationallife— thismeansthattheprotectedareaswouldbeembeddedinregional planningandthatpoliciesforrelatedsectorssuchas agriculture,forestry andtourismwouldbeenvironmentallybenign. ■ Mostprotectedareaswouldeitherincludeorbesurroundedbysupport zoneswherelandisusedinwaysthatcontributetotheconservationaims.

Coverage

■ Theprotectedareaswouldformaninterconnectednetwork—thiswill requirecorridorsandsteppingstonesbetweenthem.Representativesamples ofalltheecosystemswouldbeincluded. ■ Thenetworkwouldincludemostlargeremainingareasofnaturalandsemi- naturalecosystems,managedprincipallytoconserveorrestorenature,with naturalsuccessionas thedominantprocess—thismeansbetterprotectionin manyexistingnationalparksandanincreaseintheiroverallcoverage,as muchashalformorefrom1994levels. ■ Otherareas,usuallylarge,wouldbemanagedtoprotectuniquelandscape qualities—thisrequiresthatthemanagementcapacityandconservation statusmany ofprotectedlandscapesberaised. ■ Thenetworkwouldincludeoneormoreviablepopulationsofallspecies threatenedonaEuropeanscale—thiswillrequirethecreationofmany morenaturereservesand,forEUMemberStates,thefullimplementationof theambitiousNatura2000. ■ Systemsofmarineprotectedareaswouldhavebeencreatedandwouldbe effectivelymanaged—intheNEAtlantic,theBalticandtheMediterranean Seas. ■n I EasternandCentralEurope,therewouldhavebeennonetlossinthe protectedareasystemsfollowingprivatizationandredistributionoflandto formerowners.

PARKSOR F LIFE PARKSOR F LIFE

Management

■ Therewouldbeeffectivelawstounderpintheestablishmentand managementofarangeofprotectedareatypes. ■ Governmentswouldhavedevelopedeffectiveinstitutionstoplanand managetheprotectedareas,andwouldprovideadequatefunding. ■ Foreachprotectedarea,therewouldbeamanagementplan. ■ Withinlargeprotectedareas,zoningwouldbetheusualapproach, reconcilingusessuchastraditionalfarmingandtourism—andtheresulting benefitstolocalpeople—withconservationofnatureandlandscape. ■ Theprofessionalstatusofprotectedareastaffwouldbehigher—thismeans staffwouldbeadequateinnumbersandwouldhavesufficientqualifications andskills.Goodtrainingwouldbeavailableforall.

Support

■ Protectedareaagencieswouldworkcloselywithlocalcommunities— cooperatingwiththeminmanagementanddrawingonthesupportofmany othersectorsinsociety. ■ Thepublicwouldvaluetheirprotectedareasmorehighly—seeingthemas avitalpartoftheirnation'sroadtosustainablelifestylesinharmonywith theenvironment.

■ TheGovernmentwouldcooperatewithothers,andwithinternational organizations—toensurethesuccessofprotectedareasatanationaland Europeanscale.

T^"**55**^^

The Waddensea,The Netherlands

ORPARKSF LIFE CONTENTS

Preface Acknowledgements Aim

Introduction PartI: PlacingEurope'sProtectedAreasintheirWider Context

1 ProtectedAreas—TheGlobalandRegionalContexts 1.1 ThelessonsofRio 12. ThelessonsoftheIVWorldParksCongress 1.3 Europeanstrategicenvironmentalinitiatives

2 ProtectedAreasandEnvironmentalPlanningandManagement 2.1 Protectedareasandnationalplanningforsustainable development 2.2 Protectedareasandlocalsustainabledevelopment 2.3 Protectedareasandland-useplanning 2.4 Protectedareasandplanningandmanagementofthe marine environment 2.5 Protectedareasandpollutioncontrol

3 ProtectedAreasand KeySectorsofPublicPolicy 3.1 Agriculture 3.2 Forestry 3.3 Tourism 3.4 Transport 3.5 Energyandotherindustries

PartII: AddressingPrioritiesattheEuropean,Sub- regional andNationalLevels

4 AEurope-wideApproach 4.1 DevelopingandimplementingtheEuropeanEcological Network (EECONET) 4.2 Extendingthecoverageofprotectedareas:habitatsand landscapes 4.3 Extendingthecoverageofprotectedareastomeettheneeds offloraandfauna

5 PriorityTerrestrialandMarineSub-regions 5.1 CentralandEasternEurope 5.2 SouthernEuropethe andMediterraneanSea 5.3 TheBaltic 5.4 TheNorth-EastAtlantic(includingtheNorthSeaandthe NorwegianSea)

6 TheNeedsofCountries 6.1 Countriesingreateconomicandsocialdifficulties 6.2 Countriessufferingfromarmedconflict 6.3 Countrieswherepoliticalsupportneedsreinforcement 6.4 Countrieswheredecentralizationcreatesproblems 6.5 Countriesneedinganimprovedcoverageofprotectedareas

PARKSOR F LIFE PARKSOR F LIFE

Part III:StrengtheningthePlanningandManagementof Europe'sProtectedAreas

7 TheLegalFramework 7.1 Improvingnationallaw 7.2 DevelopingNatura2000throughimplementationofthe BirdsDirectiveandtheHabitatsDirective(EUMemberStates) 7.3 Adheringtoglobalconventions 7.4 Strengtheningregionalconventions 7.5 DevelopingaConventionfortheConservationofRural LandscapesofEurope

8 ProtectedAreaManagement 8.1 Managementplanning 8.2 Broadeningpartnershipsinprotectedareamanagement 8.3 Funding 8.4 CategoryIInationalparks 8.5 CategoryIVhabitat/speciesmanagementareas 8.6 CategoryVprotectedlandscapesandseascapes 8.7 Transfrontierprotectedareas 8.8 Protectedareasasmodelsforthe future

9 Training 9.1 Actionatthenationallevel 9.2 Actionatinternationallevel

10 MonitoringandInformation 10.1Monitoring 10.2 Information

PartV: I CreatingtheClimateforSuccess

11 PublicSupportforProtectedAreas 11.1 Buildinggreaterpublicawareness 11.2Formaleducation 11.3 Providinggoodinformationandfacilitiesforvisitors 11.4Enlargingthebaseofsupportersforprotectedareas 11.5Buildingthesupportoflocalcommunities

12 WorkingTogethertoImplementthePlan 12.1 Nationalactionstoimplementtheplan 12.2 Internationalactionstoimplementtheplan 12.3 Encourageandmaintainthepartnershipsdevelopedin preparingtheplan

Annex:Listof Contributors

ORPARKSF LIFE INTRODUCTION

INTRODUCTION

eWhyneed w action

FortoolongwehavelackedaEurope-wideapproachtoprotectedareas. In somepartsofEurope,ournationalparks,naturereservesandprotected landscapesformanimpressivenetwork,butinotherstheyarefarfrom adequate,bothinextentandmanagement.Aboveall,therehasbeentoolittle INTRODUCTIONcollaborationacrossEuropeprotected on areaissues.

Parks forLifeisdesignedtohelpchangethatsituation.Developedin partnershipwithover200institutionsandindividualsacrossEurope,and buildingontheprinciplesofCaringfortheEarth,itidentifiestheprincipal protectedareaneedsofthecontinentandoutlinesthepriorityactionsneededto addressthem.Theoverallaimissimple:toensureanadequate,effectiveand well-managednetworkofprotectedareasinEurope.Theapproachisalso simple:tomobilizefargreatersupportforprotectedareas,whetherfrom governmentsornon-governmentalbodies,whetherfromestablishedsupporters orfromnewallies.Aboveall,itisnotaplanforIUCN,butaplanpreparedby protectedareaexpertsthroughIUCN,forimplementationbyallrelevant agenciesthroughoutEurope.

Protectedareaswillonlybesuccessfuliftheyarewellintegratedintonational life.Asavitalpart,oftencentrepiece, the ofpoliciestoconservethediversityof natureandlandscape,theymust,ofcourse,beintegratedwithotherpoliciesfor natureandlandscapeprotection.Butbeyondthat,theymustalsobeapartof widerpoliciesfortheuseoflandandotherresources,andforsustainable developmentingeneral.Thisplanmustnot,therefore,beseeninisolation,but aspartofwiderpolicy.

Protectedareasareofmanykindsandhavemanydifferentlabels.Theseinclude wildernessareas,naturereserves,marinereserves,natureparks,regionalparks, nationalparksandprotectedlandscapes.IUCNprovidesawayofcategorizing protectedareasrecordedforinternationalpurposesintheUNListofNational ParksandProtectedAreas(seebox1).However,thisplanalsocoversthemany smallareaswhicharenoteligiblefortheUNList,butwhichalsocontributeto conservation,suchassmallprotectedareasmanagedbyprivatebodies,villages andfarmers,andparksintownsandcities.

The issuesfacingprotectedareasinEurope

The RegionalReviewofprotectedareasinEurope,preparedfortheIVWorld CongressonNationalParksandProtectedAreas(Caracas,February1992), concludedthat: ■ Europehasacomplexandextensivesystemof10,000-20,000protected areas,yettherearedramaticdifferencesfromonecountrytoanother.In general,moreinvestmentisneededinbothmanagementandextensionof protectedareasystemsintheMediterraneancountries.Severalcountriesin Europehavesystemswellbelowwhatisneeded. ■ TheIUCNcategoriesofprotectedareamostusedinEuropeare theCategory IInationalpark,theCategoryIVhabitat/speciesmanagementarea(inreality themanagednaturereserve)andtheCategoryVprotectedlandscape/ seascape(seebox1). ■ ProgressonmarineprotectedareasintheBalticandtheMediterraneanis encouraging,thougheffortsstilllagbehindthoseonland.However,withthe exceptionoftheWaddenSea,thesituationintheNorth-EastAtlanticand NorthSeaispoor.

PARKSOR F LIFE INTRODUCTION

(3.4%) The proportionsofprotectedareasinthe II (10.4%) different IUCNmanagementcategoriesfor Europe(left)andtheworld(below), III (0.8% showingthemuchgreaterproportionof CategoryVprotectedlandscapesinEurope thann i theworldasawhole.

IV (18.7%) Ill(1.5%) II (40.7%)

V (66.8%)

IV (33.3%)

V(15.2%)

Protectedareas—adefinitionandsixmanagementcategories Box

WhatisaProtectedArea?

"Anareaoflandand/orseaespeciallydedicatedtotheprotectionof biologicaldiversity,andofnaturalandassociatedculturalresources,and managedthroughlegalorothereffectivemeans".

TheSixIUCNManagementCategoriesforProtectedAreas

CategoryI—StrictNatureReserve/WildernessArea:Protectedareamanaged mainlyforscienceorwildernessprotection;

CategoryII—NationalPark:Protectedareamanagedmainlyforecosystem protectionandrecreation;

CategoryIII—NaturalMonument:Protectedareamanagedmainlyfor conservationofspecificnaturalfeatures;

CategoryV I —Habitat/SpeciesManagementArea:Protectedareamanaged mainlyforconservationthroughmanagementintervention;

CategoryV—ProtectedLandscape/Seascape:Protectedareamanagedmainly forlandscape/seascapeconservationandrecreation;

CategoryI V —ManagedResourceProtectedArea:Protectedareamanaged mainlyforthesustainableuseofnaturalecosystems.

Source: Resolution19.4ofthe19thSessionoftheIUCNGeneralAssembly, BuenosAires,January1994.AfullerexplanationisgiveninIUCN(1994), GuidelinesforProtectedAreaManagementCategories,preparedbyCNPPAwiththe assistanceofWCMC,publishedbyIUCN.

ORPARKSF LIFE INTRODUCTION

Althoughn a impressive10millionha—anarealargerthanHungary—has beenaddedtotheprotectedareaestatesince 1982,manyEuropeancountries stillhavelargeadditionalareasofnaturalorsemi-naturalvegetationrichin biodiversity,muchofwhichshouldbewithinprotectedareas.Considerable upgradinginprotectionandmanagementisneeded,especiallyforCategory IIareas.

Most protectedareasinEuropeareunderstrongpressureandinmanyof themtheirqualitiesarebeingdestroyed.Inmanycasesthisisduetoexternal threats,butinotherstoinadequatemanagement.ThreatstoMediterranean wetlandsandcoastalecosystemsareparticularlyacute.

As elsewhereintheworld,protectedareasinEuropewillonlysurviveand flourishiftheyaresupportedbylocalpeople.Jointmanagementwillbethe wayof thefuture.

ThepoliticalchangesinCentralandEasternEuropeposeopportunitiesand dangers.Redistributionoflandinprotectedareasisacauseforparticular

■ TheagreementsbetweentheMemberStatesoftheEuropeanUnion(EU) haveledtotheconceptofenforceableEUprotectedareas,buttheEU CommonAgriculturalPolicy,StructuralFundsandCohesionFundarestill causinggreatdamagetonature.

TheRegionalReview'smostimportantfinding,however,isthatthe1990soffer anunprecedentedopportunityforprotectedareasinEurope.Thisisbecause:

■ Humanpopulationsarerelativelystableandaffluent; ■ Therearedecliningpressuresonlandinmanyareasbecauseof agricultural surplusesandreducedmilitaryactivity; ■ Thereisahighlevelofpublicsupportforconservation;and ■ Thereisaclimateofinternationalcooperation.

So,despiteproblems,theprospectsforprotectedareasarebetterinEuropethan inmanyotherpartsoftheworld—andbetterthantheywereonlyafewyears ago.Itisagoodtimetomaintain,extendandcreateprotectedareas,aspartof a

fGrowtho protected areasn i EuropeinIUCN4 - managementcategories Iot V

Key 3 "

Numberf o sites(x1,000) 2 "

Areafsq.kmx1,000) 1 -

- ■^mM-^TT 1900 905 1 19101915 1920 1925 1930 193519501955 1940 1960 19451970 19651975 19801990 1985

ORPARKSF LIFE INTRODUCTION

Howtheplanwasprepared gox

Theaimhasbeentoinvolveasmanyindividualsandinstitutionsaspossible, usingthepotentialofIUCNasaUnion.InJanuary1993,asmallbookletwas senttoallCNPPAmembersinEurope,allIUCNmemberorganizationsin Europe,governmentalnon-governmental, and andallmembersofthe FederationofNatureandNationalParksofEurope,invitingtheirhelpand collaboration.

The bookletcontainedadrafttableofcontentsfortheplan.Recipientswere invitedtoselectanyitemfromthatlistandwriteinofferingtopreparethe firstdraftof thatsection.Wheremorethanoneoffertodraftasectionwas received,theProjectCoordinatorinvitedthepersonmakingthefirstofferto coordinatethewritingof thatsection,workingbyphoneandfaxwiththe otherpeoplewhohadofferedtowriteit.Thisapproachworkedverywell, withremarkablylittledissent,andmembersofthenetworkpreparedthefirst draftsformostofthesectionsthatfollow.

Basedn o substantivecontributionsfromover120sources,afirstdraftofthe planwaspreparedinMay1993.Itwaswidelydebatedanddevelopedbyfive workinggroupsattheCNPPARegionalMeeting(Nykoping,Sweden,June 1993).Aseconddraft,incorporatingthework doneatNykopingandmany othercontributions,waspreparedintimefortheconferenceorganizedbythe GovernmentsofNetherlandsandHungaryonthedevelopmentofa EuropeanEcologicalNetwork(Maastricht,November1993),andwasmailed toallcontributorsandtoallwhohadreceivedtheoriginalbooklet.

The finaltexttakesaccountofallcontributionsmadeuptoMay1994.Special workshopswereheldonprotectedareaneedsinSouthernEuropeandthe Mediterranean(Bled,Slovenia,March1994)andoneducationand awareness (London,April1994). wider policytorestorenaturetothemanyareaswhereithasbeenlostor degraded.Thetimeisripetoseizethisopportunity.ParksforLifehasbeen preparedthat withinmind.

The intendedaudience

This planisaddressedtoallthosewhocanhelpachieveactionandhavean impactontheground,inparticular:

■ Thoseorganizationswhichhavearoleindeterminingwhathappensto protectedareasinEurope,notably:

■ intergovernmentalbodies ■ governments ■ sub-nationalandlocalgovernments ■ non-governmentalorganizations;

■ Thoseindividualswhohavedirectresponsibilityfortheplanningandman agementofprotectedareas,manyofwhomworkwithintheseorganizations.

Beyondtheseaudiences,however,thereisafarwidergroup,whichmaynever readtheplanbutwhosesupportisvital.Theyincludelocalcommunities,land owners,localbusinessesandtouristenterprises—andindeedthepublicat large.Theplanmust,therefore,berelevanttothemtoo.

PARKSOR F LIFE PARKSOR F LIFE;INTRODUCTIOT

Box| ExtractfromResolution19.16onlUCN'sWorkinEurope,of the19thSessionoftheIUCNGeneralAssembly(Buenos Aires,January1994)

'The GeneralAssembly. . .

SUPPORTStheobjectiveoftheActionPlanforProtectedAreasinEuropeto buildonandstrengthenthecommitmentofnational,regionalandlocal authoritiestotheconservationofbiodiversitythroughtheirprotectedarea systems,

LOOKSFORWARDTOthefinalversionoftheActionPlanafteralldue consultationwithallinterestedparties:

(a)URGESgovernmentsandotherstorespondconstructivelytothe recommendationsmadeinthefinalversionofthePlan;

(b) CALLSUPONIUCNmembersinEuropetohelpfinancethecompletionof thePlanandimplementationofagreedpriorityprojectsinthePlan,andto encourageotherfundingbodiesoperatinginEuropetosupportthese;

(c)REQUESTStheDirectorGeneral,withinavailableresources,toensure thatIUCNpromotesandmonitorsimplementationoftheActionPlanin accordancewithproposalsinthePlan;

(d)INVITESIUCNmembersinEuropetoparticipateinthelaunchofthePlan, whichwilltakeplaceinanumberoflocationsaround Europelaterin 1994;

(e)REQUESTStheCommissiononNationalParksandProtectedAreasto developasimilarActionPlanforprotectedareasassoonaspossiblefor thoseeasternpartsofEuropenotcoveredbytheexistingPlan.'

Activitiescovered

The plancontainsactionsofthreekinds:

■ Endorsements—supportfromtheplanforimportantinitiativesalready underway,recognizingthegreatdiversityofconservationinitiativesand activitiesinEurope;

■ Recommendations—advicetoGovernmentsandothersonthepoliciesand actionsneededtoimprovethestatusprotected of areas;

■ PriorityProjects—30highprofile,internationalprojectsdesignedtofillthe gapsandenhancetheprospectsforprotectedareasinEurope.Theyare catalyticinnature,designedtoencourageshiftsinpolicyandtoleverthe substantiallygreatersumsneededtoimplementtheplaninfull.

TheActionPlan,asitwasthenknown,waswelcomedbyIUCNmembersatthe 19thSessionoftheUnion's GeneralAssemblyinJanuary1994.Members— governmentalandnon-governmental—agreedaResolutiononEurope,partof whichwasontheActionPlan(seebox3).Thisveryencouragingtextreflected widesupportfortheobjectivesoftheplan,andasolidappreciationofthe opportunitiesforimprovingandextendingprotectedareasinEurope.Italso reflectedtheview,especiallybygovernments,thatthisdocumentisnota detailedprescriptionforeachcountry,butrathersetof a principlesandactions bywhichprotectedareapolicycanbeevaluatedandimprovedwherenecessary.

PARKSOR F LIFE ION

Area coveredbythePlan

This lan pcoverstheCNPPAregionofEurope,thatisfromtheAtlantictothe westernbordersof Belarus,RussiaandUkraine—anareaof4.4millionsq.km. ItincludesLatvia,LithuaniaandEstonia,and,tothewest,theAtlanticislands of theCanaries,theAzoresandMadeira,aswellasIceland.ItomitsCyprus andTurkey.ItalsodoesnotcovertheoverseasterritoriesofEuropeanStates.

Geographicallyspeaking,EuropeextendsfarfurtherEast,totheUralsandthe Caucasus.ThesepartsoftheformerUSSRshare,withthelandstothewest, manybiologicalcharacteristicsandcontainimmenselyvaluableresourcesof biodiversity.AsagreedbytheIUCNGeneralAssembly,CNPPAisplanninga similarexercisecoveringRussiaandtheneighbouringcountries.

Tothesouth,too,the'edges'ofEuropearefarfromclear-cut.Theplan addressestheneedsoftheMediterranean,butmuchactioninthatpartof Europecanonlyeffectively be addressedthroughinstitutionsthatinvolve NorthAfricanandMiddleEasterncountries.Herealso,theplanshouldbeseen ashavingaflexibleedge.

Irelan

sEurope,a coveredbyParksforLife:ActionforProtectedAreasinEurope

ORPARKSF LIFE THE GLOBALANDREGIONALCONTEXTS

PART1

PLACING EUROPE'SPROTECTEDAREAS IIMTHEIRWIDERCONTEXT

Theexperienceof recentyearstellsusthatenvironmentalissuesmustbeseen— andcanonlybesolved—intheircontext.Regionsandnationsexistinan increasinglyinterdependentworld.Environmentanddevelopmentarelinked. Anddifferentsectorsofenvironmentalpolicyareconnectedtoeachother.Soa planforEurope'sprotectedareasmustbeginbyplacingthemincontext.It needstodosoatvariousgeographicalscales—theworld,Europe,theNation Stateandwithineachcountry;andbymakingtheconnectionsbetween protectedareasandothersectorsofpublicpolicy.

ThefirstchapterbrieflysurveystheenvironmentallessonsoftheEarthSummit andtheIVthWorldParksCongress,placingprotectedareasfirmlyinthecontext ofsustainabledevelopment.Italsolooksatthemanyinternational environmentalinitiativesunderwayinEurope.Chapter2considersprotected areasinrelationtoenvironmentalplanningand management.Thethirdchapter looksatthemainsectorswhichaffectprotectedareas—agriculture,forestry, tourism,transport,energyandindustry—identifyingthreatsand opportunities.

PROTECTEDAREAS—THEGLOBALAND REGIONALCONTEXTS

1.1ThelessonsofRio

The EarthSummit,heldinRiodeJaneiroinJune1992,declaredthathumanity stoodata'definingmomentinhistory'.Therearegrossdisparitiesbetween nationsandpeoples.Poverty,hunger,diseaseandconflictarerife.Thenatural CHAPTER1 systemswhichsupportlifeonearthareoftenundergreatandgrowingstress. Onlythroughintegratingconservationanddevelopmentcanthesemassive humanandecologicalchallengesbemet.Nonationcandothisalone.Aglobal partnershipisneededtoachievesustainabledevelopment.

In general,Europeisa relativelyprosperouspartoftheworld.Butittoois afflictedbyuglycontrastsofwealthandpoverty,andbythetragicreturnof war.Moreover,itfacessevereenvironmentalproblems.Also,Europe's environmental'footprint'extendsacrossthewholeworldasitexertsgreat influenceontheenvironmentsofother,poorernations.So,forEurope,the lessonsofRioareto:

■ ApplytheprinciplesoftheRioDeclaration,fulfiltherequirementsofAgenda 21andmeettheobligationsofthetreatiessignedatRiowithinEurope; ■ AdheretothesamehighprincipleswhereverEuropeinteractswiththerest oftheworld.

This plandealswithEurope'sownprotectedareasandsoisaboutthefirstof theselessons,theneedtoput ourownhouseinorder.But,whileactionin EuropewillcontributetomeetingtheglobaltargetssetatRio,thismustbe matchedbyequivalentinternationalactiontosafeguardtheenvironment outsidetheregion,andoftheplanetasawhole.

OftheagreementsmadeatRio,theConventiononBiologicalDiversityisof specialrelevanceto thisplan.Tohelpachieveoneofitsmainobjectives,the

ORPARKSF LIFE THE GLOBALANDREGIONALCONTEXTS conservationofbiodiversity,Statesarerequiredtogiveprioritytoin-situ measures,ofwhicha policyforprotectedareasisanimportantpart. Implementationofthisplanistherefore,part ofactions the countriesneedto taketomeettheirobligationsundertheConvention.(SeealsoSection7.3.3.)

ACTION

1.1.1SupportthemeasuresadoptedinAgenda21.

Endorsement.ThisplansupportsthedecisionstakenatUNCED,especially thoserelatingtoprotectedareas(andparticularlyChapter15inAgenda21, on'ConservationofBiologicalDiversity').Byimplementingthe recommendationsin thisplan,GovernmentsofEuropewillhelptomeet someof theobligationstheyacceptedatUNCED;andthroughavigorous follow-uptotheEarthSummit,theywillbebetterplacedtoensureviable andeffectiveprotectedareasinEurope.

1.2ThelessonsoftheIVthWorldParksCongress

TheIVthWorldCongressonNationalParks andProtectedAreas(Caracas,Venezuela, 1992)finallyburieda historicviewof protectedareasasplacessetasidefromthe mainstreamofhumanconcerns,andas islandsapartfromsurroundingareasand neighbouringcommunities.Initsplacehas emergedanapproachwhichputsprotected areasatthecentreofstrategiesfor sustainabledevelopment,concentratesonthe linkagesbetweenprotectedareasandthe areasaround,andfocusesontheeconomic benefitsthatsuchareascanbring.

The Congressconfirmedthemanypractical benefitsf o protectedareas.Theyprotectvital watersheds;theysafeguardareasof outstandingbeautyandculturalsignificance; theyprovidehomesforhumancommunities withtraditionalculturesandprotect landscapesreflectinghistory aofhumaninteractionwiththeenvironment;and HoheTauernNational theyarevitalplacesfortourism,researchandeducation. Park,Austria

Protectedareasareparticularlyimportantinmaintainingbiodiversity—the ecosystems,speciesandgeneticvariationthatformthe diversitylife.They of conservethecomplexandever-changingpatternsofecosystems.Theyarea primedefenseintheprotectionofspecieslargeandsmallfromextinction.They safeguardthegeneticdiversity,wildandcultivated,ofmanyofthemost importantcropsoftheworld.Andtheyprovideavitalreservoirfortheplants andanimalsneededinmedicine.

As wellasthesepractical benefits,protectedareasalsoenrichthequalityof humanlife,inparticularasplacesforrecreation.Thisisspeciallyimportantina regionlikeEurope,wheremanypeopleliveintownsandcitiesandhavelost first-handcontactwithnature.Protectedareasofferopportunitiesfor inspiration,anantidotetostress,scopeforpeacefulenjoyment,andaplacefor understandingandlearning.Aboveall,theyareasourceofmental,physical andspiritualrenewal.

Manybelievethathuman-centredviewsarenottheonlyvalidapproachtothe environment.Otherspecieshavearighttoexisttoo,andprotectedareasareone

ORPARKSF LIFE THE GLOBALANDREGIONALCONTEXTS

of themainwaystogivethemachanceofsurvival.FewEuropeansarelikelyto seeabear,whale a oramonkseal,butmostwouldbesorryifthesespecieswere lost.DevelopmentisnotauniversalneedinEuropeandsosomepartsofthe continentshouldbeleftfreefornatureandnaturalsuccession.

The ParksCongressalsoemphasizedthatprotectedareasmustadapttoafast- changingworld.Thenextfewdecadeswillwitnessacceleratingratesofchange onaglobalscalethatwillaffectair,soilandwater—themostfundamental resourcesonwhichpeopledepend.Climatechangeandtransboundary pollution,demographicpressures,internationaltrade,aidandtourism—these andotherstressesposechallengesthatwillbedifferentfromanythathavecome before.Thevalueofprotectedareastohumanityhasneverbeengreater,but theyhaveneverbeenundergreaterpressure.Ifthese areasaretobesucceedin makingtheircontributiontosustainabledevelopment,theymustadapttothese changes.

ACTION

1.2.1Re-examinethepoliciestowardsprotectedareasinthelightof theWorldParksCongress.

Recommendation.Governmentsandotherstowhomthisplanisaddressed shouldbringtheirapproachtoprotectedareasintolinewiththeprinciples adoptedatRioandattheWorldParksCongress.Thisplanprovidesthe frameworkandagendatodoso.TheproposalsinChapter12providea mechanismfornationalfollow-upandimplementationoftheplan.

1.3 Europeanstrategicenvironmentalinitiatives

In recentyearstherehave beenmanyinternationalinitiativesforthe environmentofEurope(seebox4).SomeaddresstheneedsofEuropeasa whole;othersconcentrateonthecountriesof theEuropeanUnion;othersrelate toparticularpartsofEurope,suchasriverbasins,regional seasmountain or ranges.Someareconcernedwithawiderangeofenvironmentaltopics,others withcertainaspectsonly.Severalofthemcoverprotectedareaissues.However, noneisdesignedtostimulateinternationalactiononprotectedareasacrossall ofEurope.ThisisthenichefilledbyParksforLife.

Whilethere aremanyworthwhileinitiativesunderwayinEurope,integration betweenthemhasbeenweak.Greaterintegrationmay nowbeachieved throughthefollow-uptotheLucernemeetingofEuropeanEnvironment Ministersin1993(1.3.1),butonlyifallconcernedensurethatthesevarious initiativesaremutuallyreinforcing.This planhasthereforebeendesignedto endorseanumberofvaluableinitiativestakingplaceinEurope,contributeto themandencouragecooperationbetweenthem.

ACTION

1.3.1 Includeprotectedareasinthefollow-upworkandfuture meetingsoftheEuropean EnvironmentMinisters.

The maincomponentsinthisprocessare:

■TheReportontheStateof theEnvironmentinEurope; ■TheEnvironmentalActionProgrammeforCentralandEastern Europe; ■ TheEnvironmentalProgrammeforEurope; ■nA elementtermedBiodiversityConservationwhichispartofthe process leadingtothenextMinisterialmeeting.

ORPARKSF LIFE THE GLOBALANDREGIONALCONTEXTS

TheTriglavNationalPark,Slovenia

ORPARKSF LIFE THE GLOBALANDREGIONALCONTEXTS

Box

Europeanstrategicinitiativesforconservationofbiological,landscapeandmarine diversity

Title Secretariat/ Aim/comment focalpoint Pan-European

Bern Convention(1979) Councilf o Europe To provideinternationalobligationsforthe conservationofEuropeanfloraandfauna andtheirnaturalhabitats

EECONET Dutch MinistryofAgriculture, To developaEurope-wideconceptforthe NatureManagement&Fisheries; conservationofnature InternationalInstitutefor EuropeanEnvironmentalPolicy

EnvironmentProgramme UN/ECE,C, E UNEP,lUCNero/. Topreparetheintergovernmentalenvironment forEurope programmeforEurope

EUROMAB EUROMAB,c/oUNESCO To provideaEuropeannetworkforinternational scientificco-operation,especiallyonbiosphere reserves

European Diploma fCouncilo Europe Torecognizegoodprotectedareamanagement

EuropeanNatureConservationYear CouncilofEurope To developacampaignin1995forconservation (ENCY)1995

TheEuropeanNetworkof Councilf o Europe Chosens a representativeexamplesofnatural BiogeneticReserves Europeanheritage

Europeannion|EU) U

Birds Directive,1979 European CommissionDGXI To protectwildbirdsandtheirhabitats,incl. throughSpecialProtectionAreas

CORINE European CommissionDGXI To developadatabasefornatureconservation intheEU,nowbeingextendedinparttotherest ofEurope

Fifth EnvironmentalAction European CommissionDGXI The EuropeanUnion'sprogrammeof Programme(1992) policyandactiononenvironmentand sustainabledevelopment

HabitatsDirective,1992 European CommissionDGXI To conservefauna,floraandnaturalhabitatsof EUimportance

Natura2000 EuropeanCommissionDGXI The networkofprotectedareassetupunderthe BirdsandHabitatsDirectives

Central andEasternEurope

EcologicalBricksforour Munich, Germany To promotetheestablishmentof18trans- CommonHouseofEurope boundaryprotectedareas

EnvironmentalActionProgramme TaskForceestablishedbyMinisters, forCentralandEasternEurope, withEU,OECD,WorldBank,EBRD 1993-1995 andothers

Greenungs LofEurope,1993 InstituteofSustainable nBasedo Poland's experience,tocreate Development,Warsaw sustainabledevelopmentzones(Belarus,Estonia, Latvia,Lithuania,Poland,Russia,) Arctic

ArcticInitiative Working GroupontheConservationTo prepareacommonArcticEnvironmental ofArcticFloraand Fauna ProtectionStrategy

Nordic ArcticConference c/o NordicCouncilofMinisters EnvironmentalProtection

PARKSOR F LIFE THE GLOBALANDREGIONALCONTEXTS

Title Secretariat/ Aim/comment focalpoint BalticSea

The BalticSeaJointComprehensiveHELCOM,Helsinki ToimprovethequalityoftheBaltic EnvironmentalActionProgramme environment,includingthroughmarine (aspartoftheHelsinkiConvention, andcoastalprotectedareas 1974,19921

Black Sea

BlackSeaActionPlan(BSAP) UNEP, UNDP,GEF&others Environmentalmanagementprogramme fortheBlackSea

BucharestConventionontheProtection oftheBlackSeaagainstPollution,1992

North Sea

ConventionfortheProtection Oslo-Paris-Commission,London TopreventpollutionofNEAtlantic oftheNEAtlantic

MinisterialConferenceonthe SecretariatinMinistryof NorthSea Environment,Denmark

Mediterranean

MediterraneanActionPlan UNEP-Europe,Geneva To improvethequalitythe ofMediterranean (RegionalcentresinAthens, environmentundertheBarcelonaConvention, Valbonne,Tunis,Malta&Split) 1976,includingthroughaprotocolon SpeciallyProtectedAreas

MediterraneanTechnicalAssistanceWorld Bank/EIB 2nd PhaseofEuropeanProgrammefor Programme(METAP) theMediterranean(EPM),toreverse presentenvironmentaldegradation

MEDPAN EIB/WorldBank To strengthenlinksbetweenmanagers ofprotectedareas

MedSPA European CommissionDGXI To protecttheMediterraneanenvironment, includingprotectionofbiotopes

Med Wet Rome, To conserveMediterraneanwetlands(seebox24)

Nicosia Charter(1990) European Community To provideclosercooperationonsustainable developmentintheEuro-Mediterraneanregion, includingonnatureconservation Other

AgreementontheConservationof Bonn Convention,Bonn,Germany African/EurasianMigratoryWaterbirds

AlpineConvention1991 c/o CIPRA,Vaduz To conservetheAlps

BlackTriangleRegionalProgramme, Environmentalprotectionfortheverypolluted 1992- Czech-German-Polishborderzone

Danube RiverBasinProgramme,European CommissionDGXI EnvironmentalprotectionfortheDanube 1991

Europeangreements a onmigratoryBonn Convention,Bonn,Germany Toprotectnamedmigratoryspecies speciesundertheBonnConvention, suchasASCOBANS

InternationalCommissionforthe ProtectionoftheRhineagainst Pollution(ICPRP),1963andsubsequently

Waddensea CommonSecretariatforthe Integrated managementoftheWaddensea ProtectionoftheWaddensea, fornatureconservation Wilhelmshaven,Germany WestPalearcticFlywayAgreement

ORPARKSF LIFE THE GLOBALANDREGIONALCONTEXTS

Recommendation.TheCouncilofEurope,withthesupportofIUCNandits partners,shouldtakeupParksforLifeaspartofthepreparationforthenext EuropeanEnvironmentMinistersConference(Sofia).

Recommendation.TheEuropeanEnvironmentMinisters,attheirmeetingin Sofia,shouldreviewandadopttheprinciplesandrecommendationsin ParksforLife.

1.3.2 IncludeprotectedareasintheworkoftheEuropean EnvironmentalAgency(EEA).

Recommendation.TheEuropeanEnvironmentalAgencyshouldgive emphasistoprotectedareasinitswork.

AlthoughanorganoftheEuropeanUnion,theEEAisopentoallcountries inEurope.Itsfirstgoalsaregatheringanddisseminatinginformationonthe environment.Itisbeingdevelopedasacentralagency,withadistributed networkoftopiccentres,oneofwhichwillbeonnatureconservation.

1.3.3Ensuregoodcommunicationbetweeninternationalinitiativesin Europethataffectprotectedareas.

Recommendation.Inspearheadingtheimplementationofthisplan(see Chapter12),IUCNshould:

a) WorkcloselywithalltherelatedinternationalinitiativesinEurope;

b) Establishaconsultativemechanismwiththesecretariatsorfocalpoints fortheseinitiatives;and

c) SetupaninformationserviceforitsmembersinEuropesothattheyare keptabreastoftheseinitiativesandoftheimplementationoftheplan.

ProtectedforestontheAltja River,Estonia

ORPARKSF LIFE ENVIRONMENTALPLANNINGANDMANAGEMENT

PROTECTEDAREASANDENVIRONMENTAL PLANNINGANDMANAGEMENT

Too oftenprotectedareasinEuropeareregardedassomethingseparateorapart fromthesustainabledevelopmentofanation.Infact,protectedareascanplaya vitalpartinsustainingtheeconomicandsocialwell-beingofhuman populations.Acentralobjectiveofthisplan,therefore,istointegrateprotected areasinto largerplanning frameworks.dothis,actionsin Tothischaptercall fortheintegrationofprotectedareaswithnationalplanningforsustainable development,withsustainabledevelopmentatthelocallevel,withplanningof theuseoflandandsea,andwithcontrolof pollution.

2.1Protectedareasandnationalplanningforsustainable development

Agenda21callsonGovernmentstoadoptnationalstrategiesforsustainable developmenttohelpimplementdecisionstakenattheEarthSummit;andthe ConventiononBiologicalDiversityrequirespartiesto'developnational strategies,plansorprogrammesfortheconservationandsustainableuseof biologicaldiversity'.

Since protectedareascontainimportantnationalresourcesofbiodiversityand landscape,theywillbeimportantcomponentsofbothofthesetypesofplan. (Box5showssomeof thevaluesofprotectedareastosustainabledevelopment.)

Protectedareasandsustainability Box

Protectedareascontributetosustainabledevelopmentby:

1. Conservingsoilandwaterinerodibleareas;

2. Regulatingandpurifyingwaterflow,especiallybyprotectingwetlands andforests;

3. Shieldingpeoplefromnaturaldisasters,suchasfloodorstormsurge;

4. Maintainingimportantnaturalvegetationonsoilsofinherentlylow productivityandinsensitiveareas;

5. Maintainingwildgeneticresourcesimportanttomedicineorforplant oranimalbreeding;

6. Protectingspeciesthatare highlysensitivetohumandisturbance;

7. Providingcriticalhabitatforfeeding,breedingorrestingofspeciesthat areusedsustainably;

8. Providingincomeandemploymentthroughtourism.

AdaptedfromCaringfortheEarth(1991).

ORPARKSF LIFE ENVIRONMENTALPLANNINGANDMANAGEMENT

ACTION

2.1.1 Producenationalsustainabledevelopmentstrategiesand nationalplansforbiodiversity,asafollow-uptoUIMCED.

Endorsement.ThisplanendorsesthecalltoGovernmentstoprepare nationalstrategiesforsustainabledevelopmentandfortheconservationof biodiversity.

2.2 Protectedareasandlocalsustainabledevelopment

Tooofteninthepastithasbeenassumedthattheaimsoflocalcommunitiesand thoseofprotectedareasarein conflict.Asaresult,the managementofprotectedareashasoftenemphasizedcontrols andregulations,assumingincompatibilitybetweentwo interestgroups;andlocalcommunitieshavebeenalienated ■z fromtheprotectedareasnearoraroundtheirhomes.

>;"-"-.-*"Butin factprotectedareasandlocalpeoplecanoftenhelpeach .".-Vy;otherandbecomepowerfuladvocatesofeachother'sneeds: , localcommunitiescanbenefitfinanciallyandinotherways fromprotectedareas;andprotectedareascanbenefitfromthe involvementoflocalpeopleintheirplanningand management.Whileprotectivemeasures,suchas controlsover activitieswithinparks,mustremaininplace,theemphasisin protectedareamanagementshouldbetomaximizethe positiveinteraction.Therearetwocomplementaryelementsof thisapproach.

Traditionalhandicraft, First,policiesareneededsothattheexistenceof theprotectedareawill Solishta, encouragethegrowthofthelocaleconomyinsustainableways.Localpeople willthensee thevalueoftheprotectedareaasasourceofincomeandemploy ment.Approachesmightinclude:

■ marketinglocalproducts(e.g.wine,liqueurs,oliveoil,cheeses,honey, springwater)withthenameoftheprotectedareaonthelabel—as monasterieshavedonewiththeirnameforcenturies;

■ developingthemarketingskillsoflocalcommunitiessothattheyareableto meettheneedsoftourists visitingprotectedareas,especiallyfor accommodationandmeals;

■ creatinghandicraftworkshops,trainingfacilitiesandshopsinoraroundthe protectedarea,soastoencouragelocalcrafts;

■ usingthequalityofsceneryandthepeacefulsurroundingstoestablish healthestablishmentsandrest-homes;

■ encouragingruralcommunitiestodeveloplocalmuseumsofrurallife,or otherwaysofcelebratingtheirrelationshipwithnature;and

■ developingfarm-basedtourismlinkedtovisitingprotectedareas.

Second,policiesareneededwhichinvolvelocalpeopleintheplanningand managementofprotectedareas,leadingeventuallytojointmanagement.This willgivelocalpeoplearealsenseofownershipandinvolvement.Thesepolicies shouldbebasedonakeyprincipleofCaringfortheEarth:enablingcom munitiestocarefortheirownenvironments,andpursuedthrough an approachknownasPrimaryEnvironmentalCare—thatis'theprocessby

PARKSOR F LIFE ENVIRONMENTALPLANNINGANDMANAGEMENT which localcommunitiesorganizethemselvesandstrengthen,enrichandapply theirmeansandcapacitiesforthecareof theirenvironmentwhile simultaneouslysatisfyingtheirneeds'.Inpracticaltermsthiscanmean:

■ encouraginglocalcommunitiestosetupandmanagetheirownnature reserves,inwhichresourcesareconservedforthecommunity;

■ buildingpartnershipsbetweenprotectedareamanagingbodiesandlocal communities,sothatlocalpeopletakeonacaretakerrolefortheareas concerned;

■ developingfinancialandfiscalincentives,andtechnicalsupport,to encouragefarmersandotherstocareforresources(likewater,treesandwild animals)andlandscapeandculturalfeatures(likestonewallsandfarm buildings).

ACTION

2.2.1Strengthenthelinksbetweenlocalcommunitiesandprotected areas,withtheeventualaimof'jointmanagement'.

Recommendation.Governmentsshouldreviewtheiradministrativeand socio-economicarrangementsontheinteractionbetweenprotectedareasand localcommunities,soastostrengthenthelinksbetweenthemandto encouragejointmanagement.

(These ideasarefurtherdevelopedinlatersections,suchasthoseon agriculture(3.1),tourism(3.3),industry(3.5),SouthernEuropeandthe Mediterranean(5.2),legalaspects(box32),broadeningpartnershipsin protectedareamanagement(8.2),andinparticularsecuringthesupportof localcommunities(11.5)).

2.3 Protectedareasandland-useplanning

Becausedesignationasaprotectedareaisaformoflanduse,theneedsofsuch areasshouldbeproperlyintegratedintoland-useplanning. Byadopting effectiveland-useplanningsystemswhichcontrolconstruction,building, engineering,agriculture,forestry,etc.(throughEnvironmentalAssessmentsand inotherways),countrieswillreinforcetheprotectiongiventoalltheirnatural andculturalresources,withinandoutsideprotectedareas.

Land-useplanningisparticularlyimportantinEuropebecauseofthegreat pressuresonlandforagriculture,industryandotheruses.Itisalsoparticularly importantbecauseof theneedforzoninginprotectedareas;thezonesinthe protectedareasneedtobecompatiblewiththeland-useplannedoutside,and viceversa.

Eachcountryneeds:

■ themeanstoplanandcontroltheuseoflandthroughland-useplanning systems;and

■o t takefullaccountoftheneedsofprotectedareasinthesesystems.

Box6setsouttheprinciplesthatshouldunderpinland-useplanningsystems, thoughtheywillneedtobeadaptedtoconditionsineachcountry.Land-use

1. PlanningterminologyandconceptsvarygreatlyinEurope:physicalplanning,regionalplanning,town andcountryplaning,developmentplanningetc.Butallareconcernedwiththeuseoflandandthe regulationofactivitiesuponit.Forconvenience,thetermusedhereforthisprocessis'land-useplanning'

PARKSOR F LIFE ENVIRONMENTALPLANNINGANDMANAGEMENT

planningis essentiallyamatterfornationalorsub-nationalgovernments,but collaborativeactionwillalsohelptoraisestandardsthroughoutEurope,andso providebettersafeguardsforprotectedareas.

CountriesinEuropehavereachedverydifferentlevelsofadherencetoeffective land-useplanning.Mosthavesomeformofland-useplanningsystem.Many havesomeof thecomponentsintheboxinplace.Butveryfew,ifany,canclaim tooperatealltheserequirements.

Implementationcanbedifficult.Somecountries,especiallyinSouthernEurope, havegoodsystemsonpaperbutfailtoimplementthemontheground.Herethe prioritymaybetomovefromthepreparationofland-useplanstothepractical managementoftheterritory.

ACTION

2.3.1Establishaninternationalprogrammetoraisestandardsinland- useplanning.

Priority Project1.Developaprogrammetoraisestandardsofland-use planning.Thiswouldincludethreemainactivities:

a)Agreementonthecomponentsofaneffectiveland-useplanningsystem toensuretheintegrityofEurope'sprotectedareas(essentiallya developmentof theadviceinbox6);

b) Assessmentofeachcountry'sarrangementssetagainstthosestandards, soastoidentifysignificantweaknessesatnationalor sub-nationallevels;

nc)O thebasisof(b),actionstomakegoodtheshortcomings,assistedwith technicaladviceasappropriate.

Lead Agencies:IUCNandtheCouncilofEurope,backedbytheEuropean Unionandotherbodies.

2.4Protectedareasandplanningandmanagementofthe marineenvironment

InEuropeaselsewhere,thedevelopmentofmarineprotectedareashaslagged behindthatonland.Thereisanurgentneedtointegratemarineprotectedareas intotheplanningandmanagementof themarineenvironment.

Kefalonia,Greece

PARKSOR F LIFE ENVIRONMENTALPLANNINGANDMANAGEMENT

Principlesofland-useplanninginrelationtoprotectedBox areas a) Thesystemofland-useplanningshouldprovideboth: ■ Plans,whicharelong-termframeworksfordirectingand stimulatingdevelopment,changesinland-use,provisionof infrastructure,etc.,and; ■ Controloverchangesinland-use,construction,etc.; b) Protectedareaconsiderationsshouldacentral be featureofforward planningandofthecontrolfunction; c) Land-useplanningshouldoperated be inthepublicinterest; d) Privateinterestsshouldnotbepermittedtoprejudicethewiderpublic interestintheproperof uselandandtheintegrityofprotectedareas; e) Planningshouldbeopentopublicscrutinyandcomment.

Land-useplansshouldreflecttheneedsofprotectedareas.Inparticularthey should: a) Placeprotectedareaswithintheirbio-regionsormajorlandscapeunits, suchasriverbasinsormountainareas; b) Embraceoneormoreexistingorpotentialprotectedareas,andcovera largeenoughareatoprovidethebenefitsofbiodiversityandlandscape heritagetolocalcommunities; c) Developsupportzonesaroundprotectedareasandcorridorsbetween them; d) Promotetherestorationofdegradedecosystems,withinandoutside protectedareas; e) Promotetheinterdependenceofprotectedareasandtheeconomyand lifeoflocalpeople,sothatbothbenefit; f) Ensurethatstrongland-usepoliciesexistforallsectors,e.g.agriculture, forestry,fishing,tourism,urbandevelopment,transport,energyand minerals—andthatthesepoliciesrequireprotectedareastobe safeguarded; g) Involvetheexaminationofalternativestrategiesfordevelopmentinthe bio-region,basedonassessmentoftheenvironmentalimpactsofthese alternatives,especiallyonprotectedareas.

Individualdevelopmentproposalsthatmaysignificantlyaffectprotected areas(whetherwithinthearea,oroutsideit)shouldbesubjecttoan environmentalassessment(EA)andacontrolsystemwhichshould: a) Alwaysbeappliedifapreliminaryscreeningindicatesalikelythreatto theprotectedarea; b) Covertheeconomicandsocialbenefitsandcostsaswellasthe physicalimpacts; c) Notonlyconsidermitigatorymeasures,butalsoalternativemeansof meetingtheclaimedneed,includingoption theofnotproceedingat all; d) Alwaysbeundertakenatthebeginningoftheprojectcycle; e) Allowforthepossibilitythattheprojectmayberefusedorpermittedto continueonlyundercertainconditions; f) Requiremonitoringifapprovalisgiven,andcorrectiveactionand enforcementtoensurecompliance; g) Allowforfullpublicparticipation; h)e B undertakenbyagroupindependentfromthatpromotingthe project; i) Becarriedoutinthepublicdomain,andbepublished.

ORPARKSF LIFE ENVIRONMENTALPLANNINGANDMANAGEMENT

Box | TheHighSeas,theEEZandinshorewaters

Mostf o theworld'soceanslieoutsidethejurisdictionof individualStates.On theHighSeas,therearenorestrictionsonaccess,andcountry no has exclusiverightstofishstocks,mineralsoranyothermarineresources.The onlycontrolsarethosewhicharereachedthroughinternationalagreement. Thisisdonethroughinternationaltreatiesonmarineissues,inparticularthe 1982UnitedNationsConventionsontheLawoftheSea(UNCLOS).Protected areasontheHighSeascanonlybecreatedbyinternationalagreement.An exampleofsuchagreementistheIMOsystemofParticularlySensitiveSea Areas,asusedintheBaltic.

Exclusive EconomicZones,althoughcoveredunderUNCLOS,havealready becomepartofcustomarylaw.ManycoastalnationshavedeclaredEEZsin whichtheyhaverightsoverthemanagementofmarineresources.

Closerinshore,nationshavecomprehensivepowerswithintheirown territorialwaters.Theseusuallyextendsomemilesoffshore(12nautical milesismostcommon).ItisherethatMarineProtectedAreasaremostlikely tobeestablished,althoughtheyare alsoneededintheEEZsandontheHigh Seas.

The traditionalapproachtomarineplanningandmanagementhasbeento targetactivities,suchasfisheries,mineralextraction,shippingandotheruses, andtogiveplanningfornature conservationalowerpriority.Morerecently, though,therehasbeenashifttowardsintegratedplanning,andarecognition thatenvironmentalmanagementisessentialinthemarineenvironment.These changeshavecomplementedratherthanreplacedthetraditionalfocusonthe regulationofindividualactivities.Inparticular,regionalagreements(e.g.forthe BalticSea,theMediterraneanandtheNorthEastAtlantic)provide,orcould provide,theframeworkwithinwhichmarineprotectedareasprogrammescan bedeveloped(seeChapter5).

At thenationallevel too,anintegratedapproachtoplanningandmanaging activitiesatseaisneededtosupportmarineprotectedareas.Incoastalwaters, andontheadjoiningland,theapproachknownasIntegratedCoastalZone Management(ICZM)willbeespeciallyvaluable—seebox8.

Protectedareasare particularlyimportantfor fisheriespolicy,astheycanprotect spawningandnurserygroundsoftargetandnon-targetfishspecies.Theycould alsobeusedtoprotectvulnerablemarineareaswhosehabitatscanbedamaged byunselectivefishinggear.

ACTION

2.4.1 Supporttheimplementationofthe1982ConventionontheLaw oftheSea.

Endorsement.ThisplansupportscallsforGovernmentstogivefavourable considerationtotheearlyratificationoftheConvention.Thoughthereis someuncertaintyaboutitsfullimplicationsformarineprotectedareas,the strongerinternationalregimefortheprotectionofthemarineenvironment willbringoverallbenefits.TheConventioncomesintoforceinNovember 1994,butinEuropeonlyIcelandandtheformerYugoslaviahaveratifiedit sofar.

ORPARKSF LIFE ENVIRONMENTALPLANNINGANDMANAGEMENT

KeyfeaturesofIntegratedCoastalZoneManagement(ICZM)BoxI

Adynamicprocessinwhichacoordinatedstrategyisdevelopedand implementedfortheconservationandsustainableuseofthecoastalzone.

ICZMaimsto:

■ providestrategicplanningforthecoast; ■ promoteuseofcoastalresourcesthatissustainableandenvironmentally sensitive; ■ balancedemandfortheresourcesofthecoastalzone; ■ resolveconflictsof use.

ICZMrecognizesthat:

■ thecoastalzoneistheunit forplanningpurposes; ■ thatmanagementofcoastallandandwatersmustbedealtwith together; ■ thecoastalzoneneedsspecialattention.

ICZMrequires:

■ anationalperspective; ■ along-termview; ■n a integratedapproachtoplanningandmanagement; ■ communication,collaborationandco-ordinationbetweenplanners, managersandusers; ■ publicinvolvement; ■ aflexibleapproach; ■ aspecificagencytodealwithcoastalzonematters.

Source:CoastalZoneManagementandtheNorthSeaMinisterial Conference,WWFandtheMarineConservationSociety,1993

2.4.2 EncouragethewideruseofIntegratedCoastalZone Management.

Endorsement.Thisplanwelcomesthework underwayinmanycountriesto applyIntegratedCoastalZoneManagement(ICZM).Itendorsestheneedfor aninternationalframeworkforICZM,andsupportsthecallbyWWFand othersforEuropean a Union(EU)Directiveonthecoast,buildingonthe supporttoICZMintheEU's5thEnvironmentActionPlan,Towards Sustainability.ItalsosupportsincorporatingICZMintothethree internationalregionalseaagreements—fortheBaltic,Mediterraneanand NEAtlantic(seeChapter5).(TheEuropeanUnionforCoastalConservation hascalledontheCouncilofEuropetodevelopaConventionon European coasts,tolinktogethervariousICZMinitiativesinEurope.)

2.4.3Linkprotectedareaspolicyandfisheriespolicy.

Recommendation.Governmentsandtheircoastalmanagementauthorities shouldestablishprotectedareastoprotectvaluablespawningandnursery groundsforimportantfishstocks,andtoprotectsensitiveareasfrom damagebyfisheryoperations.

ORPARKSF LIFE ENVIRONMENTALPLANNINGANDMANAGEMENT

2.5 Protectedareasandpollutioncontrol

Pollutionrespectsneitherboundariesnorgenerations.Itharmsmanyprotected areas:wetlandssufferfrompollutionoftheirwatersupply;forestssufferfrom acidrainandotherformsofairpollution;andmountainecosystemsare particularlysusceptibletoacidraindamage.ManyofEurope'sprotectedareas havesufferedbadly,especiallyfromairpollution.

Ontheotherhand,protectedareashelpreducetheeffectsof pollution.Coastal marshes,wetlandsanddeltasactasfilters,absorbingandneutralizingmanyof thepollutantsintheincomingwater.Withoutlargeriverdeltas,pollutionofthe seaswouldbefarworse.

TwointernationalconferencesinKrkonoseNationalPark(CzechRepublic),in 1990and1993,havefocusedinternationalattentiononthedamagecausedby pollutiononprotectedareas,especiallyinCentralEurope.Thefirstofthese preparedguidelinesformanagementofprotectedareassufferingfrompollution andthesecondconcentratedonmonitoringandremedialmanagementin mountainprotectedareas.

Thefirstandobviousrequirementistoreducepollutionatsource.Thisisthe onlylong-termsolutionthatwillsafeguardtheecologicalvalueofprotected areasandofnatureasawhole(Action2.5.1).Itcanbestbeundertakenaspartof anation'stransport,industrialandenergypolicy(Sections3.4and3.5).

Protectedareascancontributetopollutioncontrolasmonitoringsites. Biospherereservesareparticularlywellsuitedforthisbecausetheyforma linkedresearchnetwork.Thereisaneedforbetterinternationalcollaborationin pollutionmonitoring,usingadvancedtechnologysuchassatelliteimageryand GISmapping(Action2.5.2).

Protectedareascanalsohelpbyusingtheireducationalpotentialtopromote publicawarenessofpollutionissuesandtodemonstratetheeffectofpollution onnature.Theycanmaketheconnectionsbetweenpollutionintheparkandthe lifestyleoftheindividualvisitor(Action2.5.3).Andtheycanhelpbyensuring thattheirownfacilitiesdonotcauselocalpollution(seeSection8.8).

ACTION

2.5.1Reducepollutionatsource.

Endorsement.This plansupportsandendorsesallinitiativestoreduce pollutionatsource.Theseincludelocalinitiatives—reducingtheemissions fromafactory,forexample—aswellasmorewidespreadmeasures,suchas newandtougherlegislation,nationalorinternational.

Recommendation.Inassessinganinvestmenttoreducepollution,the damagecausedtoprotectedareasandothervaluablehabitatsshouldbe takenintoaccount.

2.5.2 Monitorpollutioninprotectedareas.

Recommendation.Increasedinternationaleffortsshouldbemountedtouse protectedareasasa linkednetworkformonitoringofpollution,especially airpollution.Protectedareamanagersshouldsupportthisapproach. Guidelinesmaybeneededmonitoring on pollutionimpacts.

PARKSOR F LIFE ENVIRONMENTALPLANNINGANDMANAGEMENT

2.5.3 Useprotectedareastobuildpublicawarenessaboutpollution.

Recommendation.Protectedareamanagersshouldproducedisplayand othermaterialaboutpollutiontostimulatepublicinterestandconcern,(see alsoChapter11.)

Foamfromindustry pollutingtheWaddensea, Germany

PARKSOR F LIFE KEY SECTORSOFPUBLICPOLICY

PROTECTEDAREASANDKEYSECTORSOF PUBLICPOLICY

Effectivepoliciesforprotectedareaswillonlysucceediftherearealso sympatheticpoliciesinalltheothersectorsofpublicpolicywhichaffect protectedareas.Infact,veryfewsectorsdonotinfluenceprotectedareasin someway.ThosewheretheconnectionsarestrongestinEuropeareagriculture, forestry,tourism,transport,andenergyandotherindustries—thesubjectsof CHAPTER3 thischapter.Buttheyarenottheonlyones:forexamplewaterextractionhas beendeeplydamagingtoriversandwetlands,especiallyinMediterranean countries;andaquaculture,includingfishfarmingandshellfishfarming,can oftendegrademarineandfreshwaterprotectedareas.

Sincethisplanisaboutprotectedareas,thisisnottheplacetooutlinethecase forsustainablepoliciesineachofthesesectors.Ontheotherhand,unless sustainablepoliciesarefollowed,theprospectsforprotectedareasaregrim. Thereforeeachsectionbrieflyreferstotheprinciplesthatneedtobefollowedin thesectorasawhole,oftenby endorsementofactionsunderway,andthen considerstheissuesthataffectprotectedareas.

Agriculture,forestry,tourism,transportandindustryareoftenseenasthreatsto protectedareas.Indeed,theyhavedonegreatdamagetothenationalparks, naturereservesandprotectedlandscapesofEurope.Therefore,manyofthe recommendationsareaboutintroducingbettersafeguardsforprotectedareas.

However,itisjustasimportanttofocusontheopportunitiesforprotectedareas ineachofthesesectors.Thesehaveneverbeengreater.Agriculturalsurplusesin manypartsofEuropeand,toalesserextent,thereleaseoflandheldbythe militarymeantherearerealprospectsofcreatingnewprotectedareas- or extendingandimprovingexistingones.Asenvironmentalconcernshave increased,andpolicy-makersseeknewsourcesofincomeforfarmers,it becomespracticaltoprovideincentivesandrewardstolandoccupiersfor environmentalcare.Andasvarioussectorsbecomesensitizedtoenvironmental concerns,theyaremorewillingtoadjusttheirpoliciessothatprotectedareas canbenefit.TheActionsaimtomakefulluseoftheseopportunities.

3.1Agriculture

Agricultureisbothamajorland-useinitselfandapowerfulinfluenceonother ruralactivities.Farmingaccountsfor60%of thelandsurfaceof theEuropean Union(EU)andofCentralandEasternEurope(thoughlessthan10%inFenno- Scandiawhereforestrypredominates).Agricultureisalsothemajorland-usein CategoryVprotectedlandscapesandisimportantinmanyCategoryIVnature reserves.Asthemainactivityonsurroundingland,ithasaprofoundinfluence onprotectedareasinallcategories.Morethananyothersector,agriculture demonstratesthatprotectedareasmustbeestablishedandmanagedaspartof overallland-usepoliciesandnotinseparationfromthewidercountryside.

Somefarmlandisofintrinsicconservationvalue,asitsflora,faunaandland scapedependsonthecontinuationoflowintensity,oftentraditionalfarming practices(seebox9).Abandoningthiskindoffarmingcausesgreatharmto natureandlandscape.(Notalltraditionalformsoffarmingareenvironmentally benign,however:inMediterraneancountriescenturiesofover-grazingofforests and maquishaveledtobarrenhillsidesakintodeserts.)

Most modernfarmingpracticeshaveproveddeeplyharmfultonatureand landscapes.Toraiseoutput,numerousrarehabitatshavebeendestroyed,in particularbydrainageofwetlandsandirrigationofdrylands.Inplaces,

PARKSOR F LIFE KEY SECTORSOFPUBLICPOLICY industrial-stylepracticeshavealmosteradicatedwildplantsandanimalsfrom thecountryside.Intensiveuseoffertilizers,pesticidesandherbicideshascaused pollutionanddamagedneighbouringnaturalareas—evennearbyseas. DamagehasbeengreatestinthenorthernpartoftheEuropeanUnionandon collectiveandstatefarmsintheformerEasternbloccountries,althoughmore recentlyimpact thehasbeenfeltinSouthernEuropetoo,especiallywithinthe EU.Incontrast,policiestoretainsmall-scalefarmingasawayoflifehavebeen relativelysuccessfulinAustria,SwitzerlandandpartofGermany.Thediversity betweencountriesisfurthercomplicatedbythewidelydifferingformsofland ownershipthroughoutEurope.

Examplesoffarmingsystemsofconservationvalue Box

■ Lowintensity,oftenlong-establishedpasturesandhaymeadowsinthe mountainsofcentralEurope,IberiaandBritain;

■ Non-irrigatedextensivecerealcultivationincentralandsouthern Europe;this'pseudo-steppe'cultivationislow-yieldingandisoften associatedwithdrygrasslands;

■ Permanentpastureandmixedlandscapesofcerealcultivationwith permanentpasturethroughoutNorthernEurope;includes'bocage landscapes'ofnortherncentralEuropeandsmall-scalefarmingin CentralandEasternEurope;

■ PerennialcropssuchasorchardsinNorthernEurope,carobandolive grovesinSouthernEurope,andgrazedpasturewoodlandssuchasthe dehesasofSpainandcorkoakmontadosinPortugal;

■ Undrainedorpoorlydrainedcoastalmeadowsusedforgrazingorfor seasonalcutsofhay.

Fortunatelypublicpolicytowardsfarmingischanging.Inthepast,theaimhas beentoconcentrateonraisingoutput,oftenregardlessofcost,buttheadventof foodsurpluses,especiallyintheEuropeanUnion,hasledtomeasurestoreduce output—bycuttingsubsidies,encouraging'setaside'andinotherways.Calls onEuropefromtheGeneralAgreementonTariffsandTrade(GATT)have increasedthepressuretoreducesubsidiesonproduction.Also,tradelinks betweenEastandWestEuropecouldincreasefoodsurplusesfurther,since countriessuchasBulgaria,Hungary,PolandandRomaniahavemuchpotential toraisetheirproductionforexport.

Theneedtocutoutputstilloffersauniqueopportunitybothtoreducethe intensityofproductionandtotakelandoutofagriculturealtogetherby creating,restoringandmanagingnaturalhabitatsonalargescale.Despitesome progress,however,environmentalprotectionisnotyetattheheartofthe reformsoftheEU'sCommonAgriculturalPolicy(CAP).Manyvaluable habitats,particularlyinSouthernEurope,arestillatriskfromanintensification offarmingthatisbothunnecessaryandharmfultonatureandlandscape. Similarly,thereareopportunitiesinEasternandCentralEuropetobuild conservationintothepoliciesforagricultureandland-useofthenewly democraticgovernments.Fundamentalchangesinagriculturalpolicycould bringgreatbenefitstoconservationandprotectedareas—andtosocietyat large.

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Traditionalfarming, ACTION Poland 3.1.1 'Green'theCommonAgriculturalPolicy(CAP),and implementitsAgri-EnvironmentRegulation.

Endorsement.ThisplansupportspresenteffortsfortheEuropeanUnion anditsMemberStatesto:

a)Further'green'theCAPsothatmanymorefarmerscanbecomeeffective partnersinconservation,especially:

oi) T makeenvironmentalprotectionacentralaimoftheCAP; ii) Toallocatethenecessaryfundingforenvironmentalprotection; iii)Tomakeallpaymentsconditionalonenvironmentalprotection ('cross compliance');and iv)ToassessandaudittheenvironmentalimpactoftheCAP,in particulartorequireenvironmentalassessmentforallnewdrainage and irrigationprojectsfundedthe byEU;

b) ImplementthenewAgri-EnvironmentRegulation(seebox10),including allocatingthefundsneeded,involvingthenatureconservationagencies inimplementation,andadjustinganynationallegislationthatiscontrary toimplementation.

3.1.2Combinemeasurestorestrainproductionwithstronger safeguardsforprotectedareas.

Recommendations.

a) GovernmentsofEUMemberStatesshoulduseESA-typeschemes(which involvemanagementagreements,changesinagriculturalsupport,

ORPARKSF LIFE KEY SECTORSOFPUBLICPOLICY

diversification,etc.,)forprotectedareaswherelandscapeand biodiversitydependonthesurvivaloflow-intensityfarming(Action 4.2.3coverstheidentificationoftheseareas);

nb) Imakingprovisionsforset-aside,theEuropeanUnionits andMember Statesshouldencouragehighstandardsofenvironmentalcareand shouldseektotargetset-asidetohelpachievetheaimsofexisting protectedareas,ortoextendthemorlinkthemup;

c) TheEuropeanUnionanditsMemberStatesshouldconsiderusing nationalmeasuresforextensificationtostrengthenandextendprotected areas.

3.1.3 SupportCentralandEasternEuropeinavoidingthemistakesof agriculturalpolicyinWesternEurope.

Endorsement.TheplansupportseffortstoencourageGovernmentsof CentralandEasternEuropeto:

a)AvoidthemistakesmadeinagriculturalpolicyinWesternEuropeby integratingenvironmentalprotectionintotheirnewpoliciesfor agriculture;

b)Recognizetheneedtoprotectenvironmentalinterestsinthecourseof landadjustment,particularlandprivatization;and

c)Institutetrainingandextensionservicestopromoteenvironmentally- friendlyfarmingpractices.

Endorsement.TheplanendorsestheworkbytheIUCNEastEuropean ProgrammetohelpgovernmentsofCentralandEasternEuropeancountries achieve(a)to(c)above.

UTheE Agri-EnvironmentRegulation(EEC2078/92) BoxQi

This instrumentprovidesfor:

a) Incentivestofarmersinselectedareasofhighenvironmentalvalue,soas tomaintaintraditional,low-intensityfarming.includes Thisthe designationofschemessimilartotheEnvironmentallySensitiveAreas (ESAs)andothermanagementagreements.

ManyCategoryVprotectedlandscapesandsomeCategoryIVareas wouldgreatlybenefitfromsuchdesignation,sincechangesinfarming practiceare oftenthegreatestthreattotheirintegrity.

b) Theremovaloflandfromagriculture.Underthisprovision,reservesfor selectedhabitatsandspeciesshouldcreated, be perhapsbyestablishing newprotectedareasonlandnolongerneededforagricultureor extendingexistingones.

c) Extensificationgenerallyinagriculture.Mostmeasuresarehorizontal(i.e. affectallfarmersequally),butsomecanrelatetospecificareas. Extensificationwillbeparticularlyimportantbyreducinguseoffertilizers, herbicidesandpesticidesinandaroundprotectedareas.

ORPARKSF LIFE KEY SECTORSOFPUBLIC POLICY

3.1.4 SupporttheworkofNGOsinthegreeningofagriculture.

Recommendation.ThisplanwelcomestheroleofNGOsinpromotingmore environmentally-sensitiveagriculturalpolicyandpractice,andtherefore recommendsthat:

a) GovernmentsshouldsupportNGOsinacquiringagriculturallandfor naturereserves,etc.,througheasements,grants,covenants,etc.;

b) NGOsshouldstrengthentheirnetworksacrossEuropetoinfluencethe shapingandimplementationofagriculturalpolicyasitaffectsthe environment,andusethesenetworkstosupportsmallerNGOs in Central,SouthernandEasternEuropeto thisend.

3.2 orestry F

Comparedwithothercontinents,Europehasahighproportionofforestedland, thoughthisvariesgreatlyfromonecountrytoanother—fromabout1%closed forestinIcelandand5%inIrelandto60%inFinland.Forestproductsare importanttotheeconomyofmanycountries:ofthe 1024largesttimber producersintheworldareinEurope.

Only isolatedfragmentsoftrulynaturalforestsurvive,andmostofthemarein Fenno-ScandiaandSouthEastEurope.Nearlyalltheforestshave beenmodified byhumaninterventionoverhundredsoreventhousandsofyears.Such Naturalandsemi-naturalalterationmayreduceorincreasebiodiversity,butitalwayschangesthe forestsofWesternEuropestructureoftheforest.

In generaltheextentofforestsinEurope isincreasing.InFrance,forexample,itis 500i greaterthanatanytimeinthepast300 years.AcrossEurope,marginalfarmland isbeingabandonedandisrevertingto scrubandwoodland,andformerlyopen 400- countryisbeingplantedwithtrees.With theprospectofcontinuingagricultural surpluses,furtherextensionsof forested landarelikelyinfuture.Here,again, thereareopportunitiesforconservation. 300 Therearealsodangers,inparticularfrom large-scaleintensiveplantationsinopen country,oftenwithnon-nativespecies.

Wherevirginforestsexist,theyshouldbe 200 conservedurgently,forthemostpartin protectedareas,asoutlinedinSection4.2. However,ingeneralforestconservation inEuropeislessaboutprotectingoriginal forestsandmoreaboutensuringthatthe 100- managementofallforestsissustainable andinsympathywithnature—the subjectofthissection.

Thereis muchtobedone.Naturaland I - I J I semi-naturalwoodlandscontinuetobe C 0» «J != C JE ^ e ^ c convertedtomoreintensiveformsof £j2jf3illforest(withmoreyoungtrees,fewer age '000 ectares h z w classes,fewerspecies,lessbiomass,more WFSource:W ForestStrategyforEuropethe andMiddle East

ORPARKSF LIFE KEY SECTORSOFPUBLICPOLICY

disturbance,andgreaterforestfragmentationandedgeeffect).Afforestation takesplaceonothervaluablesemi-naturalhabitats.Grazingcandevastate woodlands.Airpollutionrespectsnoboundaries.Firemaybeanatural occurrence,butonmodifiedforestsitcanbedevastating,especiallyif itis followedafterwardsbyheavygrazing.

The extentoftheseproblemsdiffersfromonepartofEuropetoanother.Inthe Atlanticseaboardcountrieswithlittleremainingforest,afforestationon moorlands,heathlands,raisedbogsandothervaluedhabitatshasbeenamajor threattowildlife.InScandinaviaandFrance,mostnaturalandsemi-natural woodlandshavebeenconvertedtomoreintensiveproductionforests.Inthe Mediterraneanregion,forestfiresandgrazingcontinuetodevastatemany woodlandsandforests.InEasternEurope,forestshavesufferedparticularly fromairpollutionaswellasfromconversiontomonocultures.Inmany countriesthesepracticeshavealsoaffectedforestsandwoodlandsinprotected areas.Forexample,insomeprotectedareasinEasternandCentralEurope, forestryoperationscontinueoncommerciallines.

The StatementofForestPrinciples,adoptedattheEarthSummitinRio, emphasizedthatforestsintheNorth,includingthoseinEurope,shouldbe managedinasustainablewayandshouldbenefitallinterests,notjustthoseof timberproduction.SimilarprincipleswereadoptedattheSecondMinisterial ConferenceontheProtectionofForestsinEurope(Helsinki,1993),whichispart ofacontinuingprocessofinternationalcooperationinEuropetomakeforestry moreecologicallysustainable.ResolutionsofthisConferencerequirethat guidelinesforsustainablemanagementandtheneedsofbiologicaldiversitybe incorporatedwithoutdelayintoallnationalforestpolicies.Inaddition,the Conferenceagreedthatforestpracticesshouldhavedueregardforthe conservationofprimaryandclimaxforests.

ACTION

3.2.1AdoptEuropeanandnationalpoliciesforsustainableforestry.

Endorsement.ThisplanendorsesthecallfromRioandHelsinkithat governmentsshouldreviewtheirforestrypoliciestoensuresustainability (seebox11).ItalsosupportsthefurtherdevelopmentoftheWWFForest StrategyforEuropeandtheMiddleEast,whichseekstodevelopguidance fortheforestrysector.

Mainelementsofpolicy a forsustainableforestry Box

Nationalpoliciesforsustainableforestryrequire:

■ Establishmentofalegallyguaranteedpermanentforest; ■ Traininginforestecologyandmanagement; ■ Standardsforannualallowablecut,cuttingcycles,harvesting techniquesandinfrastructure,environmentalsafeguards; ■ Controlsoverallaspectsofharvestingandforesttreatmenttoprotect theenvironment; ■ Economicandfinancialpoliciesthatdonotrequiremorefromforests thantheycanyieldsustainably; ■ Multipleusepolicies,toensurethatsocietygetsthefullbenefit(timber, jobs,environmentalservices,recreation,etc.)fromallforests; ■ Environmentalpoliciesthatprotectecologicalservices,biological diversityandtheresourcebaseofallforest users; ■ Standardsforspeciescompositionthatfavournativetrees; ■ Effectivemonitoringofalltheabove.

Adapted fromCaringfortheEarth(1991).

PARKSOR F LIFE KEY SECTORSOF PUBLICPOLICY

3.2.2 Establishconservationzoneswithincommercialforestryareas.

Recommendation.Commercialforestryoperators—Stateandprivate— shouldallowsomepartoftheirholdingstoevolvenaturallywithoutfelling orplanting,e.g.gladeswitholdtrees,alongwater-courses,andin strips besideroads.(Insomecasesactiveconservationmanagementmaybe needed,e.g.toreducedeernumbers).Theseapproachesshouldformpart of amanagementapproachthatseekstoenhancethevalueof thewholeforest fortheenvironment.

PriorityProject2.Developguidelinesonhowtorestructureexisting managedforestsandtocreatenewonesasprotectedareas.TheGuidelines shoulduseexamplesofinitiativesofthiskindalreadyunderwayinsome countries,andindicatethekindsofareaswhereitwouldbeappropriateto createnewforests.LeadAgency:Tobeidentified.

3.2.3 Adoptbindingrulesaboutforestpracticesinprotectedareas.

Recommendation.Thereshouldbenoforestryoperationsinprotectedareas inCategoriesI-III.TimbercuttingshouldonlybeallowedinCategoryIVif thisservestheconservationobjective.ForestsinCategoryVshouldbe managedsoastomaintainorenhancetheirconservationvalue.

3.3 Tourism

Tourismisaparadox.Itcancausegreatdamagetoprotectedareas,especiallyif notmanagedproperly,butitcanalsobringgreatbenefits.

Thepressuresfromtourismaregrowingrapidly.Touristnumbersareexpected togrowat3-4.5%ayearthroughthecurrentdecade.Thenumberoftouristsin theMediterraneanwilldoubleby2025.Aspressuresonwell-knowntouristsites increase,soattractivenaturalareasbecomemoreandmorethelocationforlong- staytourism,dayvisitationandevensport.

Insomeprotectedareastherearesimplysomanyvisitorsincertainparts,orat particulartimes,thatnature—andthequalityofthevisitors'experience— suffers.Inothers,visitorscanpenetrateintotheremotestareas.Touristfacilities oftenconflictwithconservationaimsandspoilnaturallandscapes;pressureto developsuchfacilitiesisparticularlystronginformerEasternbloccountries. Andinsomeprotectedareas,tourismsimplyhasnoplaceatall.

But,f i plannedandmanagedforsustainability,tourismcanbeaverypositive force,bringingbenefitstoprotectedareasandlocalcommunitiesalike.Tourism willbewelcomeinornearprotectedareasifitrespectsthespecialcharacterof thearea,suchastourismbasedonappreciatingnature,culturalandeducational tourism,andquietsmall-scaleorsmallgroupactivities;andifitcausesminimal damage,disturbanceorpollution.Itcanhelpjustifyestablishingprotectedareas inmarginalregions,andcanleadtoarevivalinlocaleconomiesandtraditional cultures(exploredinmoredetailinSection5.2).

Thetechniquesformanagingvisitorsinsensitiveenvironmentsarenow generallybetterknown;thoughtheyoftencosttimeand money,theincome whichtourismgeneratescanhelpoffsetthecosts.Also,thedevelopmentof ecotourismcanlinked be tocraftindustryandalternativeemploymentonfarms toproducetheelementsofsustainable a ruraleconomy.

Manyn i thetouristindustrynowseethatahealthyandattractiveenvironment isessentialforthelong-termsurvivaloftheirtrade.Thisisrecognizedinthe

PARKS FOP,LIFE KEY SECTORSOFPUBLIC POLICY wide-rangingenvironmentalguidelinesfortourismadaptedin1992bythe WorldTravelandTourismCouncil(WTTC).Sometourismcompaniesarenow tryingtooperateinsustainablewaysandtoworkwithconservationbodiesto investinconservation.Andmoretouristsnowseekholidayswhichdonot damagetheenvironmentandoffendlocalculture.

FNNPEhasrecentlyreviewedtourisminandaroundprotectedareasand concludedthattourismandconservationcanoftenbecompatible,andmutually beneficial,butonlyifpractisedin asustainablewayinsuitableareas.The actionswhichfollowdrawheavilyonFNNPE'sreport,LovingthemtoDeath— sustainabletourisminEurope'snatureandnationalparks,1993.

ACTION

3.3.1Promotetheconceptofsustainabletourism.

Endorsement.ThisplansupportstheeffortsofFNNPE,WWF,Friendsofthe Earthandotherstopromotetheconceptofsustainabletourismasameansof maximizingthe potentialbenefitsoftourismandminimizingits environmentalcosts.Inparticular,itendorsestheFNNPEproposalsandthe effortsbythetourismindustryitselftosethighstandards,suchastheWTTC EnvironmentalGuidelines.

3.3.2Developandimplementplansforsustainable a approachto tourism.

Recommendation.Nationalandsub-nationalGovernmentsshouldinvolve protectedareamanagersandthetourismindustryinthedevelopmentand implementationofplansforsustainabletourism.Thisshouldbepartof nationalsustainabledevelopmentstrategies(Section2.1)andshould be includedwithinindividualprotectedareamanagementplans(see8.1.4). Measurestobenefitprotectedareasinclude:

a)Transformingexistingnon-sustainabledevelopmentsintomore sustainableforms;

b) Settingsustainabilitystandardsfornewdevelopments,especiallyin sensitiveenvironments;

c) Basedonthecarryingcapacityofprotectedareas,designatingzonesfor variousdegreesoftourismpenetration,includingsanctuaryandquiet zones,aswellaszonessuitedtodifferentlevelsoftouristuseand development;

d) Reducingpollutionandcongestionfromholidaytraffic;

e) Avoidingexcessivetourismandrecreationinprotectedareas;

f) Ensuringthatlocalcommunitiesbenefitfromtourism;

g) Providingincentivesandresourcesforearlyimplementation;

h)Trainingprotectedareamanagersinsustainabletourism(Chapter9).

3.3.3Updatethelegislationregulatingtourism.

Recommendation.Governmentsandsub-nationalgovernmentsshould review,andifnecessaryimprove,legislationregulatingtourism,andin particular:

a) Giveprotectedareamanagerspowerstocontroltouristdevelopment;

PARKSOR F LIFE KEY SECTORSOF PUBLICPOLICY

b) RequirefullEnvironmentalAssessmentforproposalsaffectingprotected areas;

c) Workingwiththetourismindustry,requirethatenvironmentsdamaged bypasttourismberestored,andthatmanagementtechniquesbeadopted tomakefutureusesustainable.

3.3.4Supportprojectsforsustainabletourism.

Recommendation.Governmentsandsub-nationalgovernmentsshould encouragepioneeringschemesinsustainabletourismthrough,forexample:

a) Grants,subsidiesortaxconcessionsforfarmersandlocalcommunitiesto setupsmall-scaleenterprisesforthesustainableenjoymentofprotected areas;

b)Demonstrationprojectstoshowinnovativeapproachestosmall-scale sustainabletourismtoruraleconomies;

c)TheuseofPHAREandnationalfundsontourismtoencourage sustainabletourisminformerEasternbloccountries(seebox21).

3.3.5DevelopaSustainableTourismCharterandService.

Priority Project3.

a)DevelopaSustainableTourismChartertoencouragetourismoperators workinginoraroundprotectedareasandprotectedareamanagersto complywithEuropeanQualityStandardsforSustainableTourism(box 12).TheCharterwouldbebackedbyanappropriatemarketingstrategy andanintegratedprogrammeofpracticalactionandpilotprojects.

b) SetupaSustainableTourismServicetohelpimplementandmonitorthe

Boxj£j Standardsonsustainabletourisminandaroundprotected areas

FNNPEdefinedsustainabletourismas'allformsoftourismdevelopment, managementandactivity,whichmaintaintheenvironmental,socialand economicintegrityandwell-beingof natural,builtandculturalresourcesin perpetuity'.

Sustainabletourisminandaroundprotectedareasrequires:

■ Closecooperationwithprotectedareaauthorities; ■ Touristoperatorsandguidesworkinginprotectedareastohavehigh levelsofenvironmentalknowledge; ■ Practicalandfinancialcontributionsbytourismoperatorstoprotected areaconservation; ■ Rulesforthepromotionandmarketingofholidaysbasedonprotected areas; ■ Guidelinesfortheinvolvementoflocalcommunities; ■ Standardsforthedesignandoperationofsustainabletourismfacilities andbusinesses.

PARKSOR F LIFE KEY SECTORSOFPUBLICPOLICY

Charter. Thisservicewouldbeavailabletotourismorganizations,local peopleandlocalauthoritiesaswellasprotectedareamanagers.Itmight include:

i) A'hotline'andproblem-solvingteam,backedbymultilingualvideo andhandbook,tomakethecollectiveexperienceofhandlingtourism inEuropeanparksavailabletoallwhoneedit; ii)Atrainingserviceand/oratrainingcentreforsustainabletourism; iii) Guidelinesforplansonsustainabletourism(see3.3.2,above).

LeadAgency:FederationdesparesnaturelsetregionauxdeFrance,working withFNNPE,WWF,IUCNandothers,andinassociationwiththetourist industry.

3.4Transport

Transport,especiallyroadtransport,ishavingincreasing an impactonprotected areas:throughairpollution,congestion,noiseandvisualintrusionandfrom road-buildingitself.Theestablishmentofaprotectedareanetworkacross EuropewithcorridorsisbeingfrustratedbythefactthatEuropeisbeing choppedupintosmallpiecesbyanever-denserroadnetwork.

Newand'improved'threaten roadsmanyprotectedareas;someoftheschemes formpartofstrategicEuropeanroutes,backedbyinternationalfinance. Canalizationofriversmayendangerriverinewetlands,andtherouteschosen forhighspeedrailwaysmayaffectvaluablehabitats.Andfreightcargobysea, oftenofdangerousgoods,canharmcoastalareas.

Toooften,thedamagedonetoprotectedareasisignoredorunder-estimatedin theplanningoftransportinfrastructure.Thedifficultiesofreconcilingalarge road-buildingprogrammewiththerequirementsofprotectedareasare particularlyacutewherelargeprotectedareasliesonroutesbetweenmajor centresofpopulation.

Yetthere arealternatives,atleastforlocaltransport.Someprotectedareashave schemestoencourage(orcompel)peopletoleavetheircarsneartheedgeofthe areaandusealternativeformsoftransport,suchasbuses,bicyclesorboats—or toproceedonfoot.Someevenencouragecitydwellerstomakethewhole journeybypublictransport.

Desirableaslocalmeasuresare,countriesneedtogomuchfurtherandadopt policiesforsustainabilityinthetransportsector(box13).Theseareurgently neededforbroaderenvironmentalreasons—especiallythereductionof greenhousegasesandNOxpollution—buttheywouldalsobenefitprotected areas.Progresswillnotbeeasy:transportpolicies directlyaffectthelife-stylesof millionsofpeopleandsustainabilitywillcallforareassessmentofourrelation shipwiththatmostcherishedpossessionafterthehome—theprivatecar.

ACTION

3.4.1Adoptpoliciesforsustainabilityintransport.

Endorsement.AsadvisedinCaringfortheEarth,Governmentsshould reviewtheirpoliciesinthetransportsector,witha viewtodeveloping policiestomaketransportsustainable.Theseshouldapplyinbothurban andruralareas.Theprinciplesforsuchpolicesaresetoutinbox13.

PriorityProject4.Prepareadviceonhowtoreducetheimpactoftrafficin protectedareas.LeadAgency:Tobeappointed.

PARKSOR F LIFE KEY SECTORSOF PUBLICPOLICY

mBoxm Mainelementsofapolicyforsustainabilityintransport

■ Ensurethattransportpolicytakesfullaccountofsocialand environmentalcostsofeachformoftransport;

■ Requiretransportministriestopursuepoliciesforsustainabilityin transport;

■ Reviewthecurrentbalanceofexpenditurebetweenroadconstruction, andimprovementsintherailwaysandotherformsofinvestmentin transport;

■ Useeconomicinstruments,e.g.chargesandtaxes,promote to efficient transportuseandcleanertechnologies;

■ Linktransportplanningtoland-useplanningasto soreducetheneed forjourneys,especiallybyprivatetransport;

■ Encouragetrafficmanagementand"trafficcalming"measurestofit traffictotheenvironmentratherthanviceversa;

■ Greatlyexpandresearchintopollution-freevehiclesandcleanand efficientpublictransport.

3.4.2 Adoptspecialtransportpoliciesforprotectedareas.

Recommendations

a) Inter-governmentalbodiesplanningorfundingstrategictransportroutes acrossEuropeshouldavoidallCategoryI-Vsites.Environmentalimpact assessmentsshouldbeappliedtoallsuchschemesasamatterofcourse;

b)Governmentsshouldgivehigherprioritytosafeguardingprotectedareas intransportplanning.Inparticular,newroadsshouldalwaysavoid CategoryI-IVsites,andshouldavoidCategoryVsiteswherevera reasonablealternativealignmentexists;anyroadthathastobebuiltina protectedareashouldbedesignedwithenvironmentalcriteriataking precedenceoverengineeringconsiderations;

c) Governmentsandprotectedareamanagementauthoritiesshould examinethescopetoreducethedamagedonetoprotectedareasby existingtransportfacilitiesandtakeremedialaction(e.g.byclosingorre routingroads,orimposingweightrestrictions);

d) Governmentsandprotectedareamanagementauthoritiesshould encourageinnovativeformsoftransport,e.g.electrically-drivenbuses,to enablepeopletoreachandcirculatewithinprotectedareasinwaysthat donotharmtheenvironment.

3.5 Energyandotherindustries

There arefourindustrialsectorswhichhaveaparticularimpactonprotected areas:

■ energygeneration ■ manufacturingindustry ■ extractiveindustry ■ small-scale,craftindustry.

ORPARKSF LIFE KEY SECTORSOFPUBLIC POLICY

Energygenerationcanaffectprotectedareasateverystage:extractionoffuels, transportoffuels,theprocessofpowergeneration,andthetransmissionof powertoconsumers.Forexample,uraniumisminednearanationalparkin France;gasandoilareextractedfromtheWaddensea;andmanynationalparks inEasternandCentralEuropehavesufferedseverelyfrompollutioncausedby burninglow-gradefossilfuels.Furthermore,sea-borneoilpollutionthreatens manycoastalandmarinehabitats;hydroelectricpowerplants,damsand reservoirshavedamagedimportantpartsofnationaland parks;powerlines disfiguremanyprotectedlandscapes.

Even theswitchtowardsrenewableenergy,whichshouldbringgeneral environmentalbenefits,mayatthesametimecreateproblemsforcertain protectedareas.Hydropowerhasdonemuchdamagethroughthecreationof reservoirs,ofteninnationalparks.Tidalpowercanaffectbiologically productiveestuaries.Andwindpowercanbea visualintrusiononsensitive coastalanduplandlandscapes.

Manufacturingindustrycanalsoaffectprotectedareasnearby,principally throughtheeffectsofpollutionandthegenerationofheavytraffic.

Extractiveindustryposesspecialproblems.Manyprotectedareascoincidewith potentiallywinnablesuppliesoftherocksneededbytheconstruction industries.Sandandgravelsuppliesareoftenfoundinwetlandareas;and alternativesuppliesdredgedfromundertheseaalsocauseenvironmental problems.Workingofthesesourcesisoftenindirectconflictwiththeaimsof a protectedarea.

Ifallthesesectorscreatedifficultiesforprotectedareas,theremaybebenefits too.Formerdeepandopencastminingareasofferthechancetorecreateaforest environment;whatwasoncederelictbecomesverdant.Abandonedquarries and wetgravelpitsmayofferthepotentialtocreatenewhabitats.Thesemay notrecompenseforwhatwaslost,butdemonstrateagainthatthereare opportunitiesforprotectedareastobefoundinthemostunpromising circumstances,providingimaginativepoliciesarefollowed.

TheMessohora damonthe AcheloosRiver, Greece

ORPARKSF LIFE KEY SECTORSOF PUBLICPOLICY

Small-scale,craftindustries,however,usuallyhaveabenignrelationshipwith protectedareas,andaresometimesbeneficial.Theyrarelyhaveamajorimpact ontheenvironment,buttheincometheygenerate—fromthemakingoflocal foods,orofcraftproductsbasedonlocalresourcesliketimberorwool—can helpsustainaruralpopulation;alongwiththeirtraditionalskillsoflandman agement,thesepeoplemaybeneededtohelpmaintainaprotectedlandscape. Ortheymaygeneratepart-timeincomefornationalparkstaffandtheirfamilies. Moreover,suchcraftindustriesoftenbenefitfrom,andhelpsupport,sustainable formsoftourism.

Simpleguidelinesaboutthesiting,designandoperationofworkshopsand smallfactorieswillusuallyensurethattheaimsofprotectedareasandthe pursuitofthiskindofruraleconomicactivity—muchneededinviewofthe generaldeclineinfarmincomes—aremutuallysupportive.

J.BoxK Mainelementsofanationalenergystrategy

■ Improveenergyefficiencyandsoreducedemandforenergy,in particularby:

■ Settingstandardsforenergyefficiency; ■ Taxesandincentivestoencourageenergyefficiency,while shelteringpoorersectorsfromsteepenergypriceincreases; ■ Informationcampaigns; ■ Obligingmanufacturerstomonitorandpublicizetheenergy efficiencyofproductsandprocesses; ■ Supportingcitizen'sgroupsthatpromoteenergyconservation.

■ Ensurethegenerationofenergyusedhastheleastdamageon theenvironmentconsistentwithsocio-economicneeds,in particular:

■ Optimizeuseoffossilfuels,soastominimizedepletionofnon renewableresourcesandminimizepollution; ■ Ensurealluseoffuelsissafe; ■ Ensurethatenergypricesreflectthefullsocialandenvironmental costsofalternative ■ Produceanationalreportshowingprogresstowardsagreed targets.

AdaptedfromCaringfortheEarth(1991).

PARKSOR F LIFE KEY SECTORSOFPUBLIC POLICY

ACTION

3.5.1Adoptnationalenergystrategiesbasedonprinciplesof sustainability.

Endorsement.ThisplanendorsesthecallinCaringfortheEarthfor countriestoadoptnationalenergystrategies,themainelementsofwhichare setoutinbox14.Mostimportantistoconcentrateonimprovingenergy efficiencyratherthanincreasingenergygeneration;over timethiswould removemostofthethreatstoprotectedareasfromtheenergysector.

Thislan pfurtherendorsesthestepsopentoallindustrytoadoptsustainable processes,suchasuseoflow-andnon-wastetechnologies,increasingthelife ofproducts,recoveringcomponentsandrecyclingmaterials,adopting integratedwastemanagementaswellas thepollutioncontrolmeasuresin Section2.5.Again,protectedareaswillbenefitfromsuchpolicies,aswillthe environmentingeneral.

3.5.2 Adoptspecialpoliciesforindustryasitaffectsprotectedareas.

Recommendation.Governmentsshouldfollowtheprinciplesbelow:

a) Large-scaleindustry,includingextractiveindustryandhydroelectric plants,shouldnotbepermittedinprotectedareasofCategoriesI toIV; wheresuchindustryexists,itshouldnotbeallowedtoexpandand shouldnotbereplacedattheendofitseconomiclife;

b) Large-scaleindustryshouldnotbe permittedinCategoryVprotected landscapesunless(i)theprojectisclearlyinthenationalinterest,and(ii) noalternativesiteorsourceofsupplyisavailable—andthenonlyafter afullEnvironmentalAssessmentandwhentheveryhigheststandardsof restorationareusedattheendofitseconomiclife;

c) Landdamagedbyindustryshouldberestored;

d) Small-scalecraftindustriesthatbringsustainableeconomicbenefitsto ruralcommunities,especiallythoselivinginandnearprotectedareas, shouldbeencouraged;thiscouldincludefinancialhelp,trainingin technicalandmarketingskills,assistanceinthedesignandoperationof workplaces,andencouraginglinkswithtourismandprotectedarea sectors.

3.5.3 Encourageindustrytosupportprotectedareas.

Recommendation.Industryshouldsupportprotectedareasthrough financialandothermeans,andshouldmanagetheirownlandina sustainablewayfavourabletonature.(SeealsoSection11.4)

PARKSOR F LIFE A EUROPE-WIDEAPPROACH

PARTII

ADDRESSINGPRIORITIESATEUROPEAN, SUB-REGIONALANDNATIONALLEVELS

Theplannowstartstoconsidertheneedsoftheprotectedareasthemselves. First,itaddressesEuropeasawhole,emphasizingtheneedtoextendthe coverageofprotectedareasandtoplacethateffortwithinastrategyforthe developmentofaEuropeanEcologicalNetwork.Chapter5thenconsidersparts oftheregionwherecooperationbetweencountriesisneededtosolveprotected areaissues.Lastly,Chapter6outlinesthesituationsinsomeindividual countrieswhereprotectedareasfacearangeofdifferentproblemsbutwherethe needsareofEuropeanconcern.

AEUROPE-WIDEAPPROACH

Although Europehasmanyimpressiveprotectedareasandavastrangeof conservationinitiatives,ithasnotalwaysbeenpossibletotakea European view.Suchaviewisparticularlynecessaryinconsideringthecoverageofthe protectedareanetwork.

This chapterstartsbyconsideringhowtheconceptofaEurope-wideecological networkcouldprovideaframeworkformanyotheractionsatnationaland CHAPTER4 internationallevels(Section4.1).Itthenconsidershowtheprotectedareaestate canandshouldbeextended—inSection4.2toensurecoverageofthedifferent landscapeandhabitattypes,andinSection4.3 fortheneedsoffaunaandflora. Theseactionstendtobemutuallyreinforcing:forexampleincludingahabitat typeinprotectedareasmayalsosafeguardanendangeredspecies.

The actionsalldependon goodinformation,inparticularknowingthepresent extentofhabitatsandspecies,andhowfartheprotectedareasalreadycover theirsites.Theyalsodependongoodresearch:forexample,knowingthelife historiesandmanagementrequirementsofindividualspecies.Thisaspectis mentionedinthischapterandreturnedto inChapter10oninformationand monitoring.

The countriesoftheEuropeanUnion(EU)alreadyhaveaninternational frameworkfornatureconservationintheformoftheBirdsandHabitats Directives(coveredindetailinSection7.2).Vigorousimplementationofthese directives,especiallythroughthepreciseanalysisofprotectedareacoverage thatthesedirectivesrequire,willgreatlycontributetoimplementingtheplan andinparticulartheaimsofthischapter.

4.1 DevelopingandimplementingtheEuropeanEcological Network(EECONET)

TheaimofEECONETistoidentifythespeciesandhabitatsofEuropean importanceandtodevelopmeasuresthatconservetheintegrityofnatural systemsuponwhichtheydepend.Itisastrategicanddynamicconceptwhich couldprovideaframeworkforprotectedareaspolicyinEurope,aswellasfor conservingnatureinthecountrysideasawhole.

The EECONETapproachrecognizesthatprotectingindividualspecies,oreven individualsites,isnotenough.Itcallsfora shiftinconservationpolicy—from

ORPARKSF LIFE A EUROPE-WIDEAPPROACH ospeciest habitats,fromsitestoecosystems,andfromnationaltointernational measures.

In particularitseekstoreversethefragmentationofhabitatsintosmallisolated 'islands'surroundedbylandalmostdevoidofnature.Itlinksprotectedareas policytoconservationinthewidercountryside.Itaimstoprotectnotonlythe mostimportantsitesbutalsotoestablishcorridorsthatpermitdispersaland migrationofplantsandanimalsthroughlinearroutesor'steppingstones' betweenprotectedareas.Thisapproachwouldleadtoamoredynamicand flexibleprotectedareasystem;forexample,itwouldhelpmitigatetheeffectsof globalwarming,allowingspeciestomigratetonewsitesfollowingshiftsinthe climate.

NationalEcologicalNetworkottheNetherlands Acoherentnetworkofsustainableecosystemsthatareof (internationalimportance

Source: Towardsa EuropeanEcological Network,IEEP,1991

ORPARKSF LIFE A EUROPE-WIDEAPPROACH

Buildingn a ecologicalnetworkalongtheselinesinvolvesfourmainelements:

■ Selectingcoreareasandensuringtheirconservation;

■ Protectingthecoreareasfromharmfulactivitiestheareas inaroundthem;

■ Creatingcorridors(e.g.riparianhabitats(box15),hedgerows,foreststrips) andsteppingstonesbetweenconservationsitestoallowdispersaland migrationofspecies;

■ Restoringdamagedhabitatsandcreatingnewonesas partofthenetwork.

The networkcan bebuiltatvirtuallyanylevel:atcontinentallevel—inthis caseforthewholeofEurope;atnationallevel—countriessuchasCzech Republic,Lithuania,NetherlandsandPolandhavealltakenthiskindof approach,butindifferentways;andatlocallevel,suchasonafarmorarounda village.

EECONETis aninitiativeoftheGovernmentoftheNetherlandsandthe InstituteofEuropeanEnvironmentalPolicy,andwasdevelopedin areport TowardsaEuropeanEcologicalNetwork(1991).Itwasthesubjectofan internationalconferenceinMaastricht,Netherlands(November1993).

Box fcpjWi|dRivers

Rivers areidealwildlifecorridors—the aortasofthelandscape—butalltoo oftentheyarealteredbeyondrecognition.Channelsarestraightenedto preventfloodingandfreshwaterlifeisdestroyedbypollution.Thestructure ofsomerivershasbeenchangedintoa setoflakesconnectedbydry channels.Oftheworld'sremainingfree-flowinglargeriversystems,onlyone —theKalix-TorneinnorthernSweden,FinlandandNorway—isinEurope.

Rivers arealsoamongthemostcomplexandspecies-richofecosystemsin Europe.AsectionoftheunregulatedVindelRiverinSweden,forexample, has131vascularplantspeciesper200m.Similarly,invertebratesarefar morenumerousthanonsurroundingland.Moreattentionshouldbegivento theconservationandrestorationofwildriversandstreams.

ACTION

4.1.1CarryforwardtheEECONETconcept.

Endorsement.ThisplanendorsestheEECONETDeclaration(fromthe Maastrichtconference),especiallyitsrecognitionoftheneedto:

a)ConsiderthedevelopmentofaEuropeanBiologicalandLandscape DiversityStrategyanditsapplicationatapan-Europeanlevel,as partof theprocessleadingtothenextEuropeanEnvironmentMinisters Conference(Sofia,1995);

b) DevelopEECONETasaconceptualframeworktohelporganizations cooperateandsetprioritiesatapan-Europeanlevel,inparticulartohelp buildNatura2000;

c) BuildtheEECONETideaintoconservationpoliciesofgovernments,the EuropeanUnion,theCouncilofEuropeother andinternationalbodies.

ORPARKSF LIFE A EUROPE-WIDEAPPROACH

Recommendation.heCouncilofEurope T hassetupanAd-hocGroupof Expertson(a),above.Itisanticipatedthatanoutlineofthe strategywillbe presentedtothenextEuropeanEnvironmentMinistersConference.Parks forLifecallsonallinterestedpartiestocontributeto thisprocessand recommendstotheCouncilofEuropethatParksforLifeformsthebasisfor thetreatmentinthestrategyofissuesrelatingtoprotectedareas.

4.2 Extendingthecoverageofprotectedareas:habitats andlandscapes

At firstsight,thecoverageofprotectedareasinEuropelooksencouraging: protectedareascoverabout8%ofthelandsurface,comparedtoabout5% worldwide.Theextentof theprotectedareasinEuropehasgrownquicklyin recentyears,with overtwothirdsofthemsetupsince 1972,andmanycountries haveplanstoextendtheirnetworksfurther.

However,apartfromthevaryingqualityofmanagement(coveredinPartIII), thenetworkisdeficientinseveralways:

■ Thecoveragefromonecountrytoanotherisveryuneven,varyingfrom under1%insomecountriestoover10%inothers;

■ Coverageofsometypesoflandscapesandhabitatsisinadequate;

■n I somecountries,protectedlandscapes(CategoryV) tendtobevery extensive(andasaresultoftenweaklyprotected),maskingthefactthatsites protectedprimarilyfornature(CategoriesI-IV)areinadequateinextent;

■ Manysitesaretoosmallandsodonotgiveeffectiveprotectiontothespecies andhabitatstheycontain;

■ Theexistingprotectedareasarenotextensiveenoughtoprotectalltherare andthreatenedspecies(seealsoSection4.3);

■ Marineandmarinecoastalprotectedareasaretoosmallandtoofew(seebox 16).

TheneedformoremarineandmarinecoastalprotectedBox areasn i Europe

Europe'scoastandseasareunderpressure:tourism,industry,pollution,land claim,coastalprotectionandthespreadofdevelopmenthavedestroyedor damagedcoastalhabitatsandthreatenwildlife.Althoughnotasvisible,the patternisrepeatedatsea—forexample,fromintensivefisheries,pollution fromland-basedsourcesoraccidentalspillage,oilandgasexplorationand aggregateextraction.

Aselsewhereintheworld,establishmentandmanagementofmarine protectedareaslagbehindsimilarinitiativesonland.Inthemarine environmenttherehasbeenmoreemphasisonmeasurestosafeguardthe widerenvironment,throughpollutioncontrolforexample,thanonthe protectionofindividualsites.Butbothapproachesarenecessary:effective managementofthemarineenvironmentrequiresthestricterprotectionof certainareas,whetherforconservationofnature,protectionofthecultural heritageormanagementoffisheries.

ORPARKSF LIFE A EUROPE-WIDEAPPROACH

Wistman'sWood,Moreover, manyprotectedareasinEuropetodayweresetuptoprotectbest the DartmoorNationalPark,examplesofexistinghabitatsandlandscapes.Thereisnowtheopportunityto UK extendthecoveragebyrecreatingandrestoringdamagedhabitatsandderelict landscapes,takingadvantageofthesurplusagriculturallandandotherland- usechanges.

Several tasksareneededatEuropeanlevel.First,therearestillsomelarge naturalandsemi-naturalareasofEuropeanimportancethatarenotyetpro tectedorwhoseprotectionisinadequate(Action4.2.1).Second,asarmedforces acrossEuropearereduced,theyneedlesslandforpracticeandtraining;because oftheabsenceofagricultureandthelackofpublicaccess,muchoftheland they holdisofexceptionalconservationinterestandmaintainshabitatsthatarenow rare,threatenedorhavedisappearedelsewhere.Thereisagreatopportunityto enfoldthebestareasfornatureintotheprotectedareanetwork(Action4.2.2).

MuchbiodiversityinEuropedependsonmanagedareas,inparticularareas undertraditionalformsofagriculture.AsoutlinedinSection3.1,manyofthese areasareunderpressurefromagriculturalchangeandneedthereforetobe betterrepresentedinCategoryIVmanagedreservesandCategoryVprotected landscapes(Action4.2.3).

Next,theprotectedareanetworkprovidesunevencoveragetoimportanthabitat types,suchaswetlandsandnaturalforests.Thereisaneedtoassessthepresent coverageforindividualhabitats,especiallythosewhicharerareorunderthreat, identifythegapsandtakeremedialaction(Action4.2.4).Aspecialeffortisalso neededtocreatemoremarineandmarinecoastalprotectedareas(Action4.2.5).

And lastly,thecircumstancesinmanypartsofEuropearefavourableforthe restorationofdamagedhabitats,andthecreationofnewones.Someofthenew or restoredhabitatscouldbesuitableforprotectedareas,especiallysiteswithin CategoryVprotectedlandscapesorsitesthatcouldextendCategoryI-IV protectedareas(Action4.2.6).

ORPARKSF LIFE A EUROPE-WIDEAPPROACH

ACTION

4.2.1Identifyimportantnaturalareasformore,orlarger,protected areas.

Endorsement.TheCouncilofEuropehasstartedaprojecttodothis,aspart ofitsmandatefromthe1993meetingofEuropeanEnvironmentMinisters. TheprojectshouldbeextendedtoincludeIUCN,FNNPEandWCMCas partnersandshoulddevelopclearcriteriaonhowtoselecttheindividual areas.Itshouldbuilduponexistingnationalandinternationalinitiatives. Theareascoveredshouldbenaturalareas,ratherthancultivatedlandscapes, forprotectionpredominantlyinCategoriesIandII.

4.2.2 Encouragetheinclusiononmilitarylandintheprotectedarea estate.

PriorityProject5.Assesstheconservationvalueofmilitarylandacross Europe,buildingonIUCNsurveysinfourcountriesandaWWF-funded surveyinLithuania;ensurethatthemilitaryauthoritiesareawareofthe conservationvalueofindividualsites;assistthemtomanagethoseareas withconservationinmind;andtakeadvantageoflanddisposalstoextend orcreateprotectedareaswherepossible.LeadAgency:beidentified. To

4.2.3 Classifyandassesstraditionallow-intensityfarmingsystemsof importancefornatureandlandscape.

Endorsement.ThisplanendorsestheprojectofWWFandtheJointNature ConservationCommittee(UK)toexamineextensivefarming systemsinnine Europeancountries,providingmaps,case-studiesandrecommendationson thesupportthefarmersneed.ThisshouldbeextendedtoallofEurope,soas to(a)classifyalltraditionallow-intensityfarming systemsandidentify wheretheyoccur;and(b)selectoutstandingandrepresentativeareasofeach type,includingthoseofculturalandhistoricsignificance,forcreationor extensionofCategoryVprotected landscapes.IUCN-CNPPA,theIUCN CommissiononEnvironmentalStrategyandPlanning(CESP)andthe InternationalCentreforProtectedLandscapes(ICPL)maybeableto contributetothistask.

4.2.4Ensureallhabitattypesareadequatelyrepresentedinthe protectedareanetwork.

Endorsement.TheplanendorsestheworkofCORINEinclassifyingand mappingnaturalandsemi-naturalhabitatsinEurope,andsupportsits extensionintoCentralandEasternEurope.Thisclassificationisthebasisof thehabitatsannexontheEUHabitats[Directive(seeSection7.2).Thework canbegreatlysupportedbynationalsurveysorbysurveysofparticular habitatsbyexpertgroups(e.g.ofMediterraneanwetlandsbyMedWetandof sand-dunehabitatsbytheEuropeanUnionforCoastalConservation).

Recommendation.Governmentalconservationagencies,withsupportfrom NGOs,shouldworktoensurethattheprotectedareasystemfortheirareaor regioncontainsadequaterepresentationofallthenaturalandsemi-natural habitatspresent.

Priority habitatsforassessmentandprotectioninmostcountriesinclude wetlandsandfloodplains,borealforests(seebox17),Mediterranean evergreenforestsandmaquis(seebox23),riparianhabitats,lowlanddry grasslandandsteppe,peatlands,coastaldunesystemsandisland ecosystems.Althoughmountainhabitatsarerelativelywellrepresentedin Europe'sprotectedareas,anevaluationof the statusandcoverageof

PARKSOR F LIFE A EUROPE-WIDEAPPROACH

mountainprotectedareasinEuropebyCNPPA'smountainsnetworkwould beworthwhile.TheprotectionofimportantgeologicalsitesinEuropecould alsobeadvancedinsimilar a way.

Centresf o technicalandscientificexpertise,suchas theEuropeanCentrefor NatureConservation(ECNC)recentlycreatedinTheNetherlands,can contributetothisprocess.

4.2.5 Createmoreprotectedmarineandmarinecoastalprotected areas.

Endorsement.ThisplanendorsestheworkbyCNPPAandtheWorldBank (andinitiativesbyotherorganizations)toidentifysitesformarineprotected areas.

Box I ConservationneedsforNorthernBorealForests

NorthernBorealForest(orTaiga)isstillextensiveinEurope,butvirtuallyall ofitismanagedsointensivelyfortimberproductionthatmuchofits dependentfloraandfaunacannotsurvive.Aneffectivenetworkofprotected areasisneededtoensurethesurvivalofadequateareasofold-growthforest, inparticulartosafeguardthevitalhabitatofoldtreesanddeadwood. Althoughmuchhasbeendoneinrecentyears,theprotectedareasystemis nowhereyetextensiveenoughtoconservethebiologicaldiversityofboreal forests.

InSweden,lessthan5%of virginforestremainsandonly2.6%oftheforest hasbeenprotectedfromlogging.TheSwedishSocietyforNature Conservationhascalledforbetween5and15%oftheforesttobereserves andforloggingtobestoppedimmediatelyintheremainingvirginforests.

InNorway,only0.9%oftheproductiveconiferousforestlandisprotected fromlogging,mostlyinnationalparksandnaturereserves.Anevaluationon aNordicbasisconcludedthatprotectionofatleast5%oftheproductive coniferousforestlandisnecessarytomaintainbiologicaldiversity.Also, managementofcommercialforestryshouldbemodifiedsothattheresulting forestsmoreresemblenaturalforests.

In Finland,2.4%oftheproductiveforestsareprotected,mostlyinthe northernpartofthecountry.InsouthernFinland,only0.6%offorestlandis protected,andtheprotectedareascovermanagedforestsaswellasprimary oroldgrowthforests.

InScotland,incontrasttoScandinavia,1.5%of onlytheborealforest remains,asisolatedfragments.Governmentgrantsencourageregeneration ofCaledonianpinewoods,butexcessivenumbersofreddeerarehampering effortstoprotectandextendtheforestthatremains.

InIceland,alltheborealforestsarereportedtohave beendestroyed.

Muchconservationactionisalreadyhappeninginthesecountries,butmore isneeded.InSweden,NorwayandFinlandthepriorityistoprotectadequate proportionsofborealforestfromlogging,soastopermitthesurvivalofthe wildlifeotherthanthetreespecies,especiallylichens,fungiandbirds.Action isneededinScotlandtoreducethepopulationofreddeer,protect to the forestthatremainsandtoregenerateextensiveareasofforestundernatural conditions.

ORPARKSF LIFE A EUROPE-WIDEAPPROACH

Recommendation.ManyMarineParksorMarineNatureReservesprovide onlyweakprotection,butsomefisheriesreservesaremuchmoreeffective. Conservationistsshouldthereforeconsiderapproachestomarineprotected areasotherthanthosesolelydrivenbynatureconservation,inparticular workingthroughpoliciestoconservecommercialfishstocks.Afirststep mightbetolistandevaluatethoseareasprotectedforreasonsotherthan natureconservation.

4.2.6Createandrestorehabitatsofconservationvalue,someof whichcouldbeusedtoextendorcreateprotectedareas.

Recommendation.Governmentsandconservationagenciesshouldconsider thescopeforcreating,orre-creating,habitatsofconservationvalue.These couldinclude:

a)Plantingforests; b) Encouragingnaturalsuccession; c) Restoringandcreatingwetlands;and d)Restoringformerheathlandorlimestonegrassland.

MechanismsusedforthisincludeESA-typeschemes,incentivepaymentsto farmers,andpartnershipsbetweenfarmers,conservationNGOsand nationalconservationbodies.

4.3 Extendingthecoverageofprotectedareastomeetthe needsoffloraandfauna

Europehasarichfloraandfauna,especiallyinMediterraneancountrieswhich havemanyplantandanimalendemics.Thefloraandfaunaisrelativelywell known,withmanyillustratedguidesavailable,andmostcountrieshavealso producednationalRedDataBookslistingtheirthreatenedspecies.Thenumbers ofspeciesandtheproportionsofthreatenedspeciesvarygreatly—seetable1.

:Table1 Speciesin Europe

MammalsBirds Reptiles AmphibiansFish1 HigherPlants

Species 184 433 107 58 187 13,500

Threatened species [5 26 il 14 40 2542

ButterfliesMosses LichensSeaweedsFungi & liverworts & otheralgae

Species 500 2500 4000-500020,000+ 15,000-20,000

Threatened species 2S 1202 1202 ? 7

1. Freshwaterbutincludingsomefreshwater/coastalspecies 2. KnownEndangeredandVulnerablespeciesintheEuropeanUnion. Sources:WorldConservationMonitoringCentre,1994;Plantlife1990,1993

ORPARKSF LIFE A EUROPE-WIDEAPPROACH

Across Europe,thousandsofnaturereserveshavebeencreatedfortheconser vationofindividualspeciesor speciesassemblages,yetthecoverageisuneven. Manyspecies,especiallyinMediterraneancountries,arenotyetincludedin naturereservesorotherprotectedareas.Inmostcountries,thereislittleorno assessmentofhowfartheprotectedareassystemcoverstheneedsoffloraand fauna.Theactionsbelowaredesignedtoprovidethisinformationandtounite theworkdonetosavethreatenedspecieswiththeworkonprotectedareas.

Of coursenaturereservesarenottheonlymethodofconservingspecies.And therearesomespecieswhicharewidelydispersedandsocannoteffectively be conservedinprotectedareas.Butprotectedareasarecertainlythemainwayof conservingspecies,especiallyrareandthreatenedones.

Thesizeoftheindividualreservesisimportant.Ontheonehand,many protectedareasinEuropearetoosmalltocontainviablebreedingpopulations ofwide-ranginganimalslikebears,wolvesandotters.(Thussympathetic managementofthelandoutsidetheprotectedareabecomesessential.)Onthe otherhand,smallreservescanworkwellinconservingpopulationsofrare plantsandinvertebrates;moreuseshouldbemadeofmicro-reserves(say100 sq mto10ha)andofthe parttheycanplayinconservingthefloraandfaunaof a crowdedcontinent.(See also8.5.3).

Overalltwokindsofactionareneeded:

a)Activitiestoconserveindividualthreatenedspeciesthroughthecreation andmanagementofprotectedareas;

b) Identificationofthemostimportantsitesforgroupsofplantoranimal species,concentratingonareasofgreatestspeciesrichness,than ratheron theneedsofindividualspecies,followedbyactiontoensurethatthe identifiedsitesareeffectivelyprotected.

A modelfor(b)isthebookImportantBirdAreasinEurope(1989),byBirdLife InternationalandtheInternationalWaterfowlandWetlandsResearchBureau (IWRB).Thislistssome2400sitesimportantforbirdsinEurope,chosen accordingtoscientificcriteria.

Oncethereservesareestablished,theyneedtobelookedaftertoensurethatthe relevantspecieswithinthemflourish.Activemanagementisoftenneededto achievethis.Andthepopulationsofthespeciesconcernedalsoneedtobe monitored(seeChapter10).

Europeisalsorichingeneticresources—wildplantssuchas theolive,thevine andtheapple,fromwhichcropsarederived,andinwildresourcesof ornamentalplants,suchascarnationsandwallflowers.Protectedlandscapes mayhelpprotectland-racesofimportantcropsandoldcultivarsthrough maintainingtraditionalfarmingsystems.Asystematicapproachisneededto helpfarmersdothis,butthisislesstodowithprotectedareasandmorewith farmingandhorticulturalpolicy.

ACTION

4.3.1 Completeandimplementrecommendationsforthreatened highervertebrates.

Endorsement.ThisplanendorsestheworkoftheIUCNSpecies Survival Commission(SSC)anditspartnersinpreparingspeciesActionPlansfor threatenedfaunaasoutlinedinbox18.

ORPARKSF LIFE A EUROPE-WIDEAPPROACH

SSCActionPlans containingSpeciesinEurope Box

Completed In Preparation

Dolphins,Porpoises&Whales Bears Weasels,Civets,Mongooses Birdsf o Prey & theirRelatives Bison Tortoises&FreshwaterTurtles Cats Foxes,Wolves,Jackals&Dogs Cranes Otters Deer Rabbits,Hares&Pikas Dragonflies&Damselflies Seals, FurSeals,SeaLions&Walrus Ducks, Geese&Swans Pigs,Peccaries&Hippos EuropeanReptiles& SwallowtailButterflies Amphibians Herons Insectivores MarineTurtles Rodents Storks, Ibises&Spoonbills WildSheepandGoats

Also,BirdLifeInternationalandIWRBarepreparingsingle-speciesAction Plans foreachofthe26globallythreate ledbirdspeciesinEurope.

Recommendation.

SCa)S shouldensurethatallEuropeanthreatenedhighervertebratespecies arecoveredbytheirspeciesActionPlansassoonaspossible;

b)SCS shouldthendrawtogetherthe actionsonEuropeanfaunaintheSSC ActionPlansintoacoherentsetofactivities,andvigorouslypromoteand monitorimplementationatEuropeanandnationallevels;

c) IUCNmembers,SSCmembersandotherpartnersareencouragedto carryouttheprojectsidentifiedinthespeciesActionPlans.

4.3.2 SafeguardtheImportantBirdAreas(IBAs)inEurope.

Recommendation.EuropeanGovernmentsshouldclassifyandensure conservationmanagementoftheImportantBirdAreasinEurope,eitheras SpecialProtectionAreasundertheBirdsDirective(EuropeanUnion—see Section7.2)orunderequivalentmeasurestosafeguardtheirecological value.

Special actionisneededtosafeguardtheflywaysforbirdsmigratingto EuropefromAfrica,AsiaandtheArctic,especiallytheirvital sitesin SouthernEurope,makinguseoftheprovisionsoftheBonnConvention(see maponpage54).

Endorsement.ThisplanendorsestheprogrammebytheBirdLife InternationalSecretariat,itsnationalpartnersandrepresentativestopromote andsupportthesafeguardingoftheImportantBirdAreasinEurope,and welcomesintegrationofthisProgrammewiththeotheractivitiesintheplan.

4.3.3Provideinformationonbirdsatsea.

Endorsement.TheplanendorsesthepresenteffortscoordinatedbyBirdLife International,theEuropeanSeabirdsatSeaCoordinationGroupandIWRB toundertakeoffshoresurveysofbirdsatsea,andcallsforthesesurveysto

ORPARKSF LIFE A EUROPE-WIDEAPPROACH

Migrationroutesof birdswhichbreedinthefarnorthandmovesouth inautumn

Many species,includingTerns, Arcticwaders(suchKnots as andBar- tailedGodwits),severalkindsofgeeseandducksandafewsmall songbirds(suchasWheatears)breedintheArcticandmigratetoAfrica. Waterfowlarereliantonfood-rich,undisturbedhabitats(particularlyWest AfricanandNorth-WestEuropeanestuaries),withoutwhichtheycould notsustainsuchvastjourneys. EstuariessuchastheWaddensea (Germany/Netherlands)andTheWash(UK)providewinteringgroundsfor populationsofwaterfowlandessentialfeedingstationsforothersthat moveontoWestAfricaandevensouththe theCape.

Large migrantspeciessuchasstorks,pelicans,buzzardsandeaglescan onlymigrateoverland,assistedbyrisingairoverwarmground:their necessarychoiceoftheshortseacrossingsatGibraltar,MaltaandThe Bosphorusisobviousfromthemapabove.

ORPARKSF LIFE EUROPE-WIDEAPPROACH

bextended e sothattheycoverallseaareasadjacenttoEuropeancountries. Thedatashouldbeused,amongotherthings,tocreateandextendmarine protectedareas.

4.3.4 IdentifyimportantareasinEuropeforconservationofother fauna.

Recommendation.SSC,SSCmembersandotherspecialistsshouldidentify themostimportantsitesforlowervertebratesandinvertebrates,andassess whichofthosesitescouldbecomeprotectedareas.Europe'sprotectedareas arefarfromadequate,bothinextentandmanagement,fortheneedsof lowervertebratesandinvertebrates,manyofwhicharegoodindicators of environmentalquality.Priorityshouldgotothebetterknowngroupssuchas freshwaterfish;butterflies,dragonfliesanddamselflies;andmolluscs. Actionforotherinvertebrategroupsmayfollowtheseexamples.

4.3.5identifytheImportantPlantAreas(IPAs)inEuropeandplan measurestoconservehigherplants.

a) Endorsement.FollowingthecompletionofplantRedDataBooksfor virtuallyallcountriesinEurope,aconcertedeffortisneededtoensureall (orvirtuallyall)sitesoflistedthreatenedplantspeciesareconserved, preferablyinprotectedareas,andgiventhemanagementneededto ensurethesurvivalandrecoveryofthespeciesconcerned.Actionis particularlyneededintheAtlanticIslands(box19)becauseoftheir exceptionallyrichflora.

TheplanendorsesthePlantaEuropaconference(Hyeres,May1995)to mobilizeeffortsonEuropeanplantconservation,beingorganizedby Liliummartagon,a PlantlifeandtheFrenchGovernment,andsponsoredbytheCouncilof commonconstituentof Europe,IUCNandtheUKGovernment. manyalpinenational parks In particulartheConferenceshouldconsider:

i) howtoestablish'The100%Club'for countries—orsub-regions—whereatleast onepopulationofeverythreatenedplant speciesisinanaturereserve;

ii)howtodevelopmicro-reservesforsitesof rareandthreatenedplants,inparticular throughuseoftheEUHabitats,Floraand FaunaDirective(seeSection7.2and8.5.3).

b) PriorityProject6.IdentifytheImportantPlant AreasinEuropeandpromotetheircon servation.LeadAgency:Plantlife(UK),working throughanetworkofbotanistsacrossEurope,in associationwiththeIUCN-SSCEuropeanPlants SpecialistGroup,WCMCandother conservationbodies.

4.3.6 Identifyimportantareasforlowerplants inEuropeandlistthreatenedspecies.

Endorsement.Lowerplantsareoftenforgottenin conservationwork,butareparticularlyrichin Europe,especiallyinthelichens,mossesandliver wortsalongEurope'swetAtlanticcoastandinthe

PARKSOR F LIFE A EUROPE-WIDEAPPROACH

Azores. Mushroomsandtoadstools,manyofwhichareedible,arevaluable indicatorsofenvironmentalchange,andareshowingasignificantdecline acrossEurope.

Thisplansupportseffortstoidentifythreatenedlowerplantsandtheirkey sitesinEurope(especiallythePlantlifeprojecttoidentifythreatened bryophytesandkeybryophytesites,andaconferenceonlowerplant conservationinEurope(Zurich,September1994)),andcallsfortheseefforts tobespeededup.Theseshouldbefollowedbynationalandlocalactionto setupprotectedareasforthemostimportantsites,withinternational support.

Boxf£j SpeciesandhabitatconservationneedsintheAtlantic Islands

The AtlanticIslandsofEurope—theCanaries,MadeiraandAzores—contain someoftherichestplantcommunitiesinEurope.TheCanarieshave593 endemicvascularplants(ofwhich380arerareorthreatened),Madeira118 andAzores49.TheCanarieshavealmostasmanyEndangeredplantsasthe wholeofcontinentalEurope.

fManyo theseendemicspeciesliveinthelaurelforests,anextraordinary formoftemperateevergreenrainforestuniquetotheseislands.Arelictofa vegetationtypethatmayhavecoveredmuchofwhatisnowSouthern EuropeandtheMediterraneanSeato up20millionyearsago,only small remnantsremain,allintheAtlanticIslands.

Canarieshavethreenationalparksandanumberofnaturereserves,but moreprotectedareasareneeded,inparticulartoprotectthesitesof endangeredplantsandtoextendtheremnantsoflaurelforestsintoareas theyonceoccupied.AmbitiousplansbytheAutonomousGovernmentand theIslandCouncilsaimtoextendandincreasetheprotectedareas substantially:forexample,aplanpreparedforGranCanariaseeksto establishprotectedareasover66%oftheisland.

Madeira hasthegreatestextentofremaininglaurelforests,covering 10-12,000ha(16%oftheisland).Althoughmuchofithasbeendegradedby over-grazing,theMadeiraNaturalParkcovertwo-thirdsoftheisland.This includessomeIntegralReserves,whichcoversomeofthebestsamplesof laurelforest.TheprotectionoftheNaturalParkneedstobeupgradedandthe IntegralReservesexpanded.(MadeiraincludestheSalvageIslands,agroup ofsmallislandsprotectedasanaturereservethatwasrecentlyawardedthe EuropeanDiploma.)

In theAzores,onlysmallremnantsoflaurelforestsurviveandonsome islandsithasentirelydisappeared.TwoCategoryIVreservesareontheUN List;moreareneeded.

ORPARKSF LIFE A EUROPE-WIDEAPPROACH

ProtectedAreas- IUCNCategoryI ProtectedAreas- IUCNCategory ProtectedAreas• IUCNCategory ProtectedAreas- IUCNCategoryIV ProtectedAreas- IUCNCategoryV

WORLDCONSERVATION MONITORINGCENTRE

ProtectedareasofNorway,showingthe useofrange a ofIUCNmanagement categories

ORPARKSF LIFE A EUROPE-WIDEAPPROACH

nLynxi March, Bavaria. Mammalssuch asthismayneed a largeareaof undisturbed ohabitatt

PARKSOR F LIFE IORITY SUB-REGIONS

PRIORITY TERRESTRIALANDMARINE SUB-REGIONS

Europe,likeotherpartsthe ofworld,isadiversecontinentandcanbedivided upintoa numberofsub-regions,onthebasisofpoliticalsystems,vegetation types,climateorothercriteria.Thischaptercoversseveralsub-regionswhere cooperationbetweencountriesisparticularlyneededtosolveprotectedarea CHAPTER5 Onland,theplancoverstwosub-regions:CentralandEasternEurope(Section 5.1),andSouthernEurope(5.2).Bothofthesehavespecialneedsand requirements,outlinedbelow,thoughthisshouldinnowaydetractfromthe needforactioninWesternEuropealso.

At seaandalongthecoastline,threesub-regionsareincluded,whichbetween themcoverallthemarineandcoastalpartsofEurope—theMediterraneanSea (withSouthernEuropeinSection5.2),theBaltic(Section5.3)andtheNorth-East Atlantic(Section5.4).Thisfullcoveragereflectsthepaucityofmarineprotected areasintheregion.

Mentionshouldbemadeoftwoothersub-regions,both onlypartlyinthe regioncoveredbythisplan.ThefirstistheBlackSea,whichneedstobetreated asasingleecologicalunitandhasgreatneedofconservation.Present internationalinitiativesincludeapreliminaryActionPlanforConservationof BlackWetlands Sea (1994),arisingfromaWorkshopinOdessa(October1993);a GEFProgrammefortheEnvironmentalManagementandProtectionofthe BlackSea,1993-1995;andthedevelopmentofa UNEPRegionalSeas ProgrammefortheBlackSea,linkedtotheMediterraneanActionPlan.Also,the InternationalCommissionfortheScientificExplorationoftheMediterranean (ICSEM)includestheBlackSeainitsremitanditsnetworkofadvisershas developedstudiesandcontactsinthearea.

ThesecondistheArctic,whosefragileecosystemssurroundtheNorthPole.A recentreport,TheStateofHabitatProtectionintheArctic(SecondDraft, September1993),preparedbytheDirectorateofNatureManagement,Norway, outlinestheexistingstateofprotectedareas,whichareextensive,covering 25.4%of ArcticNorway,20.7%ofArcticSweden,11.2%of ArcticFinlandand 8.9%ofIceland.ThereportalsolistsproposalsbyNGOstoextendtheprotected areas,forexamplebyanArcticRingofLifeMarineBioculturalReserves stretchingroundtheArcticasasingleunit.Thereportispartofacontinuing processofcooperationbetweenArcticnationsonconservation.

5.1 CentralandEasternEurope

FollowingthecollapseofCommunism,theCentralandEasternEuropean Countries(CEEC)2areintheprocessofdramaticchangeastheyembrace democracyandestablishmarketeconomies.Ontheonehand,thepolitical, economicandsocialdisordersthatareaninevitableconsequenceofthischange posedifficultiesfortheconservationofnature.Ontheother,thereallocation of land,thegreateropennessofgovernmentstopublicopinionandthegrowing contactsbetweenEastandWestcouldprovidegreatopportunitiesfor conservation. fMosto thecountriesfaceacutebutlocalizedproblemsofenvironmental pollution,butalsocontainlargeareasofunspoiltnatureandsurviving

2. ThecountriescoveredinthisSectionareAlbania,Bulgaria,CzechRepublic,Estonia, Hungary,Latvia,Lithuania,Poland,RomaniaandSlovakia.TheSectionalsoincludesthe countriesofformerYugoslavia,includingBosnia-Herzegovina,,Sloveniaandthe formerYugoslavRepublicofMacedonia. ORPARKSF LIFE PRIORITY SUB-REGIONS

wilderness.Mosthavewell-developedprotectedarea systems,somelong-standing(e.g.Bulgaria,Czech Republic,Estonia,PolandandSlovakia),whereas othersaremorerecentbuthavegrownquickly(e.g. Hungary).Theextent,thecriteriausedforselection, andthemanagementoftheseprotectedareasare generallycomparablewiththoseinWesternEurope. Somesystems,however,areunder-developed (,),butconservationistsinthese countriesaretryinghardtocatchup.Ingeneralall the countriesaredevelopingtheirnationalprotected areasystemsandanticipateconsiderableexpansion oftheirnetworks.

Possibly thegreatestthreattoprotectedareasinmost partsoftheregionislandredistribution.Thismeans Citizens withbannerseitherreprivatization(inwhichlandisreturnedtoitsformerowners)or formahumanchainto privatization(inwhichpubliclyownedlandisdistributedtotheprivatesector). stopdamconstruction in Gatcikovo,Hungary, Thegreatestneedsintheregionare: August1991 n■ A infusionoffinancialassistanceasshort-termsupporttoensurethatlands ofnatureconservationvaluearenotlostthroughlandredistribution, especiallyinBulgaria,CzechRepublic,HungaryandSlovakia,combined withsupportforfiscalandfinancialincentivemeasures(Action5.1.1);

■ Thedevelopmentofenvironmentallegislation;thisisthetoppriorityin somecountries,e.g.Estonia(Action5.1.7(a)).

ACTION

5.1.1 Mitigatetheeffectsland ofredistributiononprotectedareas.

Recommendation.Westernaiddonors,governmentalandnon-govern mental,shouldrespondgenerouslytorequestsforfinancialandother assistancebyCEECtosafeguardtheirprotectedareas,suchasthroughthe PropertyLandFundforSpeciallyProtectedAreasintheCzechRepublic(see box20).Debt-for-natureswapscouldbesuitablemechanisms,asusedin BulgariaandPoland.

Recommendation.TheplanencouragesCEECtoidentifyclearcriteriaand prioritiesforlandstobepurchased,andtocontributetothefundsneeded. Asasafeguard,externaldonorsmaywishtobeinvolvedindevelopingthe criteriaforselection.

Funds arerequiredbothfor(a)directpurchaseoflandand(b)reim bursementtoprivatelandownersforacceptingrestrictionsonhowtheyuse theirland.

Priority Project7. Review(a)thevarioustypesofpoliciescould thatbe usedtoprovideeffectiveincentivesforconservation(suchastheESA-type schemesusedbytheEuropeanUnion)otherthanpurchase;(b)thescaleof theproblemandfundingrequirementineachCEEC;and(c)thewaysin whichurgentfundscouldberaised.LeadAgencies:IUCNEuropean Programme,WWFEuropeanProgramme.

PARKSOR F LIFE ITY SUB-REGIONS

The PropertyLandFundforSpeciallyProtectedAreasin Box theCzechRepublic

In theCzechRepublic,landredistributionhasbroughtnewriskstothe protectedareanetwork.Ownersandusersoflandareundergreatpressureto makemaximumeconomicuseoftheirland,irrespectiveitsecological of value.

To counterthis,withtheapprovaloftheMinistryofEnvironment,theCzech InstituteforNature Conservationissettingupa'PropertyLandFundfor SpeciallyProtectedAreas'.TheaimoftheFundistosecurestateownership ofselectedlandandtoensuregoodconservationmanagement.

The'speciallyprotectedareas'eligiblefortheFundincludeNationalNature Reserves,NationalNatureMonuments,NatureReservesandNatureMonu ments,whichtogetheramounttoabout1%ofthenation.Outofthetotalof 1600areas,some400havebeenselectedforattention,including:

■ 5500haofsmallprotectedareasinthe'National'categories,after excludingwoodland(whichisnotyetunderthreat)andlandalready ownedbytheState(estimatedcostofpurchaseUS$5.9m); ■ Afurther2200-2500haofNatureReservesandNatureMonuments (US$2.3-2.7m); ■ Partthe of195,000haofcoreareasinthe1.1millionhectaresoflarge protectedareas(NationalParks,ProtectedLandscapeAreas)(exactextent andthereforecosttobedetermined).

In1993asmallprofessionalunitwassetuptoestablishandadministerthe Fund.TheStateEnvironmentalProtectionFundhascontributedUSS0.8m andanumberofareashave beenacquired,withprioritybeinggivento wetlandNationalNatureReserves.

The expenditureforthe next6-8yearsisestimatedatUSS8.5m,ofwhich $6.4mmaybeavailablefromStateandothernationalandlocalsources.The remaining$2.1mhastoberaisedfrominternationalsourcesasvital assistanceinmaintaininganirreplaceablepartofEurope'snaturalheritage.

5.1.2 ExtendcontactsbetweenEastandWest.

Recommendation.ProtectedareastafffromtheCEEChavehadfour decadesoflimitedopportunitiesfortravel,yetmostpresentvisitsareof expertsfromWesternEuropetotheCEEC.Thispatternshouldbechanged sothatmostoftheresourcesavailablearespentenablingexpertsfromCEEC tovisitotherEuropeancountries.Priorityshouldbegivento(a)Policy makers,especiallyontheinterfaceofconservationwith,forexample, transportpolicy,agricultureorforestry;and(b)Protectedareamanagers. Twinning,especiallyoftransboundaryparksacrosstheformer'Iron Curtain',isalsoagoodwayofextendingcontact(seealso9.2.2).

PriorityProject8.OrganizeaseriesofstudyvisitsforCEECprotectedarea managerstoWesterncountries,typicallyof2-4weekseach.Language trainingmayalsobeappropriateinsomecases.LeadAgency:EUROSITE.

5.1.3Providethenecessaryequipment.

Recommendation.In mostCEEC,thereisasufficientcoreofleading scientists,conservationspecialistsandtrainedprotectedareastaff.They neednotsomuchknow-howbutfundsandequipment,suchascomputers,

ORPARKSF LIFE PRIORITY SUB-REGIONS

vehicles,communicationsystems,educationalfacilities,and equipmentfor researchandmonitoring.

Western GovernmentsandtheEuropeanUnionshouldshiftthe environmentalcomponentoftheiraidtotheregionto:

a)Increasethe aidavailableforconservationofnature;and

b) Changethesupportforprotectedareasawayfromprovisionof consultantstothatoffundsandequipment.

5.1.4Givespecialinternationalattentiontocertainuniqueareas.

Recommendation.Governmentsandotherfundingbodiesshould encouragebroadinternationalparticipationintheprotectionofasmall numberofhighpriorityprotectedareasofinternationalimportance, especiallythoseforgeographicregionssharedbetweencountries.Notable examplesincludetheBiebrzaMarshes(Poland),theDanubeDelta(Romania, Ukraine),theRhodopeMountains(Greece,Bulgaria),theDinaricMountains (Croatia,Slovenia)andsomeofthesharedriversystemsoftheregion. PossiblesitesmayincludethefoursitesidentifiedbyIUCN—inAlbania,

TheBiebrzaMarshes,Bulgaria,CroatiaandRomania—asexemplarsforshort-termexternal nPoland,a exampleof a investmentinbiodiversityconservation. siten i needof internationalattention5.1.5 EncouragecooperationbetweenCentralandEasternEuropean countries.

Recommendation.FundingbodiesinWesternEuropeshouldencourageand supportprotectedareaassociationsandgroupingswithintheCEECregion. In particularinternationalsupportandfinanceshouldbeprovidedtothe AssociationofCarpathianNationalParksandProtectedAreas(Czech Republic,Poland,,Hungary,UkraineandRomania)andtothe proposedCentreforManagementandRestorationofEcosystemsinthe HercynianMountains(CzechRepublic,Poland,Germany,France).

ORPARKSF LIFE PRIORITY SUB-REGIONS

5.1.6 Ensuredevelopmentfundedbyexternalaiddoesnotdamage theenvironment.

Recommendation.Fundingagenciesfromoutsidetheregion,especiallythe WorldBank,theEuropeanBankforReconstructionandDevelopment,and theEuropeanInvestmentBank,shouldemploystrictmeasurestoensurethe projectstheyfunddonotharmtheenvironmentingeneralandprotected areasinparticular.

Recommendation.heEuropeanUnion T shouldimprovetheenvironmental provisionsintheuseofPHAREandTACIS(seebox21).Inparticularthey should:

a)Re-examinetheoverallapproachofPHAREandTACIS,toensurethat sustainabledevelopmentistheaim;

b) MakemoreuseofPHAREfundingtohelpprotectedareas,including fundingformanagement,forinfrastructure,forenvironmentally sensitiveagricultureorforestrymanagement,andfordevelopmentof localenterprises;

c) UseTACISfundscreativelyfordevelopingenvironmentalinfrastructure, including,forexample,supportforNGOsanddevelopmentof environmentallaw.

5.1.7GiveCEEcountriespriorityinimplementingrelevantpartsof thisplan.

Recommendation.Governments,agenciesandothersimplementingthis planshouldgiveCEEcountriespriorityinactionsto:

a) Provideadviceonprotectedarealegislation(underSection7.1).

Profoundpoliticalchangesmayrequireareview,ifnotareconstruction, of thelegislativeframeworkforprotectedareas.Apossiblestartingpoint forinternationalsupporttosuchworkcouldbeaseminarorconference withintheregiontodeterminewhatisneededandtoagreeacommon approach.

European Unionexternaldevelopmentfunding:PHARE Box andTACIS

PHARE andTACISaretheEU'smaininstrumentsforprovidingfinancialand technicalsupporttothe countriesofCentralandEasternEurope(PHARE)and CISandGeorgia(TACIS).Bothaimtosupporteconomicrestructuringand encouragechangetoamarketeconomy,takingaccountofsocialand democraticconcerns.

UnderPHARE,1 bnECUwasmadeavailablein1992forfinancingprojectsin prioritysectors,whichincludedruraldevelopmentandenvironmental protection.Theemphasisisontechnicalassistanceratherthancapital investment.

The emphasisofTACISisontransferofknow-how.UnderTACIStheEU provided850mECUfor1991-92.

ORPARKSF LIFE PRIORITY SUB-REGIONS

b) Preventandreverseenvironmentaldeteriorationinprotectedareas frompollution(underSection2.5).

Central andEastEuropeancountrieshavesufferedgravedamagetothe environmentfromrecklessuseofnaturalresourcesanduncontrolled emissionsfromindustry.Theappallingairpollutioninthe'Black Triangle'(partofformerEastGermany,CzechRepublicandPoland)is stilldamagingprotectedareas.Alsowaterpollutionandcontamination fromfertilizersandpesticidesaredamagingprotectedareasintheregion. Jointinternationaleffortsareendorsedtohelpthesecountriesreduce theirpollutionloadandmeetinternationalemissionstandards,andthese couldbelinkedtoconservationofnatureingeneralandprotectedareas inparticular.

c) Ensurethattourismdoesnotdamageprotectedareas(underSection 3.3).

With deterioratingeconomicconditionsinthecountryside,local communitiesincreasinglyneedtogenerateincome.Apromisingsectoris tourism,especiallyfromWesternEurope.Trainingontourism managementforprotectedareamanagerslocal andauthoritiesisa particularneed.

5.2 SouthernEuropeandtheMediterraneanSea

Littlenowremainsoftheoriginal,naturalvegetationoftheMediterranean basin,yet theregion'srichlandscapeheritage,fascinatinghistoryandwarm climatemakesitthefavouritedestinationforEurope'stourists.Asaresultof thisandotherdevelopments,muchofthenaturalresourcesthatdoremainare undergreatpressure.

TheMediterraneanregioncontainsmuchofEurope'sbiologicaldiversity,with, forexample,abundantendemicspecies,especiallyofplants,thatareabsent furthernorth(seetable2).Thereisa richbirdfauna,especiallyofmigratory birds,wetlandbirdsandbirdsofprey.AndtheMediterraneanSeaisthehome of seaturtlesandvaluedmammalsliketheMediterraneanMonkSeal.This puts agreatresponsibilityonthegovernmentsofthesecountriessincetheyhavethe lion'sshareofEurope'sbiodiversityandinparticularofitsthreatenedspecies. Forexample,about80%ofthespeciesofplantswhosesitesandhabitatsareto beprotectedundertheEUHabitatsDirective(seetable2)arefromMedi terraneancountries.TheEUthereforerecognizesthatMembersStatesinthe NorthhaveadutytohelpMemberStatesintheSouthconservetheirfloraand faunaaspartofthenaturalheritageofEuropeasawhole.

:Table2 DiversityofHigherPlantsinMediterraneanand Non-Mediterraneancountries

CountryNumberf o Numberf o endemic Numberf o plant ivild speciesspecies(i.e.species not speciesn o AnnexII foundelsewhere) of theEUHabitats Directive

Greece4992 742 36 Italy 5598 712 45 4916 941 87 Poland2300 3 N-A Denmark1252 1 3 Ireland950 0 0

Source:WCMC

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Despitethisbiologicalwealth,thesystemofprotectedareasinSouthernEurope andtheMediterraneanisfarfromeffectiveandcomplete.Inmostcountries, nationalparkssufferfromalackofstaffandalackmoney, of aswellasfrom politicalconstraintsandsocialconflicts.Coastalareasareunderparticular pressureandareoftenpoorlyrepresentedinprotectedareasystems.The powerfulhuntinglobbiesinFrance,Italy,GreeceandSpainoftenopposethe creationofnewparksandhunterscontinuetheirsportwithinsomeexisting regionalparks.

There are greatopportunitiestoimprovethesituation.Manyoftheareaswhere parksoccurorareneededhavebecomemarginalineconomicterms:young peoplehaveleftforthecitiestofindjobsandvillageshavedeclined.Well-run nationalparksofferanopportunity—inmanyareasthe bestopportunity—to reversethattrend,revitalizethelocaleconomyandbringwealthbacktothe ruralcommunity.

Thewaytodothisisbybroadeningthetraditionalapproachtonationalparks. Throughcarefullycontrolledeco-andagro-tourism,theparkcanprovidelocal peoplewithnewjobs,andgivelocalcommunitiesarenewedidentity.Zoning ensuresthatthecoreareaof thenationalparkiseffectivelyprotected,ideallyas IUCNCategoryII,withdayvisitscarefullycontrolledandnootherformsof land-usepermitted.Otherareasmaybededicatedtotraditionalmanagement, aspastureshaymeadows or forexample.Always,thetourismhastobeassoft aspossible—inaphrase,'minimalimpactformaximumperception'.

FormanysurvivingnaturalareasinEurope,thisapproachisnotonlyfeasible butistheonlyoption.AlthoughtheneedismostacuteinsomeSouthern Europeancountries,theapproachisalsojustasvalidinotherpartsofEurope. Andthewaytostart,asbox22shows,isbydevelopingmodels,ideallyoneor moreineach country(Action5.2.1).

Aparallelapproachisneededonthecoast.InsomeMediterraneanareas,large hoteldevelopmentsmaynolongerattractdiscerningtourists.Here,chalet villagescouldreplacetower-blocks.Eco-friendlydivingcouldreplacespear- fishing,creatingfarmoreeconomicandsustainablebenefitsforlocalpeople. Andover-stressedcoastallandcouldberestoredtonature.Thesechangescould findtheirexpressioninanewformofprotectedarea,combiningeco-friendly tourismwithrestorationofnaturalassetsandre-establishingaculturalidentity.

Atthesametimethereisaneedtoimprovethelawsonprotectedareasandto buildthecapacityoftheorganizationsthatmanagethem.InmostSouthernEur opeancountries,thereisalargegapbetweenlegislationanditsimplementation. Thisisduetolackofpoliticalcommitmentandweakconservationinstitutions, bothofwhichmaythemselvesbecaused,atleastinpart,bylackofpublic awarenessofnatureandconservation.Insomecountries,nationalparkorgan izationsareconsideredas'secondclassauthorities',andtheirworkispoorly coordinatedwiththatofotherdepartmentsandagencies (Action5.2.2).

The coverageofprotectedareasinSouthernEuropeasawholeisveryuneven, withsomecountriesandsomehabitattypesfarbettercoveredthanothers. Similarly,somecountrieshaveverypreciseinventoriesofwhatneedstobe pro tected,whileothersdonot.Corridorsbetweenprotectedareasareespecially needed,topermitmigrationofbirdsandnaturalmovementofanimalslike wolf,lynxandbear.(Action5.2.3).

MarineprotectedareasareinadequateincoverageandinmostMediterranean countriestheirmanagementisalmostnon-existent.TheProtocolonSpecially ProtectedAreasoftheBarcelonaConventionprovidesthemaininternational frameworkforestablishingmarineprotectedareasintheMediterranean. Implementationof theProtocolissupportedbytheRegionalActivityCentrefor SpeciallyProtectedAreas(RAC/SPA),whichispartofUNEP'sMediterranean

ORPARKSF LIFE PRIORITY SUB-REGIONS

ActionPlanandbasedinTunis.SupportalsocomesfromtheMediterranean ProtectedAreasNetwork(MEDPAN),whichwassetupunderthe aegisthe of WorldBankandissupportedbytheMediterranean EnvironmentalTechnical AssistanceProgramme(METAP).ThisConventionhasprovidedgooddataon theMediterraneanSea,butbeenlesssuccessfulinachievingimplementationon theground.Itshouldnowbestrengthened(Action5.2.4).

Onef o themostacuteneedsinSouthernEuropeisfortrainedpersonnel(Action 5.2.5).Closercollaborationandlinksbetweenexpertsindifferentcountriesare alsoneeded.Presentnetworkscoveronlypartoftheissue(suchasMEDPAN) orarebelievedtobeinadequate.Itisuptoprotectedareamanagersinthe regiontodecidewhatsortofanetworkandorganization,ifany,wouldbemost useful,andhowtoachievethis(Action5.2.6).

And lastly,betterpublicawarenessaboutconservationisdesperatelyneeded. Liketheprotectedareasthemselves,itvariesgreatlyacrosstheregion.Insome SouthernEuropeancountries,suchasthosementionedinChapter6,itisstill veryweak.Ultimatelyprotectedareaswillonlysucceedifthepublicwant them (Action5.2.7,leadingtoChapter11).

BoxF TheAbruzzoparkexperienceinItaly

A modelfortheuseofnationalparkstorevitalizeeconomies localas wellasconservenatureistheAbruzzoNationalPark.Thehallmarksof itsapproachareanautonomousparkagency,actingonaclearManagement Plan,implementingstrongzonationandattemptingtoreconcile conservationwithecodevelopment.Despitemanyproblems,theparkhas broughtgreatbenefitstolocalpeople,whileeffectivelyconservingthe species,habitatsandlandscapesoftheregion.Indeed,therearenow ambitiousplanstoexpandAbruzzo,creatinga'SouthEuropeanPark'by establishingasurroundingnetworkofprotectedareasoveramassive 600,000haintheCentralApennines.

Abruzzo showsthevalueofanapproachinwhichthenationalpark combinesconservationwithculturalandlocalrevival.Italsoshowsthe importanceofhavingamodel,soallcanseethatitworks.Thissuccess hasdemonstratedtopolicy-makersthatnationalparksareworthwhileand important.

At anationallevel,Italyisnowplanning25newnationalparksand about70newmarineparksandreserves.To encouragetheir establishment,in1990theNationalParksCommitteeandWWF-ltaly launchedtheircampaign'ALandofGreenParks'surroundedbya'Seaof BlueParks'.

Twenty yearsago,lessthan1%ofItalywasinprotectedareas.In1980 conservationistsissuedtheircentralandregionalgovernmentswitha challenge:increasethe protectedareasestateto10%oftheland surfacebytheyear2000.In1991Parliamentpassedaframeworklawon protectedareasandby1994,7%hadbeenreached.

ACTION

5.2.1 Useprotectedareasasawaytorevitalizeruraleconomies.

Recommendation.Governmentsshouldseeprotectedareasasaway,in manyareasthebestway,ofrevivingruraleconomiesinmarginalareas.The bestwaytodevelopthisapproachmaybymodelparks,ideallyoneormore ineachcountry.

ORPARKSF LIFE IORITY SUB-REGIONS

ParcoNazionaled'Abruzzo.Reproducedwith kind permissionofNational ParksCommittee,Italy.DiagramcreatedbyF.Tassi,drawnbyS.Maugcri

A schematicmodelofzonationinthe AbruzzoNationalPark,Italy. Key A: IntegralReserve ^ B:GeneralReserve C: ProtectedLandscape D: Developmentzone

Priority Project9.Organizeaconferenceontheregenerationofrural economiesandlivelihoodsthroughtheestablishmentofnationaland regionalparks.Participantsshouldincludeprotectedareaexperts, governmentplanners,economistsandpoliticians.Theconferenceshouldbe heldinaMediterraneancountrywherethisapproachexistsorisneeded.It shouldhavealongplanningphase,asto sogivecountriestheopportunityto developmodelparksbeforehand.LeadAgency:tobeappointed.

MediterraneanForests Box

Some 10,000yearsago,theMediterraneanBasinwaspracticallycoveredby forest.Eventoday,SouthernEuropehasthegreatestdiversityofforestform ationsandspeciesonthecontinent.Mediterranean Yet forestshavebeen massivelydegradedoverthecenturies.Onlyfragmentsofthenatural forests nowsurvive,mainlyinnorthernGreeceandtheBalkans.Virtuallyno Mediterraneancountryhasarepresentativesystemofprotectedareasfor foresttypes.

Themainthreatsovergrazing, are changesinlanduse(e.g.forroadsand buildings),replacementbyplantations,airpollutionandfire.Mostcountries lackstrongpoliciestocounterthesethreats,especiallyintheeasternpartof theregion.Urgentlyneededare:

a) Completeinventoriesofforestresourcesineachcountry; b) NationalForestPlanstooutlineneedsandaction required; c) Adegreeofregionalcoordination; d)n A NGOnetworkforforestconservationintheMediterranean.

NationalForestPlansshouldidentifythoseforestareaswhichshould be protectedtosafeguardremnantsofnaturalandsemi-naturalforests.They shouldaimtoensurethatthemanagementofallotherforestsissustainable andthatitfavoursforestsassimilartonaturalformationsaspossible.They shouldalsopromoteregenerationofforests,torestorelongdegradedforests andsodevelopthefullpotentialoftheland.

PARKSOR F LIFE PRIORITY SUB-REGIONS

5.2.2 Raisethestatusofprotectedareasandclosethegapbetween legislationandimplementation.

GovernmentsandinstitutionsinSouthernEuropeshouldgivespecial attentiontothefollowing,coveredinmoredetailinotherpartsofthisplan:

a)Integrateprotectedareasintoland-useplanning,whichshould recognizetheconservationvalueofprotectedareas,andofareas proposedforprotection.(SeeSection2.3)

b)Improvelaws.Protectedarealawsshouldbeframedsoastogiveaposit iveimpressiontothepublic,evenwhenitisnecessarytopreventan activity.Prohibitionsshouldbetheminimumnecessary,financialincen tivesshouldencourageconservationmanagement,andlocal communitiesshouldparticipateindesignationandmanagement.(See Section7.1)

c) Strengthenconservationinstitutionsandclarifytheirresponsibilities. Theirstatusshouldberaisedtoenablethemtodotheirjobeffectively.It isvitaltoensurelocalpeopleknowwhoisresponsibleforeachprotected area.(SeeChapter8)

d) Ensurebetteruseof theEUStructuralFunds,withstrictcontrolson theirenvironmentalimpact(seeSection8.3.4)andencouragepriorityuse oftheEUagro-environmentalregulationsandfundsinconjunctionwith protectedareas.(SeeSection3.1)

e) Speedupthe creationofNatura2000throughtheimplementationofthe EUBirdsandHabitatsDirectives.(SeeSection7.2)

ImportantsitesforbreedingseabirdsintheMediterranean(reddots) andimportantMediterraneanwetlands(bluesquares)including Ramsarsites. Sources:ImportantSeabirdSitesintheMediterranean(JoeSultana/Malta OrnithologicalSociety)andImportantBirdAreasinEurope(ICBP/BirdLife International)

ORPARKSF LIFE PRIORITY SUB-REGIONS

MedWet andprotectedareaneedsforMediterraneangox wetlands

TheMediterraneanBasincontainsmanycoastalandinlandwetlandsofgreat varietyandecologicalimportance.Manycoastalwetlandsarelinkedtothe greatriversthatflowintotheMediterranean,suchastheEbro,Rhone,Arno, Tiber,Volturno,Po,Acheloos,Axios,NestosandEvros.Nearly100Medi terraneanwetlandsiteshavebeenlistedasofinternationalimportanceunder theRamsarConvention.Anequalnumberhaveotherkindsofprotection, eitherundertheEUBirdsDirectiveorofsolelynationalstatus.Manymore haveprotection no atall.

VirtuallyallMediterraneanwetlandsareunderhumanpressure,mainlyfrom:

■ Conversiontootherformsofland-use(initiallydrainageforagriculture butcurrentlyurbanization,publicworksandinfrastructure,industrial sites,masstourism,intensiveaquaculture); ■ Depletionofnecessaryinputs(suchasfreshwater,siltandnutrients, notablyduetotheconstructionofdams); ■ Misuseoftheirnaturalresources(over-fishing,over-grazing,excessive hunting,pollution).

These pressures,actingusuallyincombination,arecausingthedestruction anddeteriorationofMediterraneanwetlands;thelossthiscenturyis enormous,insomeregions(e.g.NorthernGreece)exceeding50%.

Tofacetheseproblems,MedWetaimsto: a) Buildclosecollaborationbetweenallconcernedinternationaland supranationalauthorities,nationalandlocalgovernments,NGOs, knowledgeableindividualsandgroupsrepresentingwetlanduse interests; b) EstablishconsistentinventoriesofwetlandsaroundtheMediterranean Basinanddevelopaneffectivesystemformonitoringtheircondition; c) Improvemanagementofwetlandsbyprovidingexpertiseandthe exchangeofexperience; d) Trainthoseinvolvedwithwetlands,suchasprotectedareamanagers, policy-makers,thepressandNGOstaff; e)Convincepolicy-makersateverylevel,andthegeneralpublic,ofthe importantnaturalandproductivevaluesofMediterraneanwetlands, thoughpublicawarenesscampaignsadaptedtolocalconditions; f) Makeavailablethelatestscientificknowledgetothosethatneedit.

The MedWetinitiativeisacollaborationbetweentheEuropeanUnion,the RamsarConvention,thefiveMediterraneanEUMemberStates,IWRB,WWF andtheFondationTourdeValat.A3-yearpreparatoryphasepresentlybeing carriedoutwillprovidethenecessarytoolsandmethods,developadetailed strategy,andsearchformeansofimplementationaroundtheMediterranean Basin.

ORPARKSF LIFE PRIORITY SUB-REGIONS

5.2.3 Extendandimprovethemanagementofparticularhabitats andthreatenedspecies

Endorsement.Habitatsinneedofprotectionincludedrygrassland,maquis, evergreenanddeciduousforests(seebox23),wetlands(seebelowandbox 24)andsea-grassbeds.Theplanendorsesnationalapproachestoidentify andprotectrepresentativeexamplesofthesehabitats,andtheworkof CORINE(coveredin4.2.4).Moreactiontosavethreatenedspeciesisalso needed,suchas theMonkSeal,marineturtles,whales,migratorybirdsand manyendemicplants(seeSection4.3).

Endorsement.Wetlandsareprobablythemostendangeredhabitattypein SouthernEurope.MedWetwascreatedasaninternationalinitiativetosave them(seebox24).ThisplanendorsesMedWet,callsforitseffective implementationthroughouttheMediterraneanBasin,andrecommendsthat GEF,theEuropeanUnionandotherdonorsprovideitwithadequatelong- termfunding.

5.2.4Extendandimprovemarineandcoastalprotectedareasinthe MediterraneanSea

Recommendation.GovernmentsofMediterraneancountriesshouldgive moresupporttotheestablishmentandmanagementofmarineandcoastal protectedareas.InparticulartheyshouldstrengthentheSpeciallyProtected AreasProtocoloftheBarcelonaConventionasaspurtoaction.Theyshould agreeaprogrammeandtimetableforitsimplementation,giveprioritytothe sitesofgreatestconservationimportance,andprovideadequatefundingfor theSecretariatsoftheConventionandProtocol.

Recommendation.Thestrongestcountrieseconomicallyintheregionand theEuropeanUnionshouldprovidegreaterfinancialaidandtechnical expertisetocountrieswithlessdevelopedeconomies,tohelpthemdevelop theircoastalandmarineprotectedareasaspartofaregionalnetworkandas partoftheIntegratedCoastalZoneManagementapproach.

Recommendation.Mediterraneangovernmentsshouldmakeagreements with eachothertoestablishmarinepelagicprotectedareasoutsidetheir EEZs.Agood modelforthisistheCetaceanSanctuaryintheLigurianSea, establishedbytheGovernmentsofFrance,ItalyandMonaco.

Recommendation.MEDPANshouldworkwithotherbodiestoencourage provisionoflarge-scalefunding,particularlybytheWorldBank,toestablish andmanageaneffectivenetworkofMarineProtectedAreasforthe Mediterranean.

Endorsement.TheplanendorsestheWWFMediterraneanMarineStrategy (1993),particularlyitsemphasisoncontroloffishingandonIntegrated CoastalZoneManagementasaprimarygoal.

5.2.5Improvethelevelofskillsbyprovisionoftraining.

Endorsement.Theplanendorsesthepresentinitiativestoprovidetraining andnetworking,inparticularthoseofMEDPAN,MedWetandthebio spherereserveprogrammeofUNESCO/MAB.Italsoencouragesstaff exchangesbetweenprotectedareas(see9.2.2).

Priority Project10.Provideacapacityfortraining,withemphasison offering:

a)coursesonprotectedareamanagementforstaffinindividual countriesonrequest;

PARKSOR F LIFE PRIORITY SUB-REGIONS

b) Aregulartrainingcoursetotakeplaceeverytwoyears.Thethemee.g. education,monitoring,localparticipation)couldvary eachtime. Agronomicorotherinstitutes,forexampleinFrance,GreeceandSpain, couldprovidevenuesandeducationalsupport.Thecoursewould emphasizeneedsandissuesinMediterraneancountriesbutwouldnotbe restrictedtothatregion.

Lead Agency:Tobeidentified.Funding:ideallyfromtheEuropeanUnion. (AsmalljointIUCN/FNNPEmeetingwillbeheldinOctober1994to developfurtherthisandotherproposalsfortrainingintheplan.)

5.2.6 Formaninformalnetworkforprotectedareamanagersinthe Mediterraneanbasin.

Recommendation.CNPPAshouldcreateaninformalnetworkofMedit erraneanprotectedareamanagers,coveringallparts ofMediterranean the basin.Aswellasprovidinganopportunitytoshareexperienceandplan jointactivities,thisnetworkwouldberesponsibleforcoordinatingand enablingtheimplementationofthissectiontheplan.CNPPAshould appoint asmallcommitteeofleadingexperts,drawnfromarangeofcountriesand organizations,tosetupthenetwork.

5.2.7Increasepublicawarenessabouttheneedforconservation

Actionis particularlyneededinGreece,MaltaandPortugal,asoutlinedin Chapter6.Individualparkscantransformpublicattitudesbyshowingthe benefitsofconservationandbyusingasaspecificanimalorplantthatcan catchtheimaginationasasymboloftheirwork.Workingtogetherwith publicopinion,theycanactas astrongforceforchange,forthebenefitof natureandsociety.SeeChapter11forspecificsuggestions.

5.3 TheBaltic

TheBalticSea,includingtheKattegat,isoneof thesmallestseasintheworld, coveringnomorethan400,000sq.km.ItissurroundedbythenineStatesof Sweden,Finland,Russia,Estonia,Latvia,Lithuania,Poland,Germanyand Denmark.

TheBalticisashallow,semi-enclosedseawithbrackishandalmoststagnant water.Itreceivesrun-offandpollutantsfromadrainagebasinnearlyfivetimes itsownsize.Despitetheeffortsofcountriesintheregion,theBalticremainsone ofthemostpollutedseasintheworldanditscoastalwetlandshaveparticularly sufferedfromhumanactivities.

ThefragilemarineecosystemsoftheeasternandsouthernBaltic,particularly thoseclosetothemainlandsandarchipelagosinDenmark,Estonia,Finlandand Sweden,arethreatenedbytheimpactofheavymaritimetraffic.TheInter nationalMaritimeOrganization(IMO)ispromotingtheconceptofParticularly SensitiveSeaAreasasameansofprotectingfragileseaareasfromtheeffectsof shipping.

Almostallthe46marineprotectedareas(MPAs)thathavebeenestablishedin theBalticsofarlackeffectivemanagementandmonitoring.Furthermore,while theNordiccountriescanallocatesufficientresourcestoestablishandmanage MPAs,thecountriesofEasternEuropedonotatpresenthavetheeconomic meanstodothis.

TheConventionontheProtectionoftheMarineEnvironmentof theBalticSea Area,usuallycalledtheHelsinkiConvention,providesaframeworkforregional cooperationintacklingmarineconservationandhasbeensignedbythenine

PARKSOR F LIFE PRIORITY SUB-REGIONS

States aroundtheBaltic.Revisedin1992,Article15nowobligesPartiesto conservenaturalhabitatsandbiologicaldiversityandtoprotectnatural processes.TheHelsinkiCommission(HELCOM)hasthetaskofimplementing theConventionandunderitsEnvironmentCommitteehasestablisheda workinggroup,EC-Nature,withtheaimofestablishingaBalticsystemof protectedareas,terrestrialandmarine.

yWorkb IUCN-CNPPA,theNordicCouncilofMinisters,WWF/theBaltic MarineBiologists,andEC-Naturehasidentifiedthemarineareasthatshouldbe includedwithinMPAs. UndertheaegisofIUCNandFNNPE,aregional seminarwasheldontheestablishment,protectionandeffectivemanagementof coastalandmarineprotectedareasintheBalticSeaRegion(Nykoping,Sweden, 7-11June1993).

AtitsministerialmeetinginMarch1994,HELCOMrecommendedthat contractingpartiestotheHelsinkiConventionestablishasafirststepthe62 mostimportantsitesthathadbeen proposedbyEC-Natureanddevelopedat theNykopingseminar.Theyalsoagreedmeasurestoprotectthecoastalstrip,at least100-300mwide,innon-urbanareas.

ACTION

5.3.1 Establish,protectandmanageasystemofmarineprotected areasintheBaltic.

Recommendation.EachofthenineBalticStatesshouldimplementthe decisionsof theHELCOMministerialmeeting.Inparticular,eachshould establishatimetableforimplementationandsetupamanagementsystem fortheproposedMPAs.Resourcesshouldbe providedforprotectionand management.

5.3.2 DevelopandadoptaconservationprotocoltotheHelsinki Convention.

Recommendation.ThenineBalticStatesshoulddevelopandadopta legally bindingprotocolonnatureconservationtotheHelsinkiConvention.As proposedinthedraftHELCOMWorkProgrammeonNatureConservation, therecommendationsfromEC-Natureshouldformthebasisforthis protocol.

5.3.3 Provideeconomicassistanceasneeded.

Recommendation.Westerncountries,internationalbanksandGEFshould provideeconomicassistancetoPoland,Lithuania,Latvia,EstoniaandRussia toprotect,manageandmonitorthosemarineareasidentifiedasbeingof internationalimportance.Debt-for-EnvironmentSwapsmaybepossible.

5.3.4 EstablishaParticularlySensitiveSeaAreaintheBalticSea.

Recommendation.TheInternationalMaritimeOrganization(IMO)andthe nineBalticStates,inparticularDenmark,Estonia,FinlandandSweden, shouldestablishaParticularlySensitiveSeaAreaintheBalticSea,withhelp fromIUCN,WWFandotherNGOsaswellasfromnationalagencies.

5.3.5 Boostenvironmentalawarenessintheregion. (SeealsoChapter11).

Endorsement.This planendorsestheworkofCoalitionCleanBaltic(CCB) inbuildingenvironmentalawarenessandeducationontheneedtocleanup andconservetheBalticSea.CCB,agroupof22memberorganizationsfrom allaroundtheBaltic,ispreparingtheplanforpublicawarenessand

ORPARKSF LIFE IORITY SUB-REGIONS

ProposedmarineprotectedareasintheBaltic

ORPARKSF LIFE PRIORITY SUB-REGIONS

environmentaleducationwithintheframeworkoftheHELCOMJoint ComprehensiveEnvironmentalActionPlan.TheaimoftheCCBplanisto developaconstituencyofsupporterswhonotonlyacceptthechanges proposedbutarepreparedtopayforthemthroughincreasedtaxes,higher productprices,userfees,etc.

5.4 TheNorthEastAtlantic(includingtheNorthSeaand theNorwegianSea)

ThissectioncoverstheseasaroundIceland,theUnitedKingdomandRepublic ofIreland,andthoseofftheAtlanticandNorthSeacoastsofNorway,Denmark, Germany,theNetherlands,,France,PortugalandSpain,includingthe areaaroundtheCanaries,MadeiraandAzores.

fManyo thehabitatsandwildlifepresentareofinternationalsignificance. Norwayisrenownedforitsdeepfjordsalongmuchofitscoastline.The Waddenseaisthelargestunbrokenstretchofintertidalmudflatsintheworld;an estimated80%oftheplaice,50%ofthesoleand40%oftheherringcaughtinthe NorthSeagrowupinitsshallowwaters.TheestuariesaroundBritainand Irelandareofinternationalsignificanceforwadersandwildfowl,providing winteringgroundsfor40%ofthetotalpopulationofwadingbirdsinEurope. TheAzores,MadeiraandCanarieshavearangeofmarinecommunitiesnot foundelsewhere.

All thecountriesareeitherconsideringorhavealreadyestablishedmarine protectedareas,butthesehavenotbeeneasytosetup.Stumblingblocks includethetraditionalfreedomstousethe seaandconflictswithotherinterest groupssuchasfisheries.IncontrasttotheMediterraneanandBalticSeas, describedabove,thereisnointernationallegalcommitmenttomarineprotected areas.

All thecountriesconcerned,exceptNorwayandIceland,areMemberStatesof theEuropeanUnion,whichhaspassedtheNORSPARegulation(EEC3908/91). ThisenablestheEuropeanCommissiontoprovidematchingfundingfor conservationprojectsoncoastalareasandwatersoftheNEAtlantic.From1989 to1992,theCommissioncontributed13mECUto38projects,withanoverall costabout of 39mECU.TheEUhasalsoestablishedtheBIOMARproject, whichisdevelopingamarineclassificationsystemandidentifyingcandidate sitesforprotectedareasintheNEAtlantic.

MostprotectedareasfortheNEAtlanticareoncoastalland,ratherthanat sea. TheRamsar(orWetlands)Convention(see7.3.1)hasbeenimportant an inf luence,asmanycoastalsitesqualifyforitsprotectionandsomeoftheseinclude seaareas.TheEUBirdsDirective(seeSection7.2)hasalsoprotectedmany coastalareas,andsomeextendoverthesea.Inmostofthecountries,however, nationallegislationonmarineprotectedareasisweak,oftenpermittingdes tructionofdesignatedsites,allowingexplorationandextractionofoilandgas, andpermittingdamagingcoastaldevelopmentsnearby.

Actionis neededtoimprovetheprotectionofexistingsitesandtoincrease greatlytheextentofmarineprotectedareas,inparticularthroughthedevelop mentofaninternationalcommitmenttomarineprotectedareassimilartothat fortheBalticandtheMediterranean.

At awiderlevel,asoutlinedinSection2.4,marineprotectedareaswillonly succeediftheyareestablishedandmanagedas partIntegrated of CoastalZone Management(ICZM),butmostNEAtlanticcountrieshavenotyettakenthis approach.Actionisneededhere,too.

ORPARKSF LIFE PRIORITY SUB-REGIONS

MarineprotectedareasintheNorth-EastAtlantic. WiththeexceptionofthereservesontheWaddenseacoastandthe MilieuzoneNoordzeeoftheNetherlands,nonearemorethan10,0000ha. Also,fewareawayfromthecoast.

1 Vadehavet 16 Islesf o Scilly 2 Schleswig-Holstem 17 NorthDevon 3 Hamburgisches 18 Lundy 4 Niedersachsisches 19 Skomer 5 Helgoland 20 Lough Hyne 6 Dollard 2' Sept iey 7 MilieuzoneNoordzee 72 Iroise 8 Waddensea 23 LilleaudesNiges 9 OostercscheldeBuitendijks 24 Moeze 10 Flemish Banks 25 Pres Salesd'AresLege 11 St Abbs 26 Bancd'Arguin 12 Seven Sisters 27 Berlenga 13 Purbeck 28 Costa VicenticaeSudoeste 14 Wembury 29 Dohana 15 HelfordRiver 30 AcantiladodeBarbate PARKSOR F LIFE PRIORITY SUB-REGIONS

ACTION

5.4.1Developaninternationalagreementformarineprotectedareas comparabletothosefortheMediterraneanandBalticSeas.

Recommendation.ContractingPartiesandobserverbodiestotheParis Convention(seebelow)areurgedto'consideraninstrument...toestablish asystemofspeciallyprotectedareaswithintheNorthEastAtlantic, includingtheNorthSea'(Recommendation19.91ofthe19thSessionof the IUCNGeneralAssembly,1994).Theplanrecommendsthatthisbedone throughthedevelopmentofaprotocoltothe1992ParisConvention (ConventionfortheProtectionoftheMarineEnvironmentoftheNorthEast Atlantic).ThisprotocolshouldobligePartiestosetupMarineProtected Areas.

Recommendation19.91also'callsupontheParisCommission,theOslo Commission,theEuropeanCommissionandParliament,theNorthSea MinistersConferenceandIUCNmembersintheregiontoaidandsupport thisprocess.'

5.4.2 Promoteenvironmentalmanagementofthewidermarineand coastalenvironment(seealso2.4.2).

Recommendation.ThenextNorthSeaMinisterialConference(1995)should considerIntegratedCoastalZoneManagement.TheConferenceis recommendedtocallforthepreparationofICZMprogrammesinthe countriessurroundingtheNorthSeaandsetjointtargetsandstandardsfor theseprogrammes.WWF,incollaborationwithotherNGOs,shouldpresent apaperonICZMandmarineprotectedareastotheConference.

(The valueofanEUDirectiveonIntegratedCoastalZoneManagement andapossiblecoastalconventionismentionedin2.4.2.)

5.4.3DevelopandimprovetheprovisionsoftheEUHabitatsDirective asitappliestotheNEAtlantic.

Recommendation.TheEuropeanCommissionshouldpayspecialattention tomarineissuesinmonitoringimplementationoftheHabitatsDirectiveand shouldmakeproposalsastohowtheDirectivecouldbestrengthenedon marineissues.Thisshouldincludearevisionofthemarinecomponentofthe CORINEhabitatclassificationsystemwhich,forsomemarineandcoastal habitatsintheNEAtlantic,istoobroadforthepurposesofhabitat conservation.

5.4.4ProvidestrongleadershipfromtheNGOcommunityformarine protectedareasintheNEAtlantic.

Priority Project11.Establishaprogrammeoflobbyingandtechnical assistancetopersuadegovernmentstodevelop,adoptandimplementthe protectedareasprotocol(5.4.1),followingmodelsinotherpartsoftheworld. LeadAgency:WWF,whohaveobserverstatusatthemeetingsofthe Convention,workingwithBirdLifeInternationalandotherNGOs,suchas theMarineConservationSociety(UK),andincollaborationwithIUCN.

PARKSOR F LIFE NEEDSF O COUNTRIES

THE NEEDSOFCOUNTRIES

Under theprincipleofsubsidiarity,actionshouldbetakenatthelowestpossible administrativelevel.However,eveniftheactionistakenatnationalsub- or nationallevel,ifitsafeguardsavitalpieceofEurope'snaturalinfrastructureit willbeofEuropeanimportance.ConservingacoastalwetlandinsouthernSpain mayprotectavitalpartoftheinternationalflywayforpalaearcticmigratory birds.Conservinga forestinthemountainsofBulgariamaysafeguardmany rareendemicplantspecies—speciesinternationallyacknowledgedas ofEuro CHAPTER6 peanimportance.Conversely,iftheseactionsarenottaken,itletsdownEurope asawhole.

All countriesinEuropehavedifficultiestoalesserorgreaterextentinestab lishingandmanagingprotectedareas.Thissectionfocusesoncountriesina rangeofsituationswhereaspecialeffortisrequiredtostrengthenprotectedarea coverageand/ormanagement.

Insomecases,internationalcooperationmayhelpachievethe actionsneeded. Thiscouldbeinformaladvicefromcolleaguesinanothercountry,itcouldbe officialbilateralaid,oritcouldbemultilateralsupportfrominternationalbodies liketheEuropeanCommissionortheEuropeanBankforReconstructionand Development(EBRD).Itcouldvaryinextentfromtheofferofaplaceona trainingcoursetoatwinningprogrammebetweentwonationalparkstoamajor programmeof multilateralaid.Theactionsoutlinedbelowshouldincludethe internationalhelpthatmaybeneeded.

6.1 Countriesingreateconomicandsocialdifficulties

SeveralcountriesoftheformerEasternblocarefacedwithextremeeconomic andsocialdifficulties.Insuchasituation,itisdifficultforhard-pressedpolicy makerstogivenatureandlandscapeconservationthelong-termpriorityit needs.Internationalhelp,therefore,mayberequired.Thisshouldbeseenasone ofthecentralelementsofthereconstructionandsubsequentsustainable developmentof thecountriesconcerned.Boxes25and26describetheneedsof twosuchcountries,AlbaniaandRomania.

The DanubeDeltain Romaniaisthelargest wetlandinEurope.

ORPARKSF LIFE NEEDSF O COUNTRIES

nBoxE Albania

Three quartersofAlbaniaismountainous,leadingtoarichdiversityofflora andfauna;Albania'swetlandsareinternationallysignificantbirdsites.

Thereare35protectedareascovering31,662ha(1.1%ofthecountry).These include6nationalparksinCategoryII(9,339ha),21natureconservationand seasonalhuntingreservesinCategoryIV(17,286ha)and2Specially ProtectedAreas.NationalParksareundertheGeneralDirectorateofForestry, partoftheMinistryofAgricultureandFood.

TheCommitteeforProtectionandPreservationoftheEnvironmentof Albania,agovernmentbody,haspreparedaplantodeclareabout5%of Albaniaasprotectedareas.Thisincludesenlargingsixnationalparksand addingabouteightnewones.

All protectedareasareStateproperty.Duetoeconomiccircumstances,they areinadequatelyfundedandunder-staffed;somesiteshavealsosuffered fromagriculturalencroachmentanddeforestation.Allwetlandsandforests are Stateproperty,butarenotyetadequatelymanagedduetolackof resources.Thereisnowanaddedconcernattheinfluxofforeignfirmseager tobuildtouristicdevelopments.

SofarAlbaniahasreceivedlittlehelpfromothercountriesforwildlife conservationandprotectedareas.InthepastAlbania'sconservationefforts havebeenhinderedbythefactthatitwasnotaPartytotheconservation conventions,butitisnowinthefinalstagesofjoiningtheBernandRamsar ConventionsandtheConventiononBiologicalDiversity.

Albanianeedsfundsandexpertisetohelpdevelopitsambitiousprotected areasplan.Inparticularthefollowingactionsareneeded:

a)Implementationofmanagementplansforindividualprotectedareas.So fartheseplansonlyexistonpaper.

b) Improvedtrainingforstaffandfuturemanagers.Nationalandlocal trainingprogrammesarerequired,asisgoodliterature.

c) Strengtheningoftheprotectedareaauthorities.Fundsareneededtohelp enforcelegislationandcompensatethoseadverselyaffected,particularly ifagriculturaldrainageprogrammesarehaltedorreversed.Additional helpmayberequiredtohelpcontroltourismpromotedbyoutside investors.

d) Extensionoftheprotectedareasystem,asoutlinedintheplanofthe CommitteeforProtectionandPreservationoftheEnvironmentofAlbania.

e)Developmentofpublicsupport.isvital, Thisespeciallyasdemandfor landandotherresourcesgrows,andaseconomiccircumstancesmake protectionofnaturalareasdifficult.Forthisreasonconservationwork shouldinclude:

■ Ecodevelopment,includingplantationandagriculturalprojects,to improvethewell-beingoflocalcommunitieswhilereducingdemands onresourceswithinprotectedareas;

■ Educationprogrammesinschoolsandforothergroupsinsociety, includingfishermenandtourists,forexampletohelpreduce disturbancetosensitivebirdareas;

f) AssistanceinthedevelopmentoftheemergingconservationNGOs—the ProtectionandPreservationofNaturalEnvironmentAssociation(PPNEA, createdin1992),theAlbanianSocietyfortheProtectionofBirdsand Mammals(ASPBM),andtheSocietyofBiologistsofAlbania.

ORPARKSF LIFE NEEDSF O COUNTRIES

Romania Box

TheNationalNetworkofNaturalProtectedAreas(NNPA)contains534sites inIUCNcategoriesI toV,representing4.8%ofthelandsurface.Someofthe sitesareincludedasbiospherereservesintheUNESCO/MABProgramme. TheDanubeDeltaBiosphereReserveisalsolistedundertheRamsar ConventionandhalfitsareaisaWorldHeritageSite.

The statusofformerNationalParkshasbeenscientificallyassessedinthe lasttwoyears.Asaresult,sixsiteswillbemaintainedas NationalParks (categoryII)andfiveasbiospherereserves.Theareashavebeenclassifiedas follows:botanical—122sites;zoological—15sites;geological—65sites; speleological—58sites;palaeontological—52sites;forests—51sites; landscape—8sites;andmixed—151sites.

In accordancewithLaw18/1991,allprotectedareasaremanagedaspublic land.However,a specificlawandappropriateinfrastructureformanagement oftheprotectedareasarestilllacking.Theonlyprotectedareaforwhich infrastructureexistsandamanagementplanisbeingpreparedistheDanube DeltaBiosphereReserve.Also,likeothersectors,protectedareasareaffected bytheuncertaintiessurroundingthecomplexrestructuringofRomanian society.

RomaniahasratifiedtheBern,theRamsarandtheWorldHeritageConven tions,andtheConventiononBiologicalDiversityisinprocessofbeing ratified.

Thefollowingactionsareneededtoreinforcecurrentefforts: a) Developmentofnationalstrategiesforconservationofbiodiversityand naturalhabitats; b) Developmentofaspecificlawonthedevelopmentandmanagementof thenetworkofprotectedareas; c) AnewappraisalofNPPAtakingaccountofitspresentstatusand scientificneeds; d)EnlargementofNNPAusingtheresultsaRomanian of projecton Ecoregions,byincludingthemostrepresentativeandmostvulnerable ecosystems,suchaswetlandsandsand-dunes; e) Trainingofstaffinthedevelopmentandimplementationof managementplansforthevarioustypesofprotectedareas; f) Buildinggreaterpublicawarenessofthevalueofprotectedareas; g) Ratificationtheconservation of conventionsnotyetratifiedand implementationofthosethathave; h)n A inventoryofbiodiversityandbiologicalresources; i) AssistanceinthedevelopmentofNGOs,suchasEarthKindRomania andtheRomanianSocietyforOrnithology.

ORPARKSF LIFE NEEDSF O COUNTRIES

6.2 Countriessufferingfromarmedconflict

InternationalhelpwillbeneededforthedamagedprotectedareasinBosnia- Herzegovina,Croatiaandotherpartsformer of Yugoslaviaaftertheconflicthas finished.

Prioritiesforinternationalhelpare:

■ Strengtheningprotectedareainstitutions;

■ Trainingofconservationspecialistsandprotectedareastaff;

■ Provisionoffundsandequipment.

InCroatia,landredistributionisalsoapotentiallyseriousproblemforthe protectedareas,actiononwhichiscoveredinSection5.1.

6.3 Countrieswherepoliticalsupportneedsreinforcement

Invirtuallyeverycountry,morepoliticalsupportforprotectedareasisneeded. Thereareseveralcountrieswherethisneedisparticularlystrongandurgent. ExamplesincludemanyofthecountriesofsouthernEurope,inparticular PortugalandGreeceandtosomeextentItaly.Forhistoricalandsocio-economic reasons,thesecountrieshaveattimesbeenreluctanttoapplythelawsand regulationsonprotectedareas.

For example,illegalcultivationorconstructionofresorthouseswithineventhe coreofprotectedareashasbeentoleratedinpartsofSouthernEurope.Itoccurs inmostGreekcoastalwetlands,includingRamsarsites.

Twofactorsinparticularcouldchangethissituation:

a) Increasedawareness publicofthevalueofprotectedareasandconsequent voterpressureongovernmentsforconservationofnature.TheroleofNGOs isveryimportanthere,especiallywhenitcanincludelegalaction.

Filfla Islet,oneof Malta'sprotected areasandan importantsitefor breedingseabirds

PARKSOR F LIFE MEEDSF O COUNTRIES

Greece Box

GreeceisoneoftherichestcountriesinEuropeforbiodiversity,the for numberbothofspeciesandofhabitattypes.

The legislationprovidesfortheestablishmentofvarioustypesofprotected areas,but theprotectedareasystemisnotyetwellestablishedanddoesnot includemanyimportantconservationsites.

Sofarthereare65protectedareas,covering390,000ha(2.9%ofthe country).Theyinclude10NationalParks,19AestheticForests,15Protected NaturalMonuments,7GameReserves,2MarineParks,11Internationally ImportantWetlands(oneofwhichisalsoaNationalPark)and2World HeritageSites.TwentysixoftheseareashavealsobeenclassifiedasSpecial ProtectionAreas undertheEUBirdsDirective.Therearealso2biosphere reserves.

The protectedareasareinadequatelystaffed,oftenonlywithpart-timestaff, whohaveinadequateresourcestolookafterthesites.Theprotectedareasdo nothavetheirownadministrationsareunderlocal butforestofficers.The wholeprotectedareasystemsuffersfromorganizationalandinstitutional difficulties,anda lackofcoordinationbetweengovernmentdepartments. Thereislittleefforttoinformandeducatethepubliconprotectedareaissues andinmanycaseslocalpeoplearesuspiciousofthemanagingauthorities.In shortmanagementandadministrationofprotectedareasinGreeceare belowacceptedinternationalstandards.

The followingactionsareneeded,toimprovetheplanningandmanagement ofprotectedareas,toextendtheircoverage,andtointegratetheminto regionalplanningandeconomicdevelopment: a) ANationalConservationStrategy,toprovidethebasisforstrengthening governmentcapacityonnatureconservation,inparticularonprotected areamanagement.Thereshouldbe:

) AServiceorAgencyinthecentraladministrationwithexclusive responsibilityforprotectedareas; i) Specialagenciesatthelocallevel,withresponsibilityforeach nationalparkandotherimportantprotectedareas; ii)RecruitmentofaDirectorforeachnationalparkandasystematic programmetoprovidequalifiedstaffforallparksandother protectedareas; iv)ThecreationofaWardenorRangerService; b) PreparationandadoptionofManagementPlansforallprotectedareas, withemphasisonzoning; c) Anationalprogrammeof trainingforprotectedareastaff,withshort coursesforallstaffand2-3monthcoursesformanagers; d)Promotionofpublicawarenessandunderstanding,toshowthe importanceoftheprotectedareasandtheirpotentialtoprovidesocio economicaswellasconservationbenefits; e)Areviewandreinforcementoftheexistingprotectedarealegislation; f) Expansionofcertainparks(e.g.Olympos,Vikos-Aoos,Pindos,Samaria) andadditionofnewones(e.g.Grammos),inparticulargivingmore attentiontomarineecosystems,coastalwetlandsandestuaries. g)MorecarefulallocationandmonitoringofEUStructuralandCohesion Fundstoavoiddamagetothenaturalheritage,especiallytoexistingand proposedprotectedareas.

ORPARKSF LIFE NEEDSF O COUNTRIES

DBoxE Malta

Malta consistsofseveralislandsof322sq.kminall,situatedinthemiddleof theMediterraneanSea.Itisoneofthemostdenselypopulatedareasinthe world,butinspiteits ofsmallsize,hasavarietyofhabitatsandadiverse floraandfauna.

Therearethreesmallnaturereserves:FiIfIaislet,StPaul'sIslandsand FungusRock.Therearealso28birdsanctuaries,includingthewholeofthe islandComino, of butthesealsoincludepublicgardens,cemeteries,sports groundsandtheairport.TwositesarelistedasSpeciallyProtectedAreas undertheBarcelonaConvention(amountingto2ha)andGhadiraWetland Reserve(11ha)isaRamsarsite.Altogether,theprotectedareascoverless than1%oftheislands.

Illegal huntingtakesplaceinsomeoftheprotectedareas.Maltahasover60 hunterspersq.km,whichisthehighestdensityofhuntersintheworld. (However,anewlawwhichcameintoforceinJanuary1994introduceda longer closedseasonandsomeprogressinitsimplementationhasbeen made.)Equallyseriousistheintensityoflanduseandthepressureof development,whichleaveslittleroomfornature.

Protectedareascanonlysucceediftheyareanintegralpartofacommitted environmentalpolicy.InMalta,thetwogreatestneedsareincreasedpublic awarenessaboutconservationoftheenvironmentandareductioninthe huntingpressureonwildbirds.Moreandbetterprotectedareasarealso needed—smallonesonlandandlargeonesatsea.

b)Responsibilitiesarisingfrominternationalconventionsandother agreements.ForEUMemberStates,thisincludesEUstatutes;Governments shouldinsistontheeffectiveimplementationoftheselegalundertakings throughouttheEuropeanUnion.

The caseofthreecountrieswherepoliticalsupportneedsstrengthening— Greece,MaltaandPortugal—isexploredinboxes27,28and29.

6.4 Countrieswheredecentralizationcreatesproblems

Insomecountriesstepsneedtobetakentoreinforcecooperationbetween national,provincialandlocalauthoritiesresponsiblefororwithmandates affectingprotectedareas.

Many countriesinEuropehavedecentralizedadministrationsandthereisa growingtrendtowardsdecentralization.Countriesthathavedelegatedmajor responsibilitiestotheirprovinces,cantons,landerandautonomousregions includeAustria,Germany,Italy,SpainandSwitzerland.OthersliketheUKhave decentralizedtheirgovernmentconservationservices.

Decentralizationbringsmanybenefits—administrationthatissensitiveto people'sneeds,andagreaterabilitytodevelopcreativesolutionstoindividual sites,forexample.ThesebenefitshaveprovedparticularlystronginSpainand somepartsofItaly.Butdecentralizationalsobringsdangersofinaction,of excessivepressurefrompowerfullocalinterestgroups,andof theneglectof nationalandinternationalresponsibilities.Forexample,inAustria,some conservationistscontendthatdecentralizationofnatureconservationtothe landermakestheestablishment,protectionandmanagementofnationalparks, especiallythoseinmorethanoneland,verydifficult,andpointtothelackof nationalarrangementsinfieldssuchastraining.

PARKSOR F LIFE NEEDSF O COUNTRIES

Portugal Box

In Portugal,thedifficulteconomiccircumstanceshavemeantthatthe resourcesavailableforconservationofnaturearefarfromsufficient.Also, theenvironmentisaccordedalowstatusingovernmentpriorities.Asa result,theprotectedareasdonotreceivethesupportandresourcesthey need.

NeverthelessPortugalhasdeclared510,663ha(5.7%ofitscontinental territory)asprotectedareasinIUCNCategoriesI toV.Theresponsible agency,theInstituteofNatureConservation,hasmademuchrecentprogress inimprovingmanagement,suchasthroughthedemolitionofillegalholiday homesinRiaoFormosa,Arrabidaandotherprotectedareas,butlacksthe resourcestoprotecttheparksandreserveseffectively.

Particularactionsneededinclude: a)Strengtheningofprotectedareamanagementandpreparationof managementplansforallprotectedareas.Theprotectedareasareunder pressure,inparticularfromcampers,motorsport,invasiveintroduced species,forestfiresand,onthecoast,touristicdevelopments.Managers lackthefundsandthestafftohandlethesepressures,tocompensate land-ownersandtoimprovetheecologicalstatusoftheprotectedareas. Moreresourcesformonitoringofspecies, habitatsandlandscapesare alsoneeded. b)Improvementofstafftraining.Someexternalexpertisemaybeneededto complementtrainerswithinthecountryindevelopingeffective an nationalprogrammeoftraining. c) MoreEUresourcesforconservationofnatureandmorecarefuluseofEU structuralfunds.OneofthebesthopesforPortugueseprotectedareasis theuseofEUfundsfortheimplementationoftheBirdsandHabitats Directives;thesefundsshouldbeincreased,notonlyforPortugal.Inthe useofallEUfundsinPortugal,(i)morerigorousattentionshouldpaid be toavoidenvironmentaldamage,inparticulartoprotectedareas,and(ii) moredirectsupport shouldgiventoneighbouring be protectedareasas partofdevelopmentprojects. d) Creationofadditionalprotectedareasandenlargementofsomeexisting ones.InJanuary1993,newlegislationwaspassedwhichpermitsbodies otherthancentralGovernmentto setupprotectedareasforsitesof ecologicalinterest.ArecentCORINEstudyhasidentifiedsitesofspecial importancetonatureconservationinmainlandPortugal,Azoresand Madeira. Previouslegislationforpotentialprotectedareasshouldbe broughtforward.Creationofmarineprotectedareasisapriority. e) Developmentofpublicsupportforprotectedareas.Theeffectivework donebytheInstituteofNatureConservationonyoutheducationshould beextendedtootherkeygroupsinsociety,suchasthemilitary,the judiciary,the teachers,theindustrialistsandstaffofotherMinistries,such astransport,tourismandindustry.Asystemofconservationvolunteersis particularlyneededtohelp withfieldworkandpracticalmanagement. TheUniversities,too,shoulddomoretohelpprotectedareas.

(SeealsoBox19,ontheAtlanticIslands.)

ORPARKSF LIFE NEEDSF O COUNTRIES

To avoidthesedangers,actionisneededinthedecentralizedsystemsofthe countriesnotedabovetoensurethat:

The administrationsofthedecentralizedunitshaveadequatestafftrainedin nature conservationandmanagementofprotectedareas;

Nationallawdefinestheoverallpolicyframeworkfornatureconservation withinwhichthedecentralizedadministrationsmustwork;

Regardlessofadministrativearrangements,theremustbeasystemto guaranteetheprotectionofsitesofnationalandinternationalimportance;

Theres i asystemofmonitoringandassessmentatnationallevel,carriedout inpartnershipwiththedecentralizedadministrations.

6.5 Countriesneedinganimprovedcoverageofprotected areas

There aregapsintheprotectedareacoverageinmost,ifnotallcountries.But somecountrieswithrelativelystrongeconomicsystemshavefurthertogothan othersinputtingintoplaceaneffectiveprotectedareassystemwithan appropriaterangeofdifferenttypesofprotectedareas.Particularexamples includeIreland(box30)andandScotland(UnitedKingdom)(box31).

■o.f.

TheCairngormsinScotlandisoneofthefewnaturalareasremaininginBritainandhasbeen identifiedasinneedofbetterprotectionstatus(seepage86).

PARKSOR F LIFE NEEDSF O COUNTRIES

Ireland BoxHi

In comparisonwithotherEuropeancountries,Ireland'sprotectedareasystem issmall.Only6sitesqualifyfortheUNListtotalling29,474ha,0.4percentof thecountry(thoughsoontoincreasetoover40,000ha;smallnature reserves amounttoanotherc.14,000ha.)Irelandhasfivesmallnationalparks (CategoryII),averysmalltotalextentofnaturereserves(CategoryIV)andno protectedlandscapes(CategoryV).Althoughmuchprogresshasbeenmade recently,thefollowingisneeded: a) Establishmentofprotectedlandscapes,including:

■ Newlegislationtoprovidenationalpowersinadditiontotheexisting powersoflocalauthorities; ■ Areviewoflandscapesofhighscenicandenvironmentalqualityto selectthoseforprotection,withemphasisonbufferzonesaround nationalparksandreserves; ■ Developmentofmechanismsforprotectionthatencouragelocal communitiestodevelopinenvironmentallysensitiveways,ratherthan throughnegativedevelopmentcontrols.

b)Creationofmarineprotectedareas.SofarIrelandonlyhasonesmall marinenaturereserveandafewmaritimereserves(seealsoSection5.4). c) Creationandextensionofnationalparks,especiallytoincorporatethe renownedRoundstoneblanketboginConnemaraNP,andtocompletethe acquisitionoftheBurrenNPandWicklowMountainsNP. d) Naturemanagementinnationalparks.Thenaturalfeaturesandbiological diversityofsomeofIreland'sbestnaturalareashavebeenmaintained andenhancedbylow-intensitycattle-grazingandothertraditionalfarming practices.Thisshouldreflected be inprotectedareapolicyand management. e)Creationandextensionofnaturereserves,state-ownedorotherwise,to increasethecoverageofmanyhabitats.OnepriorityisMidlandraised bogsthreatenedbypeatextraction. f) Protectedarealegislation.Otherthanfornaturereserves,thereisno legislativeprovisionforprotectedareassuchasnationalparksand protectedlandscapes.Previouspoliticalcommitmentstointroducesuch legislationshouldberealized,withinternationalsupportifappropriate.

g) MorepriorityfornatureconservationinthereformoftheEUCommon Agricultural(CAP). PolicyInparticularfarmersshouldqualifyfor paymentstomanagenaturalareasforconservationpurposesontheir land.Thistrend,whichshouldreceiveinternationalsupport,willinvolve ruralcommunitiesinpositiveconservationeffortandwillsafeguardareas whichmayreceivemoreformalprotectioninthefuture.

h)Fundingtoacquireparksandreserves.Fundingforlandacquisitionhas beensporadic.SomeinternationalsupporttoimplementtheEUHabitats Directiveisavailable,butfundsareneededtopurchasealltypesof habitatsatrisk,notjustthoseoftopEuropeanpriority.

ni) A increaseoffundsandstaffforprotectedareasmanagementtomatch growthinthesystem.Internationalorganizationscouldhelptojustifythis.

j) Increasedstaffresourcesforpublicconsultationandcommunity involvementinthedevelopmentandmanagementofprotectedareas. Suchpracticeisverybeneficial,butiscostlyofstafftime.

ORPARKSF LIFE NEEDSF O COUNTRIES

Box Rfl Scotland

Most publicissuesinScotlandarehandled throughtheScottishOfficeaspartof theUKGovernment.ScottishNaturalHeritage(SNH)hasbeenthestatutory authorityforbothlandscapeandnatureconservationsince1992.

TheprincipalinstrumentsfornatureconservationareSitesofSpecialScientific Interest(SSSI)andNationalNatureReserves(NNR).Thereare1359SSSI(10.6% ofScotland);71 ofthem(1.5%ofScotland)areNNRs,ofwhich27fulfiltheIUCN sizecriterionasCategoryIVprotectedareas.

To protectoutstandinglandscapes,thereare40NationalScenicAreas (NSA) covering12.6%ofScotland.NSAahavebeencriticizedforbeingneitherwidely understoodnorwhollyeffective.

ThehabitatsandlandscapesofScotlandareman-modifiedandsoIUCN categoriesIVandVaregenerallymostappropriate.However,thereisconcern thatexistingplanningandmanagementofmanyofbothtypesofareasareinade quate.Localauthorityboundariesoftendissectcriticalareasandthis,coupled withthesectoralpoliciesofgovernmentbodies,canleadtoafragmentedand uncoordinatedapproach.

TherearenonationalparksinScotland,despitepressuretocreatethemover manyyears.TheWorldConservationStrategy(1980)identifiestheScottish Highlandsasapriorityareainwhichprotectionbynationalparkorequivalent reservestatusisinadequate.

A 1990reportbytheformerCountrysideCommissionforScotland(CCS), preparedattherequestoftheScottishOfficeEnvironmentMinister, recommendedtheestablishmentoffournationalparks,eachwithzoningsimilar tosomeEuropeanparks,andwithindependentplanningandmanagement authorities.DespiteIUCNsupportandaScottishOfficeopinionpollindicating 90%publicsupportfornationalparks,theSecretaryofStatedecidednotto proceed,butdidnotruleoutnationalparksinthefuture.

Instead,legislationin1991providedpowerstocreateanewdesignationcalled NaturalHeritageAreas.Thesewillbeareasofoutstandingnatureandlandscape characterrequiringspecialprotection.Theconceptreliesonmostoftheaffected partiesagreeinganintegratedmanagementstrategybeforedesignation.The SecretaryofStatewouldthenexpectpublicbodiestofacilitateimplementation. Thisrelianceonthevoluntaryprinciple,operatingwithinexistingadministrative andfinancialmechanisms,isseenmany by responsiblebodiesandindividualsas lessthanadequate,particularlyforareasofnationalandinternationalimportance.

ThevoluntaryprinciplewasreiteratedinMarch1993a bygovernment-sponsored workingpartyonthefuturemanagementoftheCairngorms,anareawhichthe ScottishOfficehastentativelyproposedforlistingasaWorldHeritageSite.

The issueofthemanagementofScotland'smostvaluablenaturalareashasbeen debatedfortoolong.Actionisnowurgentlyneededto:

a) Formallyidentifytheareasmostinneedofgreaterprotection.Those proposedfornationalparkstatusinthe1990CCSreportshouldhavefirst priority:theCairngorms,LochLomondATrossachs,BenNevis/GlenCoe/Black Mount,and WesterRoss.Othersshouldfollow.

b)Developthecurrent NaturalHeritageArea(NHA)concepttoallowforabroad rangeofadministrativemechanisms,includingasnecessarystrengthening existinglegislationtoprovideadequatepowersandresources.

Should theNHAconcept,and/orthevoluntaryprinciple,beconsidered inappropriate,analternativemechanismwillbeneededforareasofnationaland internationalimportance,totreateachareaasanindependententityplanning for andmanagement;alongwithappropriateback-uppowerstoensureeffective protectionofotherprotectedareas.

ORPARKSF LIFE THE LEGALFRAMEWORK

PARTIII

STRENGTHENINGTHEPLANNINGAND MANAGEMENTOFEUROPE'SPROTECTED AREAS

ThisPartof thePlanaddressesthemanagementofprotectedareas.Thefirst requirementisaneffectivelegalframework,underwhichtheprotectedareas canestablished be andmanaged.NextChapter8tacklesthemainmanagement issues.Chapter9outlinesvitalneedsfortrainingandChapter10thosefor monitoringandinformation.

THELEGALFRAMEWORK

Toomanyprotectedareasfailtofulfiltheirobjectivesbecausetheylackasecure legalframework.

Each countryshouldhaveaneffectiveprotectedareaslaw,whichshouldbe derivedfroman agreedsetofpoliciesonprotectedareas.Thelawshouldgive managementobjectivesforeachtypeofprotectedareaandprovideforthe institutionsthatwillaccomplishthoseobjectives.Itshouldbepartoftheoverall frameworkofenvironmentallawinthe country.

The priorityisnational(andsub-national)law,coveredin7.1below.Lawat nationalandsub-nationallevelcan bebuttressedbyinternationalagreements onnatureconservationandprotectedareas.InEuropetheseare oftwotypes: Statutesof theEuropeanUnion(Section7.2);andinternationaltreaties,of global (7.3)andEuropean(7.4)scope.Allcontributetothelegalframework.

7.1 Improvingnationallaw

Thefirstneedistoensurethatthebasiclawallowingtheestablishmentof protectedareasisadequate.Inmanycountriesthisisnotyet thecase.

Thesecondrequirementistotakeadvantageofanewapproachforconserving habitatswherebycertainhabitattypes,knowntoberareandimportantfor biodiversity,areprotectedbylawwherevertheyoccur.Thebestexampleofthis isDenmark,whichprotectssaltmarshes,dunesandlakesinthisway.The landownerneedspermissionfromtheGovernment,conservationserviceor localauthorityforanyactionthatwoulddamagethenatureconservation interestofthesite.Compensationisnotusuallypaidforprofitsforegone,but grantmaybe givenformanagement.Thissystemhasmanyadvantages—ease ofadministration,fairnessandeffectiveprotection.Itshouldbemorewidely usedinEurope(Action7.1.2).

ACTION

7.1.1 Provideeffectivenationallawsonprotectedareas.

Recommendation.TheGovernmentofeachcountry,andifwithintheir legal competenceeachsub-nationalGovernment,shouldprovideaneffectivelaw forprotectedareasthatisadaptedtonationalcircumstances. (SeeBox32).

PARKSOR F LIFE THE LEGALFRAMEWORK

MBoxK Keyissuesthatshouldbeaddressedinprotectedarea legislation

1. AStatementonPolicy.Thenation'scommitmenttoconservationofits biologicalandlandscapediversitythroughcreationofasystemof protectedareas.

2. SelectionandEstablishmentProcedures.Inparticularto:

■ EstablishprotectedareasinarangeoftheIUCNcategories(seebox1), withcriteriaandobjectivesforeachcategory; ■ Encouragetheuseofthesecategoriesincombinationtoallowfor zoning(e.g.anaturereservewithinaprotectedlandscape); ■ Permitonlythehighestlegislativeauthoritytode-gazetteprotected areasoramendtheprotectedarealaw.

3. Protectedareasinawidercontext.Protectedareasshouldintegrated be intotheland-useplanningprocessandgivenaspecialstatusinregional plans.Allstatutoryagenciesshouldberequiredtocoordinatetheir activitieswithinprotectedareas.

4. Legalpowersandresponsibilities.Thelegislationshouldprovidegeneral operatingrulesandprohibitionsforeachcategoryofprotectedarea. Theseshouldincludeprovisionsfordelineationofboundariesandfor controlofharmfulactivitiesoutsidetheprotectedarea.

5 Protectedareaagencyanddecentralization.Thelegislationshould:

■ Providefortheestablishmentorappointmentofanagencytohave responsibilityforprotectedareas; ■ Permitthatagencytoacquireland,conclude to management agreementswithlandownersandoccupiers,etc; ■ Encouragedecentralizationof specificauthorityandresponsibility to localmanageriallevel; ■ Requireanindividualtobe appointedwithoverallresponsibilityfor eachprotectedarea,andprovideforadequatestaffing.

6 Publicparticipation.Legalandadministrativearrangementsshould (a)givelocalcommunitiestherighttobeinvolvedinthemanagement ofallpublicprotectedareaswithintheirgeographicarea;(b)specify rightsofpublicoruserinvolvement,includingrights thelocal of authorities,localbusinesses,scientificinstitutionsandconservation NGOs;(c)givelocalauthoritiesthepowertoestablishlocalnature reserves.

7. ManagementandZoningPlans.Amanagementplanshould be prepared andadoptedforeachprotectedarea.Managementbodiesshouldhave thepowertodividetheprotectedareaintozones,withpowerstolimitor prohibitcertainactivitiesonazone-by-zonebasis.Managementand zoningplansshouldperiodically be reviewedandupdated.

8. Incentives,compensationandfinancialarrangements.Management bodiesshouldempowered be tomakegrants(andrequiredtobenotified ofgrantsbyotherbodiesrelevanttotheirpurpose),andtoprovide economicincentivesforlocalpeople.Theyshouldpaycompensationfor lossoflanduserightsorlossofincomeduetotheprotectedarea.

9. Monitoring,researchandeducation.Thelegislationshouldprovidefor surveying,monitoringandresearchtoassistinmanagement.The educationalcomponentofmanagingaprotectedareashouldbe recognized,bothtomakethoseaffectedawareoftheirrightsand responsibilities,andalsoforprotectedareastobeusedforenvironmental educationprogrammestothewiderpublic.

PARKSOR F LIFE THE LEGALFRAMEWORK

PriorityProject12.Provideanenvironmentallawsupportservicethat would:

a)Reviewtheeffectivenessofnationalandsub-nationalprotectedarea laws,soastoidentifygapsanddeficiencies;

b) Developadetailedsetofguidelinesonthecontentsofprotectedarea legislation;

c) ProvideexperthelponrequesttoStatesandProvincesinpreparingor amendinglegalinstruments,atbothconceptanddraftinglevel;

d)Promotehabitatprotectionlaws,asoutlinedin7.1.2.

LeadAgency:IUCNand/orpartners.

7.1.2Encouragewideruseoflawsthatprotectspecifiedhabitats.

Endorsement.Theplanendorsesthehabitatprotectionmodel,as exemplifiedbyDenmark,wherealloccurrencesofspecifiedhabitattypesare protectedirrespectiveofland-ownership.Othercountriesshouldconsider followingthisapproach.Itisalsobettertoofferlandownersfinancial incentivesforpositiveconservationmanagementratherthanopen-ended compensationfornotionalprofitsforegone.

Primarytemperateforest,BialowiezaNationalPark,Poland

PARKSOB F LIFE THE LEGALFRAMEWORK

7.2 DevelopingNatura2000throughimplementationof theBirdsDirectiveandtheHabitatsDirective(EU MemberStates)

Forthe12countriesoftheEuropeanUnion,soontobeenlarged,thekey strategicdecisionsonnatureconservationarenowtakenattheEuropeanUnion levelratherthanatnationallevel.

Thewo tEUDirectivescoveredin thisSectionprovideaframeworkforthe greaterpartoftheMemberStates'policiesonnatureconservationandare the mostsignificantinternationalcommitmentsthesecountrieshavemadeon natureconservation:theyaddressawiderangeofissues;theycontainconcrete obligations,inparticulartoestablishacoherentnetworkofprotectedareas;and, aswithallEUlegalinstruments(seebox33),theirimplementationincludesa firm'carrotandstick'approachthatnointernationalconventioncanmatch. ThesetwoDirectivessettheminimumstandardsforbiodiversityconservation adoptedbytheMemberStatesandarevital a partoftheEU'sFifthEnviron mentalActionProgramme.

Furthermore,undertheTreatyofRome(Article130r),asamendedbytheSingle EuropeanActandlaterbytheMaastrichtTreaty,EUmeasuresonthe environmentmustbeintegratedintootherEUpolicies;thismeansthatallEU policiesandinstrumentsmust complywiththeEU'senvironmentalstatutes, includingthetwoDirectivescoveredhere.

The DirectiveontheConservationofWildBirds(79/409/EEC),usually knownas theBirdsDirective,cameintoforcein1981andallitsprovisionsare nowinplace.Statesarerequired,amongotherthings,todesignateSpecial ProtectionAreas(SPAs)sufficientinnumberandareatoensurethefavourable conservationstatus175 ofparticularlyvulnerablebirdspeciesandsubspecies, andtotakesimilarmeasuresforothermigratoryspecieswithspecialreference towetlands.Todate,1,109sites,coveringover65,000sqkm,have been classifiedasSPAs.

E£1Whats i anEUDirective?

The EuropeanUnion(EU),formerlyknownastheEuropeanCommunity,is theonly supranationallaw-makingbodyintheworldandtheonlyregional bodytowhichnationstateshavesurrenderedsignificantelementsoftheir sovereignty.TheEUhasagreedover200statutesontheenvironment.

UAn EDirectiveisalawoftheEuropeanUnion,addressedtoMemberStates. Itoutlinesparticularobjectivesthatmustbeachievedwithinagiventime,but leavesittoMemberStatestodecidehowthisbedone.Directivesare adoptedbytheCouncilofMinisters,whichconsistsofrepresentativesofthe GovernmentsofeachMemberState,usuallyatministeriallevel.

Unliken a internationaltreaty,however,thereisboth'carrot'and'stick'to encouragecompliance:theEuropeanUnionmaymakegrantsavailablefrom UnionfundsforMemberStatestoimplementDirectives,inthecaseofthe twoDirectivescoveredhereamountingtosometensofmillionsofECUsa year.Ontheotherhand,ifaMemberStatedoesnotimplementaDirective, theEuropeanCommissioncantakethatStatetotheEuropeanCourtof Justice.ThusEUDirectiveshavegreatadvantagesoverinternationaltreaties ontheenvironmentandrepresentagenuinetransferofpolicy-makingfrom nationaltoEuropeanlevel.

ORPARKSF LIFE THE LEGALFRAMEWORK

As Table3shows,thereisalargevariationbetweenMemberStates.Only BelgiumandDenmarkhavelargelycompliedwiththeirobligationstoclassify SPAs.AlthoughmanySPAshavebeenclassified,appropriatestepshavenot alwaysbeentakentoprotectthesitesandtheirbirdinhabitants.Thereareeven caseswheredesignatedSPAsarethreatenedbyinfrastructuredevelopment, otherbuilding,farming,forestry,pollutionorrecreationalactivities.

TheDirectiveontheConservationofNaturalHabitatsandofWildFaunaand Flora(92/43/EEC),usuallyknownas theHabitatsDirective,wasadoptedin 1992,withatimetableforimplementationasoutlinedinbox34.Aprincipalaim istomaintainorrestorenaturalhabitatsandspeciesofEuropeaninterestata favourableconservationstatus,throughthedesignationofSpecialAreasof Conservation(SACs).IndesignatingSACs,specialpriorityistobegiventoover 200habitattypesandthesitesof193animalspeciesandover300plantspecies, alllistedinAnnexestotheDirective.

TheSACsandtheSPAs(oftheBirdsDirective)willtogetherformanecological networkofsitescalledNatura2000tomaintainandrestorethelistedhabitats andspeciesatafavourableconservationstatus.Whenthe Directivesfully are implemented,followingtheprocesssummarizedinthediagramonpage92, Natura2000willbecomeaverysubstantialnetworkofthousandsofprotected areas.TheDirectivealsoencouragesMemberStatestoestablishcorridorsand otherlandscapefeaturesbetweentheprotectedareas.

KeysupportingmeasuresincludetheEnvironmentalAssessment Impact Directive(85/337),theAgri-EnvironmentRegulation(seeSection3.1)and accompanyingmeasuresofCAPreform.

Table: 3 SpecialProtectionAreasclassifiedby 31March1993

MemberState Area Nof o SPAsAreaf o SPAsAreas a % (si],km)

Belgium 30,51936 4,313 14.1 Denmark 43,093111 9601 22.3 France 549,08691 6,609 1.2 Germany2 356,949485 8,502 2.4 Greece 131,95726 1,916 1.5 Ireland 70,28320 55 0.1 Luxembourg2,586 5 7 0.3 Italy 301,28174 3,104 ].() Luxembourg2,586 5 7 0.3 Netherlands41,47810 3,029 7.3 Portugal 92,07134 3,189 3.5 Spain 504,765139 23,889 4.7 UnitedKingdom244,13969 1,878 0.8

1. Thisfigureshouldnotbereadasastraightmeasureofimplementation.Theareaofland neededtofulfiltheDirectivevariesgreatlyfromonecountrytoanother.Also,some memberstates,especiallyDenmarkandNetherlands,havedesignatedsignificantpartsof theircoastalwaters;theseareasarenotincludedin'MemberStateArea'butarein'Areaof SPAs'. 2.ThenumberofSPAsforGermanyincludes271sites(86sqkm)inBaden-Wurttemberg thathavebeenclassifiedfornatureconservationvaluesotherthantheirimportancefor birds.

ORPARKSF LIFE THE LEGALFRAMEWORK

Box AgreedtimetableforimplementationoftheHabitats Directive(slightlysimplified)

May 1992TheEuropeanUnionadoptedtheDirective.

June1994MemberStatesmusthavepassednationallegislationto implementtheDirective.

June1995MemberStatesmusthavesubmittedtheirlistofproposedSACs totheEuropeanCommission.

June 1998MemberStatesmusthaveagreedtheirlistofsitesof conservationimportance(SCIs)andtheCommissionmusthave adoptedthis.

June 2004MemberStatesmusthavecompletedthetaskofdesignatingall theirlistedSCIsasSACs.

Provide national safeguards Annex I species ► BIRDS Nationallists 1 DIRECTIVE ofcandidate Migratoryspecies SPAs MANAGE (wetlands) iP"KAS JETW(-" -+-MONITOR SAC Habitatsof »- ivti vvunn "*"INFORM HABITATS AnnexI Nationallists Community A DIRECTIVE - ofsites*listofsites fSpecieso AnnexII { Wider countryside measures

StagesinimplementationoftheNatura2000Network

ACTION

7.2.1 CompleteimplementationoftheBirdsDirectiveandcarry throughtheimplementationoftheHabitatsDirective.

Recommendation.MemberStatesshould:

a) FulfiltheiroutstandingobligationstotheBirdsDirectiveby

i)RapidlycompletingtheirnetworkofSPAs,withemphasisonthose sitesidentifiedasImportantBirdAreasbyBirdLifeInternationalor othersitesidentifiedinnationalreviews;

ii) Ensuringthattheirnationallegalandadministrativesystemsgive adequatesafeguardstoalltheSPAs;

iii)EnsuringthateachSPAhasadequatemanagementon-site(following anagreedmanagementplan),andthatwherenecessaryadequate incentivesareavailableforlandownerstomanagethesitestothe conservationstandardsrequired.

PARKSOR F LIFE THE LEGALFRAMEWORK

b) ImplementtheHabitatsDirectiveinfullwithintheagreedtimetable(see box34anddiagram)andnottakeaminimalistapproach.Theimportant immediatestepsaretopassthenationallegislationandtopreparelistsof proposedSACs.

Recommendation.CountrieswhichareintheprocessofjoiningtheEU shouldexaminetheirprotectedareassystemsinthelightofthesetwo Directives,withaviewtoearlyharmonization.TheDirectivesshould be seenasminimumstandardstobemet,andnotbeusedtojustifyweakening anynationallawsorprogrammes,existingorproposed,thatgofurther.

7.2.2 DevelopfurthertheHabitatsandBirdsDirectivesinthelightof experiencewithimplementationsofar.

Recommendation.AsMemberStatesimplementtheHabitatsDirective, they,theEuropeanCommissionandNGOsshouldconsiderwhichaspectsof theDirectivesneedparticularattention.Issuesforpossibleimprovement include:

a)Effectivenationalsystemsformonitoring;

b) Thetreatmentofendemicspecies;

c) Thecoverageofmarineissuesingeneral(seealso5.4.3);

d)Conservationinthewidercountrysideandestablishmentofcorridors (e.g.hedges,riverbanks,woods,etc)betweenNatura2000sites;

e)Devisingappropriatefundingmechanismsforprovidingsmallgrants,in particularformicro-reserves,suchasareneededformostofthe threatenedplantslistedonAnnex2(b);

f) Moreexplicitemphasisontheconservationof thenumerousthreatened invertebratespeciesandtheirhabitats.

The avocetisjustoneof manyspeciesofbirdto benefitfromtheEUBirds Directive

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7.2.3ProvideaneffectivesupportservicetoNatura2000andthe Directives.

Recommendation.TheEuropeanUnion,whereappropriatethroughthe EuropeanCommission,should:

a)Ensurethatitsotherpoliciesandactions,especiallythoseinenergy, transportandotherinfrastructuredevelopment,donotunderminethe conservationmeasuresintheseDirectives(seealso8.3.4);

b) Agreemeasurestoprotectsitesimportantformigratorybirdsnoton AnnexI,especiallywetlandsitesofinternationalimportance;

c) ImprovethewayinwhichthreatstoSPAsandqualifyingsitesare investigated,bothbytheEuropeanCommissionandbyMemberStates;

d) IncreasethefundsforimplementationoftheDirectives,bothfrom MemberStates'ownbudgetsandfromtheEUbudget,inparticularthe LIFEFundandthemeasuresarisingfromreformoftheCommonAgri culturalPolicy;

e)PromoteNatura2000throughpublicawarenessandeducationschemes (seeChapter11).

7.2.4 IncreasetheroleofNGOsintheestablishmentofNatura2000 andtheimplementationoftheseDirectives.

Recommendation.NGOsshouldcontinuetopointoutinconsistencies, contradictorypoliciesandabuseswithintheEuropeanUnion,inparticular focusingonthreatstoSPAsandSACsandtousesoftheStructuralFunds harmfultoprotectedareas.

Recommendation.MemberStatesandtheEuropeanCommissionshould allowalargerroleforoutsideexpertsandNGOsintheimplementationof theDirectivesandprovidegreaterfreedomofaccesstoofficialinformation; unionsofconservationgroups, notablytheEuropeanEnvironmentBureau andtheHabitatsForum,canhelpproduceacoordinatedNGOresponse.

7.2.5ThroughtheLucerneprocess,considerhowtoextendthe provisionsoftheEUBirdsandHabitatsDirectivesthewhole to ofEurope.

Thereis aneedtostandardizetheminimumrequirementsfornature conservationacrossEurope.TheimplementationoftheEUBirdsand HabitatsDirectivesinEUMemberStates,combinedwiththelackofasimilar instrumentfortherestofEurope,leavesa dangerousimbalance. Furthermore,rapideconomicdevelopmentinCentralandEasternEurope andthelargeinvestmentsbybusiness,banksandaiddonorsmakesuchan agreementallthemoreimportant.

Recommendation.TheEuropeanEnvironmentMinistersconferenceinSofia shoulddevelopaninstrumentwhichwouldextendtherequirementsof Natura2000andtheEUBirdsandHabitatsDirectivestoallofEurope throughanagreedpan-Europeanframework.Thiscouldbe seenasa principalmeansofimplementingtheConventiononBiologicalDiversityin EuropeandmaybeassociatedwiththeBernConvention.Itwouldbe desirabletoinvolvetheinternationalfundingagencies,inparticularthe WorldBank,theEuropeanInvestmentBankandtheEuropeanBankfor ReconstructionandDevelopment.

ORPARKSF LIFE THE LEGALFRAMEWORK

7.3 Adheringtoglobalconventions

7.3.1 TheRamsarConvention

The'ConventiononWetlandsofInternationalImportance,especiallyaswater fowlhabitat',usuallyknownastheRamsarConvention,cameintoforcein1975. Itistheonlyglobalconservationconventionthatdealswithaspecifictypeof ecosystem—wetlands.TheConvention'sBureau(orSecretariat)worksclosely withIUCNandwiththeInternationalWaterfowlandWetlandsResearchBureau (IWRB),whichprovidestechnicalsupport,includingmaintenanceofthe Ramsardatabase.

UndertheRamsarConvention,ContractingPartiesareobligedto:

■ DesignateatleastonewetlandfortheListofWetlandsofInternational Importance(the"RamsarList");

■ Undertaketheirplanningsoastopromotethe'wiseuse'ofallwetlandson theirterritory(thisisinterpretedtomeanadoptingandimplementinga NationalWetlandsPolicy);

■ Establishnaturereservesforwetlands,whetherornot theyareincludedon theRamsarList;and

■ Promoteinternationalcooperationonwetlands.

ImplementationoftheRamsarConventionhasbeenparticularlyactivein Europe.Thirtyofthe81ContractingPartiesand394ofthe654sitespresentlyon theRamsarListareinEurope,withacoverageofover5millionha.Ofthese sites,30arecurrentlylistedintheMontreuxRecord,whichidentifiesRamsar sitesinneedofpriorityaction.TheMonitoringProcedure,underwhichthe RamsarBureauvisitssiteswithnationalexpertsandmakesrecommendationsto theGovernmentconcerned,hasbeenusedat12Europeansites.

ACTION

Recommendation.Albania,Latvia,Luxembourg,MonacoandSanMarino shouldjointheRamsarConvention.Thecountriesemergingfromformer Yugoslavia(whichisaParty),otherthanSloveniaandCroatia(whichare alsoParties),shouldjoinwhenappropriate.

Recommendation.SomecountrieshaveimplementedRamsarfully more thanothers.Theplanrecommendsallcountriesshouldtakestockofthe currentstateofimplementationandifnecessaryincreasetheirimple mentation,inparticularby:

a) DesignatingmoreEuropeanwetlandsfortheRamsarList;

b) Takingstrongermeasurestomaintaintheecologicalcharacterofsites alreadydesignated,especiallythoseintheMontreuxRecord;

c) DevelopingandadoptingaNationalWetlandsPolicy,whichshould includeplanstodesignateprotectedareasforwetlands,especiallysmall sites,otherthanthoseofinternationalimportance.

Recommendation.WesternEuropeancountriesandmultilateraland bilateralagenciesshouldgivemoresupportforconservationandwiseuseof wetlandsinCentralandEasternEurope.Existingsupportshouldbeshifted fromprovidingconsultantstoprovidingmoneyandequipment.Better coordinationisalsoneededbetweenthemanyagenciesnowactiveinthis field.(See alsoSection5.1,especiallyAction5.1.3.)

ORPARKSF LIFE THE LEGALFRAMEWORK

Priority Project13.Supportandencouragetheimplementationof the RamsarConventioninEurope,inparticularby:

a)AssessingtheareaandhabitattypeofremainingwetlandsinEurope, usinginformationinexistinginventories;

b)Increasingthemonitoringofpossiblechangestotheecologicalcharacter ofwetlandsontheRamsarList;

c) MonitoringtheimpactofmajordevelopmentprojectsonEuropean wetlands.

Lead Agency:RamsarBureau.

7.3.2TheWorldHeritageConvention

The ConventionConcerningtheProtectionoftheWorldCulturalandNatural Heritage,knownas theWorldHeritageConvention,wasadoptedbyUNESCO in1972andenteredintoforcein1976.Itsrationaleisthatthereareelementsof theculturalandnaturalheritageofindividualcountriesthatareofsuch outstanding,universalvaluethattheirprotectionshouldbetheconcernand responsibilitytheinternational of community.

Sites arenominatedbyGovernmentsand,followingacceptancebytheWorld HeritageCommittee,areinscribedontheWorldHeritageList,asNatural, CulturalorMixedNatural/CulturalSites.AttherequestoftheCommittee, IUCNpreparesanindependentevaluationforallnominationsofNaturalSites.

(a)ThecoverageofNaturalSites

Only5 1 naturalsites(seebox35)havebeeninscribedforEurope,thoughthere aresome120culturalsitesintheregion.

More areasofancient forest shouldbe inscribedasNatural nSiteso theWorld HeritageConvention.

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Natural SitesfromEuropen o theWorldHeritagelist Box

Bulgaria PirinNationalPark SrebarnaNatureReserve Croatia PlitviceNational Park France GirolattaandPortoGulfsandScandolaReserve Poland/BelarusBialowieza/Belovezhskaya Romania Danube Delta(core) Slovenia Skocjan Caves Spain GarajonayNationalPark United Kingdom Giant's Causeway St KildaIsland Yugoslavia DurmitorNationalPark (Montenegro)

Threeothersiteshave beenincludedfortheir"mixed"qualities,thatistheir natural andculturalaspectshavebeenjudgedinseparableandqualifyunder both naturalandculturacriteria. Theseare:

Greece Meteora Mt Athos The formerYugoslav RepublicofMacedoniaOhrid anditsLake

The Conventionhasprovedapowerfulleverinpreventingdamagetolisted sites.InEurope,forexample,theBulgarianGovernmenthasstoppedexpansion oftheskiareasinPirinNP,andMontenegrocancelledadamproposalonthe TaraRiverinDurmitorNP.InscriptionontheWorldHeritageListhasalso encouragedbetterprotectionandmanagement,aswiththeGiant'sCauseway (UK)andGarajonayNP(CanaryIs.,Spain).

ThepresentsetofnaturalWorldHeritagesitesinEuropeisfarfromadequate. ThoughcandidatesfortheWorldHeritageListarenowrigorouslyevaluated, therearefurtherprotectedareasthatshouldbeincluded.Thepotencyand prestigeoftheConventionmaketheirinscriptionahighpriority.

ACTION

Recommendations.

i) TheEuropeancountriesthathavenotyetjoinedtheConvention— Albania,Belgium,IcelandandLuxembourg—shoulddoso;

ii) AcceptingthatsomeEuropeancountriesmaynothaveanysitesfitting thecriteriaforthenaturallist,countriesshould:

■ Reviewtheirindicativelistsofnaturalsitesinthelightofchangesto thecriteriaandofchangestothesitesthemselves(theseare thelists submittedtotheWorldHeritageCentreatUNESCO);

■ NominatethosethatfitthecriteriaforinscriptionontheWorld HeritageList;

iii)Europeancountriesandinternationalbodies,inparticulartheEuropean Union,shouldincreasethefundingtotheWorldHeritageCommittee.

ORPARKSF LIFE THE LEGALFRAMEWORK

Priority Project14.

i) PrepareaguidetopotentialNaturalWorldHeritageSitesinEurope extendingeasttotheUrals,andusethistopromotetheuseofthe ConventiontoprotectthefinestelementsofEurope'snaturalheritage.

ii)(FromAction8.4.3).Aspartofthesameexercise,preparealongerlistof suitablesitesEurope in forprotectiontostandardsofCategoryII, includingbothnewprotectedareasandexistingprotectedareaswhere standardscouldbeupgraded.

Lead Agency:AnatureconservationagencyonbehalfofFNNPEandWWF, workingwithprotectedareamanagersandotherexperts.

b) Theinclusionofculturallandscapes

InresponsetotheConvention'sinclusionofthe'combinedworksofnatureand man',inDecember1992theWorldHeritageCommitteeadoptedcriteriaforthe acceptanceofculturallandscapesasWorldHeritageCulturalsites.Nominations forsuchsiteswillbe reviewedbyICOMOSwiththehelpofIUCN.

ForEurope,theinclusionofsuchsitesontheWorldHeritagelistwould:

■ Enabletheregiontomakeamoresignificantcontributiontothesuccessof theConvention,sincetherearemanyculturallandscapesinEurope;

■ Provideadditionalprotectiontotheareasconcernedbydeclaringtheir internationalstatus;

■ Drawattentiontotheworldwideimportanceofsomeofthecultural landscapesofEurope;

■ Reinforcethelinksbetweennatureconservationandtheprotectionofthe culturalheritage.

ACTION

Recommendation.In responsetotheinvitationfromtheUNESCOWorld HeritageCentre,EuropeanGovernmentsshouldprepareindicativelistsof selectedculturallandscapesthatmeettheWorldHeritagetestofbeingof 'outstanding,universalvalue'.

Priority Project15.Preparea listofoutstandingEuropeancultural landscapesasguidancetotheStatesParties.LeadAgency:ICOMOSand IUCN.

7.3.3 TheConventiononBiologicalDiversity

In May1992aglobalConventionBiological onDiversitywasadoptedand,at theEarthSummitinJune,signedbyover150countriesplustheEuropean Union.TheConventionwillenterintoforceattheendof 1993,havingbeen ratifiedbyover30nations.

This Conventionisthefirstglobalinstrumenttotakeacomprehensiveapproach totheproblemsofconservingtheworld'sbiologicaldiversityandtousingits biologicalresourcessustainably.TheConventionrecognizesthatnetworksof protectedareasarecentraltoconservingbiologicaldiversity.Twovital provisions,amongothers,relatetoprotectedareas:

■ UnderArticle6,eachPartyhastodevelopnationalstrategies,plansor programmesfortheconservationandsustainableuseofbiodiversityandto

ORPARKSF LIFE THE LEGALFRAMEWORK

integrate themintootherrelevantsectoralor cross-sectoral plans, programmesandpolicies;thismaybeinterpretedasrequiringasystemplan forprotectedareas(Action8.1.2);

■ UnderArticle8(a),eachPartyhastoestablishasystemofprotectedareasor areaswherespecialmeasuresaretakentoconservebiodiversity;thisis followedupbyotherclausesinArticle8onprotectedareas.

The Conventionisbestseenasprovidingaframeworkforconservingbio diversity(aswellasforachievingothergoals,suchasonaccesstogenetic resources).MostofitsArticlessetoutpoliciesthatPartiesshouldfollow,suchas onplanningprotectedareanetworksorcontrollingthespreadofintroduced species,ratherthanestablishingpreciseobligations(asdoestheWorldHeritage Convention)orsettingtargets(asdotheEUDirectives).TheConventionprov idesagoodopportunityforPartiestoupdateandbringintolineawiderangeof biodiversity-relatedpolicies,andinparticulartomakethelinkagebetween policiesonprotectedareasandpoliciesonothersectorsofnationallife.

As faraspossible,itisintendedthattheConferenceof thePartiesshould pro videthe detailedinterpretationoftheobligations,shoulddecideonwhattargets ifanyshouldbemet,andshouldelaboratethesemattersintodetailedprotocols totheConvention.Animportantreasonforcountriestoratifywithoutdelay, therefore,istoavoidbeingleftoutofthesubsequentnegotiations.

ACTION

Recommendations.

a) CountrieswhichhavenotratifiedtheConventionshoulddosoassoonas possible.

b)f I ithasnotalreadydoneso,eachcountryshouldprepareitsBiodiversity StrategyandActionPlan,whichshouldincludethe actionsnecessaryto establish,manageandsafeguardeffectivenetworksofprotectedareas,as outlinedinParksforLife.

c) CountriesshouldparticipateintheConferenceofPartiesand any subsidiarygroupsestablishedundertheConvention.

7.4 Strengtheningregionalconventions

Several regionalconventionscontributetoprotectedareaspolicyinEurope.Two arecoveredbelow:theBernConvention,whichcoversallofEurope(7.4.1)and theAlpineConvention(7.4.2).Thethreemarineconventionsarecoveredinthe sectionsonregionalmarinepriorities—theBarcelonaConventioninSection5.2 ontheMediterranean,theHelsinkiConventioninSection5.3ontheBaltic,and theParisConventioninSection5.4ontheNEAtlantic.addition, In therearea numberofothermorelocalconventions,forexampleonindividualrivers(such as theRhine),whichmayaffectprotectedareapolicy,buttheyarenotcoveredin detailhere.

7.4.1TheBernConvention

The ConventionontheConservationofEuropeanWildlifeandNatural Habitats,usuallyknownas theBernConvention,wasdevelopedbytheCouncil ofEurope,aninter-governmentalorganizationof32memberstates.Themain thrustthe ofConventionistheconservationofendangeredspeciesandtheir habitats.

Agreedin1979andcomingintoforcein1982,theBernConventionmarkeda

ORPARKSF LIFE THE LEGALFRAMEWORK

stepforwardfromotherregionalconventions,asitcontainsfirmobligations ratherthanoutlininggeneralaims.AnimportantfeatureisthatNGOscan challengeallegedinfractionsoftheConvention.TheSecretariatputstheseissues ontheagendaoftheSteeringCommittee,wherethecountryconcernedhasto respond.

TheneedtoimplementtheBernConventionintheEuropeanUnionwasthe motivationfortheEUHabitatsDirective,whichhasextendedandimprovedthe obligationsoftheConventionintoEUlaw.Whilethesignificanceofthe ConventioninWesternEuropehastosomeextentbeenreplacedbytheHabitats Directive,althoughitwillbemanyyearsbeforetheDirectiveisfully implemented,theBernConventionhasbecomeofincreasingimportancein CentralandEasternEurope,asthosecountriesarenowbeginningto jointhe CouncilofEuropeandsoarenowabletoratifytheConvention.Anothervalue oftheConventionisthattheCouncilofEuropehasdecidedtoallowNorth Africannationstojoin;itisthereforeamechanismforinternationalcooperation betweenthemandEuropeannations.

ACTION

Endorsement.ThisplanendorsesthepresentfocusoftheConvention SecretariatonthefurtherextensionoftheConventiontoCentralandEastern EuropeandendorsesthecurrenteffortstoextendAppendicesI andII accordingly(thespecieswhosehabitatsaretobeprotected).

Recommendation.ThecountriesofCentralandEasternEuropeshouldjoin theBernConvention(Bulgaria,Estonia,Hungary,LatviaandRomaniahave joinedsofar),asshouldMalta.

Recommendation.ThePartiestotheConventionandtheCouncilofEurope shouldincreasethefundsavailabletotheConventionSecretariat.Atpresent itreceivesaroundUS$170,000peryear,whichisnotenoughtoprovidethe servicesneededforeffectiveimplementation.

7.4.2 TheAlpineConvention

The ConventionConcerningtheProtectionoftheAlpswassignedbytheAlpine countriesandtheEuropeanUnioninNovember1991,butisnotyetin force.Itis a frameworkconventionwhoseaimistoachieve'acomprehensivepolicyfor theconservationandprotectionoftheAlps'.

Box [ TheEuropeanNetworkofBiogeneticReserves

Thiss i aCouncilofEuropeprojecttolistnaturereservescontainingtypical, unique,rareorendangeredecosystemsorspecies.TheStatesproposing areasfortheNetworkagreetoprotectthemandtomaintaintheirnatural values.SofartheNetworkcovers289areas,extendingover3million hectares.

PredatingtheBernConvention,theNetworkdoesnothavelegalstatus.It wasveryusefulbut,duetolackoffundsandofstaff,ithasneverbeen possibletoevaluatetheindividualsitesontheground.

Thelargenumberofothersitesdesignationsnowavailable (outlinedin Chapter7)andthepersistentlackofresourcesfortheNetworksuggeststhat areappraisalmightbeworthwhile. ■■■■^■■■■^H

ORPARKSF LIFE THE LEGALFRAMEWORK

The ConventionlistsissuesonwhichtheContractingPartieshavetotake measures.Oneoftheseistheprotectionofnatureandlandscape,onwhicha draftprotocolhasnowbeenpreparedwiththehelpoftheIUCNEnvironmental LawCentre.Thiswouldincludeobligationstoestablishasystemofprotected areas,includingasystemofprotectedhabitattypes.

ACTION

Recommendation.TheAlpinecountriesandtheEuropeanUnionshould:

a) RatifytheConvention;

b)AgreeandratifytheProtocolonProtectionofNatureandLandscape.

7.5 DevelopingaConventionfortheConservationofRural LandscapesofEurope

Millenniaofhumaninteractionwithnaturehavecreatedavarietyofrural landscapesthatreflecttheregion'snaturaldiversity,anditscomplexhistoryand culture.Theselandscapeshavenatural,culturalandeconomicvalues.Often theycontainhighbiodiversityandarerichinhistoricfeatures.Manyhavebeen celebratedin artandliterature.Todaytheyattracttouristsinlargenumbers.

However,rurallandscapesareunderthreat.Peopleinruralareasshouldshare inanation'sprosperity,butchangeisoftensorapidthattheenvironmentisput at riskandthe benefitsdevelopment of cannotbesustained.Landscapeslose theirdistinctiveness,andmanyof thenaturalandculturalvalueswithinthem.

ToconserveandrestoreEurope'slandscapes,theconservationfocusneedsto broadenfromnationalparksandnaturereservestotherurallandscapeasa whole.Thereisaneedtostrengthenprotectionofrurallandscapesandto encouragecountriesto:

■ Recordtheirrurallandscapeandchangestoit;

■ Takestepstoprotecttheselandscapes,suchaseffectiveland-useplanning andsupportfortraditionalland-usemanagement;

■ IdentifylandscapesofEuropeansignificanceandencourageinternational cooperationtoprotectthem;

■ Supporttheabovewithresearch,informationandtraining.

Ithasbeenproposedthatthebestwaytoaddressthiswouldbebyan internationalconventionfortheprotectionofrurallandscapesinEurope.Sucha conventionwouldcomplementtheexistingBernConvention(see7.4.1)on naturalhabitatsandspecies,andtheGranadaConventiononthearchitectural heritageofEurope.Itsmandatewouldinclude,butnotbeconfinedto,Category Vprotectedlandscapes.

Suchan agreementwouldbringtogetherthenatureandculturalconservation constituencies.IthassupportfromarangeofNGOsinEurope.Throughits development,theconservationofbiologicalandlandscapediversitywouldbe promotedacrosstheEuropeancountrysideaswhole. a

ORPARKSF LIFE THE LEGALFRAMEWORK

ACTION

7.5.1 AssessthefeasibilityofaRuralLandscapesConvention.

Priority Project16.UndertakeafeasibilitystudyintoaConventionforthe Conservationof theRuralLandscapeofEurope,involvingtheCouncilof Europe,andassessitspotentialeffectivenessinrelationtoprotected landscapes.LeadAgency:Aconsortiumofpotentialorganizationsinseveral Europeancountries.

AncientfarminGranParadisoNationalPark,Italy

PARKSOR F LIFE MANAGEMENT

PROTECTEDAREAMANAGEMENT

Once thelegalbasisfortheprotectedareahasbeenestablished,thenextpriority iseffectiveplanningandmanagement.InthisChapter'management'istakento includeplanningandestablishment,relationswiththeGovernmentandwith thelocalcommunity,andtheapplicationofresearch,aswellastheday-to-day managerialtaskssuchasmaintainingpaths,providingvisitorservicesand environmentaleducation,andcontrollinghunting. CHAPTER8 The firstsectiondealswiththeprinciplesofmanagementplannning.Thisleads intoa discussionofthevalueofpartnershipsandoftheneedforadequate funding.Sectionsthenaddresstheparticularmanagementneedsofthethree categoriesofprotectedareamostusedinEurope—CategoryIInationalparks (8.4),CategoryIVhabitat/speciesmanagementareas(ormanagednature reserves)(8.5)andCategoryVprotectedlandscapesandseascapes(8.6).(Table4 showsthenumberandextentofprotectedareasineachcategoryineach country.)Thenextsection(8.7)addressestransfrontierprotectedareas,which areanimportantcross-cuttingtypeofprotectedarea.Thefinalsectionisonhow protectedareascanused be asmodelsforthefuture(8.8).

8.1 Managementplanning

Effective managementofprotectedareasdependsfirstonhavinggood institutions.Thisisoftenaweakpointwithprotectedareasystems,especially recent ones.Thestructureandformofthoseinstitutionswillvarygreatlyfrom onecountrytoanother,butthreeprinciplesshouldunderpinallofthem(8.1.1).

Despitenationaldifferences,IUCNadvisestwocoreactionsforeverycountry —aprotectedareassystemplan(8.1.2),whichshouldbeevaluatedatcertain intervals(8.1.3),andamanagementplanforeveryprotectedarea,largeorsmall (8.1.4).Thesearethevitaltoolstoensureeffectivemanagementinanysituation.

Managingaprotectedareawilldependontheobjectivessetforthatarea.Isitto protectaspeciesorisittoencouragenaturalsuccession?Isittopreserveaway oflifeorisittorestorethevegetation?IUCN'ssystemofmanagement categoriesforprotectedareas(definedinbox1)canhelpprovideclarityin settingtherightobjectivesforeachsite.Theapplicationofthecategories, however,hascausedsomedifficultyinEuropeandelsewhere.Also,in1994, IUCNmembersagreedchangestothedefinitionsofthecategories.IUCNhas recentlypublishedguidelinesonthesixcategoriesnowrecommended,with examplesofsitesineach.Acommitmenttousethese categoriesandmore detailedguidanceonhowtoapplytheminEuropearenowneeded(Action 8.1.5).

ACTION

8.1.1Provideadequateinstitutionalstructurestomanageprotected areas.

Recommendations.

a)Thedirectorsofprotectedareaauthoritiesforacountry(orprovince,etc.) shouldhavedirectaccesstorelevantdecision-makersandministers;

b) Asinglebodyshouldoverseeprotectedareapolicyforcountry a (or province,etc.);

c) Withineachprotectedarea,responsibilityandaccountabilityshouldbe preciselydefined.

PARKSOR F LIFE MANAGEMENT

Table: 4 ProtectedareasbyIUCNManagementCategory:landareaprotected

I II III V Country areaArea% Area % Area% Area% Area % Area %

Albania 28,750 0.00 96 0.33 0.00 244 0.85 0.00 340 1.18 Andorra 465 - 0.00 - 0.00 - 0.00 - 0.00 - 0.00 - 0.00 Austria 83,855 - 0.00 760 0.91 - 0.00 3,7204.4416,33319.4820,81324.82 Belgium 30,520 - 0.00 - 0.00 - 0.00 40 0.13 732 2.40 771 2.53 Bulgaria 110,9106180.56 2,2131.99 44 0.04 507 0.46 316 0.29 3,6993.34 Croatia 56,538198 0.35 463 0.82 11 0.02 154 0.27 3,0275.35 3,8536.82 CzechRepublic78,864 1290.16 748 0.95 - 0.00 64 0.08 9,72812.3310,66813.53 Denmark 43,075222 0.51 - 0.00 63 0.1511,65127.051,9354.49 13,87132.20 Estonia 45,100684 1.52 1,7693.92 - 0.00 1,3853.07 560 1.24 4,3989.75 Finland 337,0301,5080.45 3,9351.17 - 0.0021,8386.48 - 0.00 27,2818.09 France 543,9652080.04 2,6130.48 - 0.00 1,5050.2849,2599.06 53,5869.85 Germany 356,840- 0.00 131 0.04 - 0.00 2,5980.7389,20025.0091,92825.76 Greece 131,985- 0.00 604 0.46 180 0.14 95 0.07 1,3321.01 2,2101.67 Hungary 93,030 - 0.00 1,5911.71 - 0.00 138 0.15 4,0114.31 5,7406.17 Iceland 102,820- 0.00 1,8011.75 386 0.38 519 0.50 6,4506.27 9,1568.90 Ireland 68,895 - 0.00 368 0.53 - 0.00 99 0.14 - 0.00 467 0.68 Italy 301,245- 0.00 4,7191.57 15 0.00 2,2160.7415,7955.24 22,7467.55 Latvia 63,7003840.60 - 0.00 25 0.04 622 0.98 6,71610.54 7,74712.16 Liechtenstein160 - 0.00 - 0.00 - 0.00 - 0.00 60 37.50 60 37.50 Lithuania 65,2002080.32 1,3302.04 - 0.00 996 1.53 3,8145.85 6,3479.73 Luxembourg2,585 - 0.00 - 0.00 - 0.00 - 0.00 36013.93 36013.93 Netherlands41,1600.10 42 136 0.332,6696.48 1,3683.32 - 0.00 4,21510.24 Norway 323,8951,7790.5513,781 4.25- 0.00 176 0.05 4,6431.43 20,3806.29 Poland 312,68516 0.01 1,4830.47 - 0.00 680 0.2228,4579.1 30,6369.8 Portugal 92,390131 0.14 211 0.23 27 0.03 1,0851.17 4,3714.73 5,8256.31 Romania 237,500607 0.26 8,4163.54 - 0.00 2280.10 1,5980.67 10,8494.57 Slovakia 14,03512 0.09 1,99714.23 15 0.11 420 2.99 7,71154.9410,15572.36 Slovenia 20,251 - 0.00 848 4.19 - 0.00 - 0.00 233 1.15 1,0815.34 Spain 504,880- 0.00 1,3250.26 - 0.0017,3673.4423,7584.71 42,4508.41 Sweden 440,9409,4912.15 4,9481.12 - 0.0012,4862.83 2,8930.66 29,8186.76 Switzerland41,285169 0.41 - 0.00 - 0.00 2,4125.84 4,72611.45 7,30717.70 UnitedKingdom244,880- 0.00 - 0.00 - 0.00 2,0080.8247,50519.4049,51320.22 Yugoslavia102,17311 0.01 1,4881.46 16 0.02 161 0.16 1,7931.76 3,4703.40

Totals 4,921,60616,4170.3357,7741.173,4510.0786,7821.76337,316 501,74010.19

Preparedy b WorldConservationMonitoringCentre,27June1994

Note: Areasaregiveninsquarekilometres Minimumsizeforinclusionis10sq.km

ORPARKSF LIFE MANAGEMENT

8.1.2Developnationalprotectedareasystemplans.

Recommendation.Governmentsshouldprepare,orupdate,anational(or sub-national)protectedareasystemplan.Thisshould:

■Identifygapsintheprotectedareacoverage; ■ Recommendactiontofillthosegaps; ■ Ensurerepresentationofspecies,ecosystemsandlandscapetypes; ■ Providethebasisforsecuringpoliticalsupport; ■Encouragepublicinvolvement; ■Aimtogainsupportfrommanysources.

8.1.3EvaluatetheprotectedareasystemsineveryEuropeancountry.

Recommendation.BeforethenextWorldParksCongressin2002,plan the recommendsthateach countryinEuropeevaluateitsprotectedareasystem forcoverageandeffectiveness.Thisshouldbedonebyindependentexperts andtheresultspublished.IUCNandFNNPEwillbepleasedtohelp governmentswiththeprovisionofindependentexpertsandwithdrafting theirtermsofreference.

8.1.4 Developamanagementplanforeachprotectedarea.

Recommendation.heresponsibleauthority T foreveryprotectedareashould prepare,keep orup-to-date,amanagementplanforthatarea.Thisshould:

a) Clarifytheobjectivesofmanagement;

b)Indicatehowthesewillbeachieved;

c) Establishtheresourceneeds(staff,finance,etc.);

d)Putinplaceasystemofmonitoringtocheckiftheobjectivesarebeing achieved;

e) Establishatimetableforaccomplishment.

Preparationandimplementationofthemanagementplanshouldinvolveall thestakeholders,especiallythelocalpeople(Section11.5).

8.1.5 FollowtheIUCNprotectedareamanagementcategories.

Recommendation.FollowingIUCNGeneralAssemblyResolution19/4,all governmentsareurgedtoconsidertherelevanceoftheprotectedarea managementcategories(box1)tonationallegislation.Moreover,theplan recommendsthatinternationalbodiesinEurope(e.g.theCouncilofEurope) shouldusethisagreedsystemofmanagementcategoriesratherthan developingseparatesystems,whichcould causeconfusion.

Priority Project17.(a)PrepareguidelinesontheapplicationoftheIUCN categoriesinEurope,illustrative with examples.Thisshouldshowthe compatibilitybetweenthesecategoriesandotherclassificationsofprotected areas,e.g.thoseofEUDirectives,(b)Provideadvicetocountriesonrequest onhowtoemployarangeofdifferenttypesofprotectedareas(ideallyas parta ofsystemplan—8.1.2).(c)Resolveanydisputesovertheassignation ofcategoriestoindividualprotectedareasontheUNList.LeadAgency: IUCN-CNPPA,withFNNPE,WCMCandwithnationalagenciesas appropriate.

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8.2Broadeningpartnershipsinprotectedarea management

eTob effectiveintheirjobs,protectedareamanagersneedtoworkwithawide rangeofpartnersoutsidetheofficialnature conservationsector.Forexample, theymayneedtoworkwithlocalfarmersandforesters,theymaywanttodraw onsupportfromlocalbusinesses,andtheymaywishtouseconservation volunteers.

Themorepartnershipstheycanbuildinmanagingtheprotectedarea,themore setsofpeopleandinstitutionstherewillbethathaveastakeinitssuccess.This willnotonlyhelpachieveconservationgoals,butitcanalsoopenthepossibility thatthose goalscouldbeexpanded,perhapsdramatically:forexample,an extensionoftheprotectedareacouldsuddenlybecomepossible,oran arrangementwithlocalfarmersoutsidetheparktomanagecertainpartsoftheir landinaccordancewithconservationprinciples.

sIti especiallyvitaltoformanalliancewithlocalpeople,sotheyfeelincluded ratherthanexcludedfromwhathappensintheprotectedarea.Inparticular,itis essentialtheir thatrepresentativessitonmanagementbodies.Itisgoodalsoif theprotectedareacanprovidethemwitheconomicopportunities,suchasjobs, or thechancetobuildlivelihoodsderivingfromthepark'sexistence,for examplesettingupguesthousesandrestaurantsnearby.

Insomecases,itmaybepossibletogofurtherandachieveasystemofjoint management(8.2.4andbox37).Asaresultofjointmanagement,thereare severalgoodexamplesthatcombinelocalenvironmentalcarewithsecuring livelihoods,asituationsometimesreferredtoasPrimaryEnvironmentalCare (seeSection2.2).Jointmanagementagreementsareparticularlysuitablefor zonedprotectedareasandmaybethebestapproachwhereaprotectedareahas beenestablishedbutsomepartiesmayfailtorecognizeorrespectits regulations.Insomecases,jointmanagementhassettledlong-lasting controversiesbetweengovernmentsandlocalpeople.

Thissectionislessaboutconcreterecommendationsandactionpoints,butmore aboutencouragingprotectedareamanagersandagenciestoadoptanopen, professionalstyleofmanagementinwhichmanydifferentindividualsand organizationscancontribute.Inclusivenessisthemostpowerfulweaponofthe modernprotectedareamanager.Withoutit,heorsheisunlikelytosucceed.

Thissubjectiscoveredherefromthepointofviewofmanagementandin Sections11.4and11.5fromthepointofviewofpublicsupport.

ACTION

8.2.1Involveawidearrayofpartnersinmanagementandinparticular includerepresentativesoflocalpeople.

Recommendation.overnmentsshould G adoptpoliciestoencourageand includethewidestpossiblearrayofpartnersinestablishingandmanaging theirprotectedareasystem.Protectedareamanagersshouldadoptastyleof managementthatseekstobringinasmanypartnersaspossible,ensuring thattheyeachbenefitfromaswellascontributetotheaimsof theprotected area.Incentivesanddisincentivescanbeparticularlyusefulinthisregard.

Recommendation.Localcommunitiesshouldhaveameaningfulroleinthe decision-makingprocessesinprotectedareas.Inparticulartheyshouldbe representedinthemanagementandplanningstructureof theprotectedarea.

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8.2.2Encouragethemaximumuseoflocalknowledgeandskillsin management.

Recommendation.Protectedareamanagersshouldpromoteoccasionsfor sharinganddrawingontraditionalandlocalknowledgeandskills.Where possible,theyshouldseektoprovideeconomicopportunitiesforlocal peopleintheprotectedarea,eitherthroughdirectemployementorinthe formofcontractedservices.

8.2.3 Encouragetheuseofconservationvolunteers.

Recommendation.Protectedareamanagersshouldencouragetheuseof volunteers,whocanhelpinworksuchasmanaginghabitats,buildingand repairingpaths,anderectingfencesandsigns.Thisoftenprovidestraining inpracticalconservation.Byintroducingpeopletothecountryside,italso hasavaluableeducationalroleandhelpsbuildnewallies(Chapter11).

8.2.4 Promotejointmanagementofprotectedareas(seebox37).

Priority Project18.Promotethedevelopmentofjointmanagementforafew protectedareasinEurope.Localfacilitatorswillbechosen.Aftertraining, theywill(a)promoteassist andinthedevelopmentofjointmanagement arrangements;(b)assemblethelessonslearntintheprocessforotherstouse; and(c)buildnetworksofpeopleandinstitutionsconcernedwithsimilar processes.LeadAgency:IUCNSocialPolicyService,workingwithCNPPA, FNNPEandindividualparkagenciesacrossEurope.

Jointmanagementisagoodwayofinvolvingfarmersinthe managementofprotectedareas.

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g2Jointmanagementforprotectedareas

These arearrangementsinwhichgovernmentagenciesresponsiblefor protectedareasworkwithvariousstakeholders(organizedgroupsofusers, businesses,universities,conservationgroups,etc.)todevelopand implementaspecificmanagementagreement.

The agreementwouldusuallyidentify:

■ Theresourcesofthe protectedareaandhowtheycouldbeused sustainablyandinaccordancewiththeaimsoftheprotectedarea; ■ Asystemofrightsandobligationsforsuchuses; ■ Procedurestoenforcetheserightsandobligations;(inthecaseoflarge protectedareas,thesewouldbesetoutinlaw,asoutlinedinSection7.1;) ■ Procedurestotakecollectivedecisionsandtodealwithanyconflictsthat mayarise.

Forresourceusers,jointmanagementhastheadvantagethatitrecognizes theirrightstoresources.Forprotectedareaagencies,itmakesmanagement morefeasible,efficientandeffective,whilesafeguardingconservationaims.

Stepsn i developingjointmanagement.Theprotectedareamanagement agencyshould:

1. Identifyallthestakeholders(thosewhoareaffectedbyandwhoaffect protectedareas)andencouragethemtoseethemselvesaslegitimate partnersinmanagement;askthemtoclarifytheiraimsandcapabilities withrespecttotheprotectedarea,andtoappointrepresentatives.

2. Helpstakeholderstocommunicatewithoneanother;discussanddevelop managementoptionswiththem;andprevent,manageand/orresolveany conflictwhichmayarise.

4. Agreewiththestakeholdersononemanagementoption,whichwould specifytherightsandresponsibilitiesofeachoneofthemandofthe agency.

5. Workwithstakeholderstoidentifyand implementappropriate arrangements,proceduresandregulationstomaketheagreementviable andeffective.

6. Monitortheprocessandreviewtheagreementwithstakeholdersas necessary.

A goodpointatwhichtobringinstakeholdersiswhenthemanagementplan isbeingdevelopedorrevised(Action8.1.4).

8.3 Funding

Thereare greatdifferencesinthebudgetsallocatedtoprotectedareasfromone Europeancountrytoanother.Althoughitisverydifficulttoseparateout spendingonprotectedareasfromspendingonnatureconservationingeneral, somecountriesappeartospendasmuchas30timesmorepercapitaontheir protectedareasthanothers.Insomecountries,protectedareasarestillrunby serviceswhichareunder-staffed,under-supportedandunder-trained.Andin mostcountriesthefundingofprotectedareasdoesnotyetmatchtheirapproval bypublicopinion.Whereprotectedareasareunder-funded,thisshouldbe

PARKSOR F LIFE MANAGEMENT redressed(8.3.1)andmoreEUfundsshouldbeavailableforprotectedareas withinEUcountries(8.3.3),butprotectedareamanagersshouldalsodo moreto helpthemselves(8.3.2).

European GovernmentsandtheEuropeanUnionfinancelargedevelopment programmesandprojectsaimedatpromotingeconomicgrowth.Theuseof thesedevelopmentfunds,especiallythoseinbox38,presentsboththreatsand opportunitiestoprotectedareas.Largeinfrastructureprojectscandamageor destroythefaunaandfloraofprotectedareas.Developmentsonlandadjacent toprotectedareascancausedamagebyaffectingthewatertable,orthrough pollutionordisturbance.Protectedareasinmarginalruralregionsare particularlylikelybe toharmedbythemisuseofdevelopmentfunds,since fundingisusuallytargetedatthoseregions.(8.3.4)

UTheE StructuralFunds,theCohesionFund,and Box EuropeanInvestmentBankloans

TheU E StructuralFunds,with loansfromtheEuropeanInvestmentBank,are usedtohelpthepoorestregionsoftheEuropeanUnion,especiallyGreece, Ireland,southernItaly,PortugalandSpain,to"catchThey up".aremostly usedtofundlargeinfrastructureprojects,suchasroads,damsandtourist developments,aswellasintensiveforestryandagriculture.TheStructural Fundscanused be tosupportenvironmentalprojectswheretheseare directlylinkedregional to development.

From 1989to1993,StructuralFundspendingamountedto55bnECU(1Ecu =approx1 US$);141bnECUareallocatedfor1994-99.Greece,Ireland, PortugalandSpainwillalsoreceiveafurther15bnECUunderanew CohesionFund,fortransportandenvironmentalprojects,1993-1999.

ACTION

8.3.1 Provideadequategovernmentfundstoprotectedareas.

Recommendation.Governmentsshouldprovideadequatefundsfor their protectedareas,especiallyforsitesofnationalandinternationalimportance. Insomecountries,thiswillinvolveasubstantialincreaseovercurrent funding.

8.3.2Developnovelapproachestofundingprotectedareas.

Recommendation.Protectedareamanagersshouldactivelyseekawide rangeofpossiblefundingmechanisms.Examplescouldinclude:

a) Sponsorshipfromindustryandbusiness,e.g.forinformationmaterialsor visitorcentres;

b)EconomicincentivesfromGovernment,theEuropeanUnionandother bodiestosupportNGOs,localcommunities,farmers,etc;

c)Chargesforvisitorentrance,whichmaybeappropriatewherefundsare smallandwheretouristsfromelsewhereare themainvisitors;others mayprefertochargeforcar-parksandotherfacilitiesinstead;

d)Debt-for-EnvironmentSwaps(forCentralandEasternEurope);

e) Stewardshipprogrammes,workingwithprivatelandownersand resourceuserstoconservenaturalareasandworkinglandscapes.

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8.3.3IncreaseEUaidforprotectedareas.

Recommendation.TheEuropeanUnionshouldincreasethefunding availablefornatureconservationandprotectedareasinMemberStates, especiallyinSouthernEurope,usinginparticulartheLIFERegulationto enableMemberStatestocreatetheNatura2000networkofprotectedareas.

8.3.4ImprovetheenvironmentalprovisionsintheuseoftheEU StructuralFundsthe andCohesionFund.

Recommendation.TheEuropeanCommissionandMemberStatesshould administertheEUStructuralFundsandtheCohesionFundsothat:

a) Projectsandprogrammescontributetosustainabledevelopment;

b)Theyare consistentwithEUandnationalenvironmentallegislationand policy;

c) Theirenvironmentalimpactsaremonitoredandevaluated,andremedial actionistakenwhereneeded;

d)Environmentalagencies,NGOsandothercitizengroupsareinvolvedat allstages;

e) Informationisfreelyavailabletothepublicatallstagesandinlocal languages;

f)Theprojectsfundedincludesupportfortheinfrastructureandmanage mentf o protectedareas,andfortheintegrationofprotectedareasinto localeconomicdevelopmentschemes.

(Section5.1.6addressestheuseofEuropeanUnionfundsinCentraland EasternEurope.)

8.4CategoryIInationalparks

Amajorinitiativeisneededtoraisethestandardofprotectiontonationalparks inIUCNCategoryII.Thiscategoryisintendedfornaturalareas,andso CategoryIInationalparksarenormallyareasofnaturalvegetationorof vegetationrevertingfreelyundernaturalsuccession.

Exceptn i theborealzoneandsomepartssouthern of Europe,mostEuropean countrieshavefounditdifficulttoestablishlargeprotectedareastothe standardsofCategoryII.ForexampletheWaddenseaNationalParkin Germanyenclosesmostoftheecosystem,buthumanimpactsaresogreatthat reachingCategoryIIstandardsisnotpossibleforthewholearea.Ontheother hand,theOrmtjernkampenNPinNorwayisprotectedtoCategoryIIstandards, butat900haistoosmalltoconservefloraandfaunainthelongterm.Inmost casesconservationistshavetendedtochoosegazettingoflargeareas,witha correspondinglowerlevelofprotection.Asaresultonly10-20%of thec.200 sitesinEuropewhichcallthemselvesNationalParks(andarenotintendedas CategoryVprotectedlandscapesasintheUK)atpresentsatisfythe managementobjectivesofCategoryII.

Nevertheless,therearenumber a ofsuccessfulmodelstofollow.At13,100ha theBavarianForestNP(Germany)issmallincomparisonwithparksinAfrica orNorthAmerica,butconservestheforestecosystemtoahighstandard:sport huntingisbanned,logginghasnowended,andthelargenumbersofday visitorsareabsorbedrelativelyharmlessly.

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Avitalapproachiszoning,whichmakespossibleahighdegreeofprotectionin onepartof theparkbyallowingsomelevelofnon-damaginguseinotherparts. Forexamplezoningcouldused betomaintainacore areaof,say,alarge nationalparkasCategoryII,buttoallowotherparts ofpark thetobe usedfor limitedgrazing,traditionalhay-meadowsorcross-countryskiing.Theother areasintheparkmightbemanagedasIUCNcategoriesIVorVareas,oras CategoryVI(managedresourceprotectedareas).Zoningisthebestapproach formostlargeprotectedareasintheinhabitedpartsofEurope(Action8.4.1).

ThecentrepieceofnatureconservationinEuropeshouldanetwork be of protectedareasthatfulfilthemanagementobjectivesofCategoryIIorthat includeCategoryIIareaswithinthem.Mostoftheseareaswillberather smallerthanCategoryIIparksinotherregionsoftheworld,andwillbe perhapsoftheorderof5,000-20,000haeach.MuchlargerCategoryIIareaswill probablyonlybepossibleinsubarcticandarcticFinland,NorwayandSweden, inIcelandandinlimitedof partssouthernandsouth-easternEurope.For examplesomenationalparksandnaturereservesinLaplandare 200,000-500,000haeach.

Action8.4.2considershowtoupgradethemanagementofthosesitesthatdo notyetfullyfulfilthecriterion.Action8.4.3willdeterminewherefurther CategoryIIsitesareneeded.Action8.4.4promotestheconceptofCategoryII nationalparks,whicharenotalwaysappreciated.

ACTION

8.4.1Encouragetheintegrated,zonedprotectedarea.

Recommendation.Protectedareaagenciesshouldgivemoreattentionto zoningasthemanagementapproachforprotectedareasincrowded countriesandasa wayofensuringprotectionofvitalnaturalareasto CategoryIIstandards,(seealso5.2.1).

CotoDoriamiNationalPark,Spain

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8.4.2WherenecessaryupgradethemanagementofCategoryIIsites.

Recommendation.ThemanagementplanforeachCategoryIIsiteshould address,amongotherthings:

a) Theextenttowhichmanagementshouldintervenein'natural'succession (forexample,cullingofdeerisessentialinmostEuropeanforeststo permitregenerationintheabsenceofpredatorslikewolfandbear);

b)Theactivitieswhichareincompatiblewithmanagementobjectivesand whichshouldbeeliminatedwithinaspecifiedperiodoftime;

c)Thevisitorimpactsacceptableinselectedpartsofthesites;

d)Identificationofsupportzonesanddevelopmentofmeansfor communityparticipation(seeChapter11.)

The managementplanshouldoutlinetheactivitiesneededtobringthe managementuptotherequiredlevelandsettimetable a foraccomplishing them.Itshoulddefinethestaffneeds,onthebasisthat:

a)AcadreoftrainedstaffshouldbeappointedforeachCategoryIIsite. (SomeGermannationalparkshavenostaffandinsomeGreeknational parksstaffareonlypart-time.)

b) Asuitablyqualifiedprofessionalshouldbeaccountablefortheoverall managementofthearea.

Priority Project19.Provideaservicetosupportupgradingthemanagement ofCategoryIIsiteswherenecessaryandavailableonrequest.Theaimwould betohelpraisestandardsofprotectionandmanagementandtoidentifyany internationalassistancethatmaybeneeded.

ThisshouldbecloselylinkedwithexistingworkbyWCMCandCNPPAto assignprotectedareastoIUCNmanagementcategoriesfortheUNList. WheresitesaspiretoCategoryIIstandardsbutcannotmeetthem immediately,CNPPAshouldnegotiaterecognitionofthesiteasCategoryII ontheUNListinreturnforagreementthatcertainneededmanagement measuresbe putintoforceatmutuallyagreeddatesinthefuture.Thiscould greatlyhelpupgradethemanagementofCategoryIIareas.

LeadAgency:IUCN-CNPPA,involvingWCMCandFNNPE.

8.4.3 IdentifynewsitesforprotectiontoCategoryIIstandards.

PriorityProject14(ii).Preparealistof suitablesitesinEuropeforprotection tostandardsofCategoryII.(AlreadycoveredinmoredetailunderSection 7.3.2,aspartofProject14.)

8.4.4Informpublic theofthevaluesofCategoryIIsites.

Recommendation.Apublicrelationscampaignisneededtoconvincethe publicofthebenefitofprotectingsomesitestoCategoryIIstandards,andof naturalsuccessionasthedominantprocessinsuchareas.Itshouldhighlight presentandpotentialCategoryIIsitesineachcountry.IUCN,FNNPE,WVVF andotherpartnersshouldusetheirnetworkstopublicizetheworkdoneto raisestandardsofmanagement.(Seechapter11).

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8.5CategoryIVhabitat/speciesmanagementareas

Habitat/speciesmanagementareas,moreusuallyknowninEuropeasmanaged naturereserves,makeavitalcontributiontonatureconservation.Thereare probablyover10,000oftheminEurope,manyverysmall.Inadditionthereare numerouspatchesofprivatelandlargeandsmalllookedafterwithsimilar objectivestoofficialnaturereserves.

TheprincipalcharacteristicofCategoryIVsitesisthattheyhavetobemanaged soastomaintainaparticularecosystemorthe habitatofaparticularspecies. Examplesofsuchhabitatsincludereedbeds,alpinepasture,heathermoorland andheathland.

Althoughoftensmall,theytendtobelocatedinplacesvitalforthesurvivalof speciesandhabitats,andsocontributetoconservingbiodiversitytoanextent fargreaterthantheirsizealonewouldimply.

Theycaneitherbeacquiredbytheconservationbody,whethergovernmentalor private,orcanbeestablishedbyeasementsormanagementagreementswith owners.AlthoughtheestablishmentofCategoryIVsitesmaybeopportunistic, itshouldbeguidedbyaclearstrategyonwhichspeciesandhabitatsare prioritiesforconservationinreserves(Action8.5.1).Sitemanagementalsoneeds tobeapproachedinasystematicandbusiness-likewayaspartofanoverall planorstrategy.Thismaynotbeeasy,especiallywhennumeroussmallsitesare involved,oftenmanagedbypart-timevolunteers.

Vitalo t managingCategoryIVsitesisknowledgeaboutthemanagement requirementsoftheindividualhabitatsandspecies.Thereismuchexpertiseon this,butrelativelylittlesharingofinformation,especiallybetweencountries (Action8.5.2).EUROSITEhasbeguntotacklethisthroughitstwinning programme,theencouragementofon-siteworkshopsonmanagementissues andtheprovisionofdatasheetsongrazing.Butmoreisneeded.Forexample,it mightbepossibleforgroupsofprotectedareaauthoritiestosharethecostof developingnewtechniques,ormachines,tomimicthetraditionalmanagement wherethishasnowbecomeprohibitivelyexpensive;forexampletoinventa machinethatcouldcutreedbedswithoutcausingcompaction.

ACTION

8.5.1Takeastrategicapproachtotheestablishmentand managementofCategoryIVsites.

Recommendation.Natureconservationagenciesshouldpreparestrategies oractionplansidentifyingthespeciesandhabitatsofconservationvalueand shouldusetheseplansas thebasisfortheestablishmentofCategoryIVsites. TheseplansmayformpartofimplementationoftheConventionon BiologicalDiversity(Section7.3.3).SeealsoSections4.2and4.3.

8.5.2 Encouragesharingofinformationonmanagementtechniques.

Endorsement.Theplanencouragesandendorsesinitiatives,suchasby EUROSITEandothers,tosharemanagementtechniquesfromonecountryto another,especiallyforindividualhabitattypes.Itendorsestheproposed CNPPA/WCMCprojecttoprovideameansforexchanginginformation.

8.5.3Encouragethegreateruseofmicro-reserves.

Priority Project20.Makeastudyof theuseofmicro-reserves(10haorless) forconservationofbiodiversity,especiallyforplantspecies(seeSection4.3). LeadAgency:To beappointed.

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8.6 CategoryVprotectedlandscapesandseascapes

Protectedlandscapesareareasrecognizedforthespecialqualityof thenatural environment.Suchareasmayhelptoconservenatureandtomaintainwaysof lifethataresatisfyingandinharmonywithnature.Theymayalsooffermodels forsustainableland-use,andarefavouriteplacesforrecreationandtourism.

ProtectedlandscapesinIUCNCategoryVformtwothirdsoftheprotectedarea estateinEurope,butthereisoftenapoorunderstandingoftheirconservation value,andstandardsofmanagementvarywidely.Insomecases,management isalmostnil.

Amajorinitiativeisneededtosetandattainstandardsformanagement.This wouldbeparticularlytimelybecauseofthechangesinEasternandCentral Europe,whichaffectlandownershipandalterthestructureoflocal government.

AlthoughthisplanaddressestheconservationofEurope'snaturalheritage, conservationoftheculturalheritageisalsoimportant.Manyprotected landscapesarerichinarchaeologicalremains,ancientbuildingsandattractive villages.Theactionsin thisSection,andthroughoutthisplan,shouldbe integratedwithsimilar actionsontheculturalheritage.

ACTION

8.6.1 SetmanagementstandardsforCategoryVprotected landscapes.

Priority Project21.Organizeaconferenceontheprotectedlandscape heritageofEurope,withtheaimsof:

a)Highlightingthevalueofprotectedlandscapesandraisingawareness about them;

b) Encouragingbettermanagementofsuchareas;

c) Understandingtheroleoftourisminsuchareas;

d) Identifyingwherethereisscopeforadditionalprotectedlandscapes;

e) SupportingEast-Westlinksandcooperation;

f) ExaminingtheproposedEuropeanRuralLandscapesConvention(see 7.5.1).

LeadAgency:beidentified. To Theconferenceshouldpreferablybeheldina countryofCentralorEasternEurope.

Furtheractionsforprotectedlandscapes/seascapesshouldcomeoutofthe Conference.

8.7 Transfrontierprotectedareas

Most conservationactivitiesoccurwithinasinglecountryorevenpartofa country.Yetmanynaturalfeaturescrossnationalfrontiers.Thisisespeciallyso inEurope,wherecountriesaresmallandnumerous,andwhereareasrichin biodiversity,suchasmountainranges,rivervalleysandenclosedseas,often formthebordersbetweencountries.ToconservenatureataEuropeanlevel, therefore,protectedareasareneededthatstraddleinternationalboundaries.

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ProtectedAreasinEuropethatcrossnationalfrontiers

1 Austria/Hungary: Karst/Aggtelek 22 France/Italy: Femundsmarka/Rogen Neusiedlersee/LakeFerto 12 Czech/SlovakRepublic/ Mercantour/Argentera 32Norway/Finland:Ovre 2 Austria/Germany:TeilbereichPoland:HornaOrava/Babia23 Germany/Czech/SlovakAnarjokka/Lemmonjoki DesUntererInn Gora Republic:Zittauer 33 Poland/Ukraine: 3 Belgium/Luxembourg: 13Czech/SlovakRepublic/ Gebirge/LuzickeHory Bieszczady/Bieszcadzi Belgium-LuxembourgAustria:Sumava/ 24Germany/Czech/Slovak 34Slovenia/Italy: NaturePark Bohmerwald Republic:Sachsische Triglav/ForestaDiTarvisio 4 Belgium/Germany:Haute 14Czech/SlovakRepublic/ Scweiz/LabeRCeske 35 Slovenia/Italy:KarstRegion Fagnes-eifel/NordeifelAustria:Podyhi/ThayaR Schweiz 36 Sweden/Norway: 5 Bulgaria/Greece:Rhodope15 Czech/SlovakRepublic/ 25Germany/Austria:Berch- Sarek/Padjelanta/Stora 6 Czech/SlovakRepublic/ Austria:Trebonsko/ tesgaden/KalkhochalpenSjofallet/Rago Germany:Sumava/ BlockheideEibenstein 26Germany/France:37 Switzerland/Italy: BayerischerWald lb Denmark/Germany Pfalzerwald/VosgesduNord Swiss/Stelvio 7 Czech/SlovakRepublic/ Waddensea 27 Germany/Poland:Oder/Odra38 Yugoslavia/Romania: Poland:Krkonose/KarkonoskiFinland/Russia:Friendship NaturePark Djerdap/Cazanele 8 Czech/SlovakRepublic/Finland/Russia: 28 Hungary/Croatia: 39 Yugoslavia/Greece: Poland:Tarta/TatrzanskiOulanka/PaanajarviMohacs/KopackiRit Galicica/Cazanele 9 Czech/SlovakRepublic/19 Finland/SwedenPerameri/29 Luxembourg/Germany:40 Finland/Russia: Poland:Pieniny/PieninskiHaparandaArchipelago Germano-LuxembourgOulanka/Panozero 10Czech/SlovakRepublic/20 France/Spain:Pyrenees NaturePark/Sudeifel41 CzechRepublic/Slovakia: Poland:Vychodne Occidentales/Ordessa30 Netherlands/Germany:Podyje/Palava/Zahorie Karpaty/Bieszczady21 France/Italy:Vanoise/GranWaddensea 42 Romania/Ukraine:Danube 11 Czech/SlovakRepublic/Paradiso 31 Norway/Sweden: Delta Hungary:Slovak

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Collaborationbetweenthemanagementbodiesoftransfrontierprotectedareas mayextendtoallthefunctionsofmanagement.Particularlyimportantarejoint monitoringprogrammes,coordinatedwatershedmanagement,andjointstaff trainingandexchanges.Therearealsoincreasedopportunitiesfor environmentalinterpretationandeducation,aswellasformakingborder crossingpointsfortourists.

IUCN promotestransfrontierprotectedareasandhaspreparedguidelinesfor theirestablishmentandmanagement.Thereareover30pairs(orother groupings)oftransfrontierprotectedareasinEuropeandseveralmoreare likely,suchasbetweenFrance,ItalyandSwitzerlandforthewiderMontBlanc area.

Box I Theopportunitiesfortransfrontierprotectedareasalong the formerIronCurtain

Until afewyearsagotheIronCurtaindividedEuropethe fromBarentsSeain thenorthtotheBlackSeainthesouth.Onthegrounditwasasophisticated fencewithamoreor lessextensiveforbiddenzoneonitseasternpart,where thenaturalenvironmenthassurvivedrelativelyintact.

Thissituationlastedfor40yearsandledtoanimpressiverestorationof ecosystems.Itwouldbeagreatlossallow to theseecosystemstodeteriorate throughopeningthemtouncontrolledexploitation.

The IronCurtainareaanditssurroundingsofferthepotentialforastring of transfrontierprotectedareas.The'EcologicalBricks'initiativewasformedto takeadvantageofthisopportunityandhasidentified26potentialsitesfor protectedareas,mostofthemalongtheformerIronCurtain.

However, moreneedstobedonetotakeadvantageofthemanyopportunitiesin Europefortransfrontierprotectedareas.Actionsbelowaddressthekeyissuesof establishingtransfrontierprotectedareasandstrengtheningcooperation betweenthenationalcomponentsofsuchareas.

For Europe,withthepresentchanges,tensionsandthreatsofconflicts, particularlyduetoagrowingnationalism,transfrontierprotectedareasprovide manybenefitsandhelppromotecooperationandpeaceratherthanconflict betweennations.AlloverEuropetheideaandpracticeoftransfrontierparks andotherprotectedareasshouldreceivestrongpoliticalsupport.

ACTION

8.7.1Establishtransfrontierprotectedareasandensurethe necessary cooperationbetweentheStatesconcerned.

Recommendation.

a) EachStateshouldevaluatethepossibilitiesforestablishingtransfrontier protectedareasalongitsborders.

b) WhereaneighbouringStatehasestablisheda frontierprotectedarea,the Stateshouldconsiderestablishingafrontierprotectedareaonitsterritory alongside.

c) Wheretwo(ormore)neighbouringfrontierprotectedareasexist,the managementbodiesshoulddevelopjointprocedureswithaviewto integratingtheirmanagementstrategies.

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TherichfloraoftheMaritimebetween AlpsFranceandItalyispartlyprotectedby theMercantourNationalParkinFranceandtheadjoiningArgenteraNaturalParkin Italy.

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Box EIJJSomesuggestionsforpossibletransfrontierprotected areas

Mountains BavarianMountainsbetweenCzechRepublic&Germany Alpine foothillsbetweenAustria&Hungary MontBlancbetweenFrance,Italy&Switzerland Partf o theRhodopeMountainsbetweenGreece&Bulgaria The Peneca-XuresMountainsbetweenSpain&Portugal TheEasternAlpsbetweenSlovenia,Austria&Italy TheStrandjaMountainsbetweenBulgaria&Turkey MountainsbetweenAlbania&Greece TheScandesMountainsbetweenSweden&Norway

Wetlands The Evros-MericDelta(Bulgaria,Greece,Turkey) LowerandUpper LoughErne(Ireland,UK) TheDanubeDelta(Romania,Ukraine)

River Systems

TheDanubeanditstributaries,inAustria,CzechRepublic,Hungary &Slovakia TheMinhoRiverbetweenSpain&Portugal TheElbeRiverbetweenCzechRepublic&Germany TheTorneRiverbetweenSweden&Finland TheRhine&MaasRiversbetweenGermany&Netherlands

Marine andCoastalAreas A CetaceanSanctuaryoffthecoastofSESpain,France&NWItaly TheBonifacioChannelbetweenCorsica(France)&Sardinia(Italy) TheislandsofPianosa(Italy)&Palagruza(Croatia) TheChannelIslands(UK)&associatedFrenchislands&coast BalticareasasidentifiedthroughEC-Nature(seeSection5.3) TheOderRiverbetweenPolandandGermany

Boreal forests Partf o theborderareabetweenFinlandandRussia FurthersitesbetweenNorwayandSweden

Priority Project22.Linktogetherandsupportthevariouspan-European initiatives,otherinvolvedagenciesandprogrammestoensureliaisonandin particularto:

a)Identifythepossiblelocationsforfurthertransboundaryprotectedareas acrossEurope(somesuggestionsaregiveninbox40);

b) ReviseandextendtheIUCNguidelinesfortransfrontierprotectedareas;

c) Publicizeandcelebratebenefits theofthisapproach,showinghow countriescancollaborate.

Lead Agency:ATaskForceofrepresentativesofthevariousagencies involved,coordinatedbyCNPPAandFNPPEwithWCMChelp.

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8.7.2 Promotetheconceptoftransfrontierprotectedareas

Recommendation.StatesandEuropeanbodiesshouldmounta public awarenessexerciseonthevalueoftransfrontierprotectedareasandhow theycanused be topromotepeace,cooperationandunderstandingbetween nations.(SeealsoChapter11.)

8.8Protectedareasasmodelsforthefuture

Modelsareusefulinallwalksoflife.Aspecificcasestudyisusuallymore interestingthanageneralprinciple.Understandingasetofguidelinesinthe abstractmaybehard,butseeingtheirapplicationonthegroundusuallymakes theirlessonsimmediatelyapparent.

Thissectionconsidersprotectedareasasmodelsintwoways.Thefirstisthat someprotectedareascanbemodelsof the bestprotectedareamanagementfor othersintheprofession.Suchmodelscouldhelptospreadinformationonsuch variedproblemsasrestorationofdegradedecosystems;computerizingdataina user-friendlyandcompatibleway;reintroducinglocallyextinctspecies;and establishinghelpfullinkswithneighbouringcommunities.Anotheradvantage isthatitmightgenerate valuablepublicitytoimproveprofessionalstandards.A startingpointforsuchworkisthenetworkofbiospherereserves(box41),since theconceptcontainsessentialelementsfordemonstrationprojects(Action8.8.1). Alliedto thisistheneedforgoodawardschemes(Action8.8.2).

Second, someprotectedareascanbemodelsforsocietyatlargeabouthow peoplecanliveinharmonywithnature.Inthiswaytheirinfluencecanspread intothewidercountrysideandsocietyas awhole.Theplan considertwo approacheshere,thefirstensuringprotectedareainfrastructuremeetsthe highestenvironmentalstandards(8.8.3),andthesecondsupportingtheuseof

Whatarebiospherereserves? Box

Biospherereservesareprotectedestablished areasbyindividualStates,who submitthemtoUNESCOforapprovalasbiospherereserves.Manyare already formallyrecognizedasnationalparksundernationalsystems.

They arenormallyzonedareas,with:

■ACoreZone,forstrictprotectionofnaturalecosystems;

■ BufferZones,forlookingafterculturallandscapesandbuffering impactsonthecorearea;

■ ATransitionZone,fordevelopmentofeconomicactivitiesinan environmentallysoundandsustainableway.

Thustheycombineconservation,representingtheworld'smajorecosystems, andsustainabledevelopment,servingasdevelopmentmodelsforparticular environments.Theyalsoformaworldwidenetworkforecologicalresearch andmonitoring,andaresitesforenvironmentalawareness,educationand training.

So farUNESCOhasapproved311 biospherereservesofwhich127arein Europe.ThemanagementbodiesparticipateintheUNESCO'Manandthe BiosphereProgramme'(MAB)andinthenationalMABCommittees. EUROMABandUNESCOareconsideringtheestablishmentof aEuropean FocalCentreorSecretariattosupportthebiospherereservesinEuropeand linkthemintoanactivenetwork.

ORPARKSF LIFE MANAGEMENT

protectedlandscapesasmodelsforsustainablelivingandsustainable managementofthecountryside(8.8.4).

ACTION

8.8.1 Identifyandpublicizemodelsofgoodprotectedareapractice.

Recommendation.UNESCO/EUROMABisinvitedtoidentify10-20 biospherereservesasmodelsofgoodEuropeanpracticeandofinternational cooperationwithspecialemphasisonthethemesin thisplan.

Priority Project23.Workwitheachofthemodelbiospherereserves identifiedabovetoprepareawell-written,illustratedbookletonwhateach hadlearntandhastooffer.ThebookletscouldbedistributedasaUNESCO seriestoallprotectedareasagenciesandadministrationsinEurope.Lead Agency:UNESCO/EUROMAB.

The bookletswouldbethe basisforwiderpromotion—bothbyUNESCO andotherbodiessuchasIUCN,FNNPEandWWF—ofthemodelprotected areas.

8.8.2Providerespectedawardschemes.

Endorsement.TheplancommendsandendorsestheEuropeanDiploma, awardedbytheCouncilofEuropetoexemplaryprotectedareas.The Councilre-evaluatesprotectedareasreceivingtheawardafterfiveyearsand ensuresthatstandardsdonotslipaftertheAwardismade.

8.8.3Ensureprotectedareainfrastructurefollowsthehighest environmentalstandards.

Recommendation.Protectedareamanagersshouldensurethatprotected areainfrastructurefollowsthehighestenvironmentalstandards,especially inthedesignofbuildingsandtheoperationoftransportsystems(seebox 42).Theyshouldusethesestandardstoshowtheirvisitorshowpeoplecan changetheirlifestylesandreducetheirimpactontheenvironment. PriorityProject24.Provideguidelinesforprotectedareamanagersonthe above.LeadAgency:tobeidentified.

8.8.4Encouragetheuseofprotectedlandscapesasmodelsof sustainablelivingandthesustainablemanagementofthe countryside.

Recommendation.ManagersofCategoryVprotectedlandscapesshould workwithindustry,localcommunities,government,etc.onhowthe protectedareascanbe usedforsustainabledevelopment.Anexamplemight betodevelopsmall-scale,environmentallybenignenergy-generation schemescombinedwithenergyconservationschemesinlocalvillages.

PARKSOR F LIFE MANAGEMENT

Sustainableliving:principlesforprotectedarea Box infrastructure

Whereverpossible,managersshould:

■ Applyprinciplesecological ofbuildingforallconstructionworks.In particularbuildings should:

■e B constructedofmaterialswhoseconstructionorextractionhas notbeenharmfultotheenvironment(e.g.usetimberfrom sustainableplantations,orstonefromsmall-scalequarries);

e■ Baestheticallypleasingandsympathetictothelocalenvironment (e.g.throughuseoflocalmaterials);

■ Notharmhumanhealth(e.g.byavoidinguseofartificial substancesthatemitnoxiouschemicals);

■ Minimizeenergyconsumptionandwhereappropriategenerate energyneededatsource(e.g.byuseofphotovoltaicpanels,small- scalehydro,solarhot-waterheating);

■ Providefortherecyclingofallhumanwaste(forexampleby compostingorganicmatterorbyreedbedsewagesystems)

■ Avoidpollutionofairandwater(e.g.throughtheuseofwaterless toilets);

■ Reducetheimpactoftouristvehicles(e.g.bybanningcarsfromsome roads,takingpeoplebybusinstead,soastoreducebothpollutionand trafficcongestion).Theuseofsolar-assistedelectricvehicles,especially sunnyclimates,maybepossible.

■~t*g>-' <*WfT!**S4Rt5.tf5B p^sM > |§ Buildingsinnationalparks shouldbesympatheticto thelocalenvironment.

PARKSOR F LIFE TRAINING

TRAINING

Staff arevitaltothesuccessfulmanagementofprotectedareasandtheirtraining shouldbeatoppriority.Insomecountries,particularlyinNorth-WestEurope, trainingisrelativelywelldeveloped,butinothers,especiallyinSouthern Europe,theMediterraneanandEasternEurope,resourceshavenotbeen availableandmuchfinancialandtechnicalsupportisneededtoimprovethe situation. CHAPTER9 Themanagementofprotectedareasisbecomingassophisticatedasthat of commercialorganizations,requiringnotonlytechnicalskills,butalsoahigh levelofmanagerialandcommunicationability.Traditionaltrainingfor protectedareastaffhastendedtofocusonspecialistareas,suchasforestry, botany,orzoology,butthisisnolongeradequate:today'sprotectedareasneeda stafffromawiderrangeofbackgroundsandthestaffhavetoundertakea formidablerangeoftasks.

Effectivecommunicationsskillsareparticularlyvital.Protectedareastaffand managersareincreasinglyrequiredtobesalesmen—withtheabilitytoinform andpersuadevisitors,usingeffectivelanguageandpresentationaltechniques. Priorityshouldbegiventotrainingprotectedareastaffandmanagersin communicationsskills.

sTherei alsoaneedforspecialisttrainingtocovernewandemergingissues.An exampleistourism(seeSection3.3),wheretrainingcoursesandseminarsare needednotonlyforstaff,butalsoforlocalcommunitiesandthetourismsector; andwheremeansofexchangingtechnicalinformationbetweenprotectedareas (suchasby groupvisits,workexchanges,studyvisitsortwinning)arealso needed.Thiscanbesupportedbyanetworkofspecialiststoassistindividual protectedareaswhichrequesthelp(seePriorityProject3ondevelopinga tourismservice).Anothercouldbewetlandmanagement,followingthe approachtakenbyIWRBinitstrainingprogrammeforCentralandEastern Europeonwetlandmanagement.

9.1 Actionatthenationallevel

Priority shouldgotothenationallevel,wheremosttrainingoccurs.

ACTION

9.1.1Makeanationalcommitmenttotraining.

Recommendation.Eachcountryshouldprepareandpublishapolicy statementontheimportanceoftrainingforprotectedareamanagementand ontheactionneeded.Throughthatstatement,eachcountryshouldcommita proportionofitsprotectedareabudgettostafftraining.

9.1.2Prepareandimplementatrainingprogrammeforprotectedarea staff.

Recommendation.

a)Eachcountryshouldprepareandimplementatrainingprogrammeto provideregulartrainingtostaffofprotectedareas.Theprogramme should:

i) Ensurethatstaffateverylevel(includingvolunteers)arewelltrained initiallyandthattheirskillsarecontinuallydevelopedandupdated;

ORPARKSF LIFE TRAINING

ii) Includetrainingintheworkplace,aswellasthroughexternal courses;and

iii)Extendtolocalpeople,suchasfarmers,whoareinvolvedinthe protectionofthearea.

Ideallytheprogrammeshouldbedevisedjointlybytheprotectedareas andgovernmentorganization(s)responsibleforthem.

b) Underthisprogramme,themanagementofeachmajorprotectedarea, includingeverynationalpark,shoulddevelopitsownplanfortraining ofstaffandcommitthenecessaryfunds.

9.1.3Providebettertrainingopportunities.

Recommendation.Eachcountryshoulddeveloparangeofin-service trainingopportunitiesandshouldproduceinformationontraining opportunitiesavailable.Whereverpossible,itshouldopenuptraining opportunitiestocitizensfromothercountries.

9.2Actionatinternationallevel

Much canbedoneatinternationalleveltohelpboosttraining:forexample, resourcescanbe pooledtomakeeffectivetrainingmaterials,andplaceson trainingcoursescanbemadeavailabletostafffromothercountriestoreduce overheadcostsandinjectnewperspectives.Themajoractioninthissectionisa substantialprojectwhichseekstoprovidenecessaryguidelines,setstandards andbuildtrainingnetworksacrossEurope(Action9.2.1).Thisshouldbeseenin conjunctionwithPriorityProject10(Section5.2.5)toprovidetrainingcourses forprotectedareastafffromMediterraneancountries.

Mostinternationalactivitysofarhasbeenthe onvaluableapproachesof twinningandstaffexchange.TheNaturalSitesTwinningProgrammeof EUROSITEwassetuptodothis.Otherorganizationscreateorencouragestaff exchangeand/ortwinning,notablytheCouncilofEuropeforDiplomaHolders, UNESCOforBiosphereReserves,andFNNPEforitsmembers.In1993FNNPE publishedareportoutliningpresentactivitiesandmakingrecommendations. EndorsingalltheseapproachesanddrawingontheFNNPEreport,Action9.2.2 callsfortheseinitiativestobeexpanded.

Skinnarvik,Finland

ORPARKSF LIFE TRAINING

ACTION

9.2.1DevelopamajorEuropeaninitiativetoprovideguidance,set standardsand encouragetrainingofprotectedareastaff.

Priority Project25.Setupaprojectto:

a) Determinetherangeofskillsandknowledgeneededtomanage protectedareaseffectivelyandthestandardstobemetineachskill;

b)Suggestthebroadcontentfortrainingcoursesonprotectedarea managementsoastomeetthesestandards.Suchcoursesshould:

i) Developabroadunderstandingoftheenvironmentandoftheinter relationshipsbetweenecological,physical,politicaland socialissues; ii)Provideanunderstandingofcoresubjectssuchas ecology,manage mentplanning,personnelmanagement,researchandmonitoring, interpretation,andcommunicationskills; iii) Offeropportunitiesforlearninglanguages; iv) Fosterthemulti-disciplinaryskillsnecessaryformanagingprotected areas; v) Encouragestudybyon-siteworkinprotectedareas,aswellasinthe classroom.

c)DevelopEuropeanQualityStandardsfortraininginprotectedarea management.(Aprofessionalbodymaybeneededtoestablishand maintainhighstandardsofpractice,andimposecodesofprofessional conduct.)

Onthebasisof(a)to(c),influencethecontentoftrainingby:

a) Preparingguidelinesonhowtodevelopandrunanationaltraining programme;

b) Developingtrainingmaterialsinseverallanguagesfortopicsofuniversal relevance,e.g.environmentaleducation,guidingvisitors,organizational management;

c) Selectingandsupportinganetworkofkeyeducationalandtraining institutionsandprojectstodevelopandsupplytrainingand qualificationsatdifferentlevels;

d)Encouraginguniversitiestoincludecoursesonprotectedareaswithin undergraduateandpost-graduatecoursessuchasonforestry,planning andthebiologicalsciences;and

e) Developinga databaseofEuropeanandregionaltrainingrelevantto protectedareastaff,anddevisewaystocommunicatethisinformationto thosewhoneedit,perhapsthroughanProtectedAreasTraining Handbook.

LeadAgency:FNNPE.Thefirstsetofactionsmaybestbedonebya WorkingGroupofleadingexperts,thesecondsetbystaffappointedunder theproject.

9.2.2Providemoreopportunitiesforexchangeofstaffbetween countries.

Endorsement.ThisplanendorsestheworkofEUROSITE,theCouncilof Europe,UNESCOandFNNPEinfosteringstaffexchangesbetween

ORPARKSF LIFE TRAINING protectedareasindifferentEuropeancountries,andtheEuropeanNatural SitesTwinningProgrammeofEUROSITE,whichpromotestwinning relationshipsbetweenprotectedareas.Itencouragestheseorganizationsto expandthiswork.

Twinningandexchangeopportunitiesshouldfocusonbringingtogether protectedareaswithsimilarhabitats(e.g.coastsorwetlands),similar landscapes,similarmanagementproblems(e.g.tourismpressure)andstaff fromsimilardisciplines(e.g.rangersorinterpretationstaff).Developing languageskillsisanimportantpartofsuchinitiatives.

Recommendation.Thebodieslistedaboveshouldgivemoreemphasisto twinningofprotectedareasbetween'East'and'West',providingtechnical exchangeandcross-culturallinks,fulfillingsomeoftheactionsinSection 5.1.Thetwinningscouldincludeshort-termsecondments,jointseminarson commonproblemsandmaybeprovisionofequipmentlimited andfinancial supportfrom'West'to'East'.

MarchauenNatureReserve,Austria

PARKSOR F LIFE MONITORINGANDINFORMATION

MONITORINGANDINFORMATION

Monitoringisvitaltoprotectedareamanagementbuthasproveddifficultand isoften neglected.Managersneedtoknowwhetherthespeciesandhabitats theyareaimingtoprotectareindeedflourishingandextendingtheirrange, or aredeclining.Theyneedtooffer theirprotectedareasaspartofglobalor regionalmonitoringprogrammes,forexampleonairquality.Andtheyneedto CHAPTER10monitorvisitorandotherimpacts.

Informationisequallyvital.Itisneededtoidentifyareasofbiologicalrichness orheritagequality,andtolocatethesitesofthreatenedspecies.Itisneededto assesseffectiveness the oftheprotectedareasystem.Anditisneededtokeep trackofmanagementinitiativesastheprotectedareascontinuetogrowin numberandsize.

The InformationTechnology(IT)approach(box43),nowbecoming commonplaceinbusiness,couldalsogreatlyhelpprotectedareamanagers.The adventofopensystemsmeansitisfareasiertosetstandardsfordatacapture andexchangethaneverbefore.Thegrowthofcheaptelecommunicationsandof internationalnetworkswithinINTERNETmeansitispossibleforamanagerin onecountrytoexchangemessages,informationandevendatabasesinseconds withcolleaguesinanothercountry.Protectedareamanagersandconservation organizationsshoulddomoretotakeadvantageofthispowerfultechnology.

Box sWhati InformationTechnology?

InformationTechnology(IT)isagroupofenablingtechnologieswhichassist inthegathering,processing,communicatingandpresentationofdataand information.Inbusinesstheyarerapidlybecomingstrategictosurvival,in contrasttoearliermorenarrow,data-processingsystemswere which supportiveincharacter.

ITtechnologiesinclude:

■ Telecommunications ■ Opensystems(i.e.systemsthatcantalktoeachother) ■ Distributedcomputing,e.g.LocalandWideAreaNetworks ■ TheuseofpowerfulPCscombiningstand-aloneandnetworkfacilities ■ Multi-media,i.e.includingimagessound, andusingCD-romandother high torage s media ■ Automaticdata-logging ■ User-friendlyandpowerfulprogramminglanguagesthatmakethe developmentofcomplexdatabasesfareasierthanbefore ■ Electronicmessagingsystems(e-mail) ■ Electronicdatainterchange,soanyusercanaccessorcontributeto centralizeddatabases.

ITtechnologies,incontrasttoearliercomputertechnologies,tendtobefast anduser-friendly.Thusallstaffcanusethemandmanagementstaffcan designapplicationswiththem.

10.1Monitoring

Theprincipallevelofmonitoringshouldbeinternal—withineachprotected areabytheagencyresponsibleforitsmanagement(Action10.1.1).Itsaim shouldbeprimarilytoassistmanagersoftheareaintheirworkbutalsoto providedataforsurveysonawiderscale.Themonitoringshouldinclude

ORPARKSF LIFE MONITORINGANDINFORMATION standardizedandrepeatablesurveys,whichwouldallowcorrectiveactiontobe taken.Itwouldalsoenablemanagementeffectivenesstobeevaluated,atany level—bythemanagersthemselves,bythecountryconcernedandby internationalorganizationsforEuropeasawhole(10.1.3).

Besidestheinternalmonitoring,itisnecessarytohavesomewidersystemsto monitorecologicalchange.MedWet,forexample,isconsideringasystemto monitorMediterraneanwetlands.Suchsystemswouldnotonlyprovide invaluableinformationbutcouldalsoprovideargumentstoconvince governmentsoftheneedforgreaterprotection.

UTheE HabitatsDirectives(seeSection7.2)requiresmonitoringofthe conservationstatusspecies of andhabitatsinprotectedareasestablishedunder theDirective.

ACTION

10.1.1Establishamonitoringprogrammeineveryprotectedarea.

Recommendation.Everyprotectedarea,largeorsmall,shouldhavean internalmonitoringprogramme,basedonthefollowingprinciples:

a) Thesubjectstobemonitored(e.g.visitornumbers,vegetationcover, abundanceofcertainspecies)shouldbelinkedtotheobjectivesthe of protectedarea;

b) Themonitoringrequiredshould beoutlinedinthemanagement plan;

c) Whereverpossiblethework shouldbelinkedtonational monitoringprogrammesandto nationalbiodiversitystrategies.

10.1.2Identifymodelsofeffective monitoringandinformation management.

Recommendation.Anumberof sitesshouldbeidentifiedthrough outEuropeasmodelstodemon strateeffectivemonitoringand informationmanagementof information,inordertoprovide trainingopportunities.Anexample wouldbeS'AlbuferaNaturalPark, Majorca,Spain,wherethemon itoringcapacityisbeingdeveloped incollaborationwithEarthwatch Europe.

10.1.3 Reviewmonitoringin protectedareasfromthe nationalorsystemlevel.

Recommendation.Agenciesman Nationalparks agingprotectedareasshouldreview shouldmonitorthe effectsofpollution

PARKSOR F LIFE MONITORINGANDINFORMATION

atregularintervalshowfartheobjectivesofindividualprotectedareasare beingfulfilledandsoidentifycommonissueswhichneedtobeaddressedat thenationalorsystemlevel.Useofstandardmethodologieswillhelp implementationofinternationalagreementssuchastheEUBirdsand HabitatsDirectives(seeSection7.2).

10.1.4Implementthemonitoringrequirementsofinternationallegal agreementsthatcoverprotectedareas.

Recommendation.Everyinternationallegalinstrument(seeSections7.2-7.5) underwhichprotectedareasaredesignatedshouldhaveamonitoring proceduretoensurethatthedesignatedsitescontinuetomeettheobjectives forwhichtheyhave beenaccepted.AswiththeEuropeanDiploma,such agreementsshouldhave'sunset'clausesinwhichsitesnolongerfittingthe criteriaaretakenoffthelist.(TheRamsarConventionhasamonitoring frameworkthroughtheMontreuxRecordandtheWorldHeritage ConventionisdevelopingimprovedmonitoringtechniquesforWorld HeritageSites.)

10.1.5Provideguidanceandcoordinationtonationalmonitoring efforts.

Recommendation.CNPPAandWCMCshouldpreparestandard methodology,notjustforEurope,onhowtoreviewmanagement effectivenessandthreatstotheintegrityofprotectedareas.

PriorityProject26.Prepareguidelinesorrecommendationsonwhat monitoringisneededforprotectedareasata Europeanlevel,beyond monitoringofmanagementeffectivenessandofthreatstointegrity(see previousaction).LeadAgency:EUROMAB/UNESCO,tocoordinateasmall taskforceincludingIUCN,WCMC,FNNPEandmonitoringexperts, buildingontheworkdoneunderBRIM.

10.2Information

Informationonindividualsitesandprotectedareasystemsisbestassembled andmaintainedbythosemanagingtheareas—e.g.bythenationalparks agency,thedepartmentresponsiblefornatureconservationortheNGOthat managesanetworkofnaturereserves.Thisapproachminimizesthepossibility oferrors,makesupdatingeasiestandensuresthatthedataareavailabletothose whomostneedit—themanagers.(Action10.2.1.)

ThereisalsoaneedforinformationonprotectedareasinEuropeasawhole. Variousdatabaseshaveemergedtoprovidethisinformation,notablythoseof theWorldConservationMonitoringCentreandCORINE,whereasother organizations,suchasUNESCO/EUROMABandFNNPEaredeveloping European-widedatabasestoparticularpurposes(seebox44).TheCouncilof Europe,theRamsarConventionBureau,theWorldHeritageConventionand UNEPalsocollectinformation.Therearealsodocumentationcentres,suchas theInternationalParksDocumentationCenter(CEDIP)inFlorence,Italy.

This rray aofdatabasescausesconfusionandputsexcessivedemandsfor informationontheagenciesthatmanageprotectedareas.TheCNPPAmeeting inNykoping(1993)consideredthatwaysshouldbefoundtoremove duplicationandtoreducethenumberofsimilarrequeststoprotectedarea agenciesforinformation.TheanswertothiswouldbeasingleEuropean ProtectedAreasDatabase(or'megadatabank'),towhichallwouldfreelygive informationandwhichinreturnwouldbeavailableforelectronicaccesstoall

PARKSOR F LIFE MONITORINGANDINFORMATION

who needit(Action10.2.2).Thiscouldeventuallycomeunderthe aegisofthe EuropeanEnvironmentAgency,nowestablishedbytheEuropeanUnionbut withamonitoringandinformationfunctionforthewholeofEurope.

eTob mostuseful,informationaboutprotectedareasshouldberelatedtoother conservationtopics,suchasshowinghowfartheprotectedareascoverthesites ofendangeredspecies.Theresultcanbeanintegrateddatabasesystemforland- useandnatureconservation,suchas theArten-undBiotop-Schutzprogrammin Bavaria(10.2.3).Informationshouldalsobeusedtoassessthreatstoprotected areasandmanagementeffectiveness.

TheN U ListneedsamendmentfortheEuropeansituation.Itissuggestedthat foreachcountrythelistshouldshowthenumberandtotalareaofsitesunder 1000ha,arrangedbymanagementcategoryand/ormanagementagency.

ACTION

10.2.1Improvethegatheringofinformationbyprotectedarea managementagencies.

Recommendation.Everyagencymanagingprotectedareasshouldmaintain adatabasetohelpitmanageitsprotectedareas.so Infarasitispossible, eachagencyshoulduseagreedinternationalstandardsandmakethesedata availableasappropriate.GeographicInformationSystems(GIS)canbea valuabletool,butshouldonlybeusedwhereadequateresourcesandtrained personnelare availablefordatainputandinterpretation.

Priority Project27(a).Developguidelinesformanagementofinformationat sitelevel,includingdefinitionofappropriateinternationalstandardsand drawingontheexperienceof theorganizationsinbox44andofothers.

Present databasesofEuropeanscopeprotected on areas Box

World ConservationMonitoringCentre:Managesadatabaseontheworld's protectedareas,establishedin1981andusedtopreparetheUNListof NationalParksandProtectedAreas,andarangeofotherproducts.WCMCis workingtoimproveaccesstoitsinformationandservices.

nCORINE:A inventoryofsome6000sitesofmajorimportancefornature conservationandofsome13,000designatedareas;aclassificationofhabitat typesinEurope(usedintheEUHabitatsDirective);descriptionofcoding systemsandmethodologyavailable.CurrentlycoverstheEuropeanUnion, butnowbeingextendedtoallofEurope.ManagedbytheEuropean EnvironmentAgency.

FNNPE:FONAD(theGermanSectionofFNNPE)isdevelopingadatabase calledEUROPANtoholdverydetailedinformationonindividual large protectedareas,firstinGermany,laterintherestofEurope,withinstallations intheindividualprotectedareascontributing.Alsocoverssustainable tourism.

EUROMAB:HasprogrammecalledBiosphereReserveIntegratedMonitoring (BRIM).Asafirststep,in1993publishedadirectorycalledACCESSwithdata onthebiospherereservesinEurope,includingresearchandmonitoring activitiesandfacilities.EUROMABplansto setupmonitoringanddata networksunder BRIM.

BirdLifeInternational:Hasadatabaseonthe2500+ImportantBirdAreasin Europe.

ORPARKSF LIFE MONITORINGANDINFORMATION

10.2.2 Streamlineinternationalprotectedareadatabases.

Endorsement.This planendorsestheapproachstartedbyWCMCand CORINEtointegratetheirdatabases,followinganinitiativeoftheCouncilof Europe.ItcallsonthemtoexpandtheireffortsandtoincludeFNNPEand EUROMABintheprocess.

PriorityProject27(b).

a)Continueandcompletetheprocessofdataintegrationmentionedinthe Endorsementabove;

b)IncludeintheGuidelinestobe preparedunderPriorityProject27(a)data standardssothateachmanagementagencycangathertheminimalsetof dataneededtoacommonstandard;

c) Workwiththesecretariatsofthevariousinternationallegalinstruments inEuropetoharmonizetheinformationneededforsitedesignation;

d)Developa planfortheEuropeanProtectedAreasDatabase,shared betweentherelevantagencies,whichwould:

ei) B theprincipal(andifpossiblethesole)Europeaninitiative requestingdatafromprotectedarea agencies; ii)Beavailabletoallwhoneeditandinparticulartoprotectedarea managementauthorities(thedata-providers)onfull,openandfree electronicaccess; iii)Includedigitizedmapsoftheprotectedareasandofkeyfeatures(e.g. habitattypes)therein.

Lead Agencies:WCMCandCORINE,involvingalsoEUROMABand FNNPE.MAB-GermanyandtheFederalInstituteforNatureProtection andLandscapeEcology(Germany)haveofferedtohostaconferenceor workshoptocarryforwardtheproposalfortheDatabase.

10.2.3Ensureeffectivelinkstodatabasesonotherenvironmental topics.

Recommendation.Authoritiesmanagingprotectedareasshouldensurethat theirdataonprotectedareasareeffectivelylinkedtodataonthedistribution ofendangeredspecies,extentofvarioushabitats,thelocationofcultural resources,etc.Thiswouldenablesystematicanalysisofprotectedarea coverageandwouldcontributetosystemplans(Action8.1.2)

Priority Project27(c).Considerhowtoassembledataonthecoverageof individualspeciesandhabitattypesinprotectedareas.Incorporatethisin theguidelinesondatabasesformanagementauthoritiesandimplementitin theproposedEuropeanProtectedAreasDatabase.LeadAgencies:CORINE andWCMC.

10.2.4 EnsuremoreeffectiveuseofInformationTechnology.

Endorsement.Theplanendorsespresentinitiatives,includingtheproposal toputtheCORINEbiotopesdatabasewithitssiteinventoryontoCD-rom andWCMC'sconsiderationofmakingsomeofitsinformationavailableon INTERNET.ItencouragesWCMCtoworkwithotherbodiesinascertaining thepresentelectroniccommunicationsfacilitiesofprotectedareaagenciesin Europeandthentoconsiderhowtolinkthemtogether,withdemonstration projectsandpracticalassistance.

ORPARKSF LIFE PUBLIC SUPPORT

VPARTI

CREATINGHE T CLIMATEFORSUCCESS

Mobilizingpublicandpoliticalsupportforparksandprotectedareasiscrucial totheachievementofallthatissetoutinParksforLife.PartIVaddressesthis vitalsubject.

PUBLIC SUPPORTFORPROTECTEDAREAS

Thegreatestchallengefacingprotectedareaprofessionalsandallenviron mentaliststodayistofindnewwaysofdemonstratingthattheconservationof natureandthesustainableuseofnaturalresourceshasafundamentalrelevance tothedailylivesofpeople,includingthosewhomaynevervisitaprotected

We willnotopenpeople'seyestothevitalimportanceoftheirnatural environmentasalife-supportsystemunlesswealsoopenthedoors:greater CHAPTER11 effortisrequiredtoprovidethemeans,theopportunityandthemotivationfor morepeopletohaveaccesstoparksandprotectedareas.Recreationshouldbe recognizedasre-creation—awayinwhichpeoplecanfindrefreshmentof mindandspirit,canescapethepressuresofurbanlifeandcanre-discover themselvesthroughdirectcontactwithnatureandthebeautyofwild landscapes.Thereisa needtopromotegreaterpublicawarenessofthe recreationalopportunitiesofferedbyprotectedareas.

Althoughestablishedforthe benefitofthenation,protectedareascanstillin someinstancesbeplaceswherevisitorsareseenasaproblem—anintrusion. Thepublicfeel,inevitably,thatparksandreservesarenotreallyanorganicpart oftheirownlives.Theymayrealizethattheseplacesareinsomeway'special' buttheydonotfeelthattheyare speciallyforthem.Parkandprotectedarea managersneedtoemphasizetheenduringhumanpurposesofparksand protectedareasascontributingtothequalityoflife.Ethicalconsiderationsapart, recreationaluseofprotectedareascanleadtostrongersupportforthemfrom theserecreationalusers.Thisisalreadythecaseinmanyprotectedareas. Recreationbringsparksandpeopletogetherandcreatesawiderconstituencyof mutualunderstanding.

Anothervitalwayofbuildingthatpublicunderstandingandsupportis environmentaleducation,whichispractisedbymanyprotectedareasinEurope. Importanttargetgroupsarelocalcommunitiesandvisitors,especiallyyoung people.Itrequiresreadily-availableinformationonprotectedareaissues.

Creatingtheclimateforsuccessdepends,inthefinalanalysis,uponeffective communication.Thisisnoteasy,becauseof theneedtoadaptthelanguageto thetargetaudience,andoftenbecauseofthelackoftimeandresources availableforinformationactivities.Butprotectedareamanagerscanalsorecruit powerfulallieswhonotonlysupportconservationpoliciesbutwillalsohelpin spreadingthemessagetoothers.Examplesincludejournalists,artists,local communitiesandNGOs.Somesuggestionsaregivenbelowonhowtoinvolve them.

Toget themessageacross,protectedareamanagersandenvironmentalscientists mustlearntocommunicateinastyleandin alanguagewhichtheiraudience canreadilyunderstand.Althoughtherearenotableexceptions,environ mentalistscanstilltendtobesomewhatinward-looking,communicatingwith

ORPARKSF LIFE PUBLIC SUPPORT

each other—andevensometimeswiththepublic—inascientificjargonwhich maybequiteincomprehensibletotheordinarycitizen.Communicatingina languageandidiomadaptedtotheneedsandthecircumstancesof thelistener —theyoungortheold,thecity-dwellerorthevillager,thepolicy-makerorthe tourist—isfundamentaltogainingpublicandpoliticalsupport.Theanswer,as always,istospeakandwritewithclarityandsimplicity.

sIti importanttorememberthatmuchoftheaudiencedoesnotliveclosetoa protectedareabutincrowdedtownsandcities,oftenin adegradedurban environment.Asaresult,peoplecanbecomefarremoved,bothphysicallyand emotionally,fromcontactwithnature.Thisinevitablycontributestoalack of understandingwhich,inturn,meansthatpublicsupportforprotectedareasis notbeingoptimized.

Environmentaleducationhastobeginwherethepeoplelive.ManyEuropean countriesarealreadytacklingthiswithimaginativeandinnovativeprogrammes withinandaroundtheircities,bringingnatureandcountrysidebacktopeople. Iftheeducationalorinterpretiveprogrammesbeginonlywhenthepeople actuallyarriveinthenationalparkorreserve,thentheenvironmentalbattlefor heartsandmindsisalreadyhalflost.

Therearealsobarriersof attitudetoachievingenvironmentalunderstandingin ruralareas.Environmentalistscanstillberegardedwithadegreeofsuspicion anddistrust—andsometimesoutrighthostility—bylocalpopulations.In somecasesthiscanarisefromprotectedareasstafffailingtorecognizelocal feelings,traditionsandwaysofearningalivelihood.

fAllo theseissuesrelatingtopublicunderstanding,awarenessandinvolvement werereaffirmedattheIVthWorldParksCongressin1992,whichemphasized thevitalinter-relationshipbetweenprotectedareasandsustainingtheneedsof society.Nowthatvisionhastobetranslatedintoeffectiveaction.Iftheaimisfor allpeopletobeforparks,thenitmustbedemonstratedfarmoreclearlythat parksareforpeopleandarepartof thefundamentallife-supportsystemupon whichhumanityultimatelydependsforitssurvival.

11.1BuildingGreaterPublicAwareness

Amajoreffortisnowneededtoharnesscommunicationsmediainsupportof parksandprotectedareas.Whileawarenesscampaignswillgenerallybemost

Practicaltasksinnaturei» " v -*—, wildlife. i'j&LmKlZSiF*^,.•

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PARKSOR F LIFE PUBLIC SUPPORT effectiveif theycoveracountryorpartofacountry,theirthemeshouldset protectedareasfirmlyintheEuropeancontext.

Usingallavailablepublicityandeducationalmedia,campaignscouldbebuilt aroundthetwolinkedthemesthat:(a)ConservationBeginsatHome;and(b) NatureisaEuropeanHeritage.TheCouncilofEurope'sEuropeanNature ConservationYearin1995couldprovidea newimpetusforrenewed environmentaleducationinitiativeswithinboththeformalandinformal educationsectors.Thefollowingactionsprovideaneducationalandpublic relationsagendaforcarryingforwardtheenvironmentalmessage.Media environmentalcorrespondents—andpoliticalcorrespondents—shouldbe seenasmajoralliesinthecauseofEuropeanprotectedareas.

ACTION

11.1.1 UseParksforLifeasthefocusfornationalorlocalmedia campaignsonprotectedareasandconservation.

Recommendation.Protectedareamanagersenvironmental and bodiesare encouragedtousethisplanasthebasisforpubliccampaignstohighlightthe valuesandbenefitsprotected of areas.Todothis,theyshouldengagethe interestandsupportofmassmediaoutlets.Televisionoffersaparticularly potentmediumofcommunication.

11.1.2 Givemoreemphasistotheuseofprotectedareasfor recreation.

Recommendation.Environmentalagenciesshouldreaffirmthatpublic recreationisaprimaryanddesirableuseofmostprotectedareas— especiallythoseinIUCNCategoriesIIandV,withappropriateprotectionfor themorevulnerablesites.Protectedareamanagersshouldgivemore emphasistotheimportanceofprotectedareasforrecreationandto improvingthequalityofpeople'slives.Visitorstoprotectedareasshould alwaysbemadetofeelwelcome:theyareallpotentialsupporters.

11.1.3Workcloselywithjournalists.

Recommendation.Thereisgreatpotentialforengagingtheinterestof journalistsinenvironmentalissuesandprotectedareas.Theprovisionof regularone-to-onebriefingsbyprotectedareamanagerstojournalists shouldbecomestandardpractice.Groupvisitstonationalparksand protectedareasformediarepresentativesshouldbearranged.AEuropean groupofjournalistscouldbeinvitedtovisitaparkwhereparticularly challengingproblemsarebeingaddressed,providinganewsworthystory.

11.1.4'ArtistsforNatureandNationalParks'.

Recommendation.Protectedareasshouldbepromotedasinspirational locationsforartists,writers,musiciansandphotographers,andahigh- profile'ArtistsforNatureandNationalParks'culturalandeducational programmedeveloped.Exhibitionscouldsubsequentlybemountedin galleries,museumsandparks—therebybringingnationalparksand protectedareastothecitiesinavibrantandimaginativeway.

Priority Project28.Prepareabookasaguidetohowprotectedarea managerscanworkwiththeartscommunity,illustratedwithexamples. LeadAgency:Tobeidentified.

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BoxM E NatureinTowns

Europe hassomeofthelargestandmost crowdedurbanregionsinthe world.Intowns,citiesandtheirsuburbs,itisvitaltopreservegreenareas, whetheraswoodland,lake,bogorfen,orevenasurbanfarmland.Urban plannersareurgedto:

■ Createurbanparksfromexistingopenspaces,whetheronpublicor privateland; ■ Connecttheparkstogetherasfaraspossible,intogreenbeltsorgreen fingersstretchingintothecity; ■ Restorederelictsites,bringingthemintotheparknetwork; ■ Ensurefuturedevelopments(e.g.motorways,urbanrenewal,railways) donotreduceordamagetheexistinggreenspaces; ■ Encouragepeopletovisittheparksbyprovidingfacilitiesforpublic enjoyment,andpromotetheiruseforenvironmentaleducation.

The primaryvalueoftheparksistobringnatureintothecityandtomake natureaccessibleforcitydwellers.Therefore,exceptwithsiteswithveryrare species,etc.,thepublicenjoymentroleshouldtakeprecedenceoverthe natureconservationrole.

11.1.5Bringtheparkstothepeople.

Recommendation.ForpeoplelivinginEurope'smajorpopulationcentres, actionneedstobetakentoremovethebarriersofunderstandingwhicharise fromtheseparationoftownandcountry.Ithastobeshownthatnational parksandprotectedareasplayavitalroleinsustainingallofsociety— includingthosewholiveinthecities.

Centralandlocalgovernmentsshouldthereforecontinue—andexpand— effortstorehabilitateinnercitiesandimprovetheurbanenvironment throughgreenspaceprogrammes.Thesegreenspaces—ineffectprotected areas—offeropportunitiesforrecreationandinformalenvironmental educationinnaturalsurroundings—aswellasprovidingwildliferefuges (seebox45).

11.1.6 Monitorand exchangeinformationonpublicawareness programmes.

Recommendation.Managersshouldregularlyreviewtheeffectivenessof theirpromotional,educationalandinterpretiveprogrammes,andsharethe informationwithcolleagues.Countriesshouldpreparestatusreportson existingpublicawarenesscampaigns,successesandfailures—andlessons learned.Manycountrieshaveexcellentinformationandeducational programmesinplacewhichcouldprovideinvaluableguidelines.Exchange visitsbetweencountriesmanagingprotectedareas(see9.2.2)couldprovidea vehicleforthisinformation-sharing.

11.2 Formaleducation

'Education'asusedhereincludesthedevelopingofawareness,understanding, insightsandskills,andisfocussedonmorethanplants,animalsandbiological processes.Itisaboutmakingpeoplemoreawareoftheirrelationshipswith natureandensuringthattheserelationshipsaresustainable.

Protectedareas—andthewidernaturalenvironment—offerexcellentoutdoor classroomsforeducationinawiderangeofstudies:geography,socialsciences,

PARKSOR F LIFE PUBLIC SUPPORT history, biologyandgeology,inparticular.Researchhasshownthatsite-based fieldstudiesareparticularlyeffective,bothforschoolsandforadults,andallow foracross-curricularapproachtoenvironmentaleducation.Theuseofprotected areasbyschools,collegesanduniversitiesasfocalpointsforbothformaland informaleducationalpurposesshouldcontinuetobe encouraged.Settingclear targetsfortheawarenesstobegeneratedandtheresultsachievedisparticularly important.Astructuredapproach,suchasthatusedinDutchnationalparks, maybeappropriate.

However,inmanyEuropeancountriesonlyasmallproportionoftheschool populationwillhavetheopportunitytovisitprotectedareasinthecourseof theirformaleducation.Wherethisdoeshappenitmaybeonlybeonasingle occasion,limitingitseducationalsignificance.Materialsshouldbeprovided whichthestudentscanusebeforeandaftertheirvisit,allowingthemtoreflect andbuildontheexperience.

Protectedareascanalsoprovideavaluablefocusforprojectwork,eveninthe absenceofafieldvisit.Protectedareamanagersenvironmental and agencies shouldthereforeensurethatrelevantinformation,issuesandcasehistories relatingtotheprotectedareacanbereadilyconvertedintoteachingresources foruseatalllevelsintheclassroom.Theconceptof'bringingtheparktothe school'isequallyvalid:schoolvisitsbyprotectedareastaffcanprovidea valuableeducationalbonus,allowingforthediscussionofabroadrangeof environmental,culturalandsocio-economicfactorsaffectingaprotectedarea.

Educationrelatedtoprotectedareashastraditionallytendedtoconcentrateon describingnaturalhistory,withlessonexploringthesocio-economicand culturalissuesforlocalcommunitieswhoselivesaredirectlyinfluencedbythe existenceoftheprotectedarea.Moreemphasisshouldbegiventoamore holisticapproachtoaprotectedareaanditsproblems.

Manyschoolshavedevelopednatureareaswithintheirschoolgrounds— essentiallyprotectedareasinminiature,whichprovideateaching resourceand alsocontributetoexpandingthe'greenspace'withinurbanareas.

Thevitalmatteristomotivateandexcitechildren—throughdirect involvementwherepossible—sothattheywanttoconservenature.Thereis alreadyencouragingevidenceofagrowingawarenessofenvironmentaland protectedareaissuesamongyoungpeople,whorepresentourbesthopeforthe future.Environmentaleducationis,afterall,educationforlife,whichtomany childrenisalreadyaself-evidenttruth.Thisexistinginterestinenvironmental topicsamongsttheyoungcanbuilt be uponthroughimaginativeenvironmental projectswithintheframeworkoftheformaleducationsystem.

The educationalapproachshouldbebasedupondiscoveryratherthanby presentingready-madefactsandopinions.Thepresentationoftoomanyfacts caninhibitthesenseofdirectinvolvementanddiscovery—andalsoinhibits thenaturalcuriousityofachild.

At universitylevel,althoughprotectedareamanagementisnotgenerally offeredaspecific as universitycourse,anumberofgraduateandpostgraduate coursesincludeenvironmentalplanningandnaturalresourcemanagement,and moresuchcoursesareneeded.Alsoteachingshoulddo moreontheissueof sustainabledevelopment,withitscomplexethicalandculturalimplications.

Universitiescan—anddo—playanimportantroleinresearchrelevantto protectedareaandhabitatmanagement.Indeed,protectedareascanoffer endlessopportunitiesforengaginguniversitiesinthecreativeinterchangeof ideas.Inadditiontothenaturalsciences,disciplinessuchasplanningand architecture,sociology,engineeringandeconomicscanparticipateinawide rangeof issuesconcernedwiththeplanningandmanagementofprotected

PARKSOR F LIFE PUBLIC SUPPORT

areas. Examplesincludetrafficmanagement,designofstructuresinsensitive locations,andmonitoringvisitorimpacts.Universitiescanalsohelpinthefield ofenvironmentaleducationtrainingandresearch.Forexample,teachertraining collegescanencouragetheirstudentstodoprojectsonorinprotectedareas.

Theformaleducationsystemhasa crucialroletoplayinsupportofEuropean protectedareasandthefollowingactionsareproposed.

ACTION

11.2.1 Useprotectedareasasoutdoorclassrooms.

Recommendation.Protectedareamanagersshouldencourageuseoftheir areasasoutdoorclassrooms,withon-sitestaffavailabletoreceive educationalgroupswherefeasible.

11.2.2 Bringtheparktotheschool.

Recommendation.Recognizingthattherecanbeconstraintsonthe opportunitiesforschoolvisitstoprotectedareas,protectedareamanagers shouldpreparestudymaterialsforuseinschools.Visitsschools to by protectedareastafftoencouragedebateonalltheissuesaffectingprotected areasshouldbeahighpriority.Thedevelopmentofnatureareasinschool groundsshouldalsobeencouragedasbothateaching resourceandas'green space'—aprotectedareainminiature.

11.2.3Buildenvironmentaleducationintothecurriculum.

Recommendation.Governments,andeducationalauthoritiesatthenational level,shouldgiveprioritytoensuringthatenvironmentaleducationisfirmly builtintothecurriculum.Theapproachshouldbased beupondiscovery. Environmentaleducationshouldregarded be asacross-curricularsubject whichpermeatesallformaleducation.

11.2.4 Supportfromuniversitiesforprotectedareas.

Recommendation.Thenumberofgraduateandpostgraduateuniversity coursesofferingopportunitiesforappliedplanningandresource managementskillsinprotectedareasshouldbeincreased.Thereshouldbe supportfromawiderangeofuniversitydisciplinesonprotectedarea managementandplanning,includingarchitectureanddesign,engineering, sociologyandeconomics.Theresearchroleof universitiesisalsovital.

11.2.5 Includetheissueofsustainabledevelopmentintheformal education system.

Recommendation.Thecomplexglobalconceptofsustainabledevelopment requirestobefullyaddressedwithintheformaleducationsystem.Caring fortheEarthprovidesastartingpoint,butfurthereducationalmaterialsfor schoolsanduniversitiesareneeded.

1 1.3Providinggoodinformationandfacilitiesforvisitors

Good informationisanimportantfoundationstoneforbuildingsupportforthe workofprotectedareas.Itcanhelptosatisfyagrowingdemandforinformation aboutnatureandlandscapes.Itcanbeusedasamanagementtooltosupport conservationaims.Andaboveall,itcaninspirevisitorswiththeknowledgeand enthusiasmofthosewholiveorworkinthearea.

ORPARKSF LIFE PUBLIC SUPPORT

Informationprovidedforvisitorsshouldmakethemfeelwelcomeandhelp themtoenjoythemselves.Needlesstosay,publicationsshouldbepleasurableto readandeasytounderstand.Jointinformationprojectswithother organizations,usingprofessionalwritersanddesigners,cangreatlyhelp.

Informationmaterialsneedtobeadaptedtodifferentaudiences.Thesemay includepeoplewithageneralinterest,childrenofdifferentages,localpeople, specialists(e.g.botanists,ornithologists,climbers),andpeoplefromother countrieswhodonotspeakthelanguageofthearea.

Tosoundacautionarynote,displaysandinformationmaterialsshouldavoid beingtooprescriptiveabouthowvisitorscanenjoythepark.Thisisacommon faultwithmuchinterpretation.Also,parkmanagersshouldrespectthe wildnessof nature,avoiding,forexample,toomanysignsandover-developed paths.

The needtoprepareinformationalmaterialscanbeagoodexcusetohavea productivedebatewithlocalindustries(e.g.'Please,exactlywhatisthe pollutionemittedfrom yourfactorysowecangetitrightinourschools factsheet?'),andtheeducationalprocesscanattimehelptomediatebetweenthe parkandanyneighbouringindustries.

Informationmaterialscanbebackedup byinterpretationon-site.Thisinvolves theselectiveuseofdisplaysandartifactstostimulatepeopletobecomemore enthusiasticaboutconservationandtobecomemoreinvolved.Box46gives someexamplesofthetechniquesused.

Examplesofinterpretativetechniques Box

■ Newspapers,broadsheets,leafletsandbooks; ■ Videos,slideshows,films,tape-recordedinformation; ■ Informationpanels,trails,exhibitions,information/visitorcentres; ■ Rangers,guidedleaders, walkeducationandinformationstaff; ■ Liveinterpretationusingdramaandthevisualarts; ■ Computers,includingtouch-screensand games.

A widelyusedapproachtoenvironmentaleducationisthevisitorcentre.The constructionofanexpensivecentreisfrequentlyusedtoillustratethesuccessof theeducationprogrammeofaprotectedarea.Inpurelyeducationalterms, however,suchcentresaredifficulttojustifyandarigorousanalysisofcostsand benefitsisneeded.Forexample,FieldCentres,whichBritainpioneeredinthe 1960's,areeverywhereunderpressureandeachyearmoreareclosed.Instead, someprotectedareasarenowpioneeringtheideaofaFieldStudyCentreina rucksack.

A benefactormayprovidethebuildingofavisitorcentre,butthemaintainance costscanproveamajordrainonfunds.Numbersofvisitorstoavisitorcentre arenoindicationofitsvalue.Whohasnotwalkedbrisklypastwallslinedwith posters,ordarkenedroomswithelaboratedisplaysinordertogetoutsideinto nature?Morecarefulassessmentoftheuseandvalueofvisitorcentresis needed.

The bestapproachmaybetoseevisitorcentresmoreascommunicationfacilities andlocalcommunitycentresratherthanorientatedspecificallyfor environmentaleducationorinterpretation.Forexample,theaimsofthe InformationCentreatTriglavNP,Slovenia,includerevitalizinglocaltraditions, providingaplayschoolforyoungchildren,andprovidingthedoctor'ssurgery. InthiswaytheCentreisfullyintegratedwiththelocalcommunityandfulfilsa rangeoffunctions.

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ACTION

11.3.1 Provideadequateinformationmaterials.

Recommendation.Everyprotectedarea,howeversmall,shouldhavea pamphletorfactsheetavailableforvisitors.Thisshouldincludeamapand shoulddescribe:

a) Whattheprotectedareaseekstoconserve; b)Whatareitsmainfeatures; c) Wherevisitorscangoandwhattheycando; d)Facilitiesforvisitors; e) Anyrulesforvisitorsandwhytheyarenecessary.

Feedbackisimportanttooandasimplequestionnairecouldinvitevisitors' viewsoftheprotectedareaanditsservicesandfacilities.

11.3.2 Usearangeofinterpretativetechniques.

Recommendation.Protectedareamanagersshouldusearangeof interpretativetechniquestomeetlocalinformationneedsand whichfitin withthecharacterofthelocalenvironment.Theyshould,however,minimize theenvironmentalofthetechniques impactused.

11.3.3 Makeappropriateuseofvisitorcentres.

Recommendation.Visitorcentrescanbeimportantanduseful,butmanagers shouldavoidmakingthemover-complexandprovidingtoomuch 'informationhardware'.Greatcareshouldtaken bethatthestructureofthe visitorcentredoesnotintrudevisuallyordirectattentionfromthetrue valuesofaprotectedarea,whichisbestexperiencedatfirsthand.Inmany protectedareas,thereisalottobesaidforthevisitorcentreassimplyaplace toshelterfromtherain,collectaleafletandmaybegetacupoftea.

Larger visitorcentrescanneverthelessbegoodplacestoprovideshort coursesorprogrammesforschoolsandothervisitors.Theycanbesuitable placesinwhichtoimplementsomeoftherecommendationsin thischapter andelsewhere,forexampleworkingwithartists(11.1.4)andabasefor a Friendssociety(11.4.2).

11.3.4Ensurepublicaccesstomanagementinformation.

Recommendation.Governmentsshouldguaranteetherightofpublicaccess toallrelevantinformationrelatingtoprotectedareapoliciesandplans.Since taxpayerspayforthemaintenanceandmanagementofmostprotectedareas, thereshouldapresumption be thatthepublichasarighttoinformation— andthatgovernmentsandprotectedareaagenciesshouldbeseentooperate inanopenandaccountableway.

1 1.4Enlargingthebaseofsupportersforprotectedareas

Protectedareasneedallthefriendstheycanget.And,asoutlinedinSection8.2, supporterscanbecomepartnersinmanagement,takingonvitaltasks.Thebest supportersofallarelocalpeople,thesubjectofthenextsection.

As partofthefabricofacountry,protectedareasneedbothgovernmentaland non-governmentalsupporters.Thefirstshouldbemotivatedbythepublic

PARKSOR F LIFE PUBLIC SUPPORT

'good',butthesecondmayneedtoreceivebenefitsfromtheprotectedarea.As longasprovidingthe benefitsdoesnotdetractfromconservationaims,these benefitscanbecomethestrongestrootsputdowninthecommunitytoensure theprotectedareascanflourishandsurvive.

Possiblesupportersforprotectedareasinclude:

■ Farmersandforesters:AsmanagersofmostofruralEurope,farmersand forestersarevitalpartners.Muchmorecouldbedonetoinvolvefarmersin protectedareas,especiallyasfarmersneednewsourcesofincomeatthis timeofagriculturalsurpluses(Section3.1).Andforesterscouldmanagetheir forestslessintensively(Section3.2),establishingprotectedareasover importantforestsites.

■ FisheriesOrganizations:Protectionofnurseryandspawninggroundsis essentialtomaintainingcommercialfishstocks(see4.2.5).Freshwaterfish- farms,whichareverywidespreadinCentralandEasternEurope,maybean environmentallybenignformof livelihoodinprotectedlandscapesandare importantforwaterbirds.

■ Hunters:Inmanycountries,huntingorganizationsmanagelargeareasin naturalorsemi-naturalas conditionshuntingreserves.Butsustainability mustbeacriterion.Andhuntingisnotappropriateinprotectedareaswhere conservationofnatureistheprimeobjective.

■ Municipalauthorities:Parksintownsandcitiesarepotentiallyimportant, sometimesasprotectedareasintheirownright,butalwaysfor their educationalpotential(seebox45).

■ TheChurch:Religiousorganizationsshouldsetoutamoralagendafor conservationofnature.Theyalsoownlargeareasoflandoftenwithgreat naturalassets,suchasMtAthosandsomeof theSporadesIslandsinGreece, whereprotectionmaybeneeded.

■ Industryandlocalbusinesses:Industrycouldbeanimportantpartnerin protectedareas:byadoptinghighstandardsofenvironmentalprotection(see Chapter3),byallowingpartoftheirlandtoformlocalnaturereserves,and bysupportingNGOsandcommunitygroupsintheirwork.

■ Themilitary:DespitealargereductioninthemilitarypresenceinEurope, muchlandremainsinmilitaryuse.Itisafeatureofsuchlandthatthereis littleinterventionandnaturalvaluesarethereforeoftenhigh.Military authoritiesshouldadoptconservationpoliciesforsuchareas.

■ NGOs:Conservationgroupscanplayseveralvitalrolesinsupportof protectedareas:asownersandmanagers;asorganizersofvoluntaryeffortin theirmanagement;asbuildersofcapacityespeciallyatthelocallevel;andas advocatesforprotectedareas.Governmentsshouldseektheiradvice, welcometheirsupportandtreatthemaspartnersinimplementingpolicy. sThisi farfromacompletelist:forexample,landscapearchitectsrestoreand careforhistoriclandscapes;andarchaeologistsandbodiesresponsiblefor ancientheritageprotecthistoricsitesthatoftencontainvaluable semi-natural habitats(thereareover13,000scheduledAncientMonumentsinEngland alone).Indeed,itishardtothinkofasectorofsocietythatcouldnotcontribute toprotectedareas.

PARKSOR F LIFE PUBLIC SUPPORT

ACTION

11.4.1 Encourageawidebaseofsupporterstotheprotectedarea.

Recommendation.Protectedareamanagersshouldadopta styleof operatingthatencouragesawidebaseofsupporterstotheprotectedarea.

11.4.2Encouragetheestablishmentof'FriendsofProtectedAreas' clubs.

Recommendation.Protectedareamanagersboards andshouldencourage theformationofasocietyoffriendsforanindividualprotectedarea.This canprovidesupport,lobbying,andinformedadvice.Themorethesocietyis community-basedthebetter,sincethiswillminimizethedangerof antagonismbetweenlocalpeopleandwell-meaningoutsiders.

11.5 uilding B thesupportoflocalcommunities

Communitysupportisvitaltothelong-termsuccessofprotectedareas.Without it,protectedareascanneverfullyachievetheiraims.Thesupportofthe communityisparticularlyimportantinEurope,whereprotectedareasare usuallyclosetocommunitiesorincludethemwithintheirboundaries.The democraticparticipationoflocalcommunitiesinthedecision-makingprocesses whichaffectprotectedareas—andtherebyaffectthelivesoflocalpeople—is ofparamountimportance.Governmentsandprotectedareaagenciesshould seektheparticipationoflocalcommunitiesintheestablishmentand managementofprotectedareasatalltimes.

There hasbeenalengthyhistoryofdistrustandsuspicionamongsomelocal communities,whomayseeenvironmentalprotectiondesignationasathreatto —andanunwelcomecontraintupon—traditionallandusepractices. Understandably,ruralcommunitieswithculturalrootsstretchingbackfor centurieshaveadeepattachmenttotheland.Assuchtheyhaveagreatdealto offerinknowledgeandexperiencewhichprotectedareamanagersshould welcomeandrespect.

The conceptofamovetowardsjointnational-localpartnershipmanagementof protectedareascouldofferasolutiontowhathasbeenalong-standingconcern forlocalcommunitiesworldwideinthehistoryofnationalparksandprotected areamanagement(see8.2).

ACTION

11.5.1 Workwithlocalrepresentativesandleaders.

Recommendation.Conservationagenciesandprotectedareamanagers should:

a)Workwithlocalrepresentativesandleaderstodevelopcollaborative activitiesthroughalocaldiscussionforum.Alltopicsshouldbeopento discussion,butgoodonestofocusonincludethepotentialinvolvement oflocalrepresentativesonmanagementbodies,visitoraccessandlong- termaims;

b)Discusswithlocalpeopletheneedforspecificregulationsand managementmeasures,collectingtheiradviceandgainingtheirsupport;

c)n I collaborationwithlocalpeople,findwaysinwhichtheprotectedarea canhelpthemtomaintaintraditionallifestylesandculturalidentity;

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d) Respectandbuilduponthenaturalpridewhichlocalcommunitieshave intheirownlocalheritage,encouragingasenseoflocalownershipofthe

11.5.2Permitandencouragelocalpeopletomakeuseofthefacilities oftheprotectedarea.

Recommendation.Protectedareamanagersshouldmakeavailablethe facilitiesoftheprotectedareaforlocalneeds,e.g.healthclinics, telecommunicationsfacilities,officeskills,andwhereappropriateencourage localpeopletousethem.

Inparticulartheycanhelplocalpeopletakeadvantageoftheopportunities theprotectedareamaybringtonearbyvillages,e.g.forguesthouses, restaurants,smallmuseums.Itmaybebettertohelplocalresidentslearn cateringandhotelmanagementthan,say,birdidentification.

Endorsement.ThePlanendorsesWWF'sCADISPAProgramme,whichaims tosimultaneouslypromoteruraldevelopmentandsolveenviromental programmes.Itsapproachistouseformalandcommunityeducationtoraise people'sawarenessoftheneedtoconservetheirnaturalsurroundings.For example,CADISPAhasbeenhelpingthevillagersnearPrespaLakein northernGreececontinuetograzetheirlocalcattle,somaintainingthereed bedsaroundthelake.

11.5.3Ensurelocalpeoplehaveasmuchaccesstotheprotectedarea aspossible.

Recommendation.Protectedareamanagersshouldensurethattheprotected arearemainsasaccessibleaspossibletolocalpeople,andonlyremove previousrightsofaccesswhentheconservationneedforthisis overwhelming.

Local peopleshouldbe abletocollecttraditional productsfromwithin protectedareaswhere thisdoesnotconflict withconservationaims.

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WORKINGTOGETHERTOIMPLEMENT THEPLAN

Cooperationamongallconservationbodiesandinternationalfundingwillbe vitaltoimplementingthisplan.ItisnotaplanforIUCN,butaplanproduced throughthenetworksofIUCN,FNNPEandotherpartnersforimplementation byallagenciesinvolvedinprotectedareaissues.Onlybyacreativesynergy amongallthemanyinitiativesinEuropecanitsaimsbeachieved. CHAPTER12 This lastchapterisabouttheimplementationof theplan.Itisdividedintothe essentialactionatthenationallevel(Section12.1),thenecessarysupporting actionattheinternationallevel(Section12.2)andonencouragingand maintainingthevaluablepartnershipsdevelopedinpreparingtheplan(Section 12.3).

ThroughCNPPAandtheEuropeanProgramme,andworkingwithitsmembers inEurope,IUCNwilloverseeandcoordinatetheimplementationofthePlan (12.2.2).Basedonitsexperienceinthefield,FNNPEcouldtaketheleadon training(Chapter9)andontourismissues(Section3.3);WCMConinformation anddata-management,inclosecooperationwithCORINE,EUROMABand FNNPEandotherdataagencies(Section10.2);andWWFoneducationand publicawareness(Chapter11).

12.1 Nationalactionstoimplementtheplan

Mostimportantdecisionsaboutprotectedareas,forexamplethe creation of a newnationalparkandthefundingavailabletotheprotectedareaagency,are takenatnationallevel.Thereforethemostimportantactionstoimplement ParksforLifeareatthenationallevel.

Nationalandsub-nationalgovernmentsshouldreviewtheiractionsand policiesonprotectedareasagainsttheprinciplesandRecommendationsinthe planandmakeanychangesnecessary.Differentcountrieswillfinddifferent waysofdoingthis,butitisrecommendedthateverycountrysetupaforumfor discussingandcarryingforwardtheplan(Actions12.1.1).Somecountriesmay wishtogofurtherandprepareanactionplanforprotectedareasintheir country(Action12.1.2).

National non-governmentalorganizations(NGOs)activeinconservation should(a)carryoutactivitiesintheplanwhereappropriate(e.g.managinga protectedarea);(b)lobbygovernmentbodiesforeffectiveimplementationofthe plan,especiallyatthelevelofpolicyandfinancialcommitment;(c)actas watchdogs,monitoringimplementationandreportingoncaseswhere implementationisnot succeeding;and(d)raisepublicawareness.

ACTION

12.1.1 Convenenationalforums.

Recommendation.Eachcountryshouldsetupanationalforum,including representativesfrombothgovernmentalandnon-governmental organizations,toconsiderimplementationoftheplanintheircountry. Wheretheyexist,IUCNNationalCommitteescouldbeusedassucha forum ortocreatesuchaforum.Theforum,preferablyatitsfirstmeeting,should agreeonaFocalPointforimplementationinthatcountry.TheFocalPoint wouldthenbeIUCN'sfirstpointofcontactinthecountryforissuesrelating toimplementationoftheplan.

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12.1.2 Developnationalactionplanswhereappropriate.

Recommendation.SomecountriesmayfindithelpfultoprepareaNational ActionPlanforProtectedAreas,usingParksforLifeasatemplate.The wealthofmaterialsubmittedonnationalprotectedareaneedsduringthe preparationoftheplan suggeststhatthiswouldbeworthwhileinmany countries,especiallythosewithweakprotectedareasystemsorwithfast- changingpoliticalandadministrativestructures.

12.2Internationalactionstoimplementtheplan

Nationalactionneedstobebuttressedandsupportedbyinternationalaction.

Inter-governmentalorganizationshaveakeyroletoplay:

■ TheEuropeanMinisters'EnvironmentConferenceandinstitutions,andthe UNEconomicCommissionforEurope(UN-ECE),throughtheinclusionof therecommendationsinthisplanintheir'EnvironmentforEurope'process andEnvironmentalActionProgramme(see1.3.1);

■ TheCouncilofEurope,inparticularthroughtheimplementationoftheBern Convention(Section7.4.1),throughtheEuropeanDiplomaaward(Section 8.8.2)andthepreparationfortheEuropeanEnvironmentMinistersMeeting;

■ TheEuropeanCommission,through,amongotherthings,thereformofthe CommonAgriculturalPolicy(Section3.1),theimplementationoftheBirds andHabitatsDirectives(Section7.2),theprovisionofenvironmental safeguardsindevelopmentprogrammes(8.3.4)andtheprovisionofgrants forprotectedareas(Section8.3.3);

■ TheEuropeanParliamentshouldensuretheneedsofprotectedareasare fullyincorporatedintoEUpolicyandlegislation,especiallythroughthe implementationofEUDirectives(Section7.2);

■ UNESCOthroughtheWorldHeritageConvention(Section7.3.2)andthe biospherereservenetworkcoordinatedthroughEUROMAB(Section8.8), withspecialreferencetomonitoring(Section10.1)

■ The RamsarBureauthroughanincreasedeffortimplement to theRamsar ConventioninEurope(Section7.3.1);

■ Theinstitutionsof theBarcelonaConvention(Mediterranean),theHelsinki Convention(Baltic)andtheParisConvention(NEAtlantic)andtheir associatedorganizationsthroughestablishingnetworksofmarineprotected areasintheirrespectiveseas(Sections5.2-5.4);

■ TheEuropeanEnvironmentAgencyinmonitoringandtheintegrationof datasetsonprotectedareas(Chapter10).

Non-governmentalorganizationswithinternationalmandatesandrolesare askedo t giveparticularattentiontotheplanandtoconsiderhowtheycan contributetoitsimplementation.TheyincludeBirdLifeInternational,Coalition CleanBaltic,Commissioninternationalepourlaprotectiondesregionsalpines (CIPRA),Earthwatch(Europe),EcologicalBricksInitiative,European EnvironmentalBureau(EEB),EuropeanHabitatsForum,EuropeanUnionfor CoastalConservation(EUCC),EUROSITE,FriendsoftheEarth,Global2000 (CentralEurope EastGroupforEnhancingBiodiversity—CEE-WEB), InternationalWaterfowlandWetlandsResearchBureau(IWRB),International YouthFederation,Plantlife,RegionalEnvironmentalCentre(Budapest),Societas EuropaeaHerpetologiaandSocietasEuropaeaLepidopterologica.

ORPARKSF LIFE Nationalcentresrelatingtoprotectedareasandwithinternationalmandates should alsoconsiderhowbesttheycancontributetoimplementingtheplan. Training,awareness-buildingandeducationmaybeparticularlysuitabletopics. SuchcentresincludetheEuropeanCentreforNatureConservation (Netherlands),theInternationalParksDocumentationCentre(CEDIP) (Florence,Italy)andtheInternationalCentreforProtectedLandscapes(ICPL) (Aberystwyth,UK).

ACTION

12.2.1 ProvideanadvisoryservicefromCNPPAmembers.

Priority Project29.BuilduptheCNPPAnetworkinEuropesothatrequests toIUCNforhelpon Europeanprotectedareaissuesarepassedtorelevant CNPPAmembers,whowouldbeencouragedtomakefieldvisitsfunded

:Table5 SummaryListofPriorityProjects

No.SectionName

1 2.3.1 Raising standardsofland-useplanning 2 3.2.2 Guidelinesonreshapingmanagedforests 3 3.3.5 SustainableTourismCharterandService 4 3.4.1 Advicen o howtoreducetheimpactoftrafficinprotected areas 5 4.2.2 The conservationvalueofmilitaryland 6 4.3.5 IdentificationofImportantPlantAreas 7 5.1.1 Effectsf o landredistributioninCEEC 8 5.1.2 Study visitsfromEasttoWest 9 5.2.1 Conferenceontheregenerationofruraleconomiesthrough national parks 10 5.2.5 TrainingforprotectedareastafffromMediterranean countries 11 5.4.4 SupportforaprotectedareasprotocolfortheNEAtlantic 12 7.1.1 Environmentallawsupportserviceonprotectedareas L3 7.3.1 ImplementationoftheRamsarConventioninEurope 14 7.3.2 IdentificationofpotentialNaturalWorldHeritageSitesand 8.4.3 sitesforpotentialCategoryIIprotectedareas IS 7.3.2 Identificationofoutstandingculturallandscapes 16 7.5.1 Feasibilityof aRuralLandscapesConvention 17 8.1.5 Guidancen howto oapplytheIUCNmanagement categoriesinEurope IS 8.2.4 Promotionofjointmanagementinprotectedareas 19 8.4.2 Serviceo t supportupgradingthemanagementofCategory IIsites 20 8.5.3 Studyn o theuseofmicro-reserves 21 8.6.1 ConferenceontheprotectedlandscapeheritageofEurope 22 8.7.1 Supporttotransfrontierprotectedareas 23 8.8.1 Booklets on modelsofgoodprotectedareapractice 24 8.8.3 Guidelinesonenvironmentalstandardsforprotectedarea infrastructure 25 9.2.1 Guidance,standardsandpromotionoftrainingfor protectedareasstaff 26 10.1.5 Guidance andcoordinationtonationalmonitoringefforts 27 10.2.1/2/3Streamliningofinternationalprotectedareadatabases 28 11.1.4 Bookn o workingwiththeArtscommunity 29 12.2.1 AdvisoryServicefromCNPPAmembers 30 12.2.2 Oversight andcoordinationofimplementationoftheplan

PARKSOR F LIFE WORKING TOGETHER

fromtheproject.Alsomakeofferstocountriesneedingassistance,especially thosementionedintheplan.LeadAgency:IUCN(throughCNPPARegional Vice-ChairforEurope.)

12.2.2Overseeandcoordinateimplementationoftheplan.

CNPPA hassetupaSteeringGroupchairedbytheCNPPAVice-Chairfor Europetopromoteandoverseeimplementationoftheplan.

PriorityProject30.ThroughCNPPAandtheEuropeanProgramme,IUCN shouldspearheadtheimplementationof theplan.Todothis,itshould:

a) AppointaEuropeanProtectedAreasOfficer,whosetermsofreference wouldinclude:

i) Seekingcollaborationacrosstheregionforimplementingtheplan; ii)UtilizingthevariousnetworksofIUCNtopromoteimplementationof the plan; iii)Actingasafocalpointforsupportandcontributionstoimplementing the lan; p iv)Monitoringtheimplementationandreportingannuallytoalldonors, partners andcontributorsonimplementation; v)Keepingtheplaninthepubliceye.

b)TaketheleadincarryingoutthosePriorityProjectswherelead responsibilityisassignedtoIUCN.

12.3 Encourageandmaintainthepartnershipsdeveloped inpreparingplan the

Asmanyas200differentorganizationsandindividualshaveparticipatedin preparingParksforLife.EveryEuropeancountryhasbeenrepresentedinthe process.InaregionlikeEurope,wherethereso aremanydifferentorganizations andinitiatives,thispartnershipisanassetofincalculablevalue.Itisvitalto keepithealthyandintactinthemovefrompreparingtheplantothemore difficultstepofimplementingit.TheActionsbelowaredesignedtoaddress this.

ACTION

12.3.1HoldAnnual an Forumforallpartnersandinterestedparties thatareinternationalincharacter.

Recommendation.heCNPPASteering T Groupfortheplan—see12.2.2— isplanningtoarrangeanannualforumopentoallinternationalpartners andotherstomonitor,planandcoordinateimplementationoftheplanata nationallevel.

12.3.2 ConveneaRegionalCongress.

Recommendation.Togivetheimplementationoftheplanagreaterimpact andmomentum,IUCNanditspartnersshouldconveneaEuropean RegionalCongressonNationalParksandProtectedto Areas,beheldin1996 or1997.(Thisfollowsarecommendationof theIVthWorldParksCongress thatregionalcongressesofthiskindbeheld.)

PARKSOR F LIFE ANNEX

ChrisBleakley,GreatBarrierReef LISTF O CONTRIBUTORSMarineAuthority,Canberra,Australia

* denotesmemberofCNPPA *Dr ArnoldBoer,MinistryofAg riculture,NatureManagementand EnriqueE.Ales,Asociacionparala Fisheries,TheHague,Netherlands SupervivenciadelaNaturalezayel MedioAmbientedeAndalucia Leobert E.M.deBoer,AmsterdamZoo, (andalus),Seville,Spain Netherlands

Dr AndrasAmbrus,FertoTaviNemzeti *NigelBonner,Huntingdon,UK Park,Hungary GraziaBorriniFeyerabend,SocialPolicy OleNordenAndersen,Ministryofthe Service,IUCN,Gland,Switzerland Environment,Copenhagen,Denmark *Ivo Bralic,ZavodzaZastituOkolisa, John Anfield,PeakNationalPark,UK Prirodei PrirodneBastine,Zagreb, Croatia ProfessorBostjanAnko,Departmentof Forestry,UniversityofLjubljana, Dr StephenBriggs,Aberystwyth,Wales, Slovenia UK

Grigore Baboianu,DanubeDelta *MarioF.Broggi,Vaduz,Liechtenstein BiosphereReserve,Romania Clare BroomandDrAnnSmith, AlessandroBardi,WWF-Italy,Rome, DivisionofEnvironmentalSciences, Italy UniversityofHertfordshire,Hatfield, UK *DrMaryL.Barker,Karlsruhe, Germany Jessica Brown,AtlanticCentreforthe Environment,Massachusetts,USA *Ruta Baskyte,EnvironmentalPro tectionDepartment,Vilnius,Lithuania*Dr AlainBue,Paris,France

'MichelBatisse,DivisionofEcologicalDr FrancoiseBurhenne-Guilmin,IUCN Sciences,UNESCO,Paris,France EnvironmentalLawCentre,Bonn, Germany DavidBays,AssociationofCounty Councils,London,UK Theo Burrell,Corsham,England,UK

Graham Bennett,InstituteforEuropean*Dr MiguelCastroviejo,ICONA,Islas EnvironmentalPolicy,Arnhem,The Canarias,Spain Netherlands *Dr JanCerovsky,CzechProject *Hans Bibelriether,BayerischerWald CoordinationUnit,Prague,Czech NPandSecretary-General,FNNPE, Republic Grafenau,Germany *ProfessorAitkenClark,Broads CatherineBickmore,TheLandscapeAuthority,andPresident,FNNPE, Institute,London,UK Norwich,UK

Hilde Bigare,AmigosdelaTierra, Bertrand desClers,International Madrid,Spain FoundationfortheConservationof Game,Paris,France Simone Bilderbeck,IUCNNational Committee,Netherlands Dr GerardCollin,PareNationaldes Cevennes,France Drs H.J.V.van denBijtel,TheRoyal DutchSocietyforNatureConservation,Heather Corrie,EuropeanOffice,World Driebergen-Rijsenburg,NetherlandsWideFundforNature,Brussels, Belgium CatarinaBjurholm,SwedishEnviron mentalProtectionAgency,Solna, *DrAlanJ.Craig, OfficeofPublic Sweden Works,Dublin,Ireland

PARKSOR F LIFE ♦Paul Goriup,TheNatureConservation Roger Crofts,ScottishNaturalHeritage,BureauLtd,Newbury,UK Edinburgh,UK ♦AlainJeudyGrissac, de IUCNMarine JimDixon,RoyalSocietyforthe ConservationProgramme,Orleans, ProtectionofBirds,Sandy,UK France

Dr SlobodankaDjordan,Institutefor Dr LuigiGuarrera,WWFMedi NatureProtectionofSerbia,Serbia terraneanProgramme,c/oWWFItaly, Rome,Italy NicolaDonlon,TheNaturalHistory Museum,London,UK ♦DrSusanGubbay,Ross-on-Wye,UK

♦ProfessorFrancoisDoumenge,InstitutDr PauloGuglielmi,WWF-Italy,Rome, Oceanographique,Monaco Italy

Michael Dower,Countryside Dr LotharGundling,IUCNEnviron Commission,Cheltenham,UK mentalLawCentre,Bonn,Germany

Eugen Draganovic,Departmentfor ♦ProfessorLarryHamilton,Vermont, ProtectionofNature,Zagreb,Croatia USA

Graham Drucker,WorldConservation♦Jeremy Harrison,WorldConservation MonitoringCentre,Cambridge,UK MonitoringCentre,Cambridge,UK

Marie-Jo Dubourg,Associacioperala Ivan Hattingh,WWF-UK,Godalming, DefensadelaNature(ADN),AndorraUK ♦HaroldK.Eidsvik,WorldHeritage ♦Dr GerhardHeiss,Kempten,Germany Centre,UNESCO,Paris,France ♦Marti Helminen,FinnishForestand *Lars-ErikEsping,SwedishEnviron ParkService,Vantaa,Finland mentalProtectionAgency,Solna, Sweden ♦Hanno Henke,FederalResearchCentre forNatureConservationandLandscape ♦Jean Fauchon,Ornex,France Ecology,Bonn,Germany

Natalino Fenech,Italy ♦NorbertHeukemes,PareNaturel HautesFagnes-Eifel,Robertville, *Antonio FernandesdeTejada Belgium Gonzalez,ICONA,Madrid,Spain ♦Klas Hjelm,SwedishSocietyfor Eladio Fernandez-Galiano,Environ NatureConservation,Stockholm, mentConservationandManagementSweden Division,CouncilofEurope, Strasbourg,France Kevin Heynes,FNNPEUKSection, Manchester,UK ♦JohnFoster,Crieff,Perthshire, Scotland,UK Liz Hopkins,IUCN-TheWorldConse- vationUnion, Gland,Switzerland ♦Pierre Galland,LigueSuissepourla protectiondelanature,Basel, drs. DirkA.Huitzing,MinistryLNV, Switzerland TheHague,Netherlands

♦Alistair Gammell,TheRoyalSociety CarlosIbero,WWF-International,Spain fortheProtectionofBirds,Sandy,UK rProf.D WillfriedJanssen,University Josep Germaini Otzet,Terrassa,Spain Flensburg, Flensburg,Germany

HarrietGillett,WorldConservation TimJohnson,WorldConservation MonitoringCentre,Cambridge,UK MonitoringCentre,Cambridge,UK

Mariano GimenezDixon,Species Jan WillemJongepier,White SurvivalCommission,IUCN,Gland, CarpathiansProtectedLandscapeArea, Switzerland CzechRepublic

WendyGoldstein,IUCN,Gland, ♦Dr HartmutJungius,WWF-Germany, Switzerland Frankfurt,Germany

ORPARKSF LIFE *Arne Kaasik,UnionofProtectedAreasJeff McNeely,ChiefConservation ofEstonia,Viitna,Estonia Officer,IUCN,Gland,Switzerland

DrZbigniewKarpowicz,IUCNEast *Dr AntonioMachado,IUCNRegional EuropeanProgramme,Cambridge,UK Councillor,LaLaguna,Tenerife,Spain

*DrKostasKassioumis,National *GeorgeMalamidis,NationalAgri AgriculturalResearchFoundation,culturalResearchFoundation, DirectorateofInternationalRelations,Thessaloniki,Greece DocumentationandInformation, Athens,Greece Johanna Mang,WWF-Austria,Vienna, Austria *MsJuditKelemen,KiskunsagiNemzeti ParkIgazgatosaga,Hungary *RobertMannersMoura,Parque NaturaldoAlvao,VilaReal,Portugal *GrahamKellerer,GreatBarrierReef MarineAuthority,Canberra,AustraliaPeter Martin,WWF-UK,Godalming, UK Robert Ketelaar,Youthandthe EnvironmentEurope,Utrecht, Claus Mayr,Naturschutzbund Netherlands Deutschland(NABU)e.V,Bonn, Germany Fedja Klavora,Memberof the Parliament,Tolmin,Slovenia *Jose MarquesMoreira,Instituto ConservaccaodaNatureza,Lisbon, Dr. R Klein,DGXI.B.2,Commissionof Portugal theEuropeanCommunities,Brussels, Belgium Carlos Martin-Novella,BirdLife International,Cambridge,UK eCyrilled Klemm,Paris,France CarolineMartinet,ProtectedAreas Dr VeitKoester,TheNationalForest Programme,IUCN,Gland,Switzerland andNatureAgency,Copenhagen, Denmark Martin Mathers,WWFScottishConser vationOffice,Aberfeldy,Scotland,UK TeetKoitjarv,UnionofProtectedAreas ofEstonia,Viitna,Estonia *Mira Mileva,MinistryofEnvironment, Sofia,Bulgaria Dr JosefKramarik,SlovakInstitutefor NatureConservation,Bratislava, Dr MichaelMoser,International Slovakia WaterfowlandWetlandsResearch Bureau,Slimbridge,UK *Dipl.Ing.HaraldKremser, NationalparkHoheTauern,Austria Peter Mould,BritishMountaineering Council,Wales,UK Dr ZKrzeminski,Departmentfor NatureConservation,Ministryof RuthMurray,BroadsAuthority, EnvironmentalProtection,Natural Norwich,UK ResourcesandForestry,Warsaw,Poland Jiirgen Nauber,SecretaryGeneralofthe Dr OKudrna,Gesellschaftfur GermanMABNationalCommittee, Schmetterlingsschutze.V.,Bad MAB-Geschaftsstelle,Bonn,Germany Neustadt-Salz,Germany .MiguelA Naveso,Sociedad Espanola *Mart Kulvik,IUCNFocalPoint, Tartu,deOrnitologia,FacultaddeBiologia, Estonia Madrid,Spain

*Rein Kuresoo,EestimaaLooduseFond,Dr. E MaxNicholson,London,UK Tartu,Estonia Robert. E Nickalls,Spili,Crete,Greece *HughLamprey,Okehampton,UK PeterNijhoff,StichtungNatuuren *Arch. FabioLopezNunes,ConsorzioMilieu,Utrecht,Netherlands ParcoGroane,Milan,Italy *01av Nord-Varhaug,Directoratefor Professor HansLundberg,Royal NatureConservation,Trondheim, SwedishAcademyofSciences, Norway Stockholm,Sweden

ORPARKSF LIFE Teter LewisNowicki,EUROSITE,Lille,wicklung undUmweltfragen,Munich, France Germany

*DrMichealO'Briain,DGXI.B.2, *Dr JaneRobertson,Divisionof CommissionoftheEuropeanCom EcologicalSciences,UNESCO,Paris, munities,Brussels,Belgium France

*DrCzeslawOkolow,Bialowieza David Robinson,Poole,Dorset,UK NationalPark,Poland Marc Roekaerts,CouncilofEurope *Wernerd'Oleire-Oltmanns,National- parkverwaltungBerchtesgaden,Germ LaurenceRose,RoyalSocietyforthe any ProtectionofBirds,Sandy,UK

John O'Sullivan,RoyalSocietyforthe DrHelgaRoth,EcologicalBricks ProtectionofBirds,Sandy,UK Initiative,Miinchen,Germany

*Thymio Papayannis,MedWetCoord Jean-Luc RouxandNadineMoens, inationGroup,Athens,Greece WWF-Belgium,Bruxelles,Belgium

ProfessorBrianParnell,Edinburgh,*MatthewRowntree,Ashwell,Nr Scotland Baldock,UK

Petra andThomasPascoe,AgiaGalini,Peter Rupitsch,HoheTauernNational Crete,Greece Park,Austria

*MalcolmPayne,Perth,Scotland *Jean-LucSadorge,Federationdespares naturelsetnationauxdeFrance,Paris, Gerard Peet,Rotterdam,NetherlandsFrance

'ProfessorNikollaPeja,Universityof Albert Salman,EuropeanUnionfor Tirana,Albania CoastalConservation,Leiden,Nether lands Jan-ErikPetersen,UniversityofEast Anglia,SchoolofEnvironmental *JerzySawicki,NationalParkand Sciences,Norwich,UK ProtectedAreasUnit,PolishEcological Club,Krakow,Poland 'ProfessorAdrianPhillips,Chair, CNPPA,Dumbleton,UK Brigitte Schabhuser,Bundesfor- schungsanstaldfurLandeskundeund ZbyszkoPisarski,Departmentof Raumordnung,Bonn,Germany NatureandLandscapeProtection, InstituteofEnvironmentalProtection,Dr MatsSegnestam,Swedish Warsaw,Poland InternationalDevelopmentAuthority, Stockholm,Sweden *Eva Pongratz,FNNPE,Grafenau, Germany *Rafal Serafin,HeritageResearch Program,Progress&Business *DuncanPoore,Glenmoriston,ScotlandFoundation,Kracow,Poland

Paul Portelli,MaltaOrnithologicalRobin Sharp,Departmentofthe Society,Valletta,Malta Environment,London,UK

*Ing.FrantisekPovolny, Ministryof David Sheppard,Programmefor Environment,Prague,CzechRepublicProtectedAreas,IUCN,Gland, Switzerland DavidPritchard,RoyalSocietyforthe ProtectionofBirds,Sandy,UK ProfessorD.Sherman,Croatian BiologicalSociety,Zagreb,Croatia Anita Prosser,BritishTrustfor ConservationVolunteers,Wallingford, ClareShine,Paris,France UK *Francois Simard,InstitutOceano- SianPullen,WWF-UK,Godalming,UK graphique,Monaco

*DrWulfReiss,Bayerisches Dott. AndreaSimoncini, Universityof StaatministeriumfurLandesent Florence,FacultyofEconomics,Firenze, Italy

ORPARKSF LIFE Rosie Simpson,TheCountryside John Thompson,Shrewsbury,UK Commission,Cheltenham,UK,and FNNPE,Grafenau,Germany Wendy Thompson,Countryside Commission,Cheltenham,UK Dr JamieSkinner,TourduValat Station Biologique,Aries,France 'John Thomson,ScottishNatural Heritage,Edinburgh,Scotland,UK "PeterSkoberne,Ljubljana,Slovenia DrJimThorsell,SeniorAdviser— DrJaneSmart,Plantlife,London,UK NaturalHeritage,IUCN,Gland, Switzerland Mike Smart,RamsarBureau,Gland, Switzerland Ulf Todter,CIPRA,Vaduz, Liechtenstein *Geko Spiridonov,Ministryof Environment,Sofia,Bulgaria *FrantisekUrban,CzechRepublic

Brigitte Stahl,DeutscherHeimatbund,Professorr D AnghelutaVadineanu, Bonn,Germany FacultyofBiology,Bucharest University,Bucharest,Romania KevinStandring,RoyalSocietyforthe ProtectionofBirds,Sandy,UK •ProfessorGiovanniValdre,CEDIP, Florence,Italy Clare Stimson,BroadsAuthority, Norwich,UK •Jani Vangjeli,InstituteofBiological Research,Tirana,Albania *DrHHStoiber,Linz,Austria DrsIngPeterVeen,RoyalDutchSociety DrWendyStrahm,IUCN,Gland, forNatureConservation,Netherlands Switzerland *IvanVoloscuk,TatranskyNational MichaelStrecker,Bonn,Germany Park,Slovakia,andPresident, ACANAP Claus Stuffmann,DGXI.B.2, CommissionoftheEuropean ZoltanWaliczky,BirdLifeInternational, Communities,Brussels,Belgium Cambridge,UK

*JoeSultana,Ministryforthe Brian. W Walker,EarthwatchEurope, Environment,Floriana,Malta Oxford,UK

Kerstin Sundseth,EcosystemsLtd, RogerJWheater,TheRoyalZoological Brussels,Belgium SocietyofScotland,Edinburgh, Scotland,UK Magnus Sylven,EuropeanProgramme, WWF-Internahonal,Gland, Andy Wightman,ReforestingScotland, Switzerland Edinburgh,UK

*DrZoltanSzilassy,NationalAuthorityPaul Yoxon,SkyeEnvironmentalCentre forNatureConservation,Budapest,Ltd.,Scotland,UK Hungary *Dr Zierl,LandratsamtBerchtesgadener GiulianoTallone,LIPU-LegaItalianaLandNationalparkverwaltung,Bavaria, ProtezioneUccelli,Parma,Italy Germany

JanTaper,EcosystemsLtd,Brussels, AlexanderZinke,WWF-Austria, Belgium Vienna,Austria

'ProfessorFrancoTassi,Italian *Marija Zupancic-Vicar,CNPPAVice- CommitteeforNationalParks& ChairforEurope,Zirovnica,Slovenia EquivalentReserves,Rome,Italy

Jan Terstad,SwedishEnvironmentalPlus themanyindividualswho ProtectionAgency,Solna,Sweden contributedtothefiveworkinggroups andtotheBalticSeminarattheCNPPA Gareth Thomas,RoyalSocietyforthe RegionalMeeting(Nykoping,Sweden, ProtectionofBirds,Sandy,UK June1993).

ORPARKSF LIFE

IUCN The WorldConservationUnion