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Concise History of the Middle East

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Concise History of the Middle East 0813343884-Goldschmidt 7:Layout 1 5/20/09 10:42 AM Page i A Concise History of the Middle East ninth edition 0813343884-Goldschmidt 7:Layout 1 5/20/09 10:42 AM Page ii 0813343884-Goldschmidt 7:Layout 1 5/20/09 10:42 AM Page iii A Concise History of the Middle East ninth edition Arthur Goldschmidt Jr. Emeritus, Penn State University Lawrence Davidson West Chester University A MEMBER OF THE PERSEUS BOOKS GROUP 0813343884-Goldschmidt 7:Layout 1 5/20/09 10:42 AM Page iv Copyright © 2010 by Westview Press Published by Westview Press, A Member of the Perseus Books Group Every effort has been made to secure required permissions to use all images, maps, and other art included in this volume. All rights reserved. Printed in the United States of America. No part of this book may be reproduced in any manner whatsoever without written permission except in the case of brief quotations embodied in critical articles and reviews. For information, address Westview Press, 2465 Central Avenue, Boulder, CO 80301. Find us on the World Wide Web at www.westviewpress.com. Westview Press books are available at special discounts for bulk purchases in the United States by corporations, institutions, and other organizations. For more information, please contact the Special Markets Department at the Perseus Books Group, 2300 Chestnut Street, Suite 200, Philadelphia, PA 19103, or call (800) 810-4145, ext. 5000, or e-mail [email protected]. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Goldschmidt, Arthur, 1938– A concise history of the Middle East / Arthur Goldschmidt Jr., Lawrence Davidson.—9th ed. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 978-0-8133-4388-4 (pbk. : alk. paper) 1. Middle East—History. I. Davidson, Lawrence, 1945– II. Title. DS62.G64 2009 956—dc22 2009005664 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0813343884-Goldschmidt 7:Layout 1 5/20/09 10:42 AM Page v To the memory of Agnes Inglis O’Neill teacher, counselor, friend. She taught every subject with a spirit of fun and each pupil in a spirit of love. And to the memory of Henry Blumenthal an inspiring teacher and wise adviser, and of Humphry Osmond, modern renaissance man and correspondent extraordinaire. 0813343884-Goldschmidt 7:Layout 1 5/20/09 10:42 AM Page vi 0813343884-Goldschmidt 7:Layout 1 5/20/09 10:42 AM Page vii Contents Illustrations xiii Preface to the Ninth Edition xv 1 Introduction 1 What Is History? 2 Then and Now, There and Here, 4 The Physical Setting, 6 Some Descriptive Geography, 6 Conclusion, 12 2 The Middle East Before Muhammad 13 Persia and Rome, 14 The Arabs, 18 Conclusion, 23 3 The Prophet of Mecca 25 Muhammad’s Early Life, 26 The Emigration (Hijra), 30 AISHA BINT ABI-BAKR, 36 Assessment, 37 4 What Is Islam? 39 Basic Beliefs, 39 The Five Pillars of Islam, 43 Conclusion, 47 5 The Early Arab Conquests 49 The Succession Issue, 49 The Initial Conquests, 51 The Beginnings of Islamic Government, 53 Dissension in the Umma, 55 vii 0813343884-Goldschmidt 7:Layout 1 5/20/09 10:42 AM Page viii viii Contents Changes in the Government of Islam, 57 MU’AWIYA IBN-ABI-SUFYAN, 63 Conclusion, 64 6 The High Caliphate 65 Restoration of the Umayyad Order, 67 The Downfall of the Umayyads, 70 The Abbasid Caliphate, 71 MAMUN, 76 The Decline of the Abbasids, 77 Conclusion, 78 7 Shiites and Turks, Crusaders and Mongols 81 Shiite Islam in Power, 82 The Turks, 87 The Crusades, 91 The Mongol Invasion, 95 HULEGU KHAN, 97 Conclusion, 98 8 Islamic Civilization 99 The Rules and Laws of Islam, 100 Development of Jurisprudence, 100 Islamic Society, 106 Intellectual and Cultural Life, 111 Theology, 115 Conclusion, 117 AHMAD IBN HANBAL, 118 9 Firearms, Slaves, and Empires 121 The Mamluks, 122 The Mongol Il-Khanids, 126 Gunpowder Technology, 129 The Ottoman Empire, 129 ORHAN, 133 Persia under the Safavids, 142 Conclusion, 146 10 European Interests and Imperialism 147 Ottoman Weakness, 148 THE KOPRULU FAMILY OF VIZIERS, 150 The European Powers and the Eastern Question, 151 Conclusion, 157 0813343884-Goldschmidt 7:Layout 1 5/20/09 10:42 AM Page ix Contents ix 11 Westernizing Reform in the Nineteenth Century 159 Egypt’s Transformation, 161 Westernization of the Ottoman Empire, 165 MUSTAFA RESHID PASHA, 170 Persia under the Qajars, 171 Some Afterthoughts, 173 12 The Rise of Nationalism 177 Egyptian Nationalism, 179 AHMAD URABI, 185 Ottomanism, Pan-Islam, and Turkism, 187 Nationalism in Persia, 191 Conclusion, 194 13 The Roots of Arab Bitterness 197 Arab Nationalism, 197 World War I, 203 FAYSAL IBN AL HUSAYN, 209 The Postwar Peace Settlement, 210 Conclusion and Summary, 213 14 Modernizing Rulers in the Independent States 215 Turkey: Phoenix from the Ashes, 216 MUSTAFA KEMAL (ATATURK), 227 From Persia to Iran, 228 The Rise of Saudi Arabia, 235 Conclusion, 241 15 Egypt and the Fertile Crescent under European Control 243 Egypt’s Struggle for Independence, 244 The Creation of New States in the Fertile Crescent, 250 Phony Democracy and False Independence, 255 World War II, 261 KING FARUQ, 262 Postwar Egypt, 263 Egypt’s Era of Political Frustration, 264 Independence for Lebanon, Syria, and Iraq, 267 Conclusion, 268 16 The Contest for Palestine 271 Origins, 271 Prefatory Remarks, 273 0813343884-Goldschmidt 7:Layout 1 5/20/09 10:42 AM Page x x Contents The Beginnings of Political Zionism, 275 Britain and the Palestine Problem, 279 AMIN AL-HUSAYNI, 290 Conclusion, 291 17 Israel’s Rebirth and the Rise of Arab Nationalism 293 Israel’s War for Independence, 294 The War’s Aftermath, 297 The Arab Countries, 299 Israel’s Early Years, 306 Middle Eastern Oil, 309 DAVID BEN-GURION, 310 The Great Powers and the Arab World, 311 Rising Arab-Israeli Tensions, 320 Conclusion, 324 18 War and the Quest for Peace 327 The June 1967 War, 328 The Palestinians, 334 Abortive Peace Efforts, 335 Political Changes: 1967–1970, 337 Danger Signs in the Middle East, 342 The October (Yom Kippur) War, 346 The War’s Aftermath, 349 Lebanon: The Arena for a New Arab Struggle, 354 The Road to Camp David, 357 ANWAR AL-SADAT, 361 Conclusion, 362 19 The Reassertion of Islamic Power 365 Prefatory Remarks on Islam and Politics, 367 The Iranian Revolution, 368 SAYYID RUHOLLAH MUSAVI KHOMEINI, 377 The Struggle for Gulf Supremacy, 378 The Retreat from Camp David, 383 Western Policy Formation and Islamic Polity, 394 20 The Gulf War and the Peace Process 397 The Gulf Crisis, 398 Operation Desert Storm, 404 The Palestinians: Their Struggle and an Elusive Peace, 406 0813343884-Goldschmidt 7:Layout 1 5/20/09 10:42 AM Page xi Contents xi YASIR ARAFAT, 415 Whither Islam? 417 21 The War on Terrorism 421 The Present in Historical Perspective, 423 Survey of Terrorism, 423 OSAMA BIN LADEN, 430 The Iraq War, 435 The Contest for Palestine (Redux), 442 A Parting Message, 451 Chronology 455 Glossary 471 Bibliographic Essay 503 Appendix Table 1: Basic Statistics for Middle Eastern Countries 534 Appendix Table 2: How Many Palestinians? 536 Index 537 0813343884-Goldschmidt 7:Layout 1 5/20/09 10:42 AM Page xii 0813343884-Goldschmidt 7:Layout 1 5/20/09 10:42 AM Page xiii Illustrations Maps 1.1 Physical features of the Middle East 8 2.1 Byzantine and Sasanid empires, circa 600 19 6.1 The Abbasid caliphate, circa 800 73 7.1 The Fatimids and the Seljuks, circa 1090 89 9.1 The Mamluks and the Il-Khanids, circa 1300 123 9.2 The Ottoman Empire in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries 135 13.1 The Sykes-Picot Agreement, 1916 207 13.2 The Middle Eastern mandates, 1924 212 16.1 The UN partition plan for Palestine, 1947 288 18.1 Israel and the occupied territories, 1967–1973 331 18.2 The territorial situation at the end of the October 1973 war 350 19.1 The Persian Gulf area 379 21.1 Iraq 439 21.2 The separation wall, 2004 446 21.3 The Middle East, showing internationally recognized borders, 2009 453 Figures 5.1 The Hashimite clan, showing Shiite imams 62 9.1 The sultans of the Ottoman Empire 130 Tables Appendix Table 1 Basic statistics for Middle Eastern countries 534 Appendix Table 2 How many Palestinians? 536 xiii 0813343884-Goldschmidt 7:Layout 1 5/20/09 10:42 AM Page xiv 0813343884-Goldschmidt 7:Layout 1 5/20/09 10:42 AM Page xv Preface to the Ninth Edition This textbook, sometimes called “classic,” is now coauthored by Arthur Goldschmidt, who has retired from teaching, and Lawrence Davidson, professor of history at West Chester University. The previous edition was facetiously titled “A Decreasingly Concise History of the Middle East.” This time, with the advice and help of Karl Yambert, our editor, we have pruned our account wherever we could, even as new events and trends had to be added. Teachers and students need a book that reflects current scholarship, does not hide its ideas behind a pseudoscholarly style addressed to pedants, and does not reinforce political or ethnic biases. Students—and members of the wider English-speaking public—deserve clear explana- tions of the Arab-Israeli conflict, the Middle East’s role in the energy cri- sis, the Islamic resurgence, and the war in Iraq. The book has gone through eight previous editions and, despite the appearance of other gen- eral histories, has become ever more widely used in universities. More and more scholars, both Middle Eastern and Western, are en- larging what we know about the history of the area.
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