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Stavba a Vy´Voj Hveˇzd STAVBA A VY´ VOJ HVEˇ ZD Petr Harmanec, Miroslav Brozˇ Astronomicky´u´stav Univerzity Karlovy Verze 8: 9. listopadu 2009 Obsah 1 U´ vodem 5 1.1 Vznikteorie..................................... ..... 5 1.2 ModelnasˇehoSlunce .............................. ....... 8 2 Obecne´za´konitosti a fyzika´lnı´vztahy 13 2.1 Za´kladnı´pojmy ................................. ....... 13 2.2 Stavova´rovnice................................. ....... 15 2.2.1 Idea´lnı´plyn................................. ..... 16 2.2.2 Tlakza´rˇenı´ ................................. ..... 18 2.2.3 Elektronova´degenerace . ....... 19 2.2.4 Cˇa´stecˇna´ionizacev povrchovy´chvrstva´ch . .......... 23 3 Za´kladnı´rovnice stavby hveˇzd 26 3.1 Rovnicezachova´nı´hmoty. .......... 26 3.2 Pohybova´rovnice a jejı´limitnı´prˇı´pad: rovnice hydrostaticke´rovnova´hy . 26 3.3 Rovnicetepelne´rovnova´hy . ........... 27 3.3.1 Proton–protonovy´rˇeteˇzec . .......... 28 3.3.2 CNOcyklus..................................... 31 3.3.3 Prˇemeˇna he´lianauhlı´kadalsˇı´reakce . ............... 33 3.3.4 Tepelna´rovnova´haazmeˇnyentropie . ........... 35 3.4 Rovniceprˇenosuenergie . ......... 36 3.4.1 Rovniceza´rˇive´hoprˇenosuenergie . ............. 37 3.4.2 Rovnicekonvektivnı´hoprˇenosuenergie . ............. 46 4 Matematicka´struktura rovnic hveˇzdne´ho nitra 53 1 5 Pocˇa´tecˇnı´a okrajove´podmı´nky 55 6 Henyeova numericka´metoda integrace vnitrˇnı´ch cˇa´stı´hveˇzdy 60 6.1 Metodau´plne´linearizace . ........... 60 6.2 Mezelinearizace ................................. ...... 63 7 Vy´voj osamocene´hveˇzdy 65 7.1 Ilustrativnı´prˇı´klad: vy´voj hveˇzdy o hmotnosti 4 M⊙ ..................... 65 7.2 Odlisˇnosti hveˇzdne´ho vy´voje v za´vislosti na hmotnostihveˇzdy .. .. .. .. 71 8 Srovna´nı´prˇedpoveˇdı´teorie hveˇzdne´ho vy´voje s pozorova´nı´m 80 8.1 Jakzı´ska´vatpozorovacı´data?. .............. 80 8.1.1 Za´rˇivy´vy´konhveˇzdy . ......... 80 8.1.2 Efektivnı´teplotahveˇzdy . ......... 82 8.1.3 Hmotnostiapolomeˇryhveˇzd. ........ 82 8.1.4 Diagram V versus (B V ) prohveˇzdokupy .................... 82 8.2 Vysveˇtlenı´hlavnı´ch rysu˚Hertzsprungova–Russell− ovadiagramu.. .. .. .. 83 8.3 Projevyvy´vojevehveˇzdokupa´ch . ............. 84 8.4 Projevyvy´vojevedvojhveˇzda´ch . ............. 85 8.5 Zmeˇny chemicke´ho slozˇenı´pozorovane´ve spektrech .................... 88 8.6 Test vnitrˇnı´struktury hveˇzd pomocı´apsida´lnı´ho pohybu................... 88 8.6.1 Apsida´lnı´pohybvklasicke´mechanice . ............. 88 8.6.2 Relativisticky´apsida´lnı´pohyb . ............. 90 8.6.3 Celkovy´apsida´lnı´pohyb . ......... 91 8.7 Projevyvy´vojezadobulidske´historie . ............... 91 9 Jednoduche´analyticke´modely a odhady 93 9.1 Polytropnı´deˇj................................. ........ 93 9.2 Laneova–Emdenovadiferencia´lnı´rovnice . ................ 96 9.3 Polytropnı´modelyhveˇzd . .......... 99 10 Hveˇzdny´vı´tr a ztra´ta hmoty z hveˇzd 103 10.1 Za´kladnı´faktaau´vahy . ........... 103 10.2 Parkerovateorieveˇtruuchladny´chhveˇzd . ................. 106 10.3 CAK teorie hveˇzdne´ho veˇtru rˇı´zene´ho za´rˇenı´m ........................ 108 10.4 Vlivhveˇzdne´hoveˇtrunavy´vojhveˇzd . ................ 111 11 Vliv rotace 116 11.1 Rocheu˚vmodelajednoduche´odhady . ............ 116 11.2 Modely hveˇzdne´ho vy´voje se zapocˇtenı´m rotace . .................... 120 11.3 Neˇktere´vy´sledky vy´voje rotujı´cı´ch hveˇzd . ...................... 123 2 12 Vy´voj dvojhveˇzd 129 12.1 Rocheu˚vmodelajednoduche´odhady . ............ 129 12.2 Vy´pocˇet hveˇzdne´ho vy´voje ve stadiu vy´meˇny hmoty .................... 133 12.3 Neˇktere´vy´sledky modelova´nı´vy´voje dvojhveˇzd ....................... 137 12.4 Modely vy´voje dvojhveˇzd versus pozorova´nı´ . .................. 144 13 Pulsace hveˇzd 146 13.1 Radia´lnı´pulsacesfe´ricky´chhveˇzd . .................. 146 13.1.1 Podmı´nkaprovznikpulsacı´ . ......... 146 13.1.2 Opacitnı´mechamismuspulsacı´. ........... 147 13.1.3 Hruby´odhad periody radia´lnı´ch pulsacı´ . ................ 148 13.1.4 Vztahyperioda–za´rˇivy´vy´kon–barva . ............. 151 13.2 Neradia´lnı´pulsace . .......... 152 13.2.1 Sektora´lnı´pulsace rotujı´cı´ch hveˇzd . ................. 157 13.3 Jednoduche´vlneˇnı´ . .......... 159 13.3.1 Akusticke´vlny v homogennı´m prostrˇedı´(p-mo´dy) ................. 161 13.3.2 Vnitrˇnı´gravitacˇnı´vlny(g-mo´dy) . ................ 162 13.3.3 Povrchove´gravitacˇnı´vlny(f-mo´dy) . ............... 163 14 Gravitacˇnı´kolaps protohveˇzd 168 14.1 Pru˚beˇhkolapsu ................................ ........ 168 14.2 Fragmentaceoblaku. ........ 169 14.3 Vy´vojprˇedhlavnı´posloupnostı´. ................ 171 14.4 Eddingtonovalimita. ......... 173 15 Explozivnı´stadia ve vy´voji hveˇzd 175 15.1 SupernovytypuII,Ib,Ic . ......... 175 15.2 SupernovytypuIa................................ ....... 180 16 Typy pozorovany´ch hveˇzd a jejich vy´vojova´stadia 188 16.1 Horke´hveˇzdy spektra´lnı´ho typu O a Wolfovy–Rayetovyhveˇzdy . 188 16.2 Hveˇzdyspektra´lnı´hotypuB . ............ 189 16.2.1 Chemickypekulia´rnı´Bphveˇzdy . ........... 190 16.2.2 Pulsujı´cı´ β Cephveˇzdy................................ 190 16.2.3 Pomalu pulsujı´cı´B hveˇzdy (Slowly pulsating B stars,SPB) ............ 192 16.2.4 Hveˇzdyseza´vojem(Bestars) . ......... 192 16.2.5 Svı´tive´modre´promeˇnne´(Luminous Blue Variables,LBV) ............. 199 16.3 Hveˇzdyspektra´lnı´chtypu˚AaF . ............. 200 16.3.1 Amhveˇzdy(CP1hveˇzdy) . ...... 201 16.3.2 Aphveˇzdy .................................... 202 16.3.3 δ Scutihveˇzdy .................................... 203 3 16.3.4 SXPhehveˇzdy ................................. 204 16.3.5 γ Dorhveˇzdy..................................... 204 16.3.6 LithiumaberyliumuFaGhveˇzd . ....... 205 16.4G,KaMhveˇzdy ................................... .... 206 16.4.1 Projevy a cˇasova´promeˇnnost hveˇzdny´ch chromosfe´r ................ 207 16.4.2 Pulsujı´cı´hveˇzdy: Cefeidy, Miry a AGB hveˇzdy . ................ 211 16.5 Hveˇzdyvrany´chvy´vojovy´chstadiı´ch . ................. 213 16.6 Hveˇzdy v pozdnı´ch vy´vojovy´chstadiı´ch . .................. 214 16.6.1 Bı´lı´trpaslı´ciaZZCetihveˇzdy . ............. 214 16.6.2 Novy ......................................... 216 16.6.3 Supernovy .................................... 217 Rejstrˇı´k 222 Literatura 227 4 1 U´ vodem 1.1 Vznik teorie Po dlouhou dobu zu˚sta´vala ota´zka fyziku˚a astrofyziku˚, procˇ hveˇzdy vydrzˇı´ bez viditelne´zmeˇny za´rˇit tak dlouho, nezodpoveˇzena. Zkusme nejprve ru˚zne´zdroje energie posoudit jednoduchy´mi energeticky´mi u´vahami. Anaxagora´s v 5. st. prˇ. n. l. tvrdil, zˇe hveˇzda, respektive Slunce, je rozzˇhavena´masa zˇeleza. Kdyby tomu tak bylo, celkovou tepelnou energii obsazˇenou v zˇeleze bychom mohli odhadnout jako 1 . 30 . 36 Q M⊙c∆T =2 10 kg 450J/K/kg 6000K =5,4 10 J . (1) ≃ · · · · 26 To se mu˚zˇe zda´t hodneˇ, ale prˇi soucˇasne´m za´rˇive´m vy´konu Slunce L⊙ = 3,8 10 W to znamena´, zˇe by Slunce vydrzˇelo za´rˇit po dobu · Q . 5,4 1036 J . 10 (2) τ = · 26 =1,4 10 s = 460yr , ≃ L⊙ 3,8 10 J/s · · cozˇje evidentneˇvelmi ma´lo. Nicme´neˇtakove´jednoduche´chladnutı´(jen s veˇtsˇı´m ∆T a mensˇı´m L) probı´ha´ u bı´ly´ch trpaslı´ku˚, v pozdnı´ch fa´zı´ch hveˇzdne´ho vy´voje. Jesˇteˇv 19. stoletı´existovaly u´vahy o tom, zda je mozˇne´, aby Slunce zı´ska´valo svou za´rˇivou energii chemicky´mi reakcemi, tedy spalova´nı´m tuhy´ch cˇi tekuty´ch la´tek. Na´zor, zˇe to nenı´pravdeˇpodobne´, vyslovil 1 16 . jizˇJohn Herschel. Ostatneˇpro oxidaci vodı´ku 2 H2 + O2 2H2O, ktera´ma´velkou vy´hrˇevnost H = 100 MJ/kg, je → . 2 1030 . Q M H = · 108 J =2,5 1037 J (3) ≃ vodíku 9 · · . a pouzˇijeme-li stejny´trik se za´rˇivy´m vy´konem, vyjde charakteristicka´doba τ = Q/L⊙ = 2000yr. Le´karˇJ. R. Mayer uvazˇoval roku 1846 o tom, zˇe by Slunce mohlo zı´ska´vat energii dopady meteoritu˚. 1 2 Kazˇdou sekundu by se ovsˇem na za´rˇenı´musela prˇemeˇnˇovat kineticka´energie Ek = 2 mv L⊙ 1 s, cozˇ by prˇi rychlostech dopadu v 100 km/s znamenalo tok hmoty ≃ · ≃ 26 dm 2L⊙ . 2 3,8 10 . 16 . −6 = · · kg/s =7,6 10 kg/s =1,2 10 M⊙/yr , (4) dt ≃ v2 (105)2 · · cˇili τ M⊙/(dm/dt) 1 Myr. Navı´c by se prˇı´ru˚stek hmotnosti musel meˇrˇitelneˇprojevit na zmeˇneˇdrah planet.≃2 Pro Slunce tedy≃ tento zdroj neprˇipada´v u´vahu, ale takova´ akrece planetesima´l byla hlavnı´m zdrojem tepelne´energie planet. 1Rˇ ecˇtı´ filosofove´ samozrˇejmeˇ neoperovali s pojmy teplo, meˇrna´ tepelna´ kapacita, neznali za´kon zachova´nı´ energie ani nezmeˇrˇili hmotnost a teplotu Slunce. V tomto kontextu se na odhad musı´me dı´vat. 3 2 3 2 a dP 1 dM −6 Podle 3. Keplerova za´kona je a /P = M, po diferencova´nı´(prˇi a = konst.) dM = 2 P 3 dP a P = 2 M 10 30s za rok, cozˇse ovsˇem nepozoruje. − − ≃ ≃ 5 H. von Helmholtz roku 1854 prˇisˇel mı´sto toho s hypote´zou, zˇe Slunce za´rˇı´dı´ky uvolnˇova´nı´energie 3 GM 2 gravitacˇnı´m smrsˇt’ova´nı´m. Gravitacˇnı´potencia´lnı´energie koule o konstantnı´hustoteˇje rovna EG = 5 R . 1 − Podle viria´love´ho teore´mu platı´pro gravitacˇneˇva´zane´syste´my EK = 2 EG , tudı´zˇcelkova´mechanicka´ 1 h i − h i energie hveˇzdy je E(R) = EK + EG = 2 EG. V nekonecˇnu byla pochopitelneˇenergie E( )=0; prˇi kolapsu se tedy uvolnı´jejich rozdı´l 3 ∞ 3 GM 2 . 6,7 10−11 (2 1030)2 . ∆E = E( ) E(R)= =0,3 · · · J =1,1 1041 J . (5) ∞ − 10 R · 7 108 · · Odpovı´dajı´cı´doba za´rˇive´stability ∆E τKH 10 Myr (6) ≃ L⊙ ≃ se nazy´va´ Kelvinova–Helmholtzova sˇka´la. Zlepsˇujı´cı´se odhady sta´rˇı´Zemeˇale vyloucˇily i tuto mozˇnost, trˇebazˇe, jak uvidı´me, se gravitacˇnı´kontrakce v urcˇity´ch sta´diı´ch hveˇzdne´ho vy´voje skutecˇneˇvy´znamneˇ uplatnˇuje (naprˇı´klad
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