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The Case of Ngcayini and Ezikhotheni Chiefdoms SAICO S. SINGWANE

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The Case of Ngcayini and Ezikhotheni Chiefdoms SAICO S. SINGWANE COMMUNITY ACTION IN THE MANAGEMENT OF COMMUNITY FORESTS IN SWAZILAND: The case of Ngcayini and Ezikhotheni chiefdoms SAICO S. SINGWANE UNIVERSITY OF KWA-ZULU NATAL COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE, ENGINEERING & SCIENCE School of Agricultural, Earth & Environmental Sciences COMMUNITY ACTION IN THE MANAGEMENT OF COMMUNITY FORESTS IN SWAZILAND: The case of Ngcayini and Ezikhotheni chiefdoms SAICO S. SINGWANE SUPERVISOR: PROFESSOR H.R. BECKEDAHL i COMMUNITY ACTION IN THE MANAGEMENT OF COMMUNITY FORESTS IN SWAZILAND: The case of Ngcayini and Ezikhotheni chiefdoms Saico S. Singwane B.A., PGCE and MSc. (University of Swaziland) Submitted in fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy (PhD) in the School of Agricultural, Earth and Environmental Sciences, College of Agriculture, Engineering and Science, University of KwaZulu Natal, Pietermaritzburg i DECLARATION I, Saico Sibusiso Singwane declare that, The research reported in this thesis except where otherwise indicated is my original work. This thesis has not been submitted for any degree or examination at any other university. This thesis does not contain other people‟s data, pictures, graphs or other information unless specifically acknowledged as being sources from other persons. This thesis does not contain other people‟s writing unless specifically acknowledged as being sourced from other researchers or sources. Where other written sources have been quoted, then: Their words have been re-written but the general information attributed to them has been referenced; and Where their exact words have been quoted, their writing has been placed inside quotation marks and referenced accordingly. This thesis does not consist of text, graphics or tables copied and pasted from internet unless specifically acknowledged and the source being detailed in the reference section. Signed: _____________________________ Date: _____________________________ As the candidate‟s supervisor, I approve this thesis for submission Professor Heinrich Beckedahl _______________________ Date: _________________ ii Preface I, Saico Sibusiso Singwane registered as a part-time PhD candidate in the School of Agricultural, Earth and Environmental Sciences of the College of Agriculture, Engineering and Science at the University of KwaZulu-Natal, in January 2014, while working in the Department of Geography, Environmental Science and Planning, University of Eswatini (formerly known as the University of Swaziland). The interest in the human-environment interactions and specifically forest research dates back to my undergraduate research, which focussed on the effects of the Driekoppies Dam on the distribution of trees and carbon uptake in the Timphisini area, in Swaziland. During my post-graduate research, reading for the MSc degree in Environment Resource Management, research on the distribution of trees triggered further interest in forest resource management, focussing on gender issues in forest resource management in Swaziland, based on a case study of the Kukhanyeni Constituency. This research led to the following publications: i. Salam, A. and Singwane, S.S. (2004). Effects of Driekoppies dam on the distribution of trees and carbon uptake at Timphisini area, in Swaziland. In: UNISWA Research Journal of Agriculture, Science and Technology. Volume 7, No. 1. p. 31-39. ii. Singwane, S.S. (2006). Gender Issues in Forest Resource Management in Swaziland: A Case Study of Kukhanyeni Constituency. In: UNISWA Research Journal of Agriculture, Science and Technology. Volume 9, No. 1. p. 57-67. In addition, I presented a paper entitled „Women and sustainable management of forest resources in Swaziland‟ at the Environmental Education Association of Southern Africa‟s 26thAnnual conference held at the University of Swaziland in 2008. This paper was subsequently published in the edited conferences proceedings: Singwane, S.S. (2009). Women and sustainable management of forest resources in Swaziland. In: Mlipha, M. (Editor). Actions towards a sustainable future: Paper contributions made during EEASA’s 26th Annual conference (28th July – 1st August 2008 University of Swaziland, Kwaluseni Campus). Swaziland Environment Authority: Mbabane. p. 351-360). iii This was followed in 2012 by the publication of two further papers on forest related issues in the Journal of Sustainable Development in Africa namely: i. Singwane, S.S. and Shabangu, N. (2012). An examination of the utilization and management of natural woodlots in Swaziland- a case of Ka-Bhudla community. In: Journal of Sustainable Development in Africa. Volume 14, No. 1. p. 15-31. ii. Singwane, S.S. and Malinga, P. (2012). Impacts of pine and eucalyptus plantations on soil organic matter content in Swaziland- a case of Shiselweni forests. In: Journal of Sustainable Development in Africa. Volume 14, No. 1. p. 137-151. Growing up in a rural community it was possible to observe and experience the dependency of rural communities on forest resources, which has culminated in the present research. Results of this work were presented at the recent Conference of the Society of South African Geographers in Bloemfontein (1-5 October 2018), and has been submitted to the Canadian Journal of African Studies for publication (A copy of the submitted paper is enclosed as Appendix 5). It should be noted that the name of the Kingdom of Swaziland has recently been changed to the Kingdom of Eswatini. As most literature cited still refers to the country as Swaziland, it was felt that, to avoid confusion, the original name „Swaziland‟ be used in preference to „Eswatini‟. iv Abstract It is evident that community action is indispensable in order to attain sustainable management of community resources in general and particularly community forests, as well as to control land degradation. In Swaziland however, the examination of factors behind fruitful community action is quite recent, hence there is a paucity of published documents on this subject. Therefore the aim of the research presented here was to assess the role of community action in the management of community forests in Swaziland using the Ngcayini and Ezikhotheni chiefdoms as case studies. The study focused on the following issues: 1) the management of community resources by internal and external stakeholders; 2) the rules governing the management of forest resources and the manner in which the derived benefits are utilized and distributed, and 3) the extent of community action in the management of community resources. The research has also provided a critical review of the opportunities and threats associated with community action in the management of community forests, the extent of community forest resource utilization, and the nature and extent of land degradation associated with such resource utilization. Data were collected by selecting and interviewing respondents who comprised internal and external stakeholders. The internal stakeholders included 300 heads of households (100 from Ngcayini and 200 from Ezikhotheni), eight members of the community inner council, comprising the headman, three inner council members and three ward elders from each chiefdom), six Natural Resource Management Committee members (three from each chiefdom), as well as the Individual chiefdom councillors (Bucopho) at Ngcayini and Ezikhotheni chiefdoms as case studies. Notably, sampling was only done at Ezikhotheni where 200 out of 500 homesteads selected using simple random sampling. Regardless of the number of households in a homestead, only one head of household was interviewed. External stakeholders included four officers in the Forestry Section of the Ministry Tourism and Environmental Affairs (MTEA); four officers of the Swaziland Environment Authority (SEA); the Livelihoods Manager for World Vision; and the Director of Environment for Conserve Swaziland. Considering that the study involves the views and opinions of human beings as the key subjects, ethical clearance was solicited through the University of KwaZulu-Natal Ethics Committee (protocol reference number HSS/0729/017D). v The research findings indicate that access to forest resources is free in natural forests, yet in plantation-style community forests it is controlled by traditional authorities and Natural Resource Management Committees (NRMCs). Resources extracted from plantation-style community forests are sold to community members, and the proceeds are then used to fulfil the needs of the community concerned. For instance, at Ngcayini the proceeds fund community leaders when attending royal duties and buy a royal kraal stamp and its accessories as indicated by 37% of the heads of households and 100% of the community leaders. At Ezikhotheni they financed a water project and support neighbourhood care points according to 6% of the heads of households and 18.2% of the community leaders. In terms of the management of community forests, both internal and external stakeholders relied on a number of strategies. For instance, both males and females indiscriminately engaged in planting, pruning, mending fences, making and maintaining fire breaks and harvesting forest products. Moreover, the findings reveal that there was generally community-wide cooperation from ordinary community members to community leaders in the management of community forests. Nonetheless, such cooperation was challenged by issues such as chieftaincy disputes, prevailing poverty issues and rapid population growth. In the management of community forests, the Ezikhotheni and Ngcayini chiefdoms collaborated
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