Dramatology Vs. Narratology: a New Synthesis for Psychiatry, Psychoanalysis, and Interpersonal Drama Therapy (IDT)

Archives of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, 2011; 4 : 29–43

Dramatology vs. narratology: a new synthesis for psychiatry, psychoanalysis, and interpersonal drama therapy (IDT)

Henry Zvi Lothane

Summary The author proposes a new word and concept, dramatology, to emphasize that lived life is primarily a drama, a communication to self and others, in action, intention, emotion, and spoken word. In lived encounters and events persons as agents primarily dramatize their emotions and experiences and secondarily narrativize these into first person or third person stories or narratives. In real life interactions, and those in the special interpersonal situation of psychotherapy, it is the dramatic form that holds center stage and narrating becomes part of the dramatic action. Interpersonal drama therapy (IDT) focuses on the immediacy of the personal and interpersonal conducts as experienced and expressed in mutually evocative communications, both conscious and unconscious, between patient and therapist. A central technique of IDT, confrontation, is correlated with free association and transference interpretation, with a view to revealing the meaning of the conscious (manifest) and unconscious (latent) content and intent of the patient’s and therapists communications in the process of psychotherapy.

drama / story / dramatology / nonverbal and verbal communication / free association / transference

Multa renascuntur, quae iam cecidere; cadentque Quae nunc sunt in honore vocabula, si volet usus, Quem penes arbitrium est et ius et norma loquendi (Horace)

Many terms now out of use will revive; and many now in vogue will sink into oblivion if custom will it so, for usage determines laws, rules and principles of language.

INTRODUCTION known), i.e., telling stories to a listener, and the dramatic (from the Greek root dran, to act), i.e., The two literary genres used to portray human showing staged and enacted plots to spectators. personal action and interaction, and to commu- Stories are primarily descriptive, are either auto- nicate the latter to another person or persons, biographical (first person accounts) or biograph- are the narrative (from Latin narrare, to make ical (third person accounts). Science also produc- es stories, research reports and case reports. The Henry Zvi Lothane: Clinical Professor of Psychiatry, Mount Si- study of narratives, literary or scientific, is called nai School of Medicine, New York City. Correspondence address: Henry Lothane 1435 Lexington Avenue New York, NY 10128. narratology, a term coined by Todorov [1] and it E-mail: [email protected] is found in dictionaries. 30 Henry Zvi Lothane

Dramatology is a word coined by the author of actions and scenes in the story use words to [2, 3, 4, 5] to complete narratology. Dramatolo- evoke in the reader mental images of the ac- gy is not yet found in the dictionaries. A Google tions and scenes of the plot such that the read- search only yielded the word “dramatological” er becomes a vicarious participant in the narrat- in Wiktionary while dramatology is cited in ar- ed plots through the function of imagination [8]. ticles by the author. Dramatology means engag- Since drama contains no narrative description ing in interpersonal relationships through ac- and is all action and dialogue, it acts directly on tion and dialogue; facial expression and bodily the senses and the emotions of the spectators re- gesture and posture; mien, manner, mood and sulting in an ad hoc emotional bond between ac- music of the voice—all shaping the meaning of tor and audience. The story narrates about inter- communications to oneself and to the other in actions that happened in the past, i.e., a piece of interpersonal situations. Sociologically, drama- history; the drama enacts an interaction happen- tology is concerned with these components of ing in the present, directly in the here-and-now, drama: character, conduct, conflict, crisis, con- with the various dramatis personae gesturing, science, choice, confession, confrontation, con- speaking, and emoting; pleading and suggest- ciliation, and compromise, or catastrophe. Psy- ing; complaining and confronting; imploring or chologically, dramatology is based on the func- demanding affection and approval, or consolation of dramatization [6], the ability to represent tion and compensation, and more. What is cru- conflict and compromise in mental images of cial for psychotherapy is the appreciation of the nocturnal dreams and diurnal daydreams. The two forms of dramatization: (1) in fantasy and (2) dreamer dramatizes thoughts and feelings in in word and act, a distinction upheld by Anna mental images and imaginary scenarios involv- Freud [9]. Dramatology provides the conceptual ing actions, emotions, sensations, scenes, and basis for interpersonal drama therapy (IDT): speeches. Whereas narratology utilizes descrip- While medicine deals with monadic medi- tion and may contain conversation, dramatology cal conditions of the body, psychiatry deals with is all action and conversation, utilizing both non- interpersonal conduct in society. In spite of the verbal mimetic expressive action and the spoken current return to viewing neuroses and psycho- word. Dramatology is differentiated from dram- ses as brain conditions, what we call psychiatric aturgy, the art of writing, staging and perform- symptoms are conducts: actions and communi- ing dramas in the theatre. The goal of drama- cations that are interpersonal, from one person tology is to refocus psychiatry as person-orient- to another, or intrapersonal, thoughts and emo- ed and interpersonal, to emphasize the continu- tions directed to oneself. Ruesch & Bateson [10] um from the psychopathology of everyday life extended Sullivan’s ideas to “build a new psy- to the psychopathology of persons who become chopathology based on the criteria of communi- inpatients and outpatients seeking help from the cation.” My project is similar: to build psychopa- healers. Dramatology studies persons as acting thology on dramatology. Sullivan differentiated and interacting from choice vs. constraint, reflec- between observation of the medical patient and tion vs. reflex, deliberation vs. drivenness. participant observation of the psychiatric patient. Plato distinguished representation of objects Dramatology goes further: therapy is a participa- and persons by (a) description with words and (b) tion in the patient’s real life drama and is itself a imitation, or mimesis, as in dramatic mime. As dramatic process. elaborated by Aristotle, in drama imitation be- Interpersonal drama therapy is a new synthe- comes impersonation of characters and plots tak- sis and paradigm based on the dramatic nature en from real life and presented in plots and dia- of interpersonal relations and can be helpful to logues to portray encounters, events, and emo- professionals who… practice psychodynamic tions on stage [7]. With the modern invention psychiatry. The dramatic perspective facilitates of the printing press, the novel (literally, some- observing the person as a whole gestalt, in all his thing new) and the novella, or short story, be- particularity and uniqueness of the emotional came the predominant narrative genre, utilizing event, paying close attention to the facts of bod- description and usually read, along with print- ily appearance, dress, mental makeup, charac- ed dramas, by solitary readers. The descriptions ter, temperament, intellect, speech, culture and

Archives of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, 2011; 4 : 29–43 Dramatology vs. narratology 31 social status. Such observation precedes prep- permanent data of the problem which culture at- aration of narratives and premature reaching tempts to resolve [11]. for closure in diagnosing disorder, resistance, As a method dramatology is also grounded in transference or any other formulaic interpreta- the primacy of perception. It starts with close- tion. It opens the door for comparing the analy- ly observing the perceived, manifest, or overt, sand’s and analyst’s interpretations, a source of actions, gestures, and speeches, the consciously learning for both. Dramatology and interperson- expressed thoughts of the person, or individual drama therapy approach the two participants al, and subsequently focuses on the secret, or un- not as abstractions or generalities but as unique consciously suppressed, motives of the manifest individuals in their aliveness, in their emotions, behavior. Similarly, psychoanalytically-orient- in their mutual need to love and to be loved in ed therapy seeks to uncover the person’s latent, return. i.e., repressed, thoughts, fantasies, emotions, and In dramatic interactions patient and doctor transferences. It cannot be emphasized enough are drawn into conscious and unconscious en- that the person of dramatology, even more than actments which take both members of the ther- the dramatis persona on stage, is not a gener- apeutic team by surprise and then offer consid- ic but a particular individual, i.e., a whole ge- erable heuristic and healing value. Such enact- stalt not further divisible, a singular embodied ments also transcend transference and counter- person. transference, which are determinations are to be made after the fact of the enactment, nachträglich [afterwards], as Freud said. Such enactments are Diagnostic definitions of disease: science inevitable. They pose no danger if both partic- vs. healing art ipants keep faith with the procedure, process, and principles of ethics and mutual responsibil- The problem of the generic vs. the individu- ity. In the drama of the therapeutic encounter pa- al person goes back to an ancient philosophical tient and doctor work as a team in search of love, problem and the medieval disputations between justice, and truth [5]. so-called realists, who believed that universals, Love truth and justice may be viewed as both abstract nouns such as beauty, or categories, ends and means. These principles are, on the one such as class, genus, and species (e.g., man, an- hand, the foundations of wisdom as a goal in imal), refer to real entities that exist outside the life and, on the other hand, they also define the mind, and nominalists, who regarded universals ethics of the means we employ to promote the healing of suffering and the personal growth of as mere names without any corresponding reali- the patient. ty. The doctor and Rockefeller University scien- A philosophical grounding of dramatolo- tist Alexis Carrel suggested a solution: gy may be found in Merleau-Ponty’s 1964 pro- in nature … there are only individuals. The gramme [11], the primacy of perception: individual… is a concrete event. He is the one By these words, the “primacy of perception,” who acts, loves, fights, and dies. On the contra- we mean that the experience of perception is our ry, the human being is a Platonic Idea living in presence at the moment when things, truths, val- our minds and our books. He consists of the ab- ues are constituted for us; that perception is a stractions studied by physiologists, psycholo- nascent logos; that it summons to us the task of gists, and sociologists. His characteristics are ex- knowledge and action. … On the basis of per- pressed by Universals. We need both the gener- ception,… [this] attempts to define a method for al and the particular, the human being and the getting closer to present and living reality and individual, [both are] indispensable for the con- which must be applied to the relation of man to struction of science, because our mind readily man in language, in knowledge, in society and moves only among abstractions [12]. religion, as it was applied to man’s relation to Carrel applied the above distinctions to the perceptible reality. We call this level of experi- problem of classification and nomenclature in ence “primordial” … [for] it reveals to us the medicine:

Archives of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, 2011; 4 : 29–43 32 Henry Zvi Lothane

A disease is not an entity. We observe indi- [13]. From the time psychiatry was founded as a viduals suffering from pneumonia, syphilis di- medical profession with the publication of abetes, typhoid fever, etc. … However, it would Philippe Pinel’s [14] Traité medico-philosophique have been impossible to build up a science of sur l’aliénation mentale, ou la manie in 1801, it medicine merely by compiling a great number was clear that it is a hybrid discipline with roots of individual observations. The facts had to be in biology, psychology, and sociology. Physician classified and simplified with the aid of abstrac- Pinel (1745-1826), who learned psychiatry from tions. In this way disease was born. And medi- the lay director of the Bicêtre hospital, was not cal treatises could be written. A kind of science only concerned with nosology and classification was built up, roughly descriptive, rudimenta- but also with “the variety and profundity of ry, imperfect, but convenient, indefinitely per- knowledge requisite on the part of the physician, fectible and easy to teach. Unfortunately, we in order to secure success in the treatment of in- have been content with this result. We did not sanity” [14], remarks prefacing “Section II. The understand that treatises describing pathologi- Moral Treatment of Insanity,” i.e., psychothera- cal entities contain only a part of the knowledge py. Whereas Pinel’s 288 pages long treatise lists indispensable to those who attend to the sick. six “species of mental derangement,” or diag- Medical knowledge should go beyond the sci- noses, the current DSM-IV [15] runs 886 pages, ence of diseases. The physician must clearly dis- of which pages 829-841 list all the diagnoses. The tinguish the sick human being described in his editors offer some caveats: “although this man- books from the concrete patient whom he has to ual provides a classification of mental disorders, treat, who must not only be studied, but, above it must be admitted that no definition adequate- all, relieved, encouraged, and cured. His role is ly specifies precise boundaries for the concept of to discover the characteristics of the sick man’s mental disorder. The concept, like many con- individuality … [and] the psychological person- cepts in medicine and science, lacks a consistent ality of the individual. In fact, medicine which operational definition that covers all situations”, confines itself to the study of diseases, ampu- due to the “limitations of the categorical ap- tates a part of its own body [12]. Science, Carrel proach”. Moreover, and more significantly, they emphasized, is not an end itself but serves med- declare: “to formulate a treatment plan, the cli- icine as a healing art. nician will require considerable additional infor- J. G. Scadding [13], a self-declared methodo- mation about the person being evaluated beyond logical nominalist, traced medical nomenclature that required to make a DSM-IV diagnosis” [15]. to Sydenham’s 1696 notion the “’all Disease Applying the razor of Occam, the most celebrat- should be reduced to certain, and definite Spe- ed nominalist and author of the dictum, entities cies, with the same diligence we see it is done by must not be multiplied beyond necessity, brings Botanick writers in their Herbals’”, to conclude to mind Joseph Guislain’s and Ernst Albrecht that in medicine there is no room for essential- von Zeller’s “unitary psychosis,” a single basic ism, for “attempts to elaborate a unified concept disorder from which the various pathological of disease are doomed to failure, and lead only forms evolve, clearly, a pre-Kraepelinian con- to confusion”. A fortiori, such dilemmas are even cept. Replacing previous diagnostic-statistical more critical for psychiatry: since “conditions manuals, based on Adolf Meyer’s (1866-1950) cannot be related to specific physical disorders psychobiology [16], in which disorders were ob- or causal agents, it is especially important to served longitudinally and classified as reactions, avoid the danger of reifying abstract concepts, the DSM-IV [15] was a return to Kraepelin’s de- whether they be called diseases, disorders, syn- scriptive psychiatry. Continuing the ideas of dromes, or anything else as causes; and in such Sydenham and Linné, Emil Kraepelin (1856- contexts it is arguable that these concepts are a 1926) published the first edition of his influen- hindrance to clear communication”. Further- tial Textbook of Psychiatry in 1883 and in the 6th more, “behavior that deviates from politically (1899) drew the distinction between manic-de- accepted norms, with no suggestion that it orig- pressive psychosis and dementia praecox, re- inates in an abnormality causing biological dis- named schizophrenia by Eugen Bleuler (1867- advantage, is obviously not of medical concern” 1939). Kraepelin’s clinical method was to collect

Archives of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, 2011; 4 : 29–43 Dramatology vs. narratology 33 hundreds of case histories recorded on cards, the tion in fantasy or in act, or both. From the out- legendary Zählkarten, which were abstracted and set, two identities crystallized in Freud, the ther- generalized as cross-sectional psychopathologi- apist and the theoretician. In his office Freud cal paradigms in the Textbook and utilized to pro- treated persons with neuroses and very rarely duce diagnoses and prognoses. The Textbook psychotic patients. However, Freud’s treatment abounds in eloquent descriptions but contain method was adopted in treating psychotic pa- few life histories and less dynamic formulations tients at the Burghölzli Hospital by Bleuler, C.G. or accounts of psychotherapy. Having repudiat- Jung (1875-1961), and Jung’s patient and student, ed the early 19th century dynamic psychiatry, Sabina Spielrein (1885-1942), a tradition that is Kraepelin created a behaviorist, static, organical- still very much alive today [28]. Freud’s major ly-oriented science primarily for the benefit of work on psychosis was his 1911 analysis of a institutional and forensic psychiatry. It was Sig- book written by the most famous inpatient in the mund Freud (1856-1939), taught psychiatry by history of psychiatry, Paul Schreber (1842-1911). Theodor Meynert in Vienna, who, together with Lacking a good social and personal history, his mentor the internist Josef Breuer, paved the Freud erred in explaining Schreber’s entire ill- way for the revival of dynamic psychiatry in the ness and alleged paranoid delusions as caused epochal 1895 Studies on Hysteria, co-authored by a passive homosexual desire for his psychia- with Breuer [17]. As noted by medical historian trist Paul Flechsig. Freud explained Schreber’s Pedro Laín Entralgo, “the contribution of psy- desire as transference from similar desires to- choanalysis to medicine … [was] to assign to its wards his father, but had no evidence for either proper place, in the over-all biography of the patient, of these assumptions and Bleuler and Jung were the event of the illness. … In the field of neuro- the first to reject this interpretation. Actually sis, Freud has succeeded in demonstrating that Schreber suffered from a severe mood disorder pathography is, and should be, basically, biog- and his fantasies of turning into a woman were raphy”. “Thanks to Freud, Western pathology has related to dramas involving career, love, and begun to be anthropological. Both clinically and path- marriage, and his wife’s repeated miscarriages ologically, the patient has come to be considered as a and stillbirths, an identification with his wife person”[18]. This innovation was completed with due to a transference from his mother [29, 30]. In the elaboration of Freud’s dream psychology in 1907 Freud had provided a more truthful analy- The Interpretation of Dreams [6], published in 1899 sis of the dreams and dramas of love of a fiction- but dated 1900 on the title page, where Freud al character, Norbert Hanold, as depicted in Wil- formalized the fundamental psychoanalytic helm Jensen’s (1837-1911) novel Gradiva [23, 31]. method for the investigation of the inner psycho- Freud characterized Hanold’s dreams and delu- logical life of the individual, the technique of free sions, both fantasied and enacted, as “In- association (freie Einfälle), which enabled the pa- szenierung,” as staged, i.e., dramatized. Hanold tient to express thoughts, sensations, and emo- was inhibited in loving a woman of flesh and tions effortlessly and spontaneously, free from blood named Zoe Bertgang and “transferred” the fear of being criticized. However, while free his love to a marble relief of an imaginary young in the above sense from self-criticism and inter- woman he called Gradiva who died when the nal resistances, such associations are not free in Vesuvius eruption buried Pompeii in 79 AD. Ad- the sense of arbitrary or random but are deter- dressing Zoe as Gradiva, Hanold dramatized his mined, i.e., ruled by the psychic determinism of love emotions in various acts and speeches, “a cause and effect of past or present events [8, 19, triumph of ingenuity and wit to be able to ex- 20, 21]. Neither conscious reflection nor symbol- press the delusion and the truth in the same turn ic decoding but free association is the key that of words” [23]. Freud analyzed Hanold’s “symp- unlocks the hidden, repressed, thus unconscious, toms of a delusion—phantasies and actions meaning not only of dreams but also of sympto- alike—[as] the products of a compromise be- matic acts, hallucinations [22], delusions [23], tween the two mental currents … a struggle, …a and dramatic enactments [24, 25, 26, 27]. Anoth- conflict…between suppressed erotism and the er pillar of Freud’s psychoanalytic technique was forces that were keeping it in repression”, the discovery of transference [17], as dramatiza- “which has been demonstrated by me in the case

Archives of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, 2011; 4 : 29–43 34 Henry Zvi Lothane of patients observed and medically treated in atry, psychoanalysis and psychotherapy utilize real life”. The conflict had a happy ending: “the basic sciences but in practice they are all arts procedure which the author makes Zoe adopt when dealing with human actions in interper- for curing her childhood friend’s delusion shows sonal situations. a far-reaching similarity—no, a complete agree- ment—with a therapeutic method which was in- troduced into medical practice in 1895 by Dr. Dramatology in everyday life Josef Breuer and myself … to which Dr. Breuer as communication to self and others first gave the name of ‘cathartic’ and which I pre- fer to describe as ‘analytic’” [23]. What turned Real life is inherently dramatic because it in- Breuer’s cathartic method into an analytic one volves people interacting with each other in in- was the introduction of transference, to which terpersonal relationships. We begin our devel- Freud refers in these terms: “the process of cure opment and maturation as persons in the dyad- described by the author of Gradiva reaches its cli- ic situation of child and mother, the child’s first max in the further fact that in analytic psycho- teacher of love and language. Persons also en- therapy too the reawakened passion whether it gage in relationships with things, or external ob- is love or hate, invariably chooses as its object jects, with plants and animals, and with thoughts, the figure of the doctor. It is here that the differ- in which images of external and internal objects ence begins, which made the case of Gradiva an dwell. It is thus desirable to speak of interper- ideal one which medical technique cannot attain. sonal relationships when we mean persons and Gradiva was able to return the love which was object relationships when we mean objects ex- making its way from the unconscious into con- ternal to us or the internal objects of cogitation, sciousness but the doctor cannot.” [23]. Clearly, emotion, and fantasy. Quite special objects are Zoe-Gradiva acted as a sexual object, a lover and theological entities such as God, angels, the Dev- an intuitive psychodrama therapist whereas a il, the saints, with which we can entertain var- real therapist may not get sexually involved with ious relationships. Thus, we act on things that a patient, and transference provides the neces- may or may not act back but we interact with sary barrier against such temptation. Non sexu- people in reciprocal and mutual, or interpersonal love, love writ large as agape, as care and concern for the other, is another matter. Thus, while al, relations. the emotions of love and hate are as real and as Plato defined thinking as the soul talking to it- dramatic in therapy as such emotions are in real self. Freud [34] viewed “the power of thinking” life, the artificial situation of therapy, with its as trial action, “as experimental action, a motor professional roles and ethical rules, precludes palpating”, “thinking is an experimental action both participants from acting at the behest of carried out with small amounts of energy” [35]. their emotions. What Freud experienced in the Given that thinking is a kind of action, or dra- 1890’s with his first hysterical patients hit him ma, we now move from action in dramas of eve- again with greater force treating Dora in 1900 ryday life to dramas of disordered, or patholog- [32]. Further elaborations of transference were ical, acts. given the 1912-1915 papers on technique [33]. Dramatology brings psychiatry and psychoanalysis back to its source: the real-life, personal, and Disorder as drama social context of individual existential dramas that forever elude all formulas and schemas. Freud was also concerned with acts as such: Dramatology as a method aims first to perceive, symptoms--and of course we are dealing with to observe, to establish facts, to avoid premature psychical (or psychogenic) symptoms and psy- closure by grasping at diagnoses and dynamics chical illness--are acts detrimental, or at least or hunting for patterns and schemas. Diagnosis useless, to the subject’s life as a whole . . . ‘be- subsumes, dramatology individuates; to use an ing ill’ is in its essence a practical concept...you oxymoron, it is a historically-grounded science might well say that we are all ill--that is, neurot- of the particular. Like warfare, medicine, psychi- ic -- since the preconditions for the formation of

Archives of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, 2011; 4 : 29–43 Dramatology vs. narratology 35 symptoms can also be observed in normal peo- model belongs in medicine, but psychiatry must ple” [36]. be dyadic, or interpersonal: it takes one person The acts in this passage imply speech acts, i.e., to develop pneumonia, it takes two or more per- communications, as he stated: “Nothing takes sons to create paranoia. place in psycho-analytic treatment but an inter- Traditionally psychoanalysts have predomi- change of words between the patient and the an- nantly worked with the ideational content of the alyst” [36]. After having journeyed from hypno- person’s internal world of thought and fantasy sis and suggestion to the memory model of psy- in formulating theories of disorder. Consistent chopathology [17], thence to the libido model with this approach, they tended to see the pa- [30, 37], and finally to the ego model [38], Freud tient as a narrator [41] rather than as an actor reaffirmed his original interpersonal approach to and interactor. The consequence was to look for life and disorder: “in the individual mental life meaning in the thinking and fantasizing of the someone else is invariably involved, as a mod- monad, which resulted in a pervasive intellec- el, as an object, as a helper, as an opponent; and tualism and a de-emphasis of feelings and emo- so from the very first individual psychology ... is tions, the central phenomenon in everyday con- at the same time social psychology as well” [39], versations, in drama (tragedy and comedy), in where by ‘object,’ a contraction from his origi- telling jokes, [42] as well as in emotional com- nal term, love-object, he clearly meant person. munication of the nonverbal esthetic domains: The final stage represents a fundamental par- music, dance, and the visual arts. adigm shift: Freud’s memory and libido mod- We receive with feelings everything that hap- els of disorder were monadic, or intrapersonal, pens to us, experiencing pleasure or pain, dep- the social context of the disorder is dyadic or rivation or gratification, hunger or satiety, and interpersonal. Monadic as a theoretician, Freud more. Feelings are emotions undergone, where- was from the outset dyadic, or interpersonal, as as emotions, as directed motions, are feelings en- a practitioner of psychotherapy and psychoanal- acted: we feel, are aware of, jealousy and envy ysis [40]. of the other, we emote in reacting to the other Traditionally, psychiatrists and psychoana- by engaging in jealous and envious acts and at- lysts have focused on the monad, or a one-per- titudes. Similarly, we feel angry but emote to- son psychology, at the expense of the dyad, or a wards the in acts of anger. In experiencing feel- two-person psychology: on the intrapersonal vs. ings and emotions we also dramatize an appeal the interpersonal, on the solitary vs. the social, to another person for support and survival: we the dreamer vs. the agent, the narrator over the ask the other to give us food, help, and money, dramatizer. Interpersonal relations are a coun- approval, pity, consolation, or love. The ubiqui- terpoint of conscious and unconscious actions tous plots of dramas span the spectrum from dis- and interactions, of external conflicts of inter- appointment to despair over love betrayed, love ests and internal conflicts of motives. The dyad- lost, love threatened, unrequited, or wounded, ic is dramatic. Dramatic interactions are public, or love regained, along a continuum from man- they are seen, shown, and observed by oneself ageable traumas to uncontrolled tempests. and others, justified as reasons or rationaliza- tions, whereas the truer motives of actions and interactions remain private, unavowed, unseen From narratology to dramatology but potentially avowable and understandable, i.e., analyzable. The most important finding of Freud, the creator of a new science, wrote: “It the interpersonal approach is that the complete still strikes me myself as strange that the case meaning of a so-called symptom, or action, is re- histories I write should read like short stories vealed only after its interpersonal message from [Novellen] and that, as one might say, they lack sender to receiver and meaning has been fully the serious stamp of science. I must console my- brought to light [40]. The interpersonal meaning self with the reflection that the nature of the sub- includes not only the content, but also the intent ject is evidently responsible for this rather than of the communication, i.e., what do the two com- any preference of my own”[17]. Freud’s stories municators want from each other. The monadic contain both descriptions of forgotten or remem-

Archives of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, 2011; 4 : 29–43 36 Henry Zvi Lothane bered traumatic events and lively dialogues. The be desired in its logical consistency and system- stories and dialogues serve to depict traumatic— atic application … this process of analysis [17]. thus dramatic—social and interpersonal events, Note that Breuer was the first to call this ther- situations, and scenes. What was defined med- apeutic procedure ‘analysis’, which Freud re- ically as a disorder called hysteria turns out to named ‘psychoanalysis’ in 1896. However, his be historia, history, his story or her story, mem- 1895 chapter is entitled “The psychotherapy of ories of lived traumas that are variously relived hysteria” [17] and thereafter Freud used both in therapy in dramatic form. Thus, there are two terms to refer to his method of therapy. Howev- story tellers here: the patient and the doctor, the er, it was Breuer who underscored the dramatic patient dramatizing his story, the doctor narra- aspect of the disorder and the dramatic process tivizing the patient’s drama. Here is vignette of of healing. Thus he observed that Anna O., “da the only man described in the Studies on Hysteria: sie diese Dinge durchlebend, sie teilweise sprechend an employee who had become hysteric as a re- tragierte” [43] as she relived these experienc- sult of being ill-treated by his superior, suffered es, she dramatized them partially in speech, but from attacks in which he collapsed and fell into also in gesture and with expression of emotions. a frenzy of rage, but without uttering a word or The crucial word ‘tragieren’ was lost in Strachey’s giving any sign of a hallucination. It was possi- translation: “she acted these things through as ble to provoke an attack under hypnosis, and the though she was experiencing them and in part patient then revealed the he was living through put them into words” [17], unfairly adding the the scene in which his employer had abused him qualifying words “as though” and thus hiding in the street and hit him with a stick. A few days from view Breuer’s verb tragieren, which in those later the patient came back and complained of days meant to dramatize, compose and perform having had another attack of the same kind. On drama on stage, to act a role, to represent dra- this occasion it turned out under hypnosis that matically. Tragieren contains the word agieren, to had been re-living the scene to which the actual act and enact, that would be used by Freud as onset of the illness was related: the scene in the a technical term, acting out: Dora “took her re- law-court when he failed to obtain satisfaction venge on me as she wanted to take her revenge for his maltreatment [17] on [Herr K.], and deserted me as she believed The above episodes show how a life drama, herself to have been deceived and deserted by either told to a listener or dramatically enacted him. She acted out [agierte] an essential part of and witnessed, becomes a form of disorder, then her recollections and phantasies instead of re- a mode of therapy, resulting in healing. producing them in the treatment” [32]. Dora’s The legendary Anna O., the first patient of psy- ‘acting out,’ or drama, became Freud’s trauma: in choanalysis and co-discoverer of psychoanalyt- his sour grapes mood he scorned Dora for hav- ic psychotherapy, called this therapy in English ing deserted him. It is not only that “the great- “‘the talking cure’ and referred to it jokingly as er the resistance, the more extensively will act- ‘chimney-sweeping’”, which Breuer called abre- ing out (repetition) replace remembering” [44], action or catharsis. Breuer demonstrated this in because Dora more tellingly dramatized her dis- his analysis of the following event. Anna O. suf- appointment in Freud in the here-and-now for fered from thirst but found it impossible to drink having sided against her with her parents and … like someone suffering from hydrophobia … her seducer, Herr K. Moreover, while the repeti- one day she went on … to describe, with every tions were acts of unconscious remembering, in sign of disgust, how … her English lady com- the form of dramatic interpersonal enactments, panion’s little dog—horrid creature!—had drunk as discussed in recent years [24, 25, 26, 27]. Such out of her glass there. The patient said nothing, enactments call for two kinds of analysis: first, as she had wanted to be polite. After giving fur- detailed observation of the surface, of the actual ther energetic expression to her anger she had dramatic confrontation, as to who, when, where, held back, she asked for something to drink.… why did what and to whom; second, a depth ex- These findings…made it possible to arrive at a ploration of the unconscious meaning of the en- therapeutic technical procedure left nothing to actments with the technique of free association.

Archives of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, 2011; 4 : 29–43 Dramatology vs. narratology 37

Dramatization in fantasy ing of a small episode which gave rise to a self- reproach [17]. Anna O. resorted to a theater simile to paint an Under Freud’s guidance the patient became an important habit of her character: “this girl who interpreter, too. This was a revolutionary insight: was bubbling over with intellectual vitality, led just as the key to the dream are in the dreamer’s an extremely monotonous existence in her pu- associations, so the patient’s interpretations are ritanically-minded family. She embellished her at times more valid than those of the psychia- life in a manner which probably influenced her trist or the psychoanalyst, supplying confirm- decisively in the direction of her illness, by in- atory evidence to those of the analyst. Guided dulging in systematic day-dreaming, which she by this principle I took Schreber’s self-interpre- described as ‘her private theatre’ … this habit- tations as more valid than those of his psychia- ual day-dreaming while she was well passed trists and those of Freud [45]. over into her illness without a break” [17]. Day- Dreams and day dreams represent ideas and dreaming, remembering and hallucinating con- emotions in mental pictures, or images, a process tain visual imagery as an important and ubiqui- Freud called “representability” (Darstellbarkeit), tous component of dramatizing in fantasy, across from darstellen, which in German means to de- a spectrum from the faintest to the most vivid, scribe graphically and to put on stage: from the normal to the pathological [22]. Dreams … think predominantly in visual im- Having learned the technique of analysis ages, but not exclusively. They make use of au- from his mentor Breuer, Freud described how ditory images as well… and other senses…The he “made up [his] mind to embark on an anal- transformation of ideas into hallucinations is not ysis” of an unnamed patient’s “attacks of diz- the only respect in which dreams differ from ziness”: Freud would ask her “what does that waking life. Dreams construct a situation out of mean?” [17], while teaching her “to rely on the these images, represent something as an event things that come into your head under the pres- happening in the present,… they dramatize an sure of my hand”. Four years later gave up all idea … in dreams … we appear not to think but physical pressure and only asked the patients to to experience … we attach complete belief to the free associate, a procedure he formalized later hallucinations. Not until we wake up does the [6]. “We [Breuer and Freud] had compared the critical comment arise that … we have merely symptomatology of hysteria with a pictographic been thinking in a particular way” [6]. script [Bilderschrift] … In that alphabet being sick Freud [6] further defined “condensation, to- means disgust. So I said: ‘If you were sick three gether with the transformation of thoughts into days later, I believe that means that you looked situations (‘dramatization’), [as] the most im- into the room and felt disgusted” [17]. ‘Picto- portant and peculiar characteristic of the dream graphic’ meant thinking in pictures, or visual im- work”. Such transformation also takes place in ages which was also meant dramatically reliving “dream symbolism [that] extends far beyond and expressing emotions. With another patient it dreams but exercises a similar dominating in- became a question of finding out the cause of the fluence on representation in fairy-tales, myths pain … When I asked her… whether anything and legends, in jokes and in folk-lore. … Dream occurred to her or whether she saw anything, symbolism in all probability [is] a characteristic she decided in favour of seeing and began to de- of the unconscious thinking which provides the scribe her visual pictures. … She went on with dream work with the material for condensation, her vision: a sun with golden rays. And this she displacement, and dramatization” [6], and, by ex- was also able to interpret … What I had to deal tension, material for daydreams and the con- with were allegories and at once I asked her the scious and unconscious meanings of actions. meaning of the last picture. She answered with- Freud’s awareness of the role of mental imag- out hesitation: ‘The sun is perfection, the ideal, es in life and disorder led him to emphasize the and the grating represents my weaknesses and mutually evocative function of images emerg- faults which stand between me and the ideal’. ing in the process of free association in therapy …A minute later I was initiated into her mental in both patient and analyst, further elaborated struggles and her self-reproaches and was hear- by Isakower under the term analyzing instru-

Archives of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, 2011; 4 : 29–43 38 Henry Zvi Lothane ment [19, 46], and operationalized as reciprocal shall arise. … Some plays, such as the Ajax and free association by Lothane [47, 20, 21]. the Philoctetes, introduce the mental illness as al- ready established. … It is easy to give an exhaus- tive account of the preconditions governing an Dramatization in act event of the kind that is here in question. It must be an event involving conflict and it must include an Freud’s method points to the inherent affinity effort of will together with resistance” [52]. between therapeutic analysis and literary analy- It cannot be emphasized enough: the factor of sis, which he prized highly: “Before the problem a repressed, i.e. unconscious, conflict, one of the of the creative artist analysis must, alas, lay down pillars of Freud’s psychoanalytic method, is the its arms” [48], expressing his admiration for Dos- indisputably novel addition to the classical defi- toevsky. In literature analysis means “the inves- nitions of drama since Aristotle. Freud delineat- tigation of any production of the intellect, as a ed five kinds of drama: (1) religious, “a struggle poem, tale, argument, philosophical system, so as against divinity”; (2) social, “a struggle against to exhibit its component elements in simple form” society”; (3) tragedy of character, “a struggle of [49], analysis is “the elucidation, clarification, and individual men”; (4) psychological drama, where explication of expressions and statements through “the struggle that causes the suffering is fought a determination of their meaning or logical use” out in the hero’s mind itself—a struggle between [50]. Freud saw “creative writers [as] valuable al- different impulses”, “where we have tragedies of lies and their evidence is to be prized highly … in love, the suppression of love by social culture, by their knowledge of the mind they are in advance human conventions, or the struggle between ‘love of us everyday people” [23]. and duty’, … the starting point of almost end- Freud discovered even greater affinities between less varieties of situations of conflict: just as end- dreams, desires, and conflicts in ancient and mod- less, in fact, as the erotic day-dreams of men” [52], ern literary dramas. It was in Sophocles’ Oedipus i.e., conflicts of conscience; (5) psychopathic, “be- Rex and Shakespeare’s Hamlet that Freud uncov- tween a conscious impulse and a repressed one”, ered the Oedipus complex, “a universal event of the “repressed impulse [of regicide, i.e., parricide] early childhood…Each member of the audience is one of those which are similarly repressed in all was once, in germ and in phantasy, just such an of us … is shaken up by the situation in the play”. Oedipus” [51]. In an essay written in 1905-1906 The dramatist’s business to induce the same ill- and published in 1942 Freud [52] wrote: ness in us; and this can best be achieved if we Since Aristotle the purpose of drama is to are made to follow the development of the illness arouse ‘terror and pity’, and so ‘to purge the along with the sufferer” [52]. Here Freud shifts emotions, … opening up sources of pleasure or from dramaturgy to a dramatological conception enjoyment in our emotional life, just as joking or of psychoanalysis and conjoining it with the psy- fun opening up similar sources… The prime fac- chotherapeutic method. tor is unquestionably the process of getting rid of one’s own emotions by ‘blowing off steam’ …the consequent enjoyment corresponds … to Psychotherapy as drama, the centrality an accompanying sexual excitation… the play- of confrontation wright and the actor enable [the spectator] to identify himself with a hero, [to gain] an enjoy- Breuer named his therapeutic method cathar- ment … based on an illusion, [because] suffering tic, from the Aristotelian drama theory of cathar- on stage … is only a game, which can threaten sis, literally, purgation. It was not only a matter no damage to his personal security. [Compared of recalling a trauma but to] lyric poetry [and] epic poetry,… drama seeks whether there has been an energetic reaction that to explore emotional possibilities more deeply provokes an affect (emphasis in the original) … and to give an enjoyable shape even to … suffer- the whole class of voluntary and involuntary re- ing and misfortune … as happens in tragedies. flexes—from tears to acts of revenge … The in- [In drama] mental suffering [occurs] in connec- jured person’s reaction to the trauma only ex- tion with some … event out of which the illness ercises a completely ‘cathartic’ [emphasis in the

Archives of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, 2011; 4 : 29–43 Dramatology vs. narratology 39 original] effect if it is an adequate reaction—as, tions…the two portions of the work of analysis, for instance, revenge. But language serves as a between [the analyst’s constructions] and that of substitute for action; by its help, an affect can the patient. … Both of them have an undisput- be ‘abreacted’ almost as effectively. In other cases ed right to reconstruct… both of them are sub- speaking is itself the adequate reflex, when, for ject to many of the same difficulties and sources instance, it is a complaint [Klage] or giving utter- of error” [53]. This job description shows the dif- ance to a tormenting secret (confession!) [17]. ference between the epistemology of interpreta- Breuer is silent about his own emotions reactions as constructions, which can fairly be char- tions to the patient. However, in therapy the two acterized as a method of exploration and con- players, while interacting according to mutually templation, and that of dramatization in act and binding roles and rules, also confront each oth- pertaining to confrontation in both the real and er as individuals with their own needs and emo- transference drama. Although Freud did not use tions, both consciously and unconsciously, eve- the word confrontation, he described it in mili- ry step of the way, and at times in strikingly mo- tary metaphors: “this latest creation of the dis- mentous enactments, as real people, unique in ease must be combated like the earlier ones. This their physical lineaments of face and body, think- happens, however, to be by far the hardest part ing, acting and speaking style, working and lov- of the whole task. It is easy to learn how to in- ing, character traits and idiosyncrasies, philos- terpret dreams, to extract from the patient’s as- ophies and prejudices, in sum, singular as real sociations his unconscious thoughts and mem- interactors in the here-and-now, sharing emo- ories, and to practice similar explanatory arts: for tions and expectations, learning from each oth- these the patient will always provide the text” er about love. (emphasis added); a whole series of psycholog- In the very first encounter they perceive each ical experiences are revived not as belonging to other both consciously and unconsciously and the past but as applying to the physician at the sense how they are alike or different, how com- present moment” [32]; “all the patient’s tenden- patible, whether they like or dislike each other, cies, including hostile ones, are aroused” [32]. and how much they would like to collaborate Freud also discussed these issues in 1912: “This with each other. The patient assesses the author- struggle between the doctor and the patient, be- ity, abilities, and knowledge of the therapist, the tween intellect and instinctual life, between un- therapist whether he will be able help the pa- derstanding and seeking to act and act out, is tient. If they decide to work together, they might played out almost exclusively in the phenomena still consider a preliminary trial period before of transference. It is on that field that the victo- they make the final commitment to each other. ry must be won –the victory whose expression is As staged drama is not primarily a narrated the permanent cure of the neurosis. … For when story, although story telling is woven into the all is said and done, it is impossible to destroy dramatic dialogue, so both patient and thera- anyone in absentia or in effigie” [33], for “the pa- pist are not primarily narrators but dramatic in- tient brings out of the armory of the past the teractors. The story is told by the patient piece- weapons with which he defends himself against meal, as it emerges in the stream of conscious- the progress of the treatment—weapons which ness, while it is also being enacted as a real and we must wrest from him one by one” [44]. as transferential relationship, and after months Struggle is commonly called confrontation. or years that story may asymptotically reach the Confrontation in the therapy is something more: ideal of “a search of a picture of the patient’s for- it is a fundamental technique of psychotherapy gotten years that shall be alike trustworthy and [54] and the term itself is not found in Freud. Tra- in all essentials respects complete” [53]. Freud’s ditionally, psychotherapy is defined as compris- job description includes that of the patient offer- ing the operations of clarification, confrontation, ing “lost memories, his dreams, … ‘free associ- and interpretation. However, these functions ation’, … actions…some fairly important, some are not sharply demarcated but flow into each trivial, both inside and outside the analytic situ- other. Fenichel [55] noted that “clarification” is ation, … the relation of transference, calculated achieved when “we succeed in using confronta- to favour the return of these emotional connection… of his reasonable ego with the fact of his

Archives of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, 2011; 4 : 29–43 40 Henry Zvi Lothane resistance and the history of its origin”; “resist- a reasonable ego, a working alliance is present. ance analysis was evolved from interpretation … Usually, silence on the part of the analyst is analysis”; “an interpretation in the true analytic enough to bring the transference resistance into sense … is a real confrontation of the experienc- sharp relief. If this does not succeed, the often ing ego with something which it had previous- confrontation will make the patient aware of the ly warded off”. It was left to Wilhelm Reich [56, transference resistance”. Greenson’s ideas were 57, 58] to include confrontation in his technique endorsed by Gabbard [60, 61]. of analysis of character resistance: From Freud [17, 33] on, analysts regarded we ask ourself [sic!] why the patient deceives, transference interpretations as central to psy- talks in a confused manner, why he is affect- chotherapy, e.g., in Otto Kernberg’s transference- blocked, etc.; we try to arouse the patient’s in- focused psychotherapy (TFP) [62]. Interperson- terest in his character traits which presents the al drama therapy (IDT) offers an alternative ap- cardinal resistance… it is left up to him whether proach to transference. Actions and interactions or not he will utilize his knowledge for an alter- do not enter the scene with the label ‘transfer- ation of his character. In principle, the procedure ence’ on them, anymore than psychiatric diag- is not different from the analysis of a symptom. noses are; they are first enacted and observed as What is added in character-analysis is merely dramatic verbal and nonverbal communications, that we isolate the character trait and confront a subject for the primacy of perception. This is the patient with it repeatedly until he begins to the due order: first deal with the conscious and look at it objectively and to experience it like a the observable facts of the interaction and then painful symptom; thus, the character trait begins explore fantasy, imagination, transference, and to be experienced as a foreign body which the unconscious dynamics with the help of free asso- patient wants to get rid of” [58]. ciation. The initial impressions are also based on To confront is to compare, to produce ocular intuition, common sense, and clinical tact. Since evidence, to demonstrate, to show, to point out the patient is primarily turning to the therapist behavior the patient was unconscious of. Char- with an appeal for help, understanding, and acter analysis was cited by Anna Freud [9]. support, it should be met with actions that are Greenson [59] defined “the term ‘analyzing’ responsive to that appeal: care and concern, em- [as] a shorthand expression which refers to… pathy and sympathy, reflecting the complemen- insight-furthering techniques…usually includ- tary and reciprocal needs and roles of both inter- ing four distinct procedures: confrontation, clarifi- actors. In the dramatic here-and-now, transfer- cation, interpretation, and working-through”. How- ence should not to be applied a priori as an ex- ever, since “confrontation leads to the next step, planation of the patient’s actions. Whether the clarification”, and since “the third step is inter- patient’s actions are determined by past transfer- pretation, which “means to make conscious the ences can only be ascertained at the conclusion unconscious meaning, source, history, mode, or of a careful mutual exploration, since both the cause of a given psychic event,” it follows that patient’s resistance and transference may pro- “the procedures of clarification and interpreta- voke the therapist’s counter-resistance and coun- tion are intimately interwoven”. Having quoted ter-transference. Wilhelm Reich in the connection with resistance Freud’s intent to humanize the organic psychi- analysis both as due to the patient’s character atry of his times was coupled with the ambition habits and traits and to transference, Greenson to universalize his insights as stereotypes and states: “in order for an interpretation or a con- patterns, thus repeating similar dilemmas of de- frontation to be effective we must be sure that scriptive psychiatry, e.g., in the aforementioned the patient can perceive, can understand, can ap- wrong formulas and stereotyped use of trans- prehend the interpretation or confrontation… ference to create Schreber the myth, instead of that a reasonable ego is available to the patient. addressing the concrete complexity of Schreber We analyze the resistances first, because the re- the man, limitations now corrected by drama- sistances will interfere with the formation of a tology [45]. Moreover, dramatology approach- reasonable ego”. The latter is essential, because es disorder not only in terms of its causes but “we analyze transference resistance only when also in terms of its goals: it addresses the pa-

Archives of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, 2011; 4 : 29–43 Dramatology vs. narratology 41 tient’s healthy, rational and resilient personali- proach to history taking and clinical description ty, directed towards self-regulation and re-inte- has devolved into eliciting target symptoms and gration, while seeing the therapist, as Freud did matching those with medications, with a con- [17], as a mentor, a liberator, a teacher, for ther- comitant neglect of understanding the suffering apy was for Freud an after-education, or a re- person, the family background, and the social education. and cultural environment. In many cases the re- Moreover, since dramatology is linked to de- sult has been stagnation and therapeutic nihil- ontology, i.e., the ethics of duty, moral obliga- ism, with harm to the patients. tion and moral commitment, interpersonal dra- On the geriatric unit at Mount Sinai Hospi- ma therapy focuses on ethical conflict that inev- tal in New York City the author has conduct- itably accompanies crises in interpersonal rela- ed weekly senior attending clinical rounds. Af- tionships [63, 64]. ter the presentation of the patient’s present and past history by the resident, the patient is invit- ed to participate in front of the treatment team in The role of dynamic psychiatry an interview. The interview method is based on combining the free-associative process, and the At the beginning of the 20th century Freud’s technique taught by his teacher George L. Engel, psychoanalytic dynamics gave birth to dynam- M.D. [70, 71], who formulated the biopsycho- ic psychiatry in one place only, the Burghölzli social model [71], with the dramatological ap- hospital, thanks to its director Bleuler and dep- proach, the latter focusing on the drama of the uty C.G. Jung. Jung reported to Freud’s that he present conflict and crisis. Engel [70] cited Mey- successfully treated his famous patient, Sabina er [16] who advocated a holistic approach: tak- Spielrein [64], with Freud’s method, and Freud ing a good history, attending to biological and wrote back: “essentially, one might say, heal- facts and “affective assets,” “habits,” “psycho- ing [Heilung] is effected by love ... and transfer- genic” and “dynamic determining factors,” to ence” [65]. In contrast to the static-organic Ger- arrive at a comprehensive diagnosis and an as- man psychiatry, Jung’s mentor Eugen Bleuler sessment of the entire “psychobiologic adapta- combined Kraepelin descriptions with Freud’s tion” of the patient. This interviewing technique dynamics in his formulations of paranoia [66] repeatedly revealed relevant data and connec- and schizophrenia [67]. Thanks to Bleuler’s oth- tions missed by the traditional check list and di- er Swiss follower, Adolf Meyer, and Burghölz- agnostic tree method of history taking and inter- li trained American psychiatrist A. A. Brill, dy- viewing. Further data would come to light in the namic psychiatry became firmly established in team discussion that followed: observations and the United States [28]. The dynamic approaches associations by nurses, social workers, psycho- of the outpatient treatment of people with neu- drama therapists, medical students, resident and roses inspired generations of physicians and oth- attending psychiatrists. The dynamic perspec- ers to merge inpatient treatment of psychoses tive was also integrated with biological and mi- with dynamic psychotherapy, as exemplified by lieu treatments. The rounds not only shed light the tradition of Chestnut Lodge in the USA, or on the patients’ dynamics, which were then fur- the Tworki Psychiatric Hospital in Poland. This ther explored by the therapists, but were also an approach traveled back to Europe after World important teaching tool and built cohesion and War II, inspiring therapists like Gaetano Bene- esprit de corps among the team members. The detti, and Martti Siirala and the founding of the approach and videos of patient interviews were International Society for the Psychological Treat- presented at Ground Rounds of the Department ments of the Schizophrenias and Other Psycho- of Psychiatry and a paper about this work is in ses, with branches in Europe and the USA [28]. preparation. The repeated calls for merging psychiatry and neurology as neuropsychiatry [68, 69] have un- REFERENCES dermined the traditional meaning of the role of the psychiatrist, literally, a doctor of the psyche, 1. Todorov T. Grammaire du Décameron. The Hague: Mouton; a healer of the soul. The former psychosocial ap- 1969.

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Archives of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, 2011; 4 : 29–43 Archives of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy

THE LIST OF THE REVIEWERS COOPERATING WITH ARCHIVES IN 2011

Dov ALEKSANDROWICZ (Israel); Maria AMMON (Germany); Raymond BATTEGAY (Switzerland); Istvan BITTER (Hungary); Alina BORKOWSKA (Poland); Frank M. DATTILIO (USA); Martin DRAPEAU (Canada); Wolfgang Gaebel (Germany); Markus Gastpar (Germany); Siegfried Kasper (Austria); Andrzej Kokoszka (Poland); Michael J. Lambert (USA); Eugenijus Laurinaitis (Vilnius); Dusica Lecic-Tosevski (Serbia); Irena Namysłowska (Poland); Nikolay G. Neznanov (Russia); Tadeusz Parnowski (Poland); Dainius Puras (Lithuania); Stanisław Pużyński (Poland); Kari Pylkkänen (Finland); Jolanta Rabe-Jabłońska (Poland); Jiri Raboch Carl (Czech); Andrzej Rajewski (Poland); Günter Reich (Germany); Krzysztof Rutkowski (Poland); Janusz Rybakowski (Poland); Lony Schiltz (Luxembourg); Wolfram Schüffel (Germany); Wolfgang Senf (Germany); Michael Stark (Germany); Hubert Suszek (Poland); Sefik Tagay (Germany); Sam Tyano (Israel); Peter Tyrer (England);