3V\FKRORJLFD Van Puyenbroeck, S., et al. (2018). Can Cancellara Really be a Flandrien? Ethno-Cultural Identity Representation Predicts Regional Exclusivity ψ %HOJLFD of a Historically Contested Term. Psychologica Belgica, 58(1), pp. 13–30, DOI: https://doi.org/10.5334/pb.358

RESEARCH ARTICLE Can Cancellara Really be a Flandrien? Ethno-Cultural Identity Representation Predicts Regional Exclusivity of a Historically Contested Cycling Term Stef Van Puyenbroeck*, Pascal Delheye†, Stijn Knuts*, Liesbeth Vander Elst‡, Katrien Fransen*, Norbert Vanbeselaere‡ and Filip Boen*

In the term flandrien refers to cyclists who display a strong work ethic, great perseverance, are powerful and who perform best in adverse weather conditions. Until the 1960s, only leading cyclists originating from the province of West- and East-Flanders were considered as flandriens. After 1960, the media extended the use of this term to Belgian cyclists in general and even to international cyclists. The present study examined whether Flemish citizens agree with this generalization considering that the term flandrien still plays a highly symbolical role in the public discourse on Flemish identity. First, the main aim was to investigate whether having an ethno-cultural identity representation of the Flemish identity is positively related to perceived regional exclusivity of the term flandrien. Second, this study explored whether Flemish identification moderates this relation (i.e. this relation is only expected for high identifiers) and also predicts Flemings’ regional exclusivity of the term. Results revealed that the more Flemings endorse an ethno-cultural identity representation the more they consider a flandrien as an exclusively Flemish cyclist, and the less they will include international cyclists in their consideration of a flandrien. Flemish identification did not moderate this relation but did predict the consideration of a flandrien as a Flemish cyclist. These findings indicate that the current interpretation of the historical cycling term flandrien is influenced by cultural conceptualizations of Flemish identity.

Keywords: Cyclism; flandrien; ethno-cultural identity representation; Flemish identity; regional exclusivity

* Department of Movement Sciences, KU Leuven, ‡ Faculty of Psychology and Educational Sciences, Leuven, BE KU Leuven, Leuven, BE † Department of Political Sciences, UGent, Gent, Corresponding author: Stef Van Puyenbroeck BE ([email protected]) 14 Van Puyenbroeck et al: Can Cancellara Really be a Flandrien?

Introduction union serves as a powerful symbolic marker In the 2010 edition of the , the of Irish national identity. For the Irish, the Swiss cyclist accelerated physicality of the game is compatible with with impressive power on the steep climb their temperament and is therefore seen of the so-called ‘Wall of Geraardsbergen’, as an important symbol of their identity as leaving everyone behind and winning Irishmen (Tuck, 2003). ’s most famous one-day cycling race. In Belgium, cycling has historically played Just one week later, he sped over the cobbles a crucial role in the construction of group of Paris- to his second one-day classic identities at different levels (i.e. local, victory in seven days. Mainly because of this regional and national) (Knuts & Delheye, exceptional double victory, Cancellara was 2011). This small Western-European country honored with the ‘International Flandrien is historically marked by a complex interplay Award of 2010’ during the annual ‘gala of the between different national identities. While flandrien’, a prestigious and popular show its population mainly consists of two ethno- broadcasted live on Flemish television. linguistic groups, a Dutch-speaking Flemish Historically, the term flandrien was group and a French-speaking Walloon reserved in the media for Flemish cyclists group, this diversity was not reflected by the that were physically powerful, had a visibly country’s public life at its independence in high sportive work ethic and exhibited 1830, its government and civil administration great perseverance while racing (Knuts et being unilingual French. Already from the al., 2011). The generalization by the media 1840s onwards, a ‘Flemish movement’ of this originally purely Flemish term to an reacted against this discriminating state of international cyclist raises two interesting affairs. In this gradually growing movement, questions. First of all, do Flemish citizens the idea of a distinct Flemish nation and agree with this generalization of this strong identity gradually took shape, which in symbol of Flemish identity? Second, does some cases – especially after World War One the way in which Flemings experience their – led to political support among its more Flemish identity influence their attribution radical supporters for the independence of of the term flandrien in terms of regional Flanders from Belgium. After a federalization exclusivity? By trying to answer these of the national state to the benefit of its questions, we aim to contribute to the Flemish and French-speaking regions in understanding of the role that sports play recent decades, a broad majority of Flemings in the formation and continuation of self- express a moderate, largely cultural – and perceived regional identities. rarely anti-Belgian – Flemish identity. At the same time, there is still a significant minority History of the cycling-term flandrien and of separatist Flemish nationalists, united its importance to Flemish identity in political parties such as the right-wing Worldwide, sports serve the function of Nieuw-Vlaamse Alliantie (N-VA), which has creating and enhancing local, regional or become the biggest Flemish party during the national group identities. According to elections in 2014. Maguire (1994), such collective identities Being the first modern sport that was are shaped and reshaped through a mixture already adopted by the lower classes around of shared opinions, habits, beliefs and 1900 (Delheye, Knuts, & Vanysacker, 2011), feelings. Specific sports, sports teams and cycling became important in creating and sports performances are often constructed enhancing this growing Flemish group as expressions or symbols of local, regional identity from the Interwar period onwards or national identities (Vanreusel, 2006). (Knuts & Delheye, 2011). The introduction of For example, in Ireland the sport of rugby the term flandrien, which started in West- and Van Puyenbroeck et al: Can Cancellara Really be a Flandrien? 15

East Flanders (i.e. the Western part of Dutch- immensely proud of ‘their’ successful local speaking Flanders), served to convey Flemish cyclists. These cyclists served as idols and identity and pride during the interbellum, prototypes that created and enhanced a because the Dutch-speaking Flemings local identity amongst the inhabitants of strived to become more autonomous from these cities and, by extension, amongst the the French-speaking . inhabitants of West-Flanders in general It should be noted that at the beginning of (Knuts & Delheye, 2011). the twentieth century, the term flandrien had From the 1920s until the 1950s, the a rather negative connotation as shorthand label flandrien was still exclusively used for description for the rude West- and East- West- and East-Flemish cyclists and their Flemish seasonal workers in Wallonia and supposed great strength, perseverance and the Northern part of (Derez, 2008; straightforward cycling style. However, Musschoot, 2008). In the cycling world, this their role as representatives was no longer term was used for the first time by Karel restricted to these two Flemish provinces, Van Wijnendaele, a West-Flemish sports as they became representatives of Flanders journalist and key figure of the influential as a whole. The term flandrien also appeared sports newspaper Sportwereld. In 1913, in many other newspapers than Karel Van he gathered a team consisting mainly of Wijnendaele’s Sportwereld. This flandrien West- and East-Flemish track cyclists around title could especially be earned by winning him and began managing them in races in the Tour of Flanders, a race founded by Belgium and abroad. With their aggressive, Sportwereld in 1913, and still one of the most rough riding style, these cyclists first had famous one-day cycling classics today. themselves noticed during races on Brussels’ According to Van Wijnendaele, the aim track (or vélodrome). The of the Tour of Flanders was to make people French-speaking press described these proud of the Flemish region. East- and flandriens as savages, displaying unfair and West-Flemish cyclists’ strong characteristics aggressive behaviour. From this moment, would be the perfect reflections of this the term flandrien became synonymous region. The most typical flandrien of that with the straightforward style of Flemish time was the West-Flemish cyclist Albéric cyclists. The latter characteristics were ‘Briek’ Schotte, who appeared to win his further confirmed by finishing first, second races solely on willpower. His permanent and third at the ‘Six hours of Paris’ in 1913, urge to attack, his victories in the Tour again using their aggressive, perseverant of Flanders, his suffering appearance, his style. Nevertheless, Van Wijnendaele skewed bending over his bike and the fact consistently casted flandriens in a positive that he performed best in adverse weather and even heroic light. He described ‘his’ conditions earned him the title of ‘the flandriens as personifications of a supposed most prototypical flandrien’ (Backelandt, ‘essence’ of the Flemish people: poor, but Cornillie, & Vanwalleghem, 2006). strong and showing a lot of willpower. They After 1960, even though Schotte was still lacked tactics, but won through strength considered as the prototype of the flandrien, and perseverance (Backelandt, Cornillie, & the provincial origin (i.e. being West- or East- Vanwalleghem, 2006). Flemish) of a cyclist became less important Importantly, the use of the term flandrien to be considered as a flandrien. The use of was initially restricted to East- and especially the term expanded and in the 1980s and West-Flemish cyclists. In the 1900s, cycling 1990s also non-West- or East Flemish (but was most popular in these two Belgian still Flemish) cyclists, such as the ever- provinces. In West-Flemish ‘cycling-cities’ attacking , were labelled as such as Roeselare, inhabitants were flandriens. 16 Van Puyenbroeck et al: Can Cancellara Really be a Flandrien?

As the new millennium approached, even Different interpretations of a flandrien the Flemish origin became less important in and the role of identity representations order to be considered as a flandrien by the According to the Social Identity Approach Flemish media. This was illustrated by the (SIA: Haslam, 2004), the self-concept recent documentary The Flandriens (Canvas, consists of both a personal identity and 2010), in which the legendary , a social identity, which is based on group who grew up in Brussels, a non-Flemish membership. Each group is associated with region of Belgium were the majority speaks an in-group prototype, which refers to the French, was presented as a flandrien. An attributes, behaviours, norms and values that even more poignant illustration of this trend are characteristic for that group. The more was the fact that won the strongly individuals identify with a group, the trophy ‘ 2011’, despite more they tend to live up to the prototype of his Walloon origin. More recently, even non- this group and internalize its corresponding Belgian cyclists are labelled and honoured as norms and values. For example, it has been flandriens. This is further illustrated by the shown that the more strongly hockey fans fact that in 2003, 2006 and 2007, the trophy identify as fans of a certain team, the more ‘flandrien of the year’ was awarded to Italian they internalize the norms with respect to cyclist . out-group derogation (Amiot, Sansfaçon, & Considering this historical shift in how Louis, 2014). the media have dealt with the regional In terms of SIA, the term flandrien, exclusivity of the term flandrien, the present often described as a powerful symbol of study will question if and to what extent Flemishness, can be considered as a part of Flemish citizens agree with this labelling the in-group prototype of Flemish identity. In of foreign cyclists as flandriens. Nowadays, times that are characterized by an increasing flandriens are still considered as important popularity of Flemish, nationalist right- symbols of a Flemish identity (Knuts et al., wing political parties, who emphasize the 2011; Knuts & Delheye, 2014). The attributes uniqueness of the Flemings and Flanders, and characteristics of a flandrien have we raise the question whether all Flemings always been presented as an important part agree with the fact that international cyclists of the prototype of Flemish people. This are now also considered as flandriens by the becomes especially clear during the Tour of sports media. Flanders. Although this is an international It should be noted that the conclusions race, it is considered as ‘Flemish cultural of the previous section were based on heritage’ of which Flemings should be historical and sociological studies, which proud. Its widespread popularity in Flanders used contemporary primary sources is illustrated by the fact that on April 6th (newspapers, periodical publications) and 2014, the broadcast of this race reached an secondary literature. By contrast, in a recent impressive market share of 71% in Flanders. social-psychological study Knuts et al. (2011) Moreover, several observable expressions interviewed Flemings to investigate their and symbols emphasize that a clear sense perception of a flandrien. These authors of Flemish identification is activated during found that only 29% accepted that also this race. One of them is the abundant usage international cyclists could be considered of the term flandrien, the Flemish flag (i.e. as flandriens while a large majority (71%) black lions on a yellow background), and disagreed with this statement. Importantly, the descriptions of heroic performances of this means that a large group of Flemings was previous flandriens in the Flemish media. not inclined to consider international cyclists This creates a feeling of ‘us (i.e. the Flemings) as flandriens, even if these cyclists exhibited versus them (i.e. all the rest)’ and symbolizes the same characteristics as a prototypical Flemish identity (Vanreusel, 2006). flandrien like . These findings Van Puyenbroeck et al: Can Cancellara Really be a Flandrien? 17 suggest that there are interindividual after adopting the dominant culture of that differences in the interpretation of a group and, most importantly, are expected flandrien in terms of regional exclusivity, and to protect that culture in the future against that a large proportion of Flemings do not change (Kymlicka, 2001). This cultural share the most recent media depiction of a identity representation considers cultural flandrien. traditions and symbols as core aspects of However, this study only included a their identity, which need to be protected limited sample size (N = 203) and did not against change (Kohn, 1944; Smith, 2001). test whether the proportion of Flemings Both cultural and ethnic identity who have a regionally exclusive view on a representations value the cultural aspect flandrien (71%) significantly differed from of identity, and stress the importance of the proportion of Flemings who are less protecting this identity against change. restrictive and do not limit their definition Therefore, an ethno-cultural identity of a flandrien in terms of regional exclusivity representation, as a combination of ethnic (29%). Furthermore, this study did not and cultural identity representations, can include variables that allowed the authors to be considered as a conservative identity directly probe into the possible underlying representation that especially stresses the reasons for Flemings’ interpretation of a anti-change aspect of identity. Individuals flandrien. who endorse an ethno-cultural identity Considering that a flandrien functions as a representation will be resistant against symbol and prototype of Flemish identity, we changes in the composition of their group propose that socio-psychological factors can in terms of its ancestral origins and cultural explain these differences and can therefore aspects or symbols. influence Flemings’ interpretation of the term flandrien. One of these factors is the The Present Study representation of national identity in terms A first aim of the present study was to of ethnic or cultural characteristics (Kohn, replicate Knuts et al.’s (2011) observed 1944; Smith, 2001). An ethnic identity distribution of Flemings’ interpretation of a representation defines group membership flandrien in terms of regional exclusivity in a in terms of ancestral origin and genealogical larger sample. Based on findings from Knuts grounds. Such a representation implies et al. (2011) and the historical importance that group boundaries are impermeable for of the term for the Flemish identity, we those with a different heritage or origin. hypothesized that the majority of the Research in social psychology has revealed Flemish have a regionally exclusive view on that individuals with an ethnic identity a flandrien, namely that Flemings tend to representation consider static identity disagree with the statement that a flandrien components, including cultural traditions can be considered as an international cyclist and symbols, as core aspects of their identity (Hypothesis 1). that need protection against change. The second and main aim was to address Moreover, various studies also revealed the absence of an underlying explanation that an ethnic identity representation can of Flemings’ interpretation of a flandrien. be related to anti-immigrant attitudes and More specifically we wanted to investigate social discrimination (e.g., Meeus et al., 2010; the relation between the national identity Pehrson, Brown, & Zagefka, 2009; Pehrson, representation of Flemings and their Vignoles, & Brown, 2009). interpretation of this historical cycling Similarly, a cultural identity representation term as an important symbol of Flemish defines group membership in terms of identity. Because a flandrien is an important, sharing a common culture. From this historically grounded cultural symbol for perspective, individuals can join a group the Flemish identity, we hypothesized that 18 Van Puyenbroeck et al: Can Cancellara Really be a Flandrien? the more strongly Flemings endorse an when individuals identify only weakly as a ethno-cultural identity representation of Fleming, the extent to which they adhere Flanders, the more they would be inclined to an ethno-cultural identity representation to protect the meaning of a flandrien against will not influence their perceived regional change and would therefore show more exclusivity of a flandrien. As opposed to low regional exclusivity in their interpretation Flemish identifiers, it can be hypothesized (Hypothesis 2). More specifically, the more that the extent to which high Flemish Flemings endorse an ethno-cultural identity identifiers adhere to an ethno-cultural representation, the more they consider a identity representation is positively related flandrien as an exclusively Flemish cyclist to the perception of the regional exclusivity (Hypothesis 2a) and the less they would of a flandrien. More specifically, the more include international cyclists in their strongly high Flemish identifiers adhere to consideration of a flandrien (Hypothesis 2b). an ethno-cultural identity representation, As a third aim, we wanted to examine the more they will consider a flandrien as an the role of Flemish identification in the exclusively Flemish cyclist (Hypothesis 4a) interpretation of a flandrien. First, it is and the less they will include international known that ingroup identification positively cyclists in their consideration of a flandrien predicts ingroup favouritism (e.g., Brewer, (Hypothesis 4b). 1999; Castano et al., 2002). Accordingly, we predicted that the more Flemings identify Method themselves as Flemish, the more they Procedure restrict a flandrien to Flemish cyclists in Participants were recruited by means of a order to protect this historically important standardized message. This message stated and positively valued term (Hypothesis 3). It that the KU Leuven was investigating how should be noted that previous research did cycling fans interpret the term flandrien. A not show a straightforward relation between link referring to the web-based questionnaire ingroup identification and outgroup was included. Participants were informed derogation (e.g., Pehrson, Vignoles & Brown, that completing the questionnaire would 2009; Wagner et al., 2012). We therefore take 20 to 25 minutes and they were asked did not expect a relation between Flemish to give their honest, personal opinion. identification and the explicit exclusion of This message was spread through different international cyclists as flandriens. channels. First, this message was sent via Second, it can also be expected that Flemish e-mail to 285 cycling clubs. The selected identification moderates the relation between cycling clubs were either located in a an ethno-cultural identity representation cycling-specific region (i.e. regions with a and the interpretation of a flandrien in rich cycling culture: Roeselare, Oudenaarde, terms of regional exclusivity (Hypothesis 4). and Herentals) or in a cycling-nonspecific As mentioned before, identification with a region (Ieper, Sint-Niklaas, and Mechelen). group is necessary in order to attach value Second, staff members of cycling events, to the norms and values of its prototype. administrators of cycling-related and tourism Moreover, Pehrson, Vignoles, and Brown websites (Tourism Flemish Ardennes, (2009) reported that the combination of Tourism East-Flanders, Flemish cycling high identification and an ethnic identity federation, etc.) were contacted. Third, the representation resulted in the highest levels message was published in the free newspaper of negative out-group attitudes. In other De Zondag (2012, March 4, p. 50), printed words, the higher the identification with a each Sunday on more than 600,000 copies. group, the stronger the influence of identity Fourth, social media (Facebook, Google+ and representations on evaluations of outgroup ) were used to distribute the message. members. It can therefore be predicted that Fifth, the message was printed on 500 flyers, Van Puyenbroeck et al: Can Cancellara Really be a Flandrien? 19 which were distributed in various places: in had a degree in lower education, lower Mechelen on March 24, 2012, in Oudenaarde secondary education, higher secondary on March 31, 2012 (during the Tour of education, higher, non-university education Flanders for leisure cyclists) and in Schoten, or university education. Lille and Herentals on April 4, 2012 (during Cycling fandom. To assess respondents’ the cycling race ‘’). level of cycling fandom, they had to indicate the extent to which they agree with the Participants statement that they consider themselves as In total, 2010 participants completed cycling fan on a 5-point Likert scale, ranging the web-based questionnaire, which was from 1 (not applicable at all) to 5 (totally online from February 14, 2012 until April applicable). 16, 2012. Participation was voluntarily and Flemish identification. Identification participants could end the questionnaire at with the Flemish in-group was assessed every moment. Anonymity was ensured and through three items (i.e. ‘Being Flemish is an e-mail address of one of the researchers very important to me’, ‘I am very proud to was provided in case participants had any be Flemish’, ‘I feel strongly connected with questions or remarks. other Flemings’) on a 5-point Likert scale, ranging from 1 (total disagreement) to 5 (total Measurements agreement). This scale was based on a six-item Table 1 provides a detailed overview of all affective in-group identification scale from variables used in this study, including their Boen et al. (2008). The internal consistency descriptive statistics and psychometric of this scale proved to be excellent (α = .91). properties. Ethno-cultural identity representation. The Demographic variables. The questionnaire questionnaire included eight items that assessed respondents’ age (in years), gender assessed the Flemish identity representation. and education. With respect to education, All items were assessed on a 5-point Likert respondents had to indicate whether they scale, ranging from 1 (total disagreement) to

Table 1: Psychometric properties of the study variables.

Variable Range M or % SD α Gender Female 16.1% Male 83.9% Age 13.00–89.00 40.66 16.59 Education Lower education 49.9% Higher education 50.1% Fandom 1.00–5.00 4.35 0.95 Ethno-cultural identity representation 1.00–5.00 3.52 0.87 .73 Flemish identification 1.00–5.00 3.77 0.97 .91 Consideration of a flandrien as a Flemish cyclist 1.00–5.00 3.55 1.37 Inclusion of international cyclists as flandriens: one-item scale 1.00–5.00 3.09 1.47 Inclusion of international cyclists as flandriens: cyclists list 1.00–5.00 2.52 1.03 .83 20 Van Puyenbroeck et al: Can Cancellara Really be a Flandrien?

5 (total agreement). Two items that assessed everybody who settles legally in Flanders, the desire for more autonomy for Flanders lives by the law and participates actively at the expense of the Belgian state (i.e. ‘I am in society’, ‘A Fleming accepts that other pro more Flemish autonomy at the expense cultural groups have a right to the same of the Belgian state’, ‘I am pro more Flemish social, political and cultural facilities as independence at the expense of the Belgian her/himself’). state’). The other six items were part of An Exploratory Factor Analysis was the citizenship representation scales from conducted to identify the underlying Reijerse et al. (2012), who based their scales structure of these eight items. After on Meeus et al. (2010): Two items were performing Direct Oblimin rotation, both part of their three-item ethnic citizenship the method of Cattell (1966; i.e. based on the representation scale (i.e. ‘One can only scree plot) and the Kaiser eigenvalue-greater- be Flemish if he/she has Flemish (grand) than one rule (Kaiser, 1960) suggested the parents’, ‘A Fleming is somebody who is born extraction of three components. Together, in Flanders’), two items were part of their these components explained 69% of the total six-item cultural citizenship representation variance. An item was retained to construct a scale (i.e. ‘A Fleming is somebody who component when it had a minimum loading lives according to the Flemish culture of .40, without having a cross loading higher (language, habits, norms and values, etc.)’, than .40 (Table 2). ‘A Fleming protects the Flemish culture The first component consisted of the against multicultural influences’) and four items that were part of the ethnic and finally, two items were part of their five- cultural citizenship representation scale item civic citizenship representation scale from Reijerse et al. (2012). The second (i.e. ‘Flemish citizenship is allowed for component consisted of the two items that

Table 2: Factor loadings for Exploratory Factor Analysis with Oblimin Rotation of items, based on the citizenship scales from Reijerse et al. (2012) and the autonomy items.

Components 1 2 3 One can only be Flemish if he/she has Flemish (grand) parents. .79 –.04 –.14 A Fleming is somebody who is born in Flanders. .83 –.16 .02 A Fleming is somebody who lives according to the Flemish culture. .67 .14 .23 (Language, habits, norms and values, etc.). A Fleming protects the Flemish culture against multicultural .56 .34 –.17 influences. Flemish citizenship is allowed for everybody who settles legally in .11 .15 .82 Flanders, lives by the law and participate actively in society. A Fleming accepts that other cultural groups have a right to the –.14 –.19 .74 same social, political and cultural facilities as him/herself. I am pro more Flemish autonomy at the expense of the Belgian –.04 .95 .05 state. I am pro more Flemish independence at the expense of the Belgian –.01 .94 –.04 state.

Factor loadings > .40 are in boldface. Van Puyenbroeck et al: Can Cancellara Really be a Flandrien? 21 assessed the desire for more autonomy for served as another, less abstract measurement Flanders at the expense of the Belgian state. of the inclusion of international cyclists as The third component consisted of the two flandriens. This measurement demonstrated items that were part of the civic citizenship a good internal consistency (α = .83). identification scale of Reijerse et al. (2012). The first component shows that there is Results an overlap between an ethnic and cultural First, in order to test Hypothesis 1 and to identity representation. For this reason, the compare our results with those from Knuts four items that loaded highly on the first et al. (2011), it was necessary to trichotomize component were combined and used as the scores on the item ‘A flandrien can also measurement of an ethno-cultural identity be a foreign cyclist’. Respondents who representation (component 1 in Table 2). The gave a rating of 1 or 2, were assigned to internal consistency of this ethno-cultural the category ‘disagree’, while respondents scale was acceptable (α = .73). The other four who rated this item 4 or 5 were assigned items were not used for further analyses in to the category ‘agree’. Participants who this study. gave a rating of 3 were considered as ‘non- Regional exclusivity of the term flandrien: deciders’. This procedure resulted into three consideration of a flandrien as a Flemish categories that all contained a proportion cyclist. The item ‘A flandrien is a Flemish of the study sample: a ‘disagree’ category cyclist’ assessed the degree to which a (N = 731), an ‘agree’ category (N = 972) and flandrien is considered to be a Flemish cyclist. a ‘non-decider’ category (N = 298). To test This item was assessed on a 5-point likert Hypothesis 1, we compared the number of scale, ranging from 1 (total disagreement) to respondents who agreed with the statement 5 (total agreement). that a flandrien can also be a foreign Regional exclusivity of the term flandrien: cyclist with the number of respondents inclusion of international cyclists as flandriens. who disagreed with this statement. In Two measurements were constructed to line with Hypothesis 1, a Chi-Square assess whether respondents also included statistic indicated that the non-agreement international cyclists in their consideration of category contained significantly more a flandrien. First, respondents had to rate the respondents than the agreement category item ‘A flandrien can also be a foreign cyclist’ (χ2 (1, N = 2204) = 34.11, p < .001). That on a 5-point likert scale, ranging from 1 (total is, there are more Flemings who adhere a disagreement) to 5 (total agreement). Second, regionally exclusive definition of a flandrien the questionnaire also contained eight than Flemings who opine that a flandrien international cyclists. Respondents had to can also be an international cyclist. indicate the extent to which they considered In order to test whether this distribution these cyclists as a flandrien on a 5-point likert fully replicates the findings from Knuts et scale ranging from 1 (no flandrien at all) to al. (2011), an additional Chi-Square test 5 (totally a flandrien). Four international was conducted. Combining data from the cyclists were selected (i.e. ‘Fabian Cancellara’, present study and the study from Knuts et al. ‘’, ‘Paolo Bettini’, ‘Thor (2011), we constructed a 2 × 2 contingency Hushovd’) because they were expected to be table in which the columns represented best known amongst Flemings and contain the sample (i.e. the present study sample prototypical flandrien-features such as a vs. the study sample from Knuts et al. straightforward, fierce cycling style, winning (2011)) and the rows the agreement vs. on willpower and demonstrating a lot of disagreement category (with the statement perseverance. Therefore, for each participant, that a flandrien can also be an international the average score for these four international cyclist). Results demonstrated that the cyclists was calculated. This combined score proportion of disagreeing respondents was 22 Van Puyenbroeck et al: Can Cancellara Really be a Flandrien? significantly lower in the present study as flandrien (i.e. consideration of a flandrien as a compared to the study from Knuts et al. Flemish cyclist and inclusion of international (2011) (χ2 (1, N = 1906) = 14.36, p < .001). To cyclists as flandriens). As opposed to the pre- summarize, although these results confirm vious analysis of Hypothesis 1, all following Hypothesis 1, we did not fully replicate the analyses used the full range of likert-scale exact distributions from Knuts et al. (2011) of scores. Flemings who agree vs. disagree with the fact The procedure of the multiple hierarchical that a flandrien can also be an international regression analysis was as follows. In cyclist. step 1, the background variables gender, age, Second, multiple hierarchical linear cycling fandom and education were entered. regression analyses were conducted to The variable education was dichotomized test Hypotheses 2–4. Table 3 provides in a higher (1) versus no higher education an overview of the predictor variables, group (0). In step 2, ethno-cultural identity the dependent variables and their representation and Flemish identification inter-correlations. were included to test their contribution to The multiple hierarchical regression the consideration of a flandrien as a Flemish analysis was conducted for both operation- cyclist and the inclusion of international alizations of regional exclusivity of the term cyclists in the consideration of a flandrien.

Table 3: Summary of intercorrelations for the study variables.

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Independent variables 1. Ethno-cultural identity – .49** .24** –.15** –.02 .14** .03 –.20** .03 representation 2. Flemish identification – .19** –.10** .02 .17** .04 –.15** .03

Dependent variables 3. Consideration of a flandrien – –.65** –.43** .13** –.22** .01 –.10** as a Flemish cyclist 4. Inclusion of international – .61** –.12** .26** –.03 .14** cyclists as flandriens: one-item scale 5. Inclusion of international – .05* .36** –.10** .18** cyclists as flandriens: cyclists list Control variables 6. Age – –.14** –.01 .02

7. Fandom – –.10** .29**

8. Education (0 = low, 1 = high) – –.08**

9. Gender (F = 0, M = 1) –

*p < .05, **p < .001. Van Puyenbroeck et al: Can Cancellara Really be a Flandrien? 23

In step 3, the interaction term between the recommended procedures for testing ethno-cultural identity representation and interactions in multiple regressions (Aiken Flemish identification was entered. Ethno- & West, 1991; Jaccard, Turrisi, & Wan, 1990). cultural identity representation and Flemish The results of all regression analyses can be identification were mean centered, following found in Tables 4–6.

Table 4: Hierarchical regression results predicting consideration of a flandrien as a Flemish cyclist.

Predictor Consideration of a flandrien as a Flemish cyclist Step 1 Step 2 Step 3 β β β Age 0.10*** 0.06** 0.06** Gender (0 = F; 1 = M) –0.05 –0.05* –0.05* Education (0 = low; 1 = high) 0.00 0.06* 0.06* Fandom –0.19*** –0.20*** –0.20*** Ethno-cultural identity representation 0.21*** 0.21*** Flemish identification 0.08** 0.08** Ethno-cultural × –0.00 Flemish identification R2 .06 .12 .12

*p < .05, **p < .01, ***p < .001.

Table 5: Hierarchical regression results predicting inclusion of international cyclists as flandriens as measured by the one-item scale.

Predictor Inclusion of international cyclists as flandriens: one–item scale Step 1 Step 2 Step 3 β β β Age –0.08*** –0.05* –0.05* Gender (0 = F; 1 = M) 0.06** 0.07** 0.07** Education (0 = low; 1 = high) –0.02 –0.06* –0.06* Fandom 0.24*** 0.25*** 0.25*** Ethno–cultural identity representation –0.15*** –0.15*** Flemish identification –0.03 –0.04 Ethno–cultural × –0.02 Flemish identification R2 .08 .11 .11

*p < .05, **p < .01, ***p < .001. 24 Van Puyenbroeck et al: Can Cancellara Really be a Flandrien?

Table 6: Hierarchical regression results predicting inclusion of international cyclists as flandriens as measured by the cyclists list.

Predictor Inclusion of international cyclists as flandriens: cyclists list Step 1 Step 2 Step 3 β β β Age 0.11*** 0.12*** 0.12*** Gender (0 = F; 1 = M) 0.07** 0.07** 0.07** Education (0 = low; 1 = high) –0.05* –0.06** –0.06** Fandom 0.35*** 0.35*** 0.35*** Ethno–cultural identity representation –0.06* –0.06* Flemish identification 0.01 0.01 Ethno–cultural × –0.01 Flemish identification R2 .15 .15 .15

*p < .05, **p < .01, ***p < .001.

Consideration of a flandrien as a Flemish were revealed as significant predictors. In cyclist particular, men consider a flandrien less as The results of the first step showed that a Flemish cyclist than women, and older the background variables explained 6% and higher educated individuals consider of variance in the consideration of a a flandrien more as a Flemish cyclist than flandrien as a Flemish cyclist (R2 = .060, younger and lower educated individuals F(4, 1780) = 28.61, p < .001). Step 2 respectively. Moreover, the more strongly demonstrated that, when the background respondents claim to be cycling fans, the variables were statistically controlled for, less they consider a flandrien as a Flemish both ethno-cultural identity representation cyclist. and Flemish identification contributed Second, in line with Hypothesis 2a, significantly to the consideration of a ethno-cultural identity representation flandrien as a Flemish cyclist (R2 = .122, was a significant positive predictor of the ΔR2 = .06, ΔF(2, 1778) = 62,56 p < .001). The consideration of a flandrien as a Flemish results of step 3 revealed that the interaction cyclist (β = .21 p < .001). In other words, term between ethno-cultural identity the more strongly Flemings endorse an representation and Flemish identification ethno-cultural identity representation, the did not contribute significantly to the more they consider a flandrien as a Flemish consideration of a flandrien as a Flemish cyclist. Third, the same relation was found cyclist (R2 = .122, ΔR2 = .00, ΔF(1, 1777) = 0.03, regarding Flemish identification (β = .08 p = .87), which contradicts Hypothesis 4a. p = .002). That is, the more Flemings Therefore, only the regression coefficients identify themselves as Flemish, the more after step 2 were interpreted. regionally exclusive their interpretation of a First, gender (β = –.05, p = .041), cycling flandrien in terms of considering a flandrien fandom (β = –.20, p < .001), education as a Flemish cyclist, which confirmed (β = .06, p = .013) and age (β = .06, p = .006) Hypothesis 3a. Van Puyenbroeck et al: Can Cancellara Really be a Flandrien? 25

Inclusion of international cyclists as Inclusion of international cyclists as flandriens: one-item scale flandriens: cyclists list In the first step the background variables Step 1 revealed that the background accounted for 8.3% of variance in the item variables accounted for 14.8% of ‘A flandrien can also be a foreign cyclist’ variance in the average score given to (R2 = .083, F(4, 1775) = 40.17, p < .001). the four international cyclists (R2 = .148, The results of step 2 revealed that, when F(4, 1720) = 74.50, p < .001). The results of statistically accounting for the background step 2 revealed that, when the background variables, including ethno-cultural identity variables were statistically controlled for, representation and Flemish identification the addition of ethno-cultural identity contributed significantly to the prediction representation and Flemish identification of the inclusion of international cyclists in contributed significantly to the inclusion of the consideration of a flandrien (R2 = .109, international cyclists as flandriens (R2 = .151, ΔR2 = .026, ΔF(2, 1773) = 26.06, ΔR2 = .003, ΔF(2, 1718) = 3.19, p = .041). p < .001). The results of step 3 showed that The results of step 3 showed that, when the interaction term did not contribute controlling for the background variables and significantly to the inclusion of international ethno-cultural identity representation, the cyclists as flandriens (R2 = .109, ΔR2 = .00, interaction between ethno-cultural identity ΔF(1, 1772) = 0.44, p = .51). This result representation and Flemish identification did contradicts Hypothesis 4b. Therefore, the not contribute significantly to the inclusion predictors of the third step were not included of international cyclists as flandriens for the interpretation of the regression (R2 = .151, ΔR2 = .002, ΔF(2, 1624) = 2.39, coefficients. p = .092). This result contradicts Hypothesis First, gender (β = .07, p = .006), cycling 4b. Therefore, we further only discuss the fandom (β = .25, p < .001), age (β = –.05, regression coefficients for the predictors p = .036) and education (β = –.06, p = .015) after the second step. were significant predictors. This means that First, gender (β = .07, p = .002), cycling men include international cyclists more fandom (β = .35, p < .001), age (β = .12, in their consideration of a flandrien than p < .01) and education (β = –.06, p = .008) women, and older and higher-educated emerged as significant predictors. This Flemings include international cyclists less means that men and older respondents in their consideration of a flandrien than include international cyclists more in their younger and lower educated Flemings, consideration of a flandrien than women respectively. Furthermore, the more strongly and younger respondents, respectively, respondents claim to be cycling fans, the and that higher educated respondents more they include international cyclists in include international cyclists less in their their consideration of a flandrien. consideration of a flandrien than lower As expected, ethno-cultural identity educated respondents. Furthermore, the representation emerged as a significant, more strongly respondents are cycling fans, negative predictor (β = –.15, p < .001). That the more they include international cyclists is, the more Flemings endorse an ethno- as flandriens. cultural identity representation, the less they As expected, ethno-cultural identity will include international cyclists in their representation was a significant, albeit consideration of a flandrien. This finding modest, negative predictor (β = –.06, is in line with Hypothesis 2b. In line with p = .016). That is, the more Flemings endorse Hypothesis 3b, Flemish identification was no an ethno-cultural identity representation, significant predictor in this model (β = –.03, the less they include international cyclists in p = .23). their consideration of a flandrien. This finding 26 Van Puyenbroeck et al: Can Cancellara Really be a Flandrien? is in line with Hypothesis 2b. Again, Flemish representation are opposed to change identification was no significant predictor in the meaning of the term flandrien. In the this model (β = .01, p = .66), which confirmed context of the SIA this study demonstrates Hypothesis 3b. that sports can create in-group prototypes. More specifically, a flandrien is considered as Discussion an in-group prototype with which Flemings The present study aimed to offer further appear to agree. This finding underlines the insights into the current meaning of the term important role of sports in the process of flandrien for Flemish citizens and its relation creating and enhancing identities. Moreover, with the way in which Flemish identity is this study shows how identity representations represented. For this reason, we decided can influence on (intergroup) attitudes and to use a quantitative approach, thereby norms in sports contexts. extending previous qualitative research on Flemish identification positively predicted the term flandrien. More specifically, this the consideration of a flandrien as a Flemish research investigated the relation between cyclist, thereby confirming Hypothesis 3a. the identity representation of Flemings and Considering that a flandrien is generally their interpretation of the historical cycling regarded as a positively valued term, term ‘flandrien’ as an important symbol for Flemings who strongly identify themselves the Flemish identity. as Flemish want to ascribe the term to In line with a qualitative study from Knuts their ingroup, thereby aiming to verify the et al. (2011), we revealed that the majority of positive view they (want to) have on their the Flemings disagree with the contemporary group membership. This finding is in line depiction of a flandrien by the media as with previous findings regarding the positive being regionally unbounded. It should be relation between ingroup identification and noted that the proportion of Flemings who ingroup favouritism (e.g., Castano et al., disagree with the statement that a flandrien 2002). can also be foreign cyclist was lower in the Flemish identification was not related present study compared with the proportion to the inclusion of international cyclists found by Knuts et al. (2011). Nevertheless, as flandriens. This was in line with several using a much larger sample, we did replicate studies indicating that ingroup identification their finding that most Flemings still have is not necessarily positively related to a regionally restrictive definition of this explicit outgroup derogation (e.g., Pehrson, term and consider a flandrien as a non- Brown & Zagefka, 2009; Pehrson, Vignoles & international cyclist, thereby confirming Brown, 2009). In sum, the abovementioned Hypothesis 1. finding underline the strength and An important finding was that the more importance of a social identity perspective Flemings endorse an ethno-cultural identity on group processes, as apparently the same representation, the more they protect the mechanisms are at work in very divergent meaning of a flandrien in terms of regional settings, ranging from politics concerning exclusivity against change. In line with immigrants to sport settings. Hypotheses 2a and 2b, we observed that the It should be noted that in contrast with more strongly Flemings endorse an ethno- Hypothesis 4, Flemish identification did cultural representation of their Flemish not moderate the relation between an identity, the more they consider a flandrien ethno-cultural identity representation and as an exclusively Flemish cyclist and the the attribution of a flandrien in terms of less they include international cyclists in regional exclusivity. This lack of interaction their consideration of a flandrien. This between identification and ethno-cultural finding clearly demonstrates that Flemings representation contrasts the findings from who endorse an ethno-cultural identity Pehrson, Vignoles, and Brown (2009). One Van Puyenbroeck et al: Can Cancellara Really be a Flandrien? 27 possible explanation for this discrepancy is more likely to be perceived by individuals is that individuals who endorse an ethno- who already value this social identity (i.e. cultural identity representation might high identifiers). These high identifiers are have a conservative attitude in general. more ready to apply this self-categorization Consequently, they might consider a flandrien because it is more available in their minds. as a cultural symbol that they do not want to In other words, self-categorization is a see changed because they are against change dynamic and complex process. The level at in general, regardless whether it is important which a social identity is triggered depends for the Flemish identity or not. Therefore, an both upon the specific context and upon interesting avenue for future research is to the individual’s predisposition. In the case disentangle the effects of an ethno-cultural of the cycling fans in our questionnaire, identity representation and a conservative they were probably more likely to define attitude in general. themselves (and the cyclists) as cycling Two additional findings are worth fans than as Flemish persons, because they discussing. A first interesting finding is that were addressed as cycling fans to fill in the cycling fans are less regionally exclusive in questionnaire. As a consequence, their social the consideration of a flandrien as compared identity of ‘cycling fans’ was more salient to to non-cycling fans. Cycling fandom was the them than their social identity of a Flemish strongest predictor amongst all background person. variables. A possible explanation for this A second interesting finding is that men relation is that cycling fans spend more time are less regionally exclusive in the use of following cycling in sports media, which the term flandrien than women. However, depict a flandrien as not exclusively Flemish. additional analyses showed that on average, In turn, this larger exposure to the perception men (M = 4.47) were stronger cycling fans of a flandrien by the media could have an than women (M = 3.73) (t(2006) = –13.44, influence on their own perception. A second p < .001). For this reason, the aforementioned possible explanation is that because of their explanation with respect to the relation larger interest in sports, cycling fans consider between cycling fandom and regional a flandrien as a term that is strictly related exclusivity can also account for the finding to sports. This would isolate the term from that men are less regionally exclusive than any association with regional exclusivity or women. identity. In this respect, it should also be noted that sport contexts can trigger both the Strengths and limitations separating as well as the uniting function of One of the major strengths of the present identities. In fact, according to SIA (Haslam, study is that we adopted a quantitative 2004), the specific level at which individuals approach to investigate the importance define themselves at a particular moment – of a flandrien in symbolizing a Flemish and thus act accordingly – depends on the identity. By using regression analyses on a salience of their social identities. This salience large-scale internet-survey data, the present is in turn determined by the perceived fit of study extends previous studies, which only a social identity with the context and by the used qualitative material (e.g., interviews, readiness of the perceiver to identify with this primary sources or secondary literature) to identity. For example, because many Flemish study this topic. This approach, including flags are displayed along the route of each the large sample size, elaborates previous Tour of Flanders, this environmental cue qualitative findings that simply describe the will enhance the likelihood that individuals existence of differences in perception of a will define themselves as a Flemish person flandrien (Knuts et al., 2011), by including a during that race because this social identity theoretical framework in the shape of SIA to then fits with the context. In addition, this fit explain these observed differences. Another 28 Van Puyenbroeck et al: Can Cancellara Really be a Flandrien? strength is that the results revealed similar representations. More recently, Kymlicka predictors for both operationalizations of (2001) argued for the conceptualization of the inclusion of international cyclists in the a cultural identity representation. A study consideration of a flandrien. The one-item of Reijerse et al. (2012) also found evidence scale (‘a flandrien can also be a foreign cyclist’) for the distinction between an ethnic, civic can be considered to be more abstract than and cultural identity representation in the concrete . The fact that the context of anti-immigrant behaviours. we found similar relations between these However, these authors reported a positive outcomes on the one hand and Flemish correlation between their ethnic and identification and ethno-cultural identity cultural identity representation scales. In representation on the other hand testifies to addition, the items of Reijerse et al. (2012) the validity of our findings. that are used in this study are supposed to A first limitation of this study addresses measure an ethnic and cultural identity the relatively small effect sizes (0.3%–6%) of representation. However, the results of the our focal predictors: ethno-cultural identity principal component analysis in our study presentation and Flemish identification. This showed that these items loaded highly means that although endorsing an ethno- on one factor and therefore could not be cultural identity representation and Flemish distinguished from each other. Together, identification did predict the interpretation these findings are not surprising because of a flandrien in terms of regional exclusivity, of the aforementioned overlap in terms of this effect was not particularly pronounced. conceptualization between an ethnic and In line with the findings regarding the cultural identity representation. Therefore, other predictors, this indicates that other it seems legitimate to conceptualize an factors, such as cycling fandom, have a ethno-cultural identity representation as an stronger influence on the perceived regional identity representation that is conservative exclusivity of a flandrien. and opposed to change in identity-relevant A second limitation regards one of this elements. study’s operationalizations of the inclusion of international cyclists as flandrien. That Conclusion is, respondents had to rate to which they To conclude, this study demonstrates that considered four international cyclists as a the expansion of the term flandrien in terms flandrien. We chose only these four cyclists of regional exclusivity is not shared by all because we expected them to be largely Flemings and is influenced by their identity known amongst Flemings and demonstrate representation. On the one hand, the the typical ‘Briek Schotte-characteristics’. results of this study reveal that a flandrien, This enables to really capture the regional a historically contested cycling term, is still aspect of these cyclists and limits the considered as an important symbol for possible confounding influence of these the Flemish identity. On the other hand, characteristics although we acknowledge adhering to an ethno-cultural identity that this choice is subjective, but still based representation seems to influence Flemings’ on the opinion of cycling experts. perception of this identity-relevant symbol A third limitation of this study is that an in terms of changeability. In spite of his ethno-cultural identity representation, as heroic performances and match with a combination of an ethnic and cultural behavioural characteristics, Flemings with identity representation, has never been an ethno-cultural identity representation studied as an identity representation in itself. will less likely consider the cycling champion Traditionally, the most occurring distinction Cancellara as a flandrien, simply because he is between a civic and ethnic identity is not a Fleming. Van Puyenbroeck et al: Can Cancellara Really be a Flandrien? 29

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How to cite this article: Van Puyenbroeck, S., Delheye, P., Knuts, S., Vander Elst, L., Fransen, K., Vanbeselaere, N., & Boen, F. (2018). Can Cancellara Really be a Flandrien? Ethno-Cultural Identity Representation Predicts Regional Exclusivity of a Historically Contested Cycling Term. Psychologica Belgica, 58(1), 13–30, DOI: https://doi.org/10.5334/pb.358

Submitted: 10 July 2016 Accepted: 27 October 2017 Published: 19 March 2018

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