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The Physiology and Processing of Pain a Review

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The Physiology and Processing of Pain a Review AACN Clinical Issues Volume 16, Number 3, pp. 277–290 C 2005, AACN The Physiology and Processing of Pain A Review Cynthia L. Renn, RN, PhD, ACNP; Susan G. Dorsey, RN, PhD 6 visits to a healthcare provider4 and the American Academy of Pain Management Despite the many advances in our reports5 that uncontrolled pain is at epidemic understanding of the mechanisms proportions, with 50 million Americans suf- underlying pain processing, pain fering from some form of chronic pain and continues to be a major healthcare another 25 million experiencing acute pain problem in the United States. Each day, caused by accident or surgical procedures millions of Americans are affected by both each year. Studies6–8 estimate that 70 million acute and chronic pain conditions, costing visits to healthcare providers were motivated in excess of $100 billion for by pain and that 4.9 million people visited a treatment-related costs and lost work healthcare provider for treatment of chronic productivity. Thus, it is imperative that pain, all at an estimated cost exceeding $100 better treatment strategies be developed. billion. Further, pain patients and their fami- One step toward improving pain lies suffer from intangible costs related to the management is through increased pain, such as decreased quality of life, de- knowledge of pain physiology. Within the pression, and interpersonal stresses.9 nervous system, there are several Pain not only affects patients and their pathways that transmit information about families, but also society and the economy pain from the periphery to the brain. There as well. Beyond the cost of medical treat- is also a network of pathways that carry ment, society bears the costs of increased modulatory signals from the brain and healthcare utilization and lost productivity brainstem that alter the incoming flow of by patients in pain. More than two thirds pain information. This article provides a of those living with chronic pain have had review to the physiology and processing of their pain for 5 or more years, often pro- pain. (KEYWORDS: ascending pain ducing significant limitations on daily activ- pathways, descending modulation, pain, ity, and it is estimated that 36 million Amer- nociceptors) icans missed nearly 4 billion work days due to pain, resulting in a substantial loss of work Congress declared the years of 2000 to 2010 as the Decade of Pain Control and Research, From the Department of Organizational Systems and yet pain continues to be a leading public Adult Health, School of Nursing, University of Maryland, health and nursing problem in the United Baltimore, Maryland. States.1 Pain is the principal symptom caus- Reprint requests to Cynthia L. Renn, Assistant Profes- sor, University of Maryland School of Nursing, Depart- ing patients to seek medical attention, affect- ment of Organizational Systems and Adult Health, 3rd 2,3 ing 1 in 5 Americans on any given day. Floor, 655 West Lombard Street, Baltimore, MD 21201– It is estimated that pain accounts for 1 in 1579 ([email protected] ). 277 278 RENN AND DORSEY AACN Clinical Issues productivity and an estimated cost of $65 bil- of the pain experience led McCafferey15 to lion annually.7 define pain as “whatever the experiencing A critical step toward minimizing the phys- person says it is, existing whenever the ex- ical, emotional, and financial drain on pa- periencing person says it does.”(p7) Pain has tients and caregivers is improving the clin- further been defined by the International As- ical management of pain. When managing sociation for the Study of Pain (IASP)10 as the care of a patient with pain, the advanced “an unpleasant sensory and emotional expe- practice nurse must work together with the rience associated with actual or potential tis- patient to establish a common treatment goal. sue damage or described in terms of such In many cases, the goal of the treatment strat- damage.”(p250) egy may be to achieve maximal analgesia Twobroad categories of pain, acute and (the absence of a pain response to a nox- chronic, are seen in the clinical setting. Un- ious stimulus).10,11 However, when maximal der these broad categories fall the subtypes analgesia is not possible, the treatment goal of pain, which include inflammatory, neuro- shifts to reducing the pain to a level that the pathic, cancer, etc. Acute pain tends to be of patient finds tolerable and allows for the per- a short duration, typically has an identifiable formance of normal activities of daily living. cause, and is focal to the site of injury.10–13,16 Upon establishment of the treatment goal, the Further, acute pain functions as an endoge- next step is to develop a plan to meet that nous protective mechanism that signals the goal. A key factor that aids in the process brain of the occurrence of real or poten- of selecting the most appropriate treatment tial tissue injury, thus prompting a protective modalities, in addition to a thorough pain response.12 Clinically, acute pain functions as assessment, is an in-depth understanding of a symptom, tends to be self-limited, and gen- pain physiology. A thorough understanding erally responds to a straightforward treatment of how pain is processed at each stage in plan with a good to excellent prognosis.16 the peripheral and the central nervous sys- However, pain can persist beyond the point tems allows the treatment strategy to be tai- of tissue healing and develop into a chronic lored to meet the needs of the individual and debilitating state. Chronic pain is unre- patient. This article provides a primer on ma- lenting, has no identifiable cause, spreads be- jor structures and processes involved in pain yond the original site of injury, and serves no physiology. biological function.10–13,16 Clinically, chronic pain has the characteristics of a disease state, can produce psychological disturbances, re- What Is Pain? quires complex treatment strategies, and typ- ically has a poor prognosis.16 When a region of the body is exposed to a tissue-damaging or potentially tissue- Pain Transmission: The Ascending damaging insult, one experiences the un- pleasant sensation of pain.12 Pain has been Pain Pathways described as a multifaceted and highly sub- jective experience that is unique to each The ascending pain pathways transmit noci- person. Pain is not only influenced by phys- ceptive information from peripheral tissues to iological processes, but also influenced by the cerebral cortex for interpretation as pain. psychological and emotional processes as The ascending pathways are complex struc- well. It has been reported that the inten- tures, involving both the peripheral (PNS) sity of pain can be influenced by contex- and central nervous systems (CNS). tual cues. For example, similar types of trau- matic injury may be seemingly painless in Nociception certain situations and extremely painful in others.13,14 This phenomenon was first de- Nociception, the initial processing of pain, scribed by Beecher,13 who found that soldiers involves a system of mechanisms that en- with severe wounds often reported little pain code and transmit the pain signal, along the while civilians with similar injuries typically ascending pathway, from the point of nox- reported severe pain. The subjective nature ious stimulation in the periphery to higher Vol. 16, No. 3, July-Sept 2005 PAIN PROCESSING 279 Figure 1. Ascending pain pathway. The ascending pain pathway transmits nociceptive information from peripheral tissues (1) via a primary afferent nerve fiber, which enters the spinal cord in the dorsal horn (2) where it synapses with a second-order neuron. The second-order neuron travels up through the spinal cord (3) and brainstem, synapsing in the tha- lamus with a third-order neuron that transmits the nociceptive information to the brain (4) for interpretation as pain. Adapted with permission from Fields and Basbaum.63(p310) centers in the CNS, including the cerebral nociceptors, a number of endogenous chemi- cortex where an awareness of the presence cals have been identified that can activate no- of pain occurs12 (see Figure 1). The first ciceptors, including potassium, bradykinin, step in the complex pain process is the serotonin, histamine, prostaglandins, and transduction of a noxious stimulus (nocicep- others.19–23 tion) by specialized nerves (nociceptors).17,18 Nociceptors are found in most organs and tissues in the body and are activated by ei- Spinal Dorsal Horn ther a noxious mechanical (touch or pres- When a noxious stimulus is transduced by a sure), thermal (hot or cold), or chemical (en- nociceptor, a signal is generated that is trans- dogenous or exogenous) stimulus12,17,18 (see mitted as an electrical action potential along Figure 2). The term noxious is applied small diameter A-delta (myelinated, fast to nociceptive stimuli because nociceptors transmission, sharp or pricking first pain)24,25 are activated in response to strong stim- and C (unmyelinated, slow transmission, dull uli that fall in the tissue-damaging range, or burning second pain)25,26 primary affer- whereas nonnociceptive mechanoreceptors, ent nerve fibers to the gray matter of the thermoreceptors, and chemoreceptors re- spinal cord (see Figure 2 inset). On cross- spond to milder stimuli that fall in a range section, the spinal gray matter forms a but- below the tissue-damaging level.12,17,18 In ad- terfly shape and can be divided into 10 lami- dition to exogenous chemicals that stimulate nae, or layers, which are numbered I through 280 RENN AND DORSEY AACN Clinical Issues Figure 2. Pain transmission from peripheral tissues to the spinal cord. Noxious stimuli (thermal, chemical, or mechanical) that are applied to peripheral tissues activate nociceptors that are located within the tissues. The stimulus is transduced by the nociceptor to generate a nociceptive signal that is transmitted as an action potential along a primary afferent nerve to the dorsal horn of the spinal cord.
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