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Encyclopedia of the Hundred Years War

Encyclopedia of the Hundred Years War

John A. Wagner

GREENWOOD PRESS Westport, Connecticut  London

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Wagner, J. A. (John A.) Encyclopedia of the Hundred Years War / John A. Wagner. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 0-313-32736-X (alk. paper) 1. Hundred Years’ War, 1337–1453—Encyclopedias. I. Title. DC96.W34 2006 944'.02503—dc22 2006009761 Cataloguing in Publication Data is available. Copyright # 2006 by John A. Wagner All rights reserved. No portion of this book may be reproduced, by any process or technique, without the express written consent of the publisher. Library of Congress Catalog Card Number: 2006009761 ISBN: 0-313-32736-X First published in 2006 Greenwood Press, 88 Post Road West, Westport, CT 06881 An imprint of Greenwood Publishing Group, Inc. www.greenwood.com Printed in the United States of America

The paper used in this book complies with the Permanent Paper Standard issued by the National Information Standards Organization (Z39.48-1984). 10987654321 To my father, Joseph L. Wagner, who encouraged me to be whatever I wanted to be and worked ceaselessly to give me opportunities to do so.

I have begun [this book] in such a way that all who see it, read it, or hear it read may take delight and pleasure in it, and that I may earn their regard. —, prologue to Chronicles

Contents

List of Entries ix Guide to Related Topics xiii Preface xxiii Acknowledgments xxvii Chronology: The Hundred Years War xxix Maps li

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE HUNDRED YEARS WAR 1

Appendix 1: Genealogies 314 Appendix 2: Chronological Listing of Major Battles, Sieges, and Campaigns 321 Appendix 3: European Monarchs and Rulers, 1250s–1450s 323 Appendix 4: , 1294–1455 326 Appendix 5: Holders of Selected English, French, and Continental Titles of Nobility during the Hundred Years War 327 Appendix 6: Constables and Marshals of and during the Hundred Years War 332 Appendix 7: Counties, Duchies, and Regions of Medieval France 334 Appendix 8: Annotated Listing of Selected Sources for the Hundred Years War 343

Bibliography 353 Index 365

vii

List of Entries

Agincourt, Battle of (1415) Battle, Nature of Aiguillon, Siege of (1346) Bauge´, Battle of (1421) Albret, Arnaud-Amanieu, Lord of (d. 1401) Beauchamp, Richard, Earl of Warwick Albret, Bernard-Aiz, Lord of (d. 1359) (1382–1439) Albret, Charles, Lord of, Constable of France Beauchamp, Thomas, Earl of Warwick (d. 1415) (c. 1314–1369) , Treaty of (1423) Beaufort, Edmund, Duke of Somerset Anglo- Alliance (1420–1435) (c. 1406–1455) Anglo-Flemish Alliance (1339) Beaufort, Henry, Cardinal-Bishop of Anglo-French War of 1294–1303 Winchester (c. 1375–1447) Anne of Burgundy, Duchess of Bedford Beaufort, John, Duke of Somerset (1404–1432) (1403–1444) Anti-French Coalition (1337–1340) Beaufort, Thomas, Duke of Exeter Appanage (c. 1377–1426) Appeal of the Gascon Lords (1368–1369) Bentley, Sir Walter (c. 1310–1359) Bergerac, Capture of (1345) Archers Bernard, Count of (1391–1418) Armagnacs Black Death Armies, Command of Bohun, William de, Earl of Northampton Armies, Composition of (c. 1312–1360) Armies, Recruitment of Armies, Size of Bordeaux, Truce of (1357) Armies, Supplying of Bourges, Treaty of (1412) Armor and Nonmissile Weaponry Bre´tigny, Treaty of (1360) , Congress of (1435) Breton Civil War (1341–1365) Arrie`re-ban Brignais, Battle of (1362) Artevelde, James van (c. 1290–1345) Artevelde, Philip van (1340–1382) Peace Conference (1375–1377) Arthur III, Duke of Brittany (1393–1458) Bureau, John (d. 1463) Artillery Burghersh, Henry, Bishop of Lincoln Auberoche, Battle of (1345) (1292–1340) Audley, Sir James (d. 1369) Burgundians Audrehem, Arnoul d’, Marshal of France (c. Burgundy 1300–1370) Buzanc¸ais, Treaty of (1412) , Battle of (1364) Peace Conference (1344) Cabochiens (1413) Cadzand, Battle of (1387) Badefol, Se´guin de (c. 1331–1366) Bastides Calais, Siege of (1346–1347)

ix LIST OF ENTRIES

Calais, Truce of (1347) Fastolf, Sir John (c. 1378–1459) Calveley, Sir Hugh (d. 1394) Flanders Canterbury, Treaty of (1416) Formigny, Battle of (1450) Capet, House of Fouge`res, Sack of (1449) Castilian War of Succession (1362–1369) Franco-Scottish Alliance Castillon, Battle of (1453) French Civil War Casualties Fresnay, Battle of (1420) , Queen of England Froissart, Jean (c. 1337–c. 1404) (1401–1437) Cervole, Arnaud de (c. 1320–1366) Garter, Order of the Chandos, Sir John (d. 1370) Charles, Duke of Orle´ans (1394–1465) Grailly, Jean de, Captal de Buch Charles IV, King of France (1294–1328) (d. 1376) Charles V, King of France (1338–1380) Charles VI, King of France (1368–1422) Gue´rande, Treaty of (1365) Charles VII, King of France (1403–1461) Guesclin, Bertrand du, Constable of France Charles VII, Military Reforms of (c. 1320–1380) Charles of Blois, Duke of Brittany Guines, Treaty of (1354) (c. 1319–1364) Charles the Bad, King of Navarre (1332–1387) Halidon Hill, Battle of (1333) Chevauche´e Harcourt, Godfrey of (d. 1356) Chevauche´e of 1355 Harfleur, Siege of (1415) Chevauche´e of 1373 Hawkwood, Sir John (c. 1320–1394) Henry IV, King of England (1366–1413) (c. 1364–c. 1430) , King of England (1387–1422) Clement VI (1291–1352) Henry VI, King of England (1421–1471) , Olivier, Constable of France Henry of Grosmont, Duke of Lancaster (1336–1407) (c. 1310–1361) Cocherel, Battle of (1364) Herrings, Battle of the (1429) Combat of the Thirty (1351) Holland, Thomas, Earl of Kent Cravant, Battle of (1423) (c. 1315–1360) Cre´cy, Battle of (1346) Hostages, Treaty of the (1362) Crisis of 1340–1341 Humphrey, Duke of Gloucester (1390–1447) Dagworth, Sir Thomas (c. 1310–1350) Hundred Years War, Causes of David II, King of Scotland (1324–1371) Hundred Years War, Naming of Diplomacy Hundred Years War, Phases of Dordrecht Bonds (1337–1338) Douglas, Archibald, Indentures (c. 1369–1424) Isabeau of Bavaria, Queen of France (c. 1370–1435) Edmund of Langley, Duke of Isabella, Queen of England (c. 1292–1358) (1341–1402) Isabella, Queen of England (1388–1409) Edward, the Black Prince, Prince of Wales (1330–1376) Jack Cade’s Rebellion (1450) Edward I, King of England (1239–1307) (1358) Edward II, King of England (1284–1327) Jean le Bel (d. c. 1370) Edward III, King of England (1312–1377) (c. 1412–1431) Esplechin, Truce of (1340) John, Count of Dunois and Longueville Estates, General and Provincial (1402–1468) x LIST OF ENTRIES

John, Duke of Alenc¸on (c. 1407–1476) Montargis, Siege of (1427) John, Duke of Bedford (1389–1435) Montereau Conference (1419) John, Duke of Berry (1340–1416) Montfort, John de (d. 1345) John II, King of France (1319–1364) Morlaix, Battle of (1342) John IV, Duke of Brittany (c. 1340–1399) John V, Duke of Brittany (1389–1442) Na´jera, Battle of (1367) , Duke of Lancaster National Consciousness, Growth of (1340–1399) , Neville’s Cross, Battle of (1346) (1371–1419) Nogent-sur-Seine, Battle of (1359) Justification of the Duke of Burgundy (1408) Norman Campaign (1417–1419) Norman Campaign (1449–1450) Knolles, Sir Robert (c. 1325–1407)

Lancaster, House of Oriflamme La Roche-Derrien, Battle of (1347) Orle´ans, Siege of (1428–1429) , Battle of (1372) Leulinghen, Truce of (1389) Papacy and the Hundred Years War Limoges, Sack of (1370) Campaign (1429) Paris, Treaty of (1259) London Parlement of Paris London, First Treaty of (1358) Parliament London, Second Treaty of (1359) Patay, Battle of (1429) Louis, Duke of (1339–1384) Paˆtis Louis, Duke of Guienne (1397–1415) Peasants’ Revolt of 1381 Louis, Duke of Orle´ans (1372–1407) Philip IV, King of France (1268–1314) Louis X, King of France (1289–1316) Philip V, King of France (c. 1290–1322) Louis de Male, Philip VI, King of France (1293–1350) (1330–1384) , Queen of England Louis de Nevers, Count of Flanders (c. 1314–1369) (c. 1304–1346) Philip the Bold, Duke of Burgundy (1342–1404) Maine, Surrender of (1448) Philip the Good, Duke of Burgundy Malestroit, Truce of (1343) (1396–1467) Marcel, E´ tienne (1310–1358) Plantagenet, House of , Queen of England , Battle of (1356) (1430–1482) Pole, Sir William de la (d. 1366) Margaret of France, Queen of England Pole, William de la, Duke of Suffolk (1279–1318) (1396–1450) Marguerite de Flanders, Duchess of Pontoise, Siege of (1441) Burgundy (c. 1349–1405) Process Marmousets Propaganda and War Publicity Mauny, Walter, Lord Mauny (d. 1372) Mauron, Battle of (1352) Ransom Meaux, Siege of (1421–1422) Rheims Campaign (1359–1360) , Siege of (1420) Richard, Duke of York (1411–1460) Montagu, Thomas, Earl of Salisbury Richard II, King of England (1367–1400) (1388–1428) Robert of Artois (1287–1342) Montagu, William, Earl of Salisbury , Siege of (1418–1419) (1301–1344) Routiers

xi LIST OF ENTRIES

Saintes, Battle of (1351) Taxation and War Finance Saint-Omer, Battle of (1340) Thie´rache Campaign (1339) Saint-Sardos, War of (1323–1325) Thomas, Duke of Clarence of Succession (1389–1421) Scales, Thomas, Lord Scales (c. 1399–1460) Thomas of Woodstock, Duke of Scotland Gloucester (1355–1397) Seine, Battle of the (1416) Tournai, Siege of (1340) Shakespeare and the Hundred Years War , Truce of (1444) Siege Warfare Towns and the Hundred Years War Sluys, Battle of (1340) , Treaty of (1420) Stafford, Ralph, Earl of Stafford (1301–1372) Star, Order of the Valmont, Battle of (1416) Stewart, John, Earl of Buchan (c. 1380–1424) Valois, House of Strategy and Tactics Verneuil, Battle of (1424) Stratford, John, Archbishop of Canterbury Vignolles, E´ tienne de (c. 1390–1443) (c. 1275–1348) Winchelsea, Battle of (1350) Talbot, John, Earl of Shrewsbury (c. 1384–1453) Xaintrailles, Poton de (1400–1461)

xii Guide to Related Topics

ALLIANCES AND COALITIONS BATTLES Anglo-Burgundian Alliance Agincourt, Battle of Anglo-Flemish Alliance Auberoche, Battle of Anti-French Coalition Auray, Battle of Bourges, Treaty of Battle, Nature of Buzanc¸ais, Treaty of Bauge´, Battle of Canterbury, Treaty of Brignais, Battle of Diplomacy Cadzand, Battle of Franco-Scottish Alliance Castillon, Battle of Casualties AQUITAINE/GASCONY Cocherel, Battle of Aiguillon, Siege of Combat of the Thirty Albret, Arnaud-Amanieu, Lord of Cravant, Battle of Albret, Bernard-Aiz, Lord of Cre´cy, Battle of Albret, Charles, Lord of Formigny, Battle of Anglo-French War of 1294–1303 Fresnay, Battle of Appeal of the Gascon Lords Halidon Hill, Battle of Aquitaine Herrings, Battle of the Auberoche, Battle of La Roche-Derrien, Battle of Badefol, Se´guin de La Rochelle, Battle of Bastides Mauron, Battle of Bergerac, Capture of Morlaix, Battle of Bernard, Count of Armagnac Na´jera, Battle of Bordeaux Neville’s Cross, Battle of Castillon, Battle of Nogent-sur-Seine, Battle of Chandos, Sir John Patay, Battle of Charles IV, King of France Poitiers, Battle of Charles V, King of France Saintes, Battle of Edward, the Black Prince, Prince Saint-Omer, Battle of of Wales Seine, Battle of the Gascony Sluys, Battle of Grailly, Jean de, Captal de Buch Valmont, Battle of Henry of Grosmont, Duke of Lancaster Verneuil, Battle of Limoges, Sack of Winchelsea, Battle of Louis, Duke of Anjou Philip IV, King of France BRETON CIVIL WAR (1341–1365) Routiers AND BRITTANY Saintes, Battle of Amiens, Treaty of Saint-Sardos, War of Arthur III, Duke of Brittany

xiii GUIDE TO RELATED TOPICS

Auray, Battle of CAMPAIGNS Bentley, Sir Walter Chevauche´e Bohun, William de, Earl of Chevauche´e of 1355 Northampton Chevauche´e of 1373 Breton Civil War Loire Campaign Brittany Norman Campaign (1417–1419) Calveley, Sir Hugh Norman Campaign (1449–1450) Chandos, Sir John Rheims Campaign Charles V, King of France Thie´rache Campaign Charles of Blois, Duke of Brittany Clisson, Olivier, Constable of France CAROLINE WAR (1369–1389) Combat of the Thirty Albret, Arnaud-Amanieu, Lord of Dagworth, Sir Thomas Appeal of the Gascon Lords Edward III, King of England Aquitaine Gue´rande, Treaty of Bordeaux John II, King of France Bruges Peace Conference John IV, Duke of Brittany Cadzand, Battle of John V, Duke of Brittany Charles V, King of France La Roche-Derrien, Battle of Charles VI, King of France Malestroit, Truce of Chevauche´e of 1373 Mauron, Battle of Clisson, Olivier, Constable of France Montfort, John de Edmund of Langley, Duke of York Morlaix, Battle of Edward III, King of England Paˆtis Guesclin, Bertrand du, Constable Philip VI, King of France of France John, Duke of Berry BURGUNDY John of Gaunt, Duke of Lancaster Amiens, Treaty of Knolles, Sir Robert Anglo-Burgundian Alliance La Rochelle, Battle of Anne of Burgundy, Duchess Leulinghen, Truce of of Bedford Limoges, Sack of Arras, Congress of Louis, Duke of Anjou Burgundians Marguerite de Flanders, Duchess of Burgundy Burgundy Cabochiens Richard II Charles VI, King of France Thomas of Woodstock, Duke of Charles VII, King of France Gloucester Henry IV, King of England Henry V, King of England Henry VI, King of England CASTILIAN WAR OF SUCCESSION John, Duke of Bedford (1362–1369) John the Fearless, Duke of Audrehem, Arnoul d’, Marshal of France Burgundy Castilian War of Succession Justification of the Duke of Burgundy Clisson, Olivier, Constable of France Lancaster, House of Edward, the Black Prince, Prince Marguerite de Flanders, Duchess of of Wales Burgundy Guesclin, Bertrand du, Constable of Montereau Conference France Philip the Bold, Duke of Burgundy John of Gaunt, Duke of Lancaster Philip the Good, Duke of Burgundy Na´jera, Battle of xiv GUIDE TO RELATED TOPICS

CHURCHMEN AND POPES COMMANDERS AND CAPTAINS, Avignon Peace Conference FRENCH Beaufort, Henry, Cardinal-Bishop of Albret, Arnaud-Amanieu, Lord of Winchester Albret, Charles, Lord of Burghersh, Henry, Bishop of Lincoln Armies, Command of Clement VI Arthur III, Duke of Brittany Papacy and the Hundred Years War Audrehem, Arnoul d’, Marshal of France Stratford, John, Archbishop Bernard, Count of Armagnac of Canterbury Bureau, John Charles, Duke of Orle´ans COMMANDERS AND CAPTAINS, Clisson, Olivier, Constable of France ENGLISH Douglas, Archibald, Earl of Douglas Albret, Arnaud-Amanieu, Lord of Guesclin, Bertrand du, Constable Albret, Bernard-Aiz, Lord of of France Armies, Command of Joan of Arc Audley, Sir James John, Count of Dunois and Longueville Beauchamp, Richard, Earl of John, Duke of Alenc¸on Warwick John, Duke of Berry Beauchamp, Thomas, Earl of Warwick Louis, Duke of Anjou Beaufort, Edmund, Duke of Somerset Philip the Bold, Duke of Burgundy Beaufort, John, Duke of Somerset Stewart, John, Earl of Buchan Beaufort, Thomas, Duke of Exeter Vignolles, E´ tienne de Bentley, Sir Walter Xaintrailles, Poton de Bohun, William de, Earl of Northampton ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL MATTERS Calveley, Sir Hugh Armies, Composition of Chandos, Sir John Armies, Recruitment of Dagworth, Sir Thomas Armies, Supplying of Edmund of Langley, Duke of York Black Death Edward, the Black Prince, Prince Cabochiens of Wales Casualties Fastolf, Sir John Chivalry Grailly, Jean de, Captal de Buch Christine de Pizan Henry of Grosmont, Duke of Lancaster Combat of the Thirty Holland, Thomas, Earl of Kent Dordrecht Bonds John, Duke of Bedford Indentures John of Gaunt, Duke of Lancaster London Knolles, Sir Robert National Consciousness, Growth of Mauny, Walter, Lord Mauny Paris Montagu, Thomas, Earl of Salisbury Paˆtis Montagu, William, Earl of Salisbury Pole, Sir William de la Pole, William de la, Duke of Suffolk Taxation and War Finance Richard, Duke of York Towns and the Hundred Years War Robert of Artois Scales, Thomas, Lord Scales EDWARDIAN WAR (1330s–1360) Stafford, Ralph, Earl of Stafford Aiguillon, Siege of Talbot, John, Earl of Shrewsbury Albret, Bernard-Aiz, Lord of Thomas, Duke of Clarence Anglo-Flemish Alliance Thomas of Woodstock, Duke of Anti-French Coalition Gloucester Aquitaine

xv GUIDE TO RELATED TOPICS

Artevelde, James van Mauny, Walter, Lord Mauny Auberoche, Battle of Mauron, Battle of Audley, Sir James Montagu, William, Earl of Salisbury Audrehem, Arnoul d’, Marshal of France Montfort, John de Badefol, Se´guin de Morlaix, Battle of Beauchamp, Thomas, Earl of Warwick Philip VI, King of France Bentley, Sir Walter Philippa of Hainault, Queen of England Bergerac, Capture of Plantagenet, House of Black Death Poitiers, Battle of Bohun, William de, Earl of Northampton Pole, Sir William de la Bordeaux Rheims Campaign Bordeaux, Truce of Robert of Artois Bre´tigny, Treaty of Saintes, Battle of Breton Civil War Saint-Omer, Battle of Brittany Sluys, Battle of Burghersh, Henry, Bishop of Lincoln Stafford, Ralph, Earl of Stafford Calais Thie´rache Campaign Calais, , Siege of Calais, Truce of Winchelsea, Battle of Calveley, Sir Hugh Cervole, Arnaud de FLANDERS Chandos, Sir John Anglo-Flemish Alliance Charles V, King of France Artevelde, James van Charles of Blois, Duke of Brittany Artevelde, Philip van Charles the Bad, King of Navarre Bruges Peace Conference Chevauche´e Dordrecht Bonds Chevauche´e of 1355 Edward III, King of England Combat of the Thirty Flanders Cre´cy, Battle of Louis de Male, Count of Flanders Crisis of 1340–1341 Louis de Nevers, Count of Flanders Dagworth, Sir Thomas Marguerite de Flanders, Duchess of David II, King of Scotland Burgundy Dordrecht Bonds Edward, the Black Prince, Prince of Wales FRENCH CIVIL WAR () Edward III, King of England Anglo-Burgundian Alliance Esplechin, Truce of Armagnacs Froissart, Jean Bernard, Count of Armagnac Garter, Order of the Bourges, Truce of Grailly, Jean de, Captal de Buch Burgundians Guines, Treaty of Burgundy Harcourt, Godfrey of Buzanc¸ais, Treaty of Henry of Grosmont, Duke of Lancaster Cabochiens Holland, Thomas, Earl of Kent Catherine of Valois, Queen of England John II, King of France Charles, Duke of Orle´ans Knolles, Sir Robert Charles VI, King of France La Roche-Derrien, Battle of Charles VII, King of France London, First Treaty of Christine de Pizan London, Second Treaty of French Civil War Louis de Nevers, Count of Flanders Henry IV, King of England Malestroit, Truce of Henry V, King of England xvi GUIDE TO RELATED TOPICS

Isabeau of Bavaria, Queen of France John II, King of France Isabella, Queen of England (1388–1409) Lancaster, House of John, Duke of Berry Louis X, King of France John the Fearless, Duke of Burgundy Margaret of Anjou, Queen of England Justification of the Duke of Burgundy Margaret of France, Queen of England Lancaster, House of Philip IV, King of France Louis, Duke of Guienne Philip V, King of France Louis, Duke of Orle´ans Philip VI, King of France Montereau Conference Philippa of Hainault, Queen of England Troyes, Treaty of Plantagenet, House of Richard II, King of England HISTORIOGRAPHY AND SOURCES Valois, House of Froissart, Jean Hundred Years War, Causes of LANCASTRIAN WAR (1415–1453) Hundred Years War, Naming of Agincourt, Battle of Hundred Years War, Phases of Albret, Charles, Lord of Jean le Bel Amiens, Treaty of Justification of the Duke of Burgundy Anglo-Burgundian Alliance Propaganda and War Publicity Anne of Burgundy, Duchess of Bedford Shakespeare and the Hundred Years War Armagnacs Arras, Congress of INSTITUTIONS, LAWS, AND Arthur III, Duke of Brittany CONVENTIONS Bauge´, Battle of Chivalry Beauchamp, Richard, Earl of Warwick Estates, General and Provincial Beaufort, Edmund, Duke of Somerset Garter, Order of the Beaufort, Henry, Cardinal-Bishop of Parlement of Paris Winchester Parliament Beaufort, John, Duke of Somerset Ransom Beaufort, Thomas, Duke of Exeter Salic Law of Succession Bernard, Count of Armagnac Star, Order of the Bordeaux Bureau, John KINGS, QUEENS, AND ROYAL HOUSES Burgundians Capet, House of Burgundy Catherine of Valois, Queen of England Canterbury, Treaty of Charles IV, King of France Castillon, Battle of Charles V, King of France Catherine of Valois, Queen of England Charles VI, King of France Charles, Duke of Orle´ans Charles VII, King of France Charles VI, King of France Charles the Bad, King of Navarre Charles VII, King of France David II, King of Scotland Charles VII, Military Reforms of Edward I, King of England Christine de Pizan Edward II, King of England Cravant, Battle of Edward III, King of England Douglas, Archibald, Earl of Douglas Henry IV, King of England Fastolf, Sir John Henry V, King of England Formigny, Battle of Henry VI, King of England Fouge`res, Sack of Isabeau of Bavaria, Queen of France Fresnay, Battle of Isabella, Queen of England (c. 1292–1358) Harfleur, Siege of Isabella, Queen of England (1388–1409) Henry V, King of England

xvii GUIDE TO RELATED TOPICS

Henry VI, King of England Artillery Herrings, Battle of the Battle, Nature of Humphrey, Duke of Gloucester Casualties Isabeau of Bavaria, Queen of France Charles VII, Military Reforms of Joan of Arc Chevauche´e John, Count of Dunois and Longueville Chivalry John, Duke of Alenc¸on Combat of the Thirty John, Duke of Bedford Indentures John, Duke of Berry Naval Warfare John the Fearless, Duke of Burgundy Oriflamme Lancaster, House of Paˆtis Loire Campaign Propaganda and War Publicity Maine, Surrender of Ransom Margaret of Anjou, Queen of England Siege Warfare Meaux, Siege of Strategy and Tactics Melun, Siege of Montagu, Thomas, Earl of Salisbury NAVY AND NAVAL BATTLES Montargis, Siege of Cadzand, Battle of Norman Campaign (1417–1419) La Rochelle, Battle of Norman Campaign (1449–1450) Naval Warfare Orle´ans, Siege of Seine, Battle of the Patay, , Battle of Philip the Good, Duke of Burgundy Winchelsea, Battle of Pole, William de la, Duke of Suffolk Pontoise, Siege of Richard, Duke of York NOBILITY, ENGLISH Rouen, Siege of Anne of Burgundy, Duchess of Bedford Scales, Thomas, Lord Scales Beauchamp, Richard, Earl of Warwick Seine, Battle of the Beauchamp, Thomas, Earl of Warwick Stewart, John, Earl of Buchan Beaufort, Edmund, Duke of Somerset Talbot, John, Earl of Shrewsbury Beaufort, John, Duke of Somerset Thomas, Duke of Clarence Beaufort, Thomas, Duke of Exeter Tours, Truce of Bohun, William de, Earl of Troyes, Treaty of Northampton Valmont, Battle of Edmund of Langley, Duke of York Verneuil, Battle of Edward, the Black Prince, Prince of Wales Vignolles, E´ tienne de Henry of Grosmont, Duke of Lancaster Xaintrailles, Poton de Holland, Thomas, Earl of Kent Humphrey, Duke of Gloucester John, Duke of Bedford MILITARY MATTERS John of Gaunt, Duke of Lancaster Archers Mauny, Walter, Lord Mauny Armies, Command of Montagu, Thomas, Earl of Salisbury Armies, Composition of Montagu, William, Earl of Salisbury Armies, Recruitment of Pole, William de la, Duke of Suffolk Armies, Size of Richard, Duke of York Armies, Supplying of Scales, Thomas, Lord Scales Armor and Nonmissile Weaponry Stafford, Ralph, Earl of Stafford Arrie`re-ban Talbot, John, Earl of Shrewsbury Arthur III, Duke of Brittany Thomas, Duke of Clarence xviii GUIDE TO RELATED TOPICS

Thomas of Woodstock, Duke of Maine, Surrender of Gloucester Marcel, E´ tienne Margaret of Anjou, Queen of England NOBILITY, FRENCH/CONTINENTAL Marmousets National Consciousness, Growth of Albret, Arnaud-Amanieu, Lord of Papacy and the Hundred Years War Albret, Bernard-Aiz, Lord of Process Albret, Charles, Lord of Propaganda and War Publicity Anne of Burgundy, Duchess of Bedford Stratford, John, Archbishop of Canterbury Arthur III, Duke of Brittany Bernard, Count of Armagnac PROVINCES, REGIONS, TERRITORIES, Charles, Duke of Orle´ans AND APPANAGES Charles of Blois, Duke of Brittany Appanage Charles the Bad, King of Navarre Aquitaine Grailly, Jean de, Captal de Buch Brittany Harcourt, Godfrey of Burgundy John, Count of Dunois and Longueville Estates, General and Provincial John, Duke of Alenc¸on Flanders John, Duke of Berry Gascony John IV, Duke of Brittany Maine, Surrender of John V, Duke of Brittany Normandy John the Fearless, Duke of Burgundy Louis, Duke of Anjou REVOLUTIONARIES, REBELLIONS, Louis, Duke of Guienne UPRISINGS, AND USURPATIONS Louis, Duke of Orle´ans Anglo-Flemish Alliance Louis de Male, Count of Flanders Artevelde, James van Louis de Nevers, Count of Flanders Artevelde, Philip van Marguerite de Flanders, Duchess of Cabochiens Burgundy Charles the Bad, King of Navarre Montfort, John de Cocherel, Battle of Philip the Bold, Duke of Burgundy Edward II, King of England Philip the Good, Duke of Burgundy Harcourt, Godfrey of Robert of Artois Henry IV, King of England Isabella, Queen of England (c. 1292–1358) POLITICAL MATTERS Jack Cade’s Rebellion Appanage Jacquerie Appeal of the Gascon Lords Lancaster, House of Armagnacs Marcel, E´ tienne Arras, Congress of Peasant’s Revolt of 1381 Avignon Peace Conference Richard II, King of England Burghersh, Henry, Bishop of Lincoln Robert of Artois Burgundians Cabochiens ROUTIERS Christine de Pizan Aquitaine Crisis of 1340–1341 Badefol, Se´guin de Diplomacy Bernard, Count of Armagnac Estates, General and Provincial Brignais, Battle of Hostages, Treaty of the Calveley, Sir Hugh Isabella, Queen of England (c. 1292–1358) Cervole, Arnaud de Isabella, Queen of England (1388–1409) Great Company

xix GUIDE TO RELATED TOPICS

Hawkwood, Sir John Canterbury, Treaty of Knolles, Sir Robert Clement VI Nogent-sur-Seine, Battle of Diplomacy Ransom Esplechin, Truce of Routiers Gue´rande, Treaty of Guines, Treaty of SCOTLAND Hostages, Treaty of the Bauge´, Battle of Leulinghen, Truce of Cravant, Battle of London, First Treaty of David II, King of Scotland London, Second Treaty of Douglas, Archibald, Malestroit, Truce of Earl of Douglas Montereau Conference Edward I, King of England Paris, Treaty of Franco-Scottish Alliance Process Halidon Hill, , Truce of Neville’s Cross, Battle of Troyes, Treaty of Scotland Stewart, John, Earl of Buchan TROOPS AND WEAPONS Verneuil, Battle of Archers Armies, Composition of SIEGES AND SACKS OF TOWNS/ Armies, Recruitment of FORTRESSES Armies, Size of Aiguillon, Siege of Armies, Supplying of Artillery Armor and Nonmissile Weaponry Bergerac, Capture of Artillery Calais, Siege of Casualties Fouge`res, Sack of Harfleur, Siege of TOWNS Limoges, Sack of Bastides Meaux, Siege of Black Death Melun, Siege of Bordeaux Montargis, Siege of Cabochiens Orle´ans, Siege of Calais Pontoise, Siege of Jack Cade’s Rebellion Rouen, Siege of Jacquerie Siege Warfare London Tournai, Siege of Marcel, E´ tienne Towns and the Hundred Paris Years War Peasants’ Revolt of 1381 Siege Warfare TREATIES, TRUCES, AND PEACE Taxation and War Finance CONFERENCES Towns and the Hundred Amiens, Treaty of Years War Avignon Peace Conference Bordeaux, Truce of WARS RELATED TO OR PRECEDING Bourges, Treaty of THE HUNDRED YEARS WAR Bre´tigny, Treaty of Anglo-French War of 1294–1303 Bruges Peace Conference Breton Civil War Buzanc¸ais, Treaty of Castilian War of Succession Calais, Truce of Charles IV, King of France xx GUIDE TO RELATED TOPICS

Edward I, King of England Christian de Pizan Edward II, King of England Isabeau of Bavaria, Queen of France French Civil War Isabella, Queen of England Margaret of France, Queen of England (c. 1292–1358) Paris, Treaty of Isabella, Queen of England (1388–1409) Philip IV, King of France Joan of Arc Saint-Sardos, War of Margaret of Anjou, Queen of England Margaret of France, Queen of England WOMEN Marguerite de Flanders, Duchess of Anne of Burgundy, Duchess of Bedford Burgundy Catherine of Valois, Queen of England Philippa of Hainault, Queen of England

xxi

Preface

The Encyclopedia of the Hundred Years War provides its users with clear, concise, and basic descriptions and definitions of people, events, and terms relating in some significant way to the series of intermittent conflicts that occurred between France and England in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries and that later came to be known collectively as the Hundred Years War. Because this volume focuses exclusively on the war itself—what caused it, how it was fought, and what effects it had on the political, social, economic, and cultural life of England and France— it is not a general overview of fourteenth- and fifteenth-century history in either country, but a specialized treatment of the Anglo-French warfare that occurred during those centuries. The Encyclopedia was written primarily for students and other nonspecialists who have an interest—but little background—in this period of European history. Besides providing a highly usable resource for quickly looking up names and terms encountered in reading or during study, the Encyclopedia offers an excellent starting point for classroom or personal research on subjects relating to the course, causes, and consequences of the Hundred Years War. The entries provide the basic information needed to choose or hone a research topic, to answer small but vital questions of fact, and to identify further and more extensive information resources. The Encyclopedia also serves as a handy guide for those interested in recreating the military and social aspects of the Anglo-French wars, as well as a useful reader’s companion for those whose reading on the period—whether fiction or nonfiction—is more for enjoyment than for study.

SCOPE OF THE BOOK In chronological terms, the Encyclopedia of the Hundred Years War concerns itself mainly with the period 1337 to 1453, the traditional dates for the start and end of the Hundred Years War. As discussed in the entry ‘‘Hundred Years War, Phases of,’’ actual fighting was intermittent across this period, which many historians divide into different wars conducted by different leaders but for largely the same reasons. Some entries, such as those on the Treaty of Paris of 1259 or the Anglo- French War of 1294–1303, examine topics and events that led up to the Hundred Years War, while others, such as those on Aquitaine or the Salic Law of Suc- cession, cover broader topics or issues related to the long-term causes of the Hundred Years War. In geographical terms, the Encyclopedia is concerned not only with the course of political and military events in France and England, but also with how the Anglo- French wars both affected and were influenced by people and happenings in other countries and states. Because of its length and intensity, the Hundred Years War spilled over into neighboring states and affected the whole of Western

xxiii PREFACE

Europe. Readers will thus find entries on various of those states, including Brittany, Flanders, and Scotland; on various rulers of those states, such as David II of Scotland and Duke Philip the Good of Burgundy; and on important related events in those states, such as the Castilian War of Succession and the Anglo- Scottish Battle of Neville’s Cross.

CRITERIA FOR INCLUSION To be included in the Encyclopedia, a topic, event, or person had to have a role in some significant aspect of the Hundred Years War. Nonbiographical entries re- late mainly to military issues—for example, the raising of armies, the nature of combat, and the use of naval forces—to political terms and events—for example, truces and treaties, legislative and judicial bodies, and peace conferences and alliances—to the major battles of the Hundred Years War—for example, Poitiers, Agincourt, and Verneuil—and to the chief political and military leaders of the war—for example, Edward III, , and Joan of Arc. Because was the domain of kings and magnates, the great majority of biographical entries cover members of the French and English royal families and the most important noblemen to command armies, conduct di- plomacy, or govern provinces. Besides the kings of both countries, such as Charles V and Richard II, and the leading noblemen of both realms, such as John of Gaunt, duke of Lancaster, and Louis, duke of Anjou, the Encyclopedia also includes entries on the royal families themselves, such as the Houses of Plan- tagenet, Valois, and Lancaster, and on non-noble figures of importance in both realms, such as E´ tienne Marcel, Sir Thomas Dagworth, Christine de Pizan, and William de la Pole.

STRUCTURE OF ENTRIES The Encyclopedia’s 256 entries, 104 of which are biographical, average about 750 words in length. Each entry opens with a sentence or brief paragraph that carefully places its subject, whether a person, event, or term, within the context of the Hundred Years War, explaining the subject’s significance for the emergence, course, or impact of the conflict. Each entry also contains numerous cross- references to related entries (which appear in SMALL CAPITALS) and concludes with one or more recommendations for additional reading. These reading recom- mendations include both scholarly works and popular treatments. In a few cases, older books have been included if no more recent study has been published or if the older work remains the accepted scholarly standard on the subject, as is the case, for instance, with biographies of some lesser-known figures. Also included in the readings are some important essays and papers published in journals or collections of articles. All works appearing at the ends of entries as further reading are listed in the general bibliography, which also contains numerous other worthwhile books not found among the entry recommendations. A reader interested in further reading on a particular person or topic should check both the general bibliography and the further reading listings at the ends of relevant entries. All biographical entries provide the person’s title or office. For titles of nobility, only the highest title attained is given; thus, Louis, younger brother of Charles VI, is noted as duke of Orle´ans, the title he acquired in 1392 and is best known by, and not as duke of Touraine, the title he had held previously. In a few cases, such as John, the Bastard of Orle´ans, who is best known as count of Dunois and only xxiv PREFACE later became count of Longueville, both titles are given. Except in cases where birth dates are unknown, as is often the case with medieval figures, life dates are also supplied for all biographical entries. When exact birth or death years are uncertain, the c. notation, meaning ‘‘circa’’ or ‘‘at about that time,’’ precedes the date to indicate that the year given is approximate. When a single year is pre- ceded by d., the year given is the death date, and the birth date is totally un- known. The date ranges supplied for ruling monarchs are birth and death dates, not the years of their reign, which are given in the text of the entry. Because this volume is meant for English-speaking readers, French men and women are noted by the name that is most commonly employed in English historiography, thus Joan of Arc, rather than Jeanne d’Arc, and John II, rather than Jean II, but Jean Froissart, rather than John Froissart.

ADDITIONAL FEATURES The entries are augmented by maps of battlefield sites, French provinces, and the English position in France at various stages of the war. A detailed chronology and six genealogical tables depicting the royal houses and important noble fam- ilies are also provided. Appendixes include a chronological listing of major battles, sieges, and campaigns, as well as listings of European rulers and mon- archs from the 1250s to the 1450s; popes from the 1290s to the 1450s; holders of important titles among the higher nobility of each country; and the constables and marshals of both realms. Other appendixes offer brief annotations describing important provinces and regions and selected chronicles and sources for the war. Besides an extensive general bibliography, which is divided by broad topics, the Encyclopedia also includes various illustrations and a detailed subject index. When used with the cross-references in the entries, the ‘‘Guide to Related Top- ics’’ will allow readers to trace broad themes, such as diplomacy, Scotland, or women through all their most important events, ideas, and personalities and so help provide users with a sound, basic understanding of the Hundred Years War.

xxv

Acknowledgments

I wish to thank the staffs at Arizona State University’s Hayden Library and at the Scottsdale, Arizona, Public Library for assisting me in finding important research materials, particularly those relating to French medieval history. At Greenwood Publishing, I want to thank Gary Kuris and Kevin Ohe for their willingness to sign a work of medieval history, Mike Hermann for his development and oversight of history projects, Liz Kincaid for advice on the gathering of illus- trations, and Tom Brennan for the preparation of maps and genealogical charts. My thanks also to Mark Kane at Greenwood and to Sheryl Rowe at Bytheway Publishing Services for smoothly guiding me through the production process. Although their assistance was of a less technical nature, I must mention my little button-nosed friends, Kirby, Midnight, and Snuffle, three shih tzus who kept me company through long hours of reading and writing. Finally, as usual, nothing would have been possible without the love and support of my wife, Donna.

xxvii

Chronology: The Hundred Years War

1066 14 October William, duke of Normandy, wins Battle of and becomes king of England as William I 1152 18 May Henry, count of Anjou and great-grandson of William I, marries Eleanor, heiress to the 1154 25 October Henry, count of Anjou and duke of Normandy, becomes Henry II, first Plantagenet king of England 1204 King John loses most of Plantagenet empire in France to Philip II 1224 falls to French 1239 18 June Birth of Prince Edward, son of Henry III and future king of England as Edward I 1259 13 October Treaty of Paris is concluded by Henry III and Louis IX; the agreement recognizes the king of England as , but requires the king-duke to render homage to the king of France 4 December Henry III of England renders homage to Louis IX of France for Aquitaine 1267 Birth of Philip, grandson of Louis IX, son of Philip III, and future king of France as Philip IV (some authorities date Philip’s birth to 1268) 1272 16 November Death of Henry III; accession of Edward I to the English throne 1273 August Edward I pays homage for his lands in France to Philip III 1284 25 April Birth of Prince Edward, son of Edward I and future king of England as Edward II 1285 5 October Death of Philip III; accession of Philip IV to French throne 1286 18 March Death Alexander III of Scotland; accession of his three-year- old granddaughter, Margaret, the Maid of Norway 5 June Edward I pays homage for his lands in France to Philip IV July Edward I begins a three-year stay in Aquitaine 1289 Birth of Louis, son of Philip IV and future king of France as Louis X 12 August Edward I returns to England after three years in Aquitaine 1290 Birth of Philip, son of Philip IV and future king of France as Philip V (some authorities date Philip’s birth to 1291) 18 July Conclusion of the Anglo-Scottish Treaty of Birgham which arranges a marriage between Prince Edward of England and Queen Margaret of Scotland

xxix CHRONOLOGY: THE HUNDRED YEARS WAR

26 September Death of seven-year-old Queen Margaret of Scotland 28 November Death of Queen Eleanor of England 1291 May Edward I of England declares himself rightful overlord of Scotland 13 June Guardians and nobles of Scotland swear fealty to Edward I as overlord of the kingdom 1292 17 November Court of claims presided over by Edward I awards Scottish Crown to John Balliol 30 November John Balliol crowned king of Scotland under the auspices of Edward I 1293 Birth of Philip of Valois, son of Charles, count of Valois; Philip is the nephew of Philip IV, and future king of France as Philip VI 15 May Gascon seamen, in furtherance of a dispute with Norman sailors, sack the town of La Rochelle, thus initiating a series of events leading to war between England and France October Philip IV summons Edward I to appear at the French court as duke of Aquitaine and vassal of France to answer charges of breaking his feudal oath by interfering in the affairs of his feudal overlord 1294 Birth of Charles, son of Philip IV and future king of France as Charles IV January Edward I summoned to appear before the Parlement in Paris to answer appeals against his administration in Aquitaine March Edward I is again summoned to appear at the court of his feudal suzerain Philip IV 19 May The French Parlement, noting Edward I’s failure to answer the summons of his feudal overlord, confiscates all his property in France July Edward I formally renounces his allegiance to Philip IV as his feudal overlord and sends troops to Aquitaine, thus beginning a nine- year Anglo-French war 1295 22 October Conclusion of Franco-Scottish alliance, eventually known as the ‘‘’’ 1296 March War erupts between Edward I and King John Balliol of Scotland 27 April Edward I defeats a Scottish army at the 10 July John Balliol abdicates the Scottish throne 1297 May William Wallace kills the sheriff of Lanarkshire, initiating Scottish rebellion against Edward I 11 September Scots army led by William Wallace defeats English force at Battle of Sterling Bridge October Wallace invades northern England 1298 27 June Boniface VIII, empowered by both sides to settle their dispute, declares perpetual peace between England and France and imposes the prewar status quo on Aquitaine 1 July Edward I invades Scotland xxx CHRONOLOGY: THE HUNDRED YEARS WAR

22 July Edward I defeats Scottish army under William Wallace at 1299 June Treaty of Montreuil restores Edward I’s French fiefs 10 September Edward I marries Margaret of France, half sister of Philip IV, as part of settlement ending the Anglo-French war 1300 30 October Edward I agrees to a truce with the Scots 1302 11 July Army of French is defeated by Flemish rebels at Battle of Courtrai 1303 May Final peace agreement ending the Anglo-French war is signed 1305 3 August English capture William Wallace 23 August Execution of William Wallace in London 1306 25 March Robert Bruce crowned king of Scotland 19 June English destroy Scottish army under Robert Bruce at Battle of Methven 1307 10 May Robert Bruce of Scotland defeats a larger English army at Battle of Loudon Hill 7 July Death of Edward I; accession of Edward II to the English throne 1308 c. 25 January Edward II marries Isabella, daughter of Philip IV of France 25 February Edward II is crowned king of England 1312 January Beginning of civil war in England between Edward II and dissident barons led by Thomas, 13 November Birth of Prince Edward, son of Edward II and future king of England as Edward III 1313 Robert Bruce captures most English strongholds in Scotland 1314 23–24 June Scots under Robert Bruce win major victory over English at November Death of Philip IV; accession of Louis X to French throne 1315 May Edward Bruce, brother of King Robert Bruce of Scotland, invades Ireland 1316 May Edward Bruce is crowned king of Ireland, thereby challenging English rule there 5 June Death of Louis X of France precipitates a succession crisis; Philip, count of Poitiers, brother of Louis X, seizes regency pending outcome of queen’s pregnancy 13 November Son is born posthumously to Louis X; he becomes king as John I 18 November Death of John I; French succession is disputed between the regent, Philip, count of Poitiers and brother of Louis X, and Jeanne, the minor daughter of Louis X 1317 9 January Philip, count of Poitiers, is crowned king of France as Philip V

xxxi CHRONOLOGY: THE HUNDRED YEARS WAR

2 February Assembly of French nobles meets in Paris to ratify coronation of Philip V and affirm that ‘‘a woman cannot succeed to the throne and ,’’ thereby overthrowing the claim of Jeanne, daughter of Louis X April Roger Mortimer, a Welsh nobleman, checks the Scottish advance in Ireland 1318 14 February Death of Margaret of France, widow of Edward I and sister of Philip IV 2 April Scots capture town of Berwick on Anglo-Scottish border 14 October Death of Edward Bruce in Ireland 1319 Birth of John of Valois, son of Philip, count of Maine (the future Philip VI), and future king of France as John II June Edward II pays homage by proxy to Philip V for the Plantagenet lands in France 20 September Scots raiders defeat an English army in northern England at the Battle of Myton, thereby helping lift the English 1320 June Edward II does homage to Philip V for duchy of Aquitaine 1321 England drifts toward civil war as a coalition of barons opposes Edward II and his powerful favorites, the Despensers 1322 2 January Death of Philip V; accession of his brother, Charles, count of La Marche, to the French throne as Charles IV 16 March Edward II and the Dispensers defeat baronial opposition at the Battle of 22 March Execution of Thomas, duke of Lancaster, the leading opponent of Edward II 1323 March Roger Mortimer, an imprisoned opponent of Edward II, escapes to France 15 October Raymond-Bernard, lord of Montpezat, precipitates the War of Saint-Sardos by destroying the bastide at Saint-Sardos and hanging the French official in 1324 July Start of the War of Saint Sardos—Charles IV confiscates the duchy of Aquitaine August French armies invade Gascony 22 September Gascon town of La Re´ole in Aquitaine falls to armies of Charles IV 1325 March Queen Isabella of England arrives in France to arrange a settlement of the War of Saint-Sardos; while at the French court, the queen becomes the lover and ally of Roger Mortimer, an exiled opponent of her husband, Edward II May Charles IV restores Edward II’s French fiefs under settlement brokered by his sister, Queen Isabella 14 August Peace is proclaimed ending the Anglo-French War of Saint Sardos

xxxii CHRONOLOGY: THE HUNDRED YEARS WAR

10 September Prince Edward leaves England to join his mother in France 24 September Prince Edward (the future Edward III), now duke of Aquitaine, pays homage for his duchy to Charles IV December Death of Charles, count of Valois, brother of Philip IV and father of the future Philip VI 1326 23 September Determined to overthrow Edward II and the Dispensers, Queen Isabella and Roger Mortimer land in England with a force of mercenaries 26 October Barons of England declare Prince Edward keeper of the realm 27 October Execution of Hugh Despenser the Elder 16 November Edward II is captured by his opponents 24 November Execution of Hugh Despenser the Younger 1327 20 January Deposition of Edward II 21 January Accession of Edward III to the English throne 1 February Coronation of Edward III 21 September Probable date of murder of Edward II 1328 30 January Edward III marries Philippa of Hainault 1 February Death of Charles IV; Charles’s cousin, Philip of Valois, count of Maine and Anjou, becomes regent of France pending outcome of queen’s pregnancy 17 March Conclusion of Anglo-Scottish Treaty of Edinburgh, which, when ratified by English on 4 May, recognizes Robert Bruce as king of Scotland as Robert I 1 April Queen Jeanne, widow of Charles IV, gives birth to a daughter 2 April Acting as regent, Philip of Valois convenes an assembly of notables that declares him rightful king of France 20 May English deputation arrives in France to present Edward III’s claim to the French throne; the French nobility largely ignore Edward’s claim 29 May Philip of Valois is crowned king of France as Philip VI 23 August Battle of Cassel—French royal army defeats the rebel towns of Flanders 1329 14 April Edward III writes to Philip VI promising to come to France and do homage for his duchy of Aquitaine 6 June Edward III pays homage to Philip VI for the duchy of Aquitaine 7 June Death of Robert I (Robert Bruce), king of Scotland; accession of David II to Scottish throne 1330 4 March Coronation of Philippa of Hainault as queen of England 8 May Convention of Bois de Vincennes is ratified; the agreement calls for the creation of joint commissions of inquiry to investigate and settle all disputes between Edward III and Philip VI over Aquitaine

xxxiii CHRONOLOGY: THE HUNDRED YEARS WAR

15 June Birth of Prince Edward, later known as the Black Prince, eldest son and heir of Edward III 28 July Edward III is summoned to French court to confirm that the homage done for Aquitaine in the previous year was liege homage 19 October Edward III arrests Roger Mortimer, earl of March, and overthrows the regime led by Mortimer and Queen Isabella 29 November Execution of Roger Mortimer, earl of March; Queen Isabella is forced to retire to Castle Rising in Norfolk 1331 March Edward III travels to France in disguise to confirm that his earlier homage to Philip VI for Aquitaine was liege homage 24 March Coronation of David II of Scotland 1332 April Robert of Artois is banished from France 24 September Edward Balliol is crowned king of Scotland 1333 19 July —English defeat Scottish army 1334 May David II of Scotland flees to France June Edward Balliol recognizes Edward III as suzerain of Scotland 1335 July–August Edward III campaigns in Scotland November Conclusion of an Anglo-Scottish truce 1336 July Edward III resumes campaigning in Scotland August French fleet threatens intervention in Scotland; English government embargos exports of wool to Flanders September Parliament votes taxation for war with France 1337 16 March Edward III creates six new earls, thereby enlarging the English military command in preparation for war with France 30 April Philip VI proclaims the arrie`re-ban throughout France in preparation for war with England May Edward III seeks allies against France in the and Germany 24 May Philip VI seizes Edward III’s duchy of Aquitaine; the act is usually taken as the start of the Hundred Years War October Edward III denies Philip VI’s right to the French throne and repudiates his homage to Philip for the duchy of Aquitaine 1338 French raid and January Flanders rises in rebellion against its pro-French count, Louis de Nevers 3 January James van Artevelde elected captain of 21 January Birth of Charles, grandson of Philip VI, son of John II, and future king of France as Charles V February English government begins buying up wool as part of the war funding scheme that leads eventually to issuance of the Dordrecht Bonds May Edward III’s formal declaration of war is delivered in Paris

xxxiv CHRONOLOGY: THE HUNDRED YEARS WAR

July Holy Roman Emperor Ludwig of Bavaria appoints Edward III deputy vicar of the Empire August Holy Roman Emperor Ludwig of Bavaria joins Edward III’s anti-French coalition 1339 French raid Dover and Folkestone February Louis de Nevers, count of Flanders, flees to French court after rebellion sweeps his county July French unsuccessfully besiege Bordeaux 20 September–24 October THIE´ RACHE CAMPAIGN is fought in northern France 3 December Anglo-Flemish alliance is concluded 1340 January Bernard-Aiz V, lord of Albret, named royal lieutenant in Aquitaine by Edward III 6 February Edward III officially assumes the Crown of France at a ceremony in Ghent April Acting at the request of Philip VI, the pope places Flanders under an interdict 24 June BATTLE OF SLUYS—English fleet under Edward III destroys a French fleet assembling at Sluys 18 July–25 September SIEGE OF TOURNAI—English fail to capture northern French town of Tournai; Edward’s anti-French coalition begins to dissolve 26 July BATTLE OF SAINT-OMER—French defeat Anglo-Flemish army under Robert of Artois 25 September Truce of Esplechin halts the war for almost a year 30 November Edward III returns to England and orders arrest and dismissal of ministers he believes did not support the war effort, including William de la Pole; commencement of the English political Crisis of 1340–41 29 December Archbishop John Stratford excommunicates royal servants as part of his dispute with Edward III 1341 February During the Crisis of 1340–41, Edward III publishes his list of charges against his former minister, Archbishop John Stratford, who calls the accusations a libellus formosus (infamous libel) March Archbishop Stratford responds to Edward III’s charges against his administration with his Excusiones, a document justifying his actions April Servants of Edward III prevent Archbishop John Stratford from attending Parliament 30 April Death of Duke John III of Brittany initiates a succession dispute and the long Breton civil war 3 May Archbishop John Stratford is readmitted to royal favor, ending the Crisis of 1340–41 June David II returns to Scotland

xxxv CHRONOLOGY: THE HUNDRED YEARS WAR

7 September Parlement of Paris settles Breton succession dispute in favor of Charles of Blois October Edward III annuls the reform statutes of the spring Parliament 2 November John de Montfort, English-backed claimant to the , surrenders to the French at 1342 17 January Birth of Philip the Bold, the fourth son of John II and the first Valois duke of Burgundy April English army lands in Brittany 20 July William de Bohun, earl of Northampton, becomes English lieutenant in Brittany 30 September BATTLE OF MORLAIX—First pitched battle of the war; English army in Brittany uses tactics developed in Scotland and soon to be employed elsewhere in France to fight off larger French force under Charles of Blois, the French-backed claimant to the duchy of Brittany October John de Montfort, claimant to the duchy of Brittany, concludes an agreement with Edward III, whereby the former recognizes the latter as king of France 26 October Edward III lands in Brittany and overruns most of the duchy’s western districts 1343 19 January Truce of Malestroit—Negotiated cessation of hostilities designed to allow England and France time to pursue papal-mediated talks for a permanent peace 1344 30 January Death of William Montagu, earl of Salisbury, friend and confidant of Edward III October Anglo-French peace talks open in Avignon under the auspices of Pope Clement VI 1345 February Collapse of peace talks at Avignon June Edward III renounces the Truce of Malestroit, more than a year before its official expiration 17 July James van Artevelde is murdered by a mob in Ghent late August CAPTURE OF BERGERAC—English capture Gascon town of Bergerac 26 September Death of John de Montfort, the English-backed claim to the duchy of Brittany; cause of Montfort’s children now championed by Edward III 21 October BATTLE OF AUBEROCHE—English force under Henry, earl of Derby, defeats a larger French army attempting to besiege English fortresses in Aquitaine 1346 January Henry of Grosmont, duke of Lancaster, captures La Re´ole in Gascony April French forces invade Aquitaine 1 April–20 August SIEGE OF AIGUILLON—John, duke of Normandy (the future John II), fails to capture the Gascon town of Aiguillon

xxxvi CHRONOLOGY: THE HUNDRED YEARS WAR

9 June Sir Thomas Dagworth wins encounter at Saint-Pol de Le´on in Brittany 12 July Upon landing in Normandy, Edward III knights his son Edward, the Black Prince 26 August BATTLE OF CRE´ CY—Edward III wins great victory in first major battle of the war 4 September SIEGE OF CALAIS—English siege of French port of Calais begins 17 October 1346 BATTLE OF NEVILLE’S CROSS—English defeat and capture David II of Scotland 1347 10 January Sir Thomas Dagworth becomes Edward III’s lieutenant in Brittany 20 June BATTLE OF LA ROCHE-DERRIEN—Anglo-Montfortist forces defeat and capture Charles of Blois, the French-backed duke of Brittany 3 August Calais falls to the English; Edward III fills the town with English settlers 28 September Truce of Calais is concluded Autumn Black Death reaches southern France 30 November Estates-General condemns the Truce of Calais 1348 23 April This St. George’s Day is the likely founding date of the Order of the Garter at Windsor July Black Death arrives in Rouen in Normandy; first English case of the plague is reported in Dorset August–September Black Death reaches Paris November Black Death reaches London December Conclusion of the Treaties of Dunkirk between Edward III and Louis de Male, count of Flanders 1349 January Louis de Male, count of Flanders, regains control of his county, thus ending the pro-English revolutionary regime that had been in power in Flanders since 1338 31 December Edward III personally foils a French attempt to retake Calais by stealth 1350 20 July Sir Thomas Dagworth is ambushed and slain in Brittany 22 August Death of Philip VI; accession of John II to the French throne 29 August BATTLE OF WINCHELSEA (LES ESPAGNOLS-SUR-MER)—English defeat a Castilian fleet allied with France 8 September Sir Walter Bentley succeeds Sir Thomas Dagworth as English lieutenant in Brittany 1351 26 March COMBAT OF THE THIRTY—Famous staged encounter between thirty-man groups of knights drawn from nearby French and English garrisons in Brittany 1 April BATTLE OF SAINTES—English victory in that is notable for the French commander’s use of the English tactic of fighting on foot

xxxvii CHRONOLOGY: THE HUNDRED YEARS WAR

November John II founds a new order of chivalry, the Order of the Star 1352 6 January Inauguration ceremony for French Order of the Star is held at royal manor of Saint-Ouen 14 August BATTLE OF MAURON—major English victory in the Breton civil war October John II transforms the Order of the Star from an order of chivalry to a confraternity for common worship 1353 1 March Charles of Blois, the French-backed duke of Brittany, concludes an agreement for his release from English captivity 1354 January Charles the Bad, king of Navarre, arranges the murder of Charles of Spain, constable of France February John II concludes the Treaty of Mantes with Charles the Bad, king of Navarre, who is pardoned for the murder of Charles of Spain 6 April Anglo-French Treaty of Guines is concluded 10 April Anglo-French encounter at castle of Tinte´niac in Brittany September John II repudiates the Treaty of Guines 1355 May John II retrieves the Oriflamme from Saint-Denis, thus ending the series of Calais truces and indicating his intention to resume the war September John II imposes Treaty of Valognes on Charles the Bad, king of Navarre; Henry of Grosmont, duke of Lancaster, is made king’s lieutenant in Brittany 21 September Edward, the Black Prince, is officially installed in Bordeaux as king’s lieutenant in Aquitaine 5 October–9 December CHEVAUCHE´ E OF 1355—Edward, the Black Prince, leads a highly destructive chevauche´e across southern France 1356 5 April John II arrests Charles the Bad, king of Navarre, during a banquet given by the dauphin at Rouen August Charles of Blois, French-backed duke of Brittany, is released from English captivity 19 September —English army under Edward, the Black Prince, defeats and captures John II of France 1357 23 March Truce of Bordeaux is concluded between Edward, the Black Prince, and his captive, John II 5 May John II lands in England with his captor, Edward, the Black Prince October David II of Scotland is released from English captivity 9 November Charles the Bad, king of Navarre, escapes from prison 1358 22 February Parisian rebels led by Etienne Marcel slay two marshals in the presence of Dauphin Charles, who soon after flees Paris; the routier army known as the Great Company sacks the town of Sainte-Maximin May-June Peasant uprising known as the Jacquerie erupts in northern France 8 May First is concluded

xxxviii CHRONOLOGY: THE HUNDRED YEARS WAR

31 July E´ tienne Marcel is murdered by a Paris mob 2 August Dauphin Charles reenters Paris after overthrow of Marcel regime 23 August Death of Queen Isabella, wife of Edward II and mother of Edward III November Edward III abandons First Treaty of London 1359 24 March Conclusion of the Second Treaty of London 23 June BATTLE OF NOGENT-SUR-SEINE—French forces defeat routier army in Champagne 4 November RHEIMS CAMPAIGN—Edward III launches large campaign that aims to take Rheims and have him crowned king of France 1360 11 January Edward III abandons his siege of Rheims 10 March During Rheims Campaign, Edward III concludes Treaty of Guillon with Burgundy 13 April Sudden severe weather causes many deaths from exposure in English army, causing day to be known as ‘‘Black Monday’’ 8 May Preliminaries of Anglo-French peace agreed at Bre´tigny 10 May News of the acceptance of the Bre´tigny agreement by Dauphin Charles ends the long English Rheims Campaign July John II is sent to Calais from England in preparation for his release 16 September Death of the English captain William de Bohun, earl of Northampton 24 October Modified Bre´tigny peace agreement is ratified at Calais; John II is released from English captivity December John II obtains regular indirect taxes, including the gabelle, from the Estates-General 1361 23 March Death of Henry of Grosmont, duke of Lancaster, a prominent English captain and royal kinsman November John II annexes the to the Crown of France 1362 6 April BATTLE OF BRIGNAIS—Large routier force defeats a French royal army 19 July Edward, the Black Prince, is made Duke of Aquitaine November Treaty of the Hostages in concluded between Edward III and the French hostages being held to ensure payment of John II’s ransom 1363 13 March John II reluctantly confirms the Treaty of the Hostages 27 June John II invests his fourth son, Philip the Bold, with the duchy of Burgundy September Louis, duke of Anjou, breaks parole and refuses to return to English captivity; duke’s dishonorable act leads John II to voluntarily return to captivity in 1364

xxxix CHRONOLOGY: THE HUNDRED YEARS WAR

13 September Great Company seizes the town of Brioude December John II secures a hearth tax—the fouage—from the Estates General 1364 3 January John II of France voluntarily returns to captivity in London April Breton civil war resumes 8 April Death of John II; accession of Charles V to the French throne 16 May BATTLE OF COCHEREL—French royal army defeats the forces of Charles the Bad, king of Navarre 29 September BATTLE OF AURAY—Anglo-Montfortist army defeats and kills Charles of Blois 1 November Great Company seizes the town of Anse as a base 1365 12 April Treaty of Gue´rande is signed, officially ending the Breton civil war September Great Company is paid to withdraw from the town of Anse, which the routier army has been using as a base 1366 January Charles the Bad, king of Navarre, poisons the routier captain Se´guin de Badefol c. April Birth of Henry, son of John of Gaunt, duke of Lancaster and future king of England as Henry IV (some authorities date Henry’s birth to 1367) 25 May Death of the routier captain Arnaud de Cervole 21 June Death of William de la Pole, war financier to Edward III 1367 6 January Birth of Richard, son of Edward, the Black Prince and future king of England as Richard II 3 April BATTLE OF NA´ JERA (NAVARRETTE)—Anglo-Gascon army under Edward, the Black Prince, defeats the French-backed forces of Henry of Trasta´mare and thereby restores King Pedro to the throne of Castile 1368 May John, count of Armagnac, lodges a secret appeal against Edward, the Black Prince, with the Paris Parlement 30 June At a meeting of the royal council, Charles V decides to accept the appeals of Armagnac and the other Gascon lords November Charles V signs a treaty with Henry of Trasta´mare, pretender to the throne of Castile 3 December Birth of Charles, son of Charles V and future king of France as Charles VI; Charles V announces acceptance of the ‘‘Appeal of the Gascon Lords’’ 1369 January Edward, the Black Prince, is summoned to appear before the Parlement in Paris to answer appeals against his administration in Aquitaine 14 March Henry of Trasta´mare regains Castilian throne by defeating and killing Pedro I at the Battle of Montiel; Castile now becomes an ally of France 2 May Parlement of Paris declares Edward, the Black Prince, contumacious xl CHRONOLOGY: THE HUNDRED YEARS WAR

3 June Edward III resumes title of king of France 19 June Philip the Bold, duke of Burgundy, marries Marguerite, daughter of Louis de Male, count of Flanders 15 August Death of Philippa of Hainault, queen of England and wife of Edward III 13 November Death of the English captain Thomas Beauchamp, earl of Warwick 30 November Charles V confiscates the Duchy of Aquitaine 1370 1 January Death of the English captain Sir 19 September SACK OF LIMOGES—Edward, the Black Prince, recaptures and destroys Limoges, a town in Aquitaine that had surrendered to the French 4 December After the chevauche´e led by Sir breaks up, part of this English force is defeated at Pontvallain 1371 January Edward, the Black Prince returns to England, leaving Aquitaine to his brother, John of Gaunt, duke of Lancaster 22 February Death of David II of Scotland; accession of Robert II, first king of the House of Stewart 28 May Birth of John the Fearless, the second Valois duke of Burgundy 1372 January Death of the English captain Walter Mauny, Lord Mauny 23 June BATTLE OF LA ROCHELLE—Castilian fleet destroys an English fleet sent to restore English authority in Poitou 23 August French capture famed Gascon captain Jean de Grailly, captal de Buch September La Rochelle falls to the French 1373 August–January 1374 CHEVAUCHE´E OF 1373—John of Gaunt, duke of Lancaster, leads one of the largest English chevauche´es of the war 1375 March Bruges Peace Conference opens 1376 28 April So-called Good Parliament opens; Commons impeaches several royal ministers and removes the king’s rapacious mistress, Alice Perrers 8 June Death of Edward, the Black Prince 1377 February Parliament passes first poll tax to support the English war effort 21 June Death of Edward III; accession of Richard II to the English throne Summer French warships raid the south coast of England 1 September Battle of Eymet—French defeat an Anglo-Gascon army, taking prisoner Thomas Felton, the English seneschal of Gascony 1378 Charles V precipitates the Great Schism by supporting the election of the Avignon pope Clement VII 20 October English Parliament endorses the Roman pope Urban VI

xli CHRONOLOGY: THE HUNDRED YEARS WAR

18 December Charles V, angered by the pro-English stance of Duke John IV, confiscates the duchy of Brittany 1379 April Parliament enacts the second English poll tax to fund the war 1380 13 July Death of Bertrand du Guesclin, constable of France Summer Thomas of Woodstock, duke of Gloucester, launches the last great English chevauche´e of the century 16 September Death of Charles V; accession of Charles VI to French throne November Parliament enacts the third English poll tax, resistance to which precipitates the Peasants’ Revolt in 1381 1381 4 April Second Treaty of Gue´rande restores John IV to power in Brittany as a Valois vassal May-June Spurred by resistance to the poll tax, the Peasants’ Revolt erupts in England 15 June Richard II meets Wat Tyler and the Kentish rebels at Smithfield November Parliament issues a pardon to those involved in the Peasants’ Revolt 1382 20 January Richard II marries 24 January Philip van Artevelde is elected captain of Ghent 3 May Philip van Artevelde launches a successful surprise attack on Bruges, which is held by Count Louis de Male 27 November Battle of Roosebeke—French army crushes Flemish rebel forces 1384 January Death of Louis, duke of Anjou, brother of Charles V and eldest uncle of Charles VI 30 January Death of Louis de Male, count of Flanders; control of Flanders now passes to Louis’s daughter Marguerite and her husband, Philip the Bold, duke of Burgundy 1385 French forces arrive in Scotland 17 July Charles VI marries Isabeau of Bavaria 1386 16 September Likely birth date of Henry of Monmouth, son of Henry of Bolingbroke (the future Henry IV) and future king of England as Henry V (some authorities date Henry’s birth to 1387) October Wonderful Parliament impeaches royal ministers and establishes a commission to reform royal household and limit authority of Richard II 1387 1 January Death of Charles the Bad, king of Navarre 24 March BATTLE OF CADZAND (MARGATE)—Richard Fitzalan, earl of Arundel, defeats and captures a Franco-Castilian wine fleet August Royal judges declare parliamentary commission in violation of royal prerogative 14 November Lords Appellant, led by Thomas of Woodstock, duke of Gloucester, gather troops and demand arrest of royal favorites xlii CHRONOLOGY: THE HUNDRED YEARS WAR

20 December Appellant force defeats royalist army at Radcot Bridge, putting Thomas of Woodstock, duke of Gloucester, in control of English government 1388 February Under leadership of Lords Appellant, the Merciless Parliament condemns and exiles Richard II’s favorites 3 November Charles VI declares himself of full age and dismisses his uncles; Marmouset regime takes power in Paris 1389 May Richard II declares himself of full age and assumes personal control of the English government 18 June Anglo-French Truce of Leulinghen is concluded 1390 February John of Gaunt, duke of Lancaster, is created duke of Aquitaine by his nephew Richard II 19 April Death of Robert II of Scotland; accession of Robert III 1392 5 August Charles VI experiences his first schizophrenic episode; the king’s incapacity allows his uncles to reassert control and overthrow the Marmouset regime 1393 28 January Charles VI narrowly escapes death when a torch sets alight the masque costumes of the king and others at the so-called (Burning Men’s Ball) 1394 16 March Death in of the great English routier captain Sir 23 April Death of the English routier captain, Sir 7 June Death of Anne of Bohemia, queen of England and wife of Richard II 1396 Birth of Philip the Good, the third Valois duke of Burgundy 4 November Richard II marries Isabella, the daughter of Charles VI 1397 10 July Richard II arrests his uncle Thomas of Woodstock, duke of Gloucester, who later dies in custody in Calais September Richard II appeals the former Lords Appellant before Parliament for treason 1398 16 September Richard II exiles his cousin Henry of Bolingbroke, son of John of Gaunt, duke of Lancaster 1399 3 February Death of John of Gaunt, duke of Lancaster; Richard II subsequently makes Bolingbroke’s banishment permanent and confiscates the Lancastrian estates 1 June Richard II leaves to campaign in Ireland 4 July Henry of Bolingbroke, son of John of Gaunt, duke of Lancaster, lands in England to reclaim his father’s estates 19 August Richard II is taken prisoner 29–30 September Abdication of Richard II; accession of Henry IV to the English throne November Death of John IV, duke of Brittany 1400 Henry IV sends Richard II’s queen, , daughter of Charles VI, back to France

xliii CHRONOLOGY: THE HUNDRED YEARS WAR

c. February Murder of Richard II 1402 14 September Anglo-Scottish 1403 22 February Birth of Charles, son of Charles VI and future king of France as Charles VII 1404 27 April Death of Philip the Bold, duke of Burgundy; John the Fearless succeeds as new duke of Burgundy 1405 21 March Death of Marguerite de Flanders, duchess of Burgundy; her lands in the Low Countries and the Empire are inherited by her son, John the Fearless, duke of Burgundy 5October Christine de Pizan writes letter to Queen Isabeau urging her to intervene in political struggle between dukes of Burgundy and Orle´ans 1406 22 March James, heir to the Scottish throne, is captured at sea by the English 4 April Death of Robert III of Scotland; accession of James I, whose imprisonment in England necessitates a regency government 1407 23 April Death of the former French constable 15 August Death of English routier captain Sir Robert Knolles 23 November Louis, duke of Orle´ans, the brother of Charles VI, is assassinated in Paris 25 November John the Fearless, duke of Burgundy, confesses that he ordered the murder of Orle´ans through ‘‘the intervention of the devil’’ 26 November Barred from the royal council, John the Fearless, duke of Burgundy, flees Paris 1408 February John the Fearless, duke of Burgundy, returns to Paris 8 March John the Fearless, duke of Burgundy, presents his written Justification for the murder of Louis, duke of Orle´ans, to Charles VI and the royal council; the Justification legitimizes the murder by accusing Orle´ans of numerous acts of tyranny September Charles, duke of Orle´ans issues his own manifesto answering the changes leveled against his father by John the Fearless, duke of Burgundy, in his Justification 1409 9 March Charles VI presides over a formal ceremony of reconciliation at ; all French princes of the blood swear friendship for one another and promise to the peace 13 September Death of Isabella, former queen of Richard II 1410 April Anti-Burgundian League of Gien is created by leading Armagnac princes November Peace of Biceˆtre temporarily ends the French civil war 1411 July Charles, duke of Orle´ans, demands that the king punish John the Fearless, duke of Burgundy, for the murder of Orle´ans’ father, Louis, duke of Orle´ans October English army lands in Calais to assist John the Fearless, duke of Burgundy, against the Armagnacs; Burgundy breaks the Armagnac siege of Paris xliv CHRONOLOGY: THE HUNDRED YEARS WAR

30 November Henry IV dismisses Prince Henry and his supporters from the government 1412 c. 6 January Joan of Arc is born in Domremy 18 May Anglo-Armagnac Treaty of Bourges is concluded 11 July Thomas, duke of Clarence, lands in France with an English army, thereby fulfilling the terms of the Treaty of Bourges August Treaty of is concluded, temporarily ending the French civil war 14 November Anglo-Armagnac Treaty of Buzanc¸ais is concluded, providing payment for Thomas, duke of Clarence, to withdraw to Gascony 1413 January John the Fearless, duke of Burgundy, summons Estates- General to convene in Paris to vote new taxation 20 March Death of Henry IV; accession of Henry V to the English throne 27–28 April Cabochien uprisings occur in Paris 26–27 May Charles VI promulgates the Ordonnance Cabochienne, the great reform measure demanded by the Cabochiens July Louis, duke of Guienne, , negotiates Peace of Pontoise in an attempt to settle the French civil war 4 August Louis, duke of Guienne, dauphin of France, re-enters Paris in triumph 23 August John the Fearless, duke of Burgundy, after trying unsuccessfully to kidnap the king, flees Paris 1 September Armagnacs enter Paris 5 September Ordonnance Cabochienne is annulled 1414 January John V, duke of Brittany, concludes a ten-year truce with England 1415 February Anglo-Armagnac talks collapse, making resumption of the Hundred Years War inevitable; Peace of Arras is arranged between parties to French civil war August Southampton Plot against Henry V is uncovered 11 August Henry V sails for France 18 August–22 September —Henry V besieges and captures the port of Harfleur 25 October —In one of the major battles of the war, Henry V wins unexpected victory over superior French forces December Death of Louis, duke of Guienne, dauphin of France 1416 March BATTLE OF VALMONT—Thomas Beaufort, earl of Dorset, wins a series of encounters with French forces while on a foraging mission to resupply the besieged English garrison of Harfleur June Death of John, duke of Berry, uncle of Charles VI

xlv CHRONOLOGY: THE HUNDRED YEARS WAR

15 August BATTLE OF THE SEINE—John, duke of Bedford, wins naval victory that breaks the French siege of Harfleur; Treaty of Canterbury is concluded between Henry V and Emperor Sigismund 1417 5 April Death of John, duke of Touraine, dauphin of France; later in the month, the new dauphin, Charles, exiles his mother, Queen Isabeau, from Paris 1 August NORMAN CAMPAIGN (1417–19)—Henry V launches his campaign to conquer Normandy September Caen in Normandy falls to the English 8 November Queen Isabeau escapes from confinement in Tours and joins with John the Fearless, duke of Burgundy, against the Armagnac regime 1418 29 May Pro-Burgundian riots erupt in Paris; Dauphin Charles flees the capital 29 June Dauphin assumes title of lieutenant-general of France on his own authority 12 July Armagnac leader Bernard, count of Armagnac, is slain by a Burgundian mob in Paris 14 July John the Fearless, duke of Burgundy, re-enters Paris 29 July SIEGE OF ROUEN—Henry V lays siege to the Norman capital of Rouen September John the Fearless, duke of Burgundy, imposes the Treaty of Saint-Maur on the Dauphin Charles 1419 19 January Rouen surrenders to the English; Henry V formally enters the town next day, thus effectively completing his Norman Campaign July Henry V captures Pontoise, putting the English within striking distance of Paris; Dauphin Charles and John the Fearless, duke of Burgundy, meet at Corbeil to discuss ending the French civil war 10 September Duke John the Fearless is murdered by partisans of Dauphin Charles while meeting with Charles to discuss peace on the bridge at Montereau; Philip the Good succeeds his father as duke of Burgundy 19 December Philip the Good, duke of Burgundy, responds to his father’s murder by the Armagnacs by formally allying with the English 1420 January Henry V sends representatives to Troyes to begin peace talks with the French court 3 March BATTLE OF FRESNEY—English army defeats large Franco- Scottish force attempting to besiege Fresnay-le-Vicomte 21 May , making Henry V heir to Charles VI, is signed 2 June Henry V marries Catherine of Valois, daughter of Charles VI 9 July–18 November SIEGE OF MELUN—Henry V besieges and ultimately captures French town of Melun 1 December Henry V enters Paris

xlvi CHRONOLOGY: THE HUNDRED YEARS WAR

1421 January Parlement of Paris declares Dauphin Charles incapable of succeeding to the French throne and banished from the realm; Thomas Beaufort, duke of Exeter, becomes English military governor of Paris February Henry V returns to England with his new bride, Catherine of Valois 22 March BATTLE OF BAUGE´ —Thomas, duke of Clarence, brother and heir of Henry V, is slain by a Franco-Scottish army 6 October–2 May 1422 SIEGE OF MEAUX—Henry V besieges town of Meaux; long winter siege undermines English morale and the king’s health 6 December Birth of Prince Henry, son of Henry V and future king of England as Henry VI 1422 31 August Death of Henry V; accession of Henry VI to the English throne 21 October Death of Charles VI leaves disputed succession to the French throne between his son, Charles (later crowned as Charles VII) and Henry VI of England 1423 13 April Tripartite Treaty of Amiens signed by John, duke of Bedford; Philip the Good, duke of Burgundy; and John V, duke of Brittany 18 April Burgundy and Brittany sign a secret agreement to remain allies even if one reconciles with the dauphin, thereby in effect negating the Treaty of Amiens 13 May John, duke of Bedford, marries Anne, the sister of Philip the Good, duke of Burgundy 31 July BATTLE OF CRAVANT—English victory in eastern France 1424 March Archibald Douglas, earl of Douglas, lands at La Rochelle with a large Scottish army sent to assist the dauphin April English government releases James I, king of Scotland 17 August BATTLE OF VERNEUIL—Major English victory over Franco- Scottish army; often called ‘‘the second Agincourt’’ 1425 March Dauphin appoints Arthur de Richemont, brother of Duke John V of Brittany, constable of France December Conclusion of Franco-Breton Treaty of Saumur 1427 15 July–5 September SIEGE OF MONTARGIS—John, Bastard of Orle´ans, breaks English siege of Montargis September Duke John V of Brittany repudiates the Treaty of Saumur with France and reaffirms his support for the Treaty of Troyes 1428 12 October SIEGE OF ORLE´ANS—English forces lay siege to Orle´ans on the Loire c. 24 October Thomas Montagu, earl of Salisbury, is mortally wounded by cannon fire while conducting surveillance at the Siege of Orle´ans 3 November Death of Thomas Montagu, earl of Salisbury, the English commander at Orle´ans

xlvii CHRONOLOGY: THE HUNDRED YEARS WAR

1429 12 February BATTLE OF THE HERRINGS (ROUVRAY)—French army surprises but fails to stop an English supply convoy bound for Orle´ans 6 March Joan of Arc arrives at dauphin’s court at Chinon 22 March Joan of Arc dictates her ‘‘Letter to the English’’ 29 April Joan of Arc enters Orle´ans 8 May French forces, led by Joan of Arc, lift the siege of Orle´ans 10 June–18 June LOIRE CAMPAIGN—French army led by Joan of Arc takes Jargeau, Beaugency, and Meung, clearing the Loire of English garrisons 18 June BATTLE OF PATAY—French army concludes Loire Campaign with major victory over English forces under Sir 17 July Dauphin Charles is crowned at Rheims as Charles VII of France 8 September Joan of Arc leads an unsuccessful attack on Paris November English coronation of Henry VI at Westminster 1430 23 May Joan of Arc is captured by Burgundians at Compie`gne December Joan of Arc is transferred to an English military prison in Rouen 1431 21 February Joan of Arc’s trial begins in Rouen 24 May Joan of Arc recants her voices 30 May Joan of Arc is burned to death for heresy in Rouen 11 August Battle of the Shepherd, named for presence of a French shepherd boy who is touted as the successor to Joan of Arc 16 December Henry VI is crowned king of France in Paris 1432 14 November Death of Anne, duchess of Bedford, wife of John, duke of Bedford, and sister of Philip the Good, duke of Burgundy 1434 English suppress a series of revolts in Normandy 1435 September Death of Isabeau of Bavaria, queen of France and widow of Charles VI 1 September English withdraw from the Congress of Arras 14 September Death of John, duke of Bedford 20 September Franco-Burgundian Treaty of Arras is signed, thereby ending the Anglo-Burgundian alliance 1436 13 April French retake Paris 1437 3 January Death of Catherine of Valois, widow of Henry V and mother of Henry VI 13 February John Talbot retakes Pontoise for the English 21 February Murder of James I, king of Scotland; accession of James II 12 November Henry VI is declared of full age and assumes control of the English government 1439 30 April Death of Richard Beauchamp, earl of Warwick, the English lieutenant in France xlviii CHRONOLOGY: THE HUNDRED YEARS WAR

November Charles VII declares military recruiting a Crown monopoly 1440 July Richard, duke of York, is reappointed king’s lieutenant in France 1441 6 June–19 September Siege of Pontoise—French army besieges and captures Pontoise 1443 March John Beaufort, duke of Somerset, is made lieutenant-general and captain-general of Aquitaine in preparation for leading a major campaign against the French July–August Somerset’s campaign is a complete failure; duke returns to England in disgrace 1444 February William de la Pole, earl of Suffolk, sails to France to begin talks that will lead to conclusion of the Truce of Tours 27 May Death of John, duke of Somerset, possibly by his own hand 28 May Anglo-French Truce of Tours is concluded 1445 23 April Henry VI marries Margaret of Anjou, niece of Charles VII 22 December Henry VI secretly agrees to surrender Maine to the French 1447 23 February Death in royal custody of Humphrey, duke of Gloucester, uncle of Henry VI and leader of pro-war faction at English court 11 April Death of Cardinal Henry Beaufort, bishop of Winchester, leader of the peace party at the English court December Edmund Beaufort, earl of Somerset, becomes king’s lieutenant in France 1448 February Charles VII lays siege to Le Mans in Maine 15 March Le Mans in Maine surrenders to the French 28 April Charles VII issues ordonnance creating the franc-archers 1449 24 March SACK OF FOUGE` RES—English attack on the Breton fortress of Fouge`res breaks the Truce of Tours and leads to resumption of active warfare 31 July Charles VII orders a French invasion of Normandy 12 August NORMAN CAMPAIGN (1449–50)—French armies begin campaign for reconquest of Normandy 29 October French capture Rouen, the capital of Normandy 2 November Charles VII enters Rouen 1450 28 January Parliament impeaches William de la Pole, duke of Suffolk, leader of Henry VI’s government 15 April BATTLE OF FORMIGNY—French defeat the last major English field force in Normandy May–July Jack Cade’s Rebellion erupts in southeastern England 2 May William de la Pole, duke of Suffolk, is seized and beheaded by unknown parties as he attempts to sail into exile 1 July Edmund Beaufort, duke of Somerset, surrenders Caen in Normandy to the French

xlix CHRONOLOGY: THE HUNDRED YEARS WAR

12 August Cherbourg falls to the French, thus ending the Norman Campaign 1451 30 June Bordeaux surrenders to the French 1452 23 October John Talbot, earl of Shrewsbury, recaptures Bordeaux 1453 17 July BATTLE OF CASTILLON—French force under Jean Bureau defeats English force under John Talbot, earl of Shrewsbury, in Gascony, thus effectively ending the Hundred Years War 19 October French recapture Bordeaux—the subsequent fall of all English Aquitaine is usually taken as the end of the Hundred Years War 1455 21 May First Battle of St Albans is usually taken as the start of the series of English civil conflicts known as the 1461 March Henry VI is deposed and driven into exile in Scotland by his cousin, Edward, duke of York, who becomes king of England as Edward IV 22 July Death of Charles VII; accession of Louis XI as king of France 1467 15 June Death of Philip the Good, duke of Burgundy 1471 21 May Murder of Henry VI in the Tower of London 1475 4 July Edward IV launches the first English invasion of France since the end of the Hundred Years War 29 August Conclusion of the Treaty of Picquigny, whereby Edward IV of England agrees to withdraw from France in return for an annual pension from Louis XI 1558 January Calais, the last English holding in France, falls to the French

l Major Duchies, Counties, and Lordships of Medieval France

li Major Battles and Sieges of the Hundred Years War lii France in 1328, at the Accession of Philip VI

liii France in 1360, at the Conclusion of the Treaty of Bre´tigny liv France in 1429, at the Advent of Joan of Arc

lv

A

AGEN, PROCESS OF. See PROCESS indicating to all God’s approval of Henry’s claims to the duchy. Abandoning their AR- AGINCOURT, BATTLE OF (1415) TILLERY and taking only eight days’ provi- One of the greatest English victories of the sions, the English left Harfleur on 6 October. HUNDRED YEARS WAR, the Battle of Agin- The army, which contained many men still court was fought on St. Crispin’s Day, weakened by dysentery, numbered about 25 October 1415, near the village of Agin- six thousand men—one thousand men-at- court in western Artois. Although militarily arms and the rest ARCHERS. Intending to indecisive—being basically the successful cross the Somme at EDWARD III’s ford at culmination of an English CHEVAUCHE´ E—the Blanchetaque, Henry found the crossing totally unexpected victory was an incalcu- held against him by John Boucicaut, marshal lable moral and psychological triumph for of France, whose men were part of a larger HENRY V, who thereby won enormous pop- force shadowing the English all along the ularity for himself and the war in England Somme. Forced to turn southeast, away from and greatly improved his diplomatic stand- Calais, the English, now desperately short of ing in Europe. In France, which was already supplies and pelted daily by cold rain, divided by civil war, the battle devastated marched sixty miles upriver before finding the nobility and discredited the ARMAGNAC and crossing two undefended fords on 19 government, leaving the country without October. the strong leadership required to effectively During a day of rest on 20 October, heralds resist the English. informed the king of the French intention to When he landed in France in August 1415, bring him to battle, the very thing Henry had Henry intended to quickly seize HARFLEUR hoped to avoid. Marching northwest through and then march down the Seine past ROUEN continuing rain, the English finally en- and PARIS before turning south for BOR- countered the enemy on the evening of 24 DEAUX. However, taking Harfleur, which did October, when scouts reported ‘‘an in- not fall until 22 September, proved un- numerable host’’ (Seward, 162) blocking the expectedly long and difficult, costing the king road to Calais. Camped near the village of six weeks and one-third of his army and Maisoncelles, the English were stunned by rendering the planned chevauche´e to GAS- the size of the French army, which was con- CONY impossible. Rejecting advice to with- servatively put at about twenty thousand. draw to England, Henry decided to march to Nominally commanded by Boucicaut and English-held CALAIS, about 160 miles north- Constable Charles d’ALBRET, the French force east. Much criticized by later historians as an comprised contingents of men-at-arms sup- unnecessary risk, the decision was based plied by the Dauphin LOUIS, duke of Guienne upon the belief that the English would be (who was not allowed to fight), and the unopposed and was meant perhaps as leading Armagnac lords. JOHN THE FEAR- a demonstration of the king’s ability to LESS, duke of BURGUNDY, refused to partic- march unhindered through NORMANDY, thus ipate, although he allowed his two younger

1 AGINCOURT, BATTLE OF (1415)

mass and immobilized by the thick mud, the French knights were then set upon by the archers, who, being unarmored and therefore able to move more quickly, did great ex- ecution with their knives, axes, and swords. Once a French was knocked down, he was dead, either from a dagger thrust through a visor or from suffocation in the mud under the bodies of fallen comrades. When the second French column attacked, it fell into similar disorder and met a similar fate, the English now fighting from atop piles of French dead. As this second wave A depiction from the Chronique d’Angleterre of the Battle of receded, the English began gather- Agincourt, 1415. HIP/Art Resource, New York. ing prisoners and arranging RAN- brothers to join the royal army. Despite its SOMs, a process that was suddenly inter- weak leadership, the French force was large rupted by a French assault on the English and confident, a marked contrast to the small, baggage train and by the rumored arrival of tired, and hungry English army, whose lack French reinforcements. Fearing a new attack, of confidence was demonstrated by Henry’s Henry ordered the immediate execution of offer to restore Harfleur in exchange for safe all prisoners except those of the highest passage to Calais. When this was rejected, the rank. This act, despite the circumstances that English had no choice but to fight. prompted it, was a serious breech of the Next morning, the two armies deployed rules of medieval warfare, especially since on a wet, muddy field flanked on both sides the third attack never materialized. The re- by woods and lying between the villages of maining French, although still outnum- Agincourt and Tramecourt. The English, bering their enemy, had seen enough; they with Henry commanding the center, formed withdrew from the field without striking into three battalions of dismounted men-at- another blow. arms with bodies of archers projecting French casualties were enormous, with slightly forward at the wings and in the gaps some estimates putting the number of dead between the battalions. The French formed at ten thousand. Among the slain were in two long lines of dismounted men-at- Constable Charles d’Albret; three dukes, arms supported on the flanks and in the rear including John, duke of Alenc¸on, who at one by mounted cavalry. With neither army point had actually beaten Henry to his willing to attack, the two forces faced each knees; six counts; both brothers of Bur- other for several hours until Henry ordered gundy; 120 barons; and over 1,500 knights. his flanking archers forward. Entrenching The 1,500 French prisoners included Mar- themselves behind lines of sharpened stakes, shal Boucicaut. The English dead barely ex- they opened fire, causing great disorder in ceeded three hundred, although among the enemy lines and forcing the French cav- them were the king’s cousin Edward, duke alry to charge. However, the mud, arrows, of York, and Michael de la Pole, earl of and stakes broke up this attack before the Suffolk. Reaching Calais on 29 October, first wave of dismounted men-at-arms could Henry was joyously received, although his strike the English lines, thereby allowing the men were forced to pay exorbitant prices for archers to disrupt the French column with a food and drink and were soon relieved of devastating flanking fire. Forced into a tight their booty and captives. Arriving in LON-

2 ALBRET, ARNAUD-AMANIEU, LORD OF

DON on 23 November, Henry was acclaimed numbers, withdrew to Bordeaux to regroup, a national hero and enthusiasm to both fight waiting for an opportunity to disrupt the and pay for new campaigns was un- French lines of supply and communication. bounded. See also FRENCH CIVIL WAR. Commanded by Stafford and by the captain Further Reading: Burne, Alfred H. The Agin- of the town, Sir Hugh Menil, the garrison court War. Ware, England: Wordsworth Editions numbered about nine hundred men—six Ltd., 1999; Curry, Anne. Agincourt: A New History. hundred archers and three hundred men-at- Stroud, England: Tempus Publishing Limited, arms, with the latter including the famous 2005; Hibbert, Christopher. Agincourt. London: captains Walter MAUNY and Alexander de Phoenix, 1995; Seward, Desmond. The Hundred Caumont. In the early weeks of the siege, the Years War. New York: Penguin, 1999. garrison made frequent sorties on foot and by barge to prevent the French from bridging the rivers and completely encircling the AIDES. See TAXATION AND WAR FINANCE town. By June, the French had cut off com- munication to the west, although, on 16 June, AIGUILLON, SIEGE OF (1346) a daring sortie by Caumont captured two Running from April to August 1346, the French supply barges. unsuccessful French siege of the Gascon In July, a contingent of Lancaster’s army town of Aiguillon seriously weakened the fought its way into the town with more French military position throughout south- supplies, while Normandy found it in- western France. creasingly difficult to feed his huge force In late 1345, Ralph STAFFORD, Lord Staf- from the surrounding area. Lancaster also ford, captured Aiguillon after a brief siege. harassed the besiegers by killing foragers, Situated at the confluence of the Lot and the seizing supply trains, and attacking isolated Garonne, the town commanded the ap- units. In late July, a force two thousand proaches to La Re´ole and BORDEAUX; control strong, which the duke had detached to of Aiguillon was therefore vital to the se- check raids on his supply lines, was attacked curity of English GASCONY. An arrangement and defeated by the Anglo-Gascon garrison seems to have been made in advance with from Bajamont. With the siege stalemated confederates within the town, who attacked and the CRE´ CY campaign developing in the the French garrison and opened the gates north, Philip recalled his son. On 20 August, shortly after Stafford’s arrival. Determined after failing to persuade Lancaster to accept to restore French fortunes in the southwest a local truce, Normandy abandoned the after the recent successful campaigns there siege of Aiguillon and marched east along of HENRY OF GROSMONT, earl of Lancaster, the Garonne. With the duke’s departure, PHILIP VI dispatched a large army to the re- Lancaster moved quickly to clear the Lot gion in March 1346. Commanded by the Valley of French garrisons and to secure king’s son, John, duke of Normandy (see English control of most of Gascony. See also JOHN II), and numbering almost twenty SIEGE WARFARE. thousand, the army arrived at Aiguillon on Further Reading: Burne, Alfred H. The Cre´cy 1 April. After proclaiming the ARRIE` RE-BAN War. Ware, England: Wordsworth Editions Ltd., for southern France, the duke settled down 1999; Sumption, Jonathan. The Hundred Years War. for a long siege, vowing that he would not Vol. 1, Trial by Battle. Philadelphia: University of withdraw until the town fell. Pennsylvania Press, 1991. To prevent the kind of surprise attack from a relieving force that had recently destroyed ALBRET, ARNAUD-AMANIEU, an army of French besiegers at AUBEROCHE, LORD OF (d. 1401) the duke ordered that defensive trenches be Arnaud-Amanieu VIII, lord of Albret, was dug behind the French siege lines. However, one of the Gascon nobles who in 1368 lodged Lancaster, whose army was far inferior in the APPEAL OF THE GASCON LORDS, the eventual

3 ALBRET, BERNARD-AIZ, LORD OF acceptance of which by CHARLES V overthrew command Navarre’s routiers in central the Treaty of BRE´TIGNY and restarted the France for a fee of 60,000 florins. In 1367, HUNDRED YEARS WAR. hoping to further improve his financial sit- The son of Bernard-Aiz V, lord of ALBRET, uation, Albret accompanied the Black Prince Arnaud-Amanieu was heir to one of the to Castile, where he fought at the Battle of wealthiest lordships in GASCONY. Although NA´ JERA. Bernard-Aiz had fought for EDWARD III since The failure of Pedro I of Castile to pay as the , the Albret family, which was large promised for the Anglo-Gascon army that and well-connected to the southwestern restored him frustrated these hopes, and nobility, had a history of switching alle- added to Albret’s growing discontent with giances when their interests called for it. the prince’s lordship in an enlarged Aqui- Arnaud-Amanieu’s grandfather had fought taine, where an influx of English adminis- for EDWARD I and against EDWARD II, while trators and French nobility from newly his father had briefly supported the VALOIS. acquired provinces diluted Albret influence. Arnaud-Amanieu first appears in the When the prince instituted a new hearth tax as leader of the ROUTIER bands maintained to pay for the Castilian campaign, both Al- by his family. With Sir John Cheverston, the bret and John, count of Armagnac, refused to English seneschal of Gascony, he led the allow its collection in their lordships. In May Anglo-Gascon force that defeated the French 1368, Albret married the sister of the French at SAINTES in April 1351. In the late 1350s, his queen in PARIS. While attending the festiv- bands overran Quercy and , two ities, Armagnac, later joined by Albret, pre- provinces devastated by routiers in the years sented an appeal against the prince to after POITIERS. Pressure from his father and Charles V, whom they thereby recognized as from the English government of AQUITAINE, overlord of Aquitaine. In July, Albret joined which was now directed by a resident duke, Armagnac and other Gascon lords in an EDWARD, THE BLACK PRINCE, forced Arnaud- agreement with Charles V whereby each Amanieu to gradually curtail his activities party agreed to support the other if attacked and allow himself to be bought out of the by the English. When war resumed in 1369, fortresses his men had captured. Albret, now in receipt of a French pension, Succeeding his father as lord of Albret in joined the Valois campaigns that recon- 1359, Arnaud-Amanieu maintained the fam- quered much of Aquitaine over the next ily’s English allegiance. The Black Prince decade. Eventually becoming grand cham- nominated him as one of the conservators of berlain of France, Albret died in 1401. His the Truce of BORDEAUX in 1357, and received son, Charles of ALBRET, was raised at the his homage as a PLANTAGENET vassal in 1363. French court with CHARLES VI and became In 1362, Albret and many of his relatives constable of France in 1403. See also CASTILIAN were captured at the Battle of Launac, the WAR OF SUCCESSION. latest encounter in the long feud between Further Reading: Sumption, Jonathan. The the counts of Armagnac and Foix. The high Hundred Years War. Vol. 2, Trial by Fire. Philadel- RANSOMS demanded by Foix left Albret deep- phia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2001. ly in debt. In 1364, during the civil war be- tween Charles V and CHARLES THE BAD, king ALBRET, BERNARD-AIZ, of Navarre, Albret sent troops north to fight LORD OF (d. 1359) with the royalist forces under Bertrand du At the start of the HUNDRED YEARS WAR, GUESCLIN at the Battle of COCHEREL. He did Bernard-Aiz V, lord of Albret, was head of not go himself because he wished to avoid one of the wealthiest and most influential fighting against his brother-in-law, Jean de noble families of GASCONY. Assiduously GRAILLY, the captal de Buch, who com- courted by both PLANTAGENET and VALOIS, manded the Navarrese army. However, in Albret eventually supported the former, al- 1365, Albret switched sides, agreeing to though his allegiance to EDWARD III was, like

4 ALBRET, CHARLES, LORD OF, CONSTABLE OF FRANCE that of many Gascon lords, always tempered family also provided much of the manpower by personal and familial interests. for the campaign. The Albret family controlled one of the Named king’s lieutenant in Aquitaine in largest and most important lordships in January 1340, Albret came to England in the English Gascony. A tradition of loyalty to following year. At a December 1341 council the English Crown—Albret’s father had meeting, he outlined military plans for the undertaken diplomatic missions for EDWARD reconquest of the duchy, but his personal I—was severed during the War of SAINT- ambition was distrusted and his plans were SARDOS in the 1320s, when Albret, after a rejected as tending more to the aggrandize- series of quarrels with EDWARD II and the ment of his family than to the benefit of the calculated patronage of CHARLES IV and English cause. Nonetheless, Albret main- PHILIP VI, had allied himself with the tained his English allegiance, recapturing French. At the start of war in 1337, Albret, Saint-Jean-d’Ange´ly in 1344 and, on orders thanks to the unwillingness of either side to of HENRY, earl of Lancaster, clearing the provoke him, maintained a careful neu- French from the Bazadais region in 1346. In trality. In 1338, the expected arrival in the 1350s, Albret was a chief councilor of Gascony of an English army allowed the EDWARD, THE BLACK PRINCE, for whom he ducal seneschal, Oliver Ingham, to threaten fought at the Battle of POITIERS in 1356. After Albert with military force if he did not de- Albret’s death in 1359, his son, Arnaud- clare for Edward. When cancellation of the Amanieu, lord of ALBRET, maintained the expedition removed the threat, Philip sent English allegiance until 1368, when failure emissaries promising extensive rewards in to continue his pension and marriage to a return for Albret’s allegiance. Philip even sister-in-law of CHARLES V led Albret to join had various French lords write personal the French (see APPEAL OF THE GASCON letters asking for Albret’s support. In his, LORDS). John, duke of NORMANDY (see JOHN II), Further Reading: Sumption, Jonathan. The frankly acknowledged how vital was Al- Hundred Years War. Vol. 1, Trial by Battle. bret’s adherence: ‘‘We know that you have Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, it in your power to do more damage to our 1991; Sumption, Jonathan. The Hundred Years War. interests than any other man in those parts’’ Vol. 2, Trial by Fire. Philadelphia: University of (Sumption, 1:330). Pennsylvania Press, 2001. Despite these appeals, Albret joined the English in 1339. Although his brothers had been fighting for Edward since the start of ALBRET, CHARLES, LORD OF, the war, Albret’s decision rested on his as- CONSTABLE OF FRANCE (d. 1415) sessment of his family’s best interests. His Charles, lord of Albret and count of Dreux, chief rivals for territory and influence, was constable of France and commander-in- Roger-Bernard, count of Pe´rigord, and Gas- chief of the French army at the Battle of ton de Foix, count of Foix, had declared for AGINCOURT. Although the Albrets were one Philip and, unlike Albret, had made little of the most important noble families of attempt to improve their personal position GASCONY, and thus vassals of the PLANTAG- by playing one side against the other. Thus, ENET dukes of AQUITAINE, Charles was a firm increasing French support for his rivals led adherent of the and a prom- Albret to back Edward. This support proved inent figure in the FRENCH CIVIL WAR. vital in 1340, when Albret virtually financed Although Charles’s grandfather, Bernard- the English campaign in Gascony, supplying Aiz V d’ALBRET, had been EDWARD III’s the government in BORDEAUX with over lieutenant in Aquitaine, and his father, Ar- £9,000, almost three-quarters of the normal naud-Amanieu d’ALBRET, had fought for annual revenue of the duchy of AQUITAINE. EDWARD, the Black Prince, at NA´ JERA, The extensive connections of Albret and his Charles had been raised at the French court

5 ALBRET, FAMILY as a companion of CHARLES VI. He suc- Further Reading: Burne, Alfred H. The Agin- ceeded his father as lord of Albret in 1401, court War. Ware, England: Wordsworth Editions was named constable of France in 1403, and Ltd., 1999; Perroy, Edouard. The Hundred Years made count of Dreux in 1407. A supporter of War. Trans. W. B. Wells. New York: Capricorn the king’s brother, LOUIS, DUKE OF ORLE´ ANS, Books, 1965; Vaughan, Richard. John the Fearless. the constable took part in the duke’s 1405 London: Longman, 1979. campaign in Aquitaine, where he cleared the borders of Saintonge and Pe´rigord of En- ALBRET, FAMILY. See ALBRET,ARNAUD- glish garrisons. With the outbreak of civil war AMANIEU,LORD OF;ALBRET,BERNARD-AIZ V, in the years following Orle´ans’s murder in LORD OF;ALBRET,CHARLES,LORD OF,CON- 1407, Albret became a leader of the ARMA- STABLE OF FRANCE GNAC (Orle´anist) party. For this allegiance, he was dismissed as constable in 1411, when ALENC¸ON, DUKE OF. See JOHN,DUKE OF JOHN THE FEARLESS, duke of BURGUNDY, took ALENC¸ON power in PARIS. Albret withdrew from the capital with CHARLES, DUKE OF ORLE´ ANS; JOHN, DUKE OF BERRY;BERNARD, COUNT OF ALEXANDER V. See PAPACY AND THE HUN- ARMAGNAC; and the other leaders of the DRED YEARS WAR Armagnac faction. In 1412, he was party to the Treaty of BOURGES, whereby the Ar- AMIENS, TREATY OF (1423) magnacs made territorial concessions to Signed at Amiens on 13 April 1423, the HENRY IV in return for English assistance Treaty of Amiens was a defensive agree- against the BURGUNDIANS. In 1413, when ment by which JOHN, DUKE OF BEDFORD;PHIL- Burgundy’s flight left the Armagnacs in IP THE GOOD, duke of BURGUNDY; and JOHN V, control of the king and the royal govern- duke of BRITTANY, recognized HENRY VI as ment, Albret was reappointed constable. king of France and pledged to aid one an- In 1415, the constable, acting as chief other against the dauphin (see CHARLES VII). lieutenant to the dauphin, LOUIS, DUKE OF Although Burgundian and Breton adherence GUIENNE, took charge of preparations to to the treaty wavered with the self-interest meet the threatened English invasion. He of each duke, the agreement initially strength- began collecting an army in NORMANDY and ened the position of Bedford as English regent stationed himself with fifteen hundred men of France and created a marriage connection on the coast at Honfleur. When HENRY V between Bedford and Burgundy that helped landed in August 1415, Albret was unable to maintain the ANGLO-BURGUNDIAN ALLIANCE prevent the English capture of HARFLEUR, until 1435. but, by October, he and Marshal John Bou- HENRY V made the first overtures toward cicaut had gathered a sizable army at ROUEN. Brittany by releasing the duke’s brother, Ar- Albret played a leading role in the sub- thur de Richemont (see ARTHUR III), who sequent campaign, being responsible for the had been captured at AGINCOURT in 1415. destruction of bridges and the defense of Brittany had several times shifted between fords along the Somme, and for harassing alliance with Henry and support of the dauph- the English along their line of march. Al- in, depending upon which side seemed most though, as constable, Albret was nominal likely to win. A more forceful personality commander of the army, the decision to than his brother, Richemont convinced the meet the English in pitched battle was made duke to swear to the Treaty of TROYES,which jointly with Boucicaut and the dukes of Or- recognized Henry as heir to the throne of le´ans and Bourbon. On 25 October, the France. constable was slain at Agincourt; his office After Henry’s death in August 1422, passed to the count of Armagnac, and his Bedford, acting as regent for Henry VI, lands fell to his son Charles II, lord of Albret. sought to bind both Brittany and Burgundy

6 ANGLO-BURGUNDIAN ALLIANCE more closely to his young nephew’s interest. ANGLO-BURGUNDIAN ALLIANCE In December 1422, Bedford concluded a (1420–1435) marriage contract that called for him to wed Made possible by the murder of JOHN THE ANNE, a younger sister of the duke of Bur- FEARLESS, duke of BURGUNDY, in 1419, and gundy, while Richemont wed Margaret, formalized by the Treaty of TROYES in 1420, Philip’s older sister and widow of the late the Anglo-Burgundian alliance established a dauphin, LOUIS, DUKE OF GUIENNE. In Feb- joint administration in PARIS, recognized ruary 1423, Bedford proposed a formal alli- Lancastrian succession to the French throne, ance, suggesting that all three dukes come to permitted the growth and maintenance of a Amiens for negotiations. These talks con- Lancastrian state in northern France, and cluded in April with the signing of a per- fostered the development of an independent sonal alliance that was to lapse on the death polity in territories controlled by PHILIP THE of any of the signatories. GOOD, duke of Burgundy. Created by HENRY The military commitments entailed in the V’s claim to rule France and by Burgundy’s treaty were negligible; each duke agreed to desire to avenge his father’s murder, the send a force of five hundred ARCHERS and alliance was maintained after Henry’s death men-at-arms to assist the others in time of by the personal relationship of Burgundy need. The real significance of the agreement and JOHN, DUKE OF BEDFORD, who were was the signatories’ commitment to work linked by the latter’s marriage to the for- for ‘‘the good of our lord the king and his mer’s sister, ANNE OF BURGUNDY, duchess of kingdom of France and England’’ (Wil- Bedford. The alliance ended in 1435, when liams, 101), a clause that recognized Henry Burgundy realized that his desire to exercise VI’s title to the French throne and rejected paramount influence in the French govern- the authority of the dauphin. The treaty also ment was better served by recognizing a included a most unusual clause committing VALOIS rather than a Lancastrian monarch. the dukes to provide relief for the poor Although uncomfortable with an English and suffering of the kingdom. On 13 king of France, Burgundy could not acknowl- May, Bedford married Anne of Burgundy. edge the dauphin as such after the dauphin’s Although undertaken for political reasons, servants treacherously slew Burgundy’s father the union soon became a love match, with during a peace conference at MONTEREAU in Anne effectively serving as mediator be- September 1419. The duke thus became party tween her equally beloved brother and to the Troyes agreement, whereby he rec- husband. ognized Henry V as heir to the French throne The Amiens alliance was almost im- and regent of France for the remainder of mediately undermined. On 18 April 1423, CHARLES VI’s reign. Henry agreed to exercise Burgundy and Brittany signed a secret his authority in consultation with the duke, agreement to remain friends with each other and Burgundian officials, who had controlled should either one become reconciled with the royal administration since 1418, were re- the dauphin. In 1424, a quarrel between tained in office. Henry also promised not to Bedford and Richemont caused the latter to interfere in those French provinces ruled di- offer his services to the dauphin and led the rectly by the duke, including FLANDERS, Ar- duke of Brittany to resume his policy of fa- tois, Rethel, Nevers, Charolais, Boulogne, voring the strongest party. In 1432, Duchess and the duchy of Burgundy. By thus trans- Anne’s death seriously weakened the bond forming one party in the FRENCH CIVIL WAR between Burgundy and Bedford and was a from a potential foe into an active ally, Henry factor in Burgundy’s abandonment of the was able to win power and territory in a di- English cause three years later. vided France. Although, in practice, the duke Further Reading: Williams, E. Carleton. My took little direct part in the ongoing war be- Lord of Bedford, 1389–1435. London: Longmans, tween the English and the dauphinists, his 1963. alliance with the denied

7 ANGLO-FLEMISH ALLIANCE the dauphin access to Paris and to the alle- chancellor, who argued that since Henry V giance, wealth, and manpower of a sig- had predeceased Charles VI and had thus nificant part of France. The alliance thus be- not actually assumed the French Crown, came vital to the maintenance of Lancastrian Henry VI could not inherit something his rule, especially after 1422 when the infant father had never held. With Charles eager for HENRY VI succeeded his father and grand- reconciliation, Burgundy agreed to the con- father on the English and French thrones. vening of the Congress of ARRAS, an all-party Upon his brother’s death, Bedford became peace conference from which the English regent of France when Burgundy, still un- withdrew when they realized that its true willing to be too closely associated with a purpose was the conclusion of a Franco- Lancastrian regime, refused the office. In Burgundian accord. Under the Treaty of 1423, Bedford fortified the Anglo-Burgun- Arras, signed on 20 September 1435, one dian alliance by concluding the Treaty of week after Bedford’s death, Charles rec- AMIENS, a tripartite defensive agreement ognized all grants of territory made to Bur- whereby Bedford, Burgundy, and JOHN V, gundy by the English, exempted Burgundy duke of BRITTANY, recognized Henry VI as from paying homage for his French lands king of France and pledged to aid one an- during Charles’s lifetime, and humbly apol- other against the dauphin. The treaty also ogized for the murder of Burgundy’s father. arranged Bedford’s marriage to Burgundy’s With this agreement, the Anglo-Burgundian sister, whose influence over both men be- alliance was terminated. came vital to the maintenance of good rela- Further Reading: Vaughan, Richard. Philip the tions. Anne’s mediation was particularly Good: The Apogee of Burgundy.Woodbridge,En- important in the mid-1420s, when HUM- gland: Boydell Press, 2002; Williams, E. Carleton. PHREY, DUKE OF GLOUCESTER, Bedford’s My Lord of Bedford, 1389–1435. London: Longmans, brother, made an impolitic attempt to en- 1963. force his wife’s rights in Holland, , and Hainault, thus threatening Burgundy’s ANGLO-FLEMISH ALLIANCE (1339) ambitions in the Low Countries. In 1432, Concluded on 3 December 1339 between the Anne’s death snapped the personal link be- English Crown and the revolutionary re- tween the dukes, and Bedford’s remarriage gime of James van ARTEVELDE, the Anglo- to Jacquetta of Luxembourg five months Flemish alliance attached FLANDERS to the later offended Burgundy, whose interests PLANTAGENET cause and led EDWARD III to were, in any event, beginning to diverge lay formal claim to the throne of France. from those of his ally. During the 1330s, the incompetent ad- By 1433, Burgundy, whose contacts with ministration of the pro-French count, LOUIS the dauphin (now crowned as CHARLES VII) DE NEVERS, and the constant interference of were never completely broken, began ex- VALOIS officials in municipal affairs fostered ploring the possibility of a Franco-Burgun- a growing discontent among the Flemish dian reconciliation. While the Lancastrians, people. At the start of the Anglo-French war particularly since the advent of JOAN OF ARC in 1337, PHILIP VI, to prevent the county’s in 1429, were becoming increasingly depen- defection, allowed the Flemings to remain dent on the Burgundian alliance, Burgundy neutral and to continue trading with the was becoming increasingly disillusioned by English. However, Edward III undercut this his inability to dominate the French admin- effort by halting English wool exports to istration and fearful that continuance of the Flanders, thereby causing widespread un- war would diminish his popularity in Paris. employment among Flemish clothworkers. Believing that Charles was weak and con- Provoked by English agents, demonstrations trollable, the duke sought honorable means against the count and his Valois overlord to end the English alliance. Such means were erupted throughout the province. On 3 Jan- provided by Nicholas Rolin, the Burgundian uary 1338, the people of Ghent elected van

8 ANGLO-FRENCH WAR OF 1294–1303

Artevelde hooftman, or captain, of the city, a contingent under van Artevelde, besieged position that he used to form an anti-French TOURNAI. When the city held out and the alliance with Bruges and Ypres that even- French refused battle, the king’s allies, some tually encompassed most of the Flemish of whom felt their interests threatened by towns. In February 1339, the count fled to the new Anglo-Flemish compact, began to France, leaving the van Artevelde regime in desert. On 25 September, Edward re- control of the county. luctantly accepted the Truce of ESPLECHIN, Although van Artevelde had advocated despite the objections of van Artevelde, who closer ties with England, he refused to be feared French retribution, Philip having al- rushed into any formal alliance, despite in- ready prevailed upon the pope to ex- tense pressure from Edward, who was then communicate the Flemings as oath breakers. constructing his grand ANTI-FRENCH COALI- From 1342, the count began to regain sup- TION among the provinces of the Low Coun- port in the province, making van Arte- tries and northwestern Germany. Anxious to velde’s regime increasingly dependent on avoid another French invasion, such as the the English alliance. In 1345, rumors that 1328 campaign that had culminated in the EDWARD, the future Black Prince, was to be disastrous Flemish defeat at Cassel, Arte- made count of Flanders allowed van Arte- velde offered Edward only friendly neu- velde’s enemies to assassinate him and trality, which was sufficient to achieve a overthrow his regime. Although Flanders partial lifting of the English wool embargo. remained allied with Edward until LOUIS DE When the THIE´ RACHE CAMPAIGN ended in MALE, son of the late count, regained power failure for the English, Edward put new with French support in 1349, the Anglo- pressure for an alliance on van Artevelde, Flemish alliance ceased to be militarily ef- who was now more willing to negotiate fective even before van Artevelde’s death. thanks to the presence of a large French army Further Reading: Carson, Patricia. James van on the Flemish frontier. Nonetheless, English Artevelde: The Man from Ghent. Ghent: Story, 1980; eagerness for Flemish military support al- Lucas, Henry Stephen. The Low Countries and the lowed van Artevelde to win highly favorable Hundred Years’ War, 1326–1347. Ann Arbor: Uni- terms in the agreement concluded in De- versity of Michigan Press, 1929; Perroy, Edouard. cember. Edward permitted the Flemings free The Hundred Years War. Trans. W. B. Wells. New access to English wool and agreed to transfer York: Capricorn Books, 1965. the wool staple, that is, the center of Con- tinental wool export, from Antwerp to Bru- ANGLO-FRENCH WAR OF 1294–1303 ges. He also promised to restore to Flanders The war of 1294–1303, the first Anglo-French the three castellanies of Lille, Douai, and conflict since the signing of the Treaty of Orchies, which had been seized by PHILIP IV. PARIS in 1259, foreshadowed the HUNDRED Finally, the king promised a subsidy of YEARS WAR both in its course and its cause. 140,000 livres to outfit the Flemish militia and The war arose from a series of violent en- put the county on a war footing, and English counters between Gascon seamen from military assistance on land and sea should Bayonne and their French counterparts from the French attack the province. In return, the the ports of NORMANDY. In 1292–93, Normans Flemish promised troops for the next English were assaulted on the streets of BORDEAUX and campaign in France and, most importantly, four French customs officers were murdered recognized Edward as rightful king of at Fronsac. Pressed by his brother, Charles of France. In accordance with this recognition, Valois, who led a court faction demanding Edward, in a ceremony in Ghent on 6 Feb- stricter enforcement of Capetian overlordship ruary 1340, formally assumed the title ‘‘King in AQUITAINE,PHILIP IV ordered the seneschal of France and England.’’ of GASCONY, a ducal official, to surrender the In the late summer of 1340, Edward, offenders to French authorities. When the se- leadingan allied army that included a Flemish neschal refused, the PARLEMENT pronounced

9 ANGLO-FRENCH WAR OF 1294–1303 the sequestration of the duchy and ordered busy in the Low Countries constructing an the surrender of key fortresses to royal offi- ANTI-FRENCH COALITION that could menace cers. When the ducal administration refused Philip’s northwestern frontier and thus take to comply, Philip summoned EDWARD Ito pressure off Aquitaine. In 1297, Edward, in appear before the Parlement by January 1294. another move later copied by his grandson, Accustomed to the more cooperative attitude concluded an alliance with FLANDERS, whose of Philip III, with whom he had negotiated count, Guy de Dampierre, renounced his compromises on most disputes involving homage to the French king in return for Aquitaine, Edward, who was heavily en- English money and military assistance. gaged in SCOTLAND and unprepared for war However, the English were again unable to on the Continent, suggested that each mon- move as quickly as the French, who invaded arch punish the guilty parties within his own the county in June before English troops domains, or, failing that, submit the matter to could arrive. By 1300, the count was in cus- arbitration. Because such proposals would tody and Flanders was under French control. have required him to deal with Edward on In Gascony, little fighting occurred after equal terms, Philip, who had been seeking a 1298, when Edward requested arbitration of pretext for war, refused. He was interested in the dispute by Pope Boniface VIII, who was enforcing his lordship over his vassal, the told that Gascony was an allod, that is, a duke of Aquitaine, not in compromising with province whose lord had never owed feudal his fellow monarch, the king of England. allegiance to the House of CAPET. Although Eager to resolve the matter, Edward sent anti-French and convinced that Philip in- his brother, Edmund, earl of Lancaster, to tended to expel the PLANTAGENETS from PARIS. Philip suggested that the English Aquitaine, the pope rendered a mild verdict: surrender certain towns and fortresses for Edward was to do homage to Philip for any forty days, thus technically allowing im- lands Philip would restore to him. plementation of the sequestration order. At Even though Edward had married his the end of that time, a treaty would be sister MARGARET in 1299, Philip saw no rea- concluded and the duchy restored. Lan- son to restore anything until June 1302, caster accepted this arrangement, and, in when a poorly armed force of Flemish rebels February 1294, ordered ducal officers to destroyed a French army at Courtrai. With yield the required strongpoints. However, over twenty thousand Frenchmen dead on on 19 May, with his officials still in place, the field and his treasury bankrupt, Philip Philip suddenly ordered the confiscation of could not afford a renewal of the war in Aquitaine. Hampered by the need to trans- Aquitaine, where the citizens of Bordeaux port men and supplies across the sea, while promptly expelled the French upon hearing the French merely crossed their borders, of the battle. In May 1303, the two monarchs Edward was unable to send an army to signed a treaty whereby Philip agreed to Aquitaine until October, by which time most restore the duchy in return for Edward’s of the duchy had been overrun. Although agreement to pay homage for it. To seal the the English regained a foothold in southern treaty, a marriage was arranged between Gascony, Bordeaux and most of the towns Edward’s son, Prince Edward (see EDWARD remained in French hands. When Valois II), and Philip’s daughter, Isabella (see ISA- invaded the duchy with a large army in BELLA,QUEEN OF ENGLAND [c. 1292–1358]), a March 1295, many of the English gains were match that was to have momentous future lost. consequences by giving the Plantagenets an When another English army led by Lan- eventual claim to the French throne. Despite caster failed to retake Bordeaux in 1296, Ed- the treaty, Edward never did homage and ward adopted a new strategy, one that his Philip never returned all Edward’s prewar grandson, EDWARD III, was to emulate in the holdings. The war also hardened attitudes in 1330s. Since 1294, English agents had been both kingdoms, persuading each Crown that

10 ANNE OF BURGUNDY, DUCHESS OF BEDFORD the Treaty of Paris must ultimately be of 150,000 gold crowns and the county of overturned in its favor. See also ANGLO- Artois should Burgundy die without heirs. FLEMISH ALLIANCE. Married on 13 May 1423 in the Church of Further Reading: Curry, Anne. The Hundred St. John in Troyes, the same church in which Years War. 2nd ed. Houndmills, England: Pal- Henry V had wed CATHERINE OF VALOIS in grave Macmillan, 2003; Vale, Malcolm. The Origins 1420, Bedford and his new duchess took up of the Hundred Years War. Oxford: Clarendon residence at the Hoˆtel des Tournelles in Press, 2000. Paris. Although fifteen years younger than her more reserved husband, who had mar- ANGLO-FRENCH WAR OF 1323–1325. See ried her for political reasons, Anne quickly SAINT-SARDOS,WAR OF captured the duke’s affection. Bedford de- pended upon her kindness and compan- ANJOU, DUKE OF. See LOUIS,DUKE OF ionship, which lightened his burdens and ANJOU encouraged him in his endeavors; he also relied on her intelligence and judgment, ANNE OF BURGUNDY, DUCHESS especially in dealing with her brother, who, OF BEDFORD (1404–1432) like Bedford, trusted her completely. The Anne was the fifth daughter of JOHN THE duke’s devotion to his wife even evoked FEARLESS, duke of BURGUNDY, and wife of contemporary comment; Guillaume Benoit JOHN, DUKE OF BEDFORD, brother of HENRY V claimed that Bedford never traveled any- and regent of France for HENRY VI. Through where without her and the Bourgeois of her intelligence, charm, and tact, Anne Paris complained that Bedford spent more helped maintain the ANGLO-BURGUNDIAN time in towns with his wife than in the field ALLIANCE by mediating disputes between her with his armies. husband and her brother, PHILIP THE GOOD, During the 1420s, Anne’s mediation sev- duke of Burgundy. eral times resolved quarrels that threatened Born at Arras in September 1404, Anne continuation of the Anglo-Burgundian alli- grew into an intelligent young woman with ance. Among the most serious was the crisis interests in art, music, and court pageantry. raised by the precipitate marriage of Bed- Although not physically attractive—the cit- ford’s brother, HUMPHREY, DUKE OF GLOUCE- izens of PARIS found Burgundy’s sisters STER, to Jacqueline of Hainault in 1423. The ‘‘plain as owls’’—Anne was high-spirited, union allowed Gloucester to claim the rule understanding, and compassionate, with of his wife’s lands in the Low Countries— one contemporary describing her as ‘‘livelier Holland, Zeeland, and Hainault—provinces than all the other ladies of her day’’ (Wil- that stood at the heart of the compact block liams, 102). In 1414, her father, negotiating of territories Philip sought to weld into the for English support, offered her as wife to Burgundian state. Anne used her influence Henry V, but nothing came of the proposal with Philip to keep the angry duke from and she was still unmarried at her father’s taking rash action when Gloucester marched death in 1419. After his brother’s death in into Hainault in late 1424. She also accom- August 1422, Bedford, who was anxious to panied her husband to a meeting with Philip cement the Anglo-Burgundian connection in FLANDERS in June 1425, when, following forged by the Treaty of TROYES, resolved to Gloucester’s return to England, she con- take Philip’s favorite sister as his bride. As a vinced her brother to reconcile with Bedford preliminary to the 1423 Treaty of AMIENS, and maintain the English connection. which created a formal alliance between In March 1427, the duke and duchess of England and the dukes of Burgundy and Bedford, after residing in England for sixteen BRITTANY, Bedford ratified his marriage months, returned to Paris, where Anne’s contract with Anne on 12 December 1422. popularity with the citizens did much to in- The agreement promised the duke a dowry vigorate the English cause. In 1429, Anne

11 ANTI-FRENCH COALITION helped dissuade her brother from continuing of Lincoln; William MONTAGU, earl of Salis- talks with the dauphin, and, in 1430, she bury; and William Clinton, earl of Hunting- tried to temper the imprisonment of JOAN OF don, were in the Low Countries purchasing ARC, insisting that the guards not molest alliances with hard currency borrowed from their prisoner and ordering her tailor to merchants and bankers. By the end of the make Joan women’s clothes, the Maid’s year, Edward’s anti-French coalition in- wearing of male attire being one of the most cluded John, duke of Brabant; William, serious charges against her. Anne died on 14 count of Juliers; and Dietrich, count of November 1432, having contracted fever Cleves, as well as the duke of ; the when she cared for victims of an epidemic counts of Berg, Limburg, and Marck; and that swept Paris that autumn. Broken, ac- Queen PHILIPPA’s brother, William, count of cording to Enguerrand de Monstrelet, by a Hainault. In August, Edward purchased the ‘‘very great sorrow’’ (Williams, 222), Bedford alliance of Holy Roman Emperor Ludwig, lost his personal link to Burgundy, who, in who spurned French overtures for English 1435, ended the Anglo-Burgundian alliance gold. In July 1338, the emperor, for a further by reconciling with CHARLES VII at the Con- subsidy, appointed Edward deputy vicar of gress of ARRAS. the empire, by which office the English king Further Reading: Williams, E. Carleton. My was empowered to exercise imperial au- Lord of Bedford, 1389–1435. London: Longmans, thority in northwestern Germany. In this 1963. way, Edward had more than a monetary hold over his allies, and, in late 1338, he ANTI-FRENCH COALITION (1337–1340) summoned all vassals within his deputyship Like his grandfather, EDWARD I, who pur- to swear homage to him and the PLANTAG- sued a similar policy during the ANGLO- ENET cause. FRENCH WAR OF 1294–1303, EDWARD III began From the start, the coalition was ruinously the HUNDRED YEARS WAR by constructing expensive; its maintenance made it virtually a network of anti-French alliances with impossible to pay for the men and supplies princes of Germany and the Low Countries. needed to launch an actual campaign. An Such a coalition relieved French pressure English landing in France planned for on AQUITAINE by promising Edward the autumn 1337 was cancelled for lack of opportunity and resources to invade the funds, and a truce had to be arranged for the VALOIS domains in northern France. How- first half of 1338, since no campaign could be ever, because the allies’ commitment to the contemplated for the same reason. To raise coalition was based on money, not principle, additional funds, the king embarked on the maintenance of the alliance proved to be ultimately ill-fated DORDRECHT BOND scheme, well beyond the king’s financial resources. whereby his agents bought up cheap wool in Edward was soon deeply in debt and England and attempted to sell it at a profit in the payment of subsidies to his allies was the Low Countries, where an English wool soon far in arrears. Thus, by late 1340, the embargo aimed at LOUIS DE NEVERS, the pro- anti-French coalition had proved a costly French count of FLANDERS, had starved failure. clothmakers of their vital raw material. In late 1336, months before the confisca- Heavily engaged in alliance DIPLOMACY, and tion of Aquitaine officially initiated the war, desperately short of cash, Edward waited Edward was in communication with the until September 1339 for his allies to princes of the Low Countries, to whom he send their promised forces. Exasperated by complained of Philip’s unjust retention of their failure to send more than a few ill- ‘‘my hereditary property’’ (Perroy, 96), disciplined mercenaries, Edward advanced meaning those parts of Aquitaine occupied with his own army, but the THIE´ RACHE by the French since the War of SAINT-SARDOS. CAMPAIGN, bedeviled by PHILIP VI’s refusal to By spring 1337, Henry BURGHERSH, bishop fight, ended in failure after only a month.

12 APPANAGE

In December 1339, Edward concluded an apanage or appannage) refers to a province, ANGLO-FLEMISH ALLIANCE with James van territory, or jurisdiction granted out of ARTEVELDE, leader of the revolutionary re- Crown lands to younger children of the gime that had recently overthrown the monarch. Although appanages were he- count. To provide the Flemings with polit- reditary grants, with women able to inherit ical cover for their acceptance of Plantag- in the absence of a male heir, such territories enet overlordship, Edward officially claimed automatically reverted to the Crown upon the French Crown on 6 February 1340. The the death of their holders without issue. Flemish connection promised to strengthen Under the VALOIS, the practice of granting the anti-French coalition with a new infusion appanages led eventually to the creation of men and the acquisition of a useful base within France of great semi-independent from which to attack France. It also in- states ruled by powerful and wealthy princes creased Edward’s already crushing ex- of the blood whose rivalries precipitated penses, for the Flemish military effort re- the FRENCH CIVIL WAR and facilitated the quired English financial support. In February English reopening of the HUNDRED YEARS 1340, Edward had to obtain the permission WAR after 1412. of his creditors to sail for England to seek The Frankish kings had divided their new TAXATION from PARLIAMENT. Queen kingdoms among their sons, but the early Philippa and her young children remained Capetian kings crowned their eldest sons in Flanders as hostages guaranteeing the during their lifetimes and married younger king’s return. sons to wealthy heiresses in an effort to Despite a naval victory at SLUYS in June, the endow them with their wives’ inheritances Englishcampaignof1340wasasdis- rather than with parts of the royal domain. appointing as that of the previous year. ROB- In the thirteenth century, the giving of ap- ERT OF ARTOIS and the Flemings were de- panages to younger sons and brothers of feated at SAINT-OMER in July, and the large the House of CAPET became more com- coalition army with which Edward besieged monplace. For instance, in 1285, Charles, TOURNAI in August was broken up by dis- the younger brother of Philip IV, received putes among the allies. The chief defectors the county of Valois, an appanage that re- were Brabant and Hainault, whose interests turned to the Crown in 1328 when Charles’s were adversely affected by the Flemish alli- son became king as PHILIP VI. In the four- ance. By the end of 1340, most of the allies teenth century, when the heir to the throne were reconciling with Philip. Frustrated by (beginning with Charles, eldest son of JOHN his failure to bring the French to battle, Ed- II) began receiving the Dauphine´ (with the ward reluctantly accepted the Truce of ES- title of dauphin) as an appanage, younger PLECHIN on 25 September. In November, royal princes became peers of the realm, when Edward returned to England enraged thereby enhancing their status. LOUIS,JOHN, at what he perceived as the failure of his and PHILIP THE BOLD, the brothers of ministers to support his armies (see CRISIS OF CHARLES V (the first dauphin) became, re- 1340–1341), the grand anti-French coalition spectively, the dukes of Anjou, Berry, and had largely dissolved. BURGUNDY. Further Reading: Perroy, Edouard. The Hundred By 1400, when the frequent granting of Years War.Trans.W.B.Wells.NewYork: appanages had significantly reduced the Capricorn Books, 1965; Sumption, Jonathan. The royal domain, the nature of the relationship Hundred Years War.Vol.1,Trial by Battle.Philadel- between the Crown and the great appanage phia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1991. holders had changed. The latter were no longer feudal lords seeking local autonomy APPANAGE and resisting the encroachment of Crown Deriving from apaner, meaning to endow officials, but peers of France who ruled as with a living, the term appanage (also spelled virtual monarchs in their appanages and

13 APPEAL OF THE GASCON LORDS who sought, especially under weak kings APPEAL OF THE GASCON LORDS like CHARLES VI, to control the royal gov- (1368–1369) ernment for their personal benefit. The The term ‘‘appeal of the Gascon lords’’ re- prime examples of such princes were Philip fers to the petitions that various Gascon the Bold and his heirs, the dukes of Bur- nobles sent to CHARLES V in 1368 and 1369 gundy, who, besides their appanage, came asking the king, whom they thereby rec- to control FLANDERS and various other por- ognized as suzerain of AQUITAINE, to resolve tions of the Low Countries. Although tech- their dispute over taxation with their feudal nically owing homage to both the king of lord, EDWARD, THE BLACK PRINCE, duke of France and the Holy Roman Emperor, the Aquitaine. Because the Treaty of BRE´ TIGNY dukes of Burgundy were in the fifteenth gave sovereignty over Aquitaine to EDWARD century independent of either and, until the III, accepting the appeals, which Charles did end of the century, a serious threat to the in December 1368, violated the agreement French Crown. and became the mechanism for renewal of The rivalry of Philip the Bold and his son the HUNDRED YEARS WAR. JOHN THE FEARLESS with their nephew and In early 1368, Prince Edward, in need of cousin LOUIS, DUKE OF ORLE´ANS,brotherof funds to pay for his intervention in the Charles VI, was the cause of the civil war CASTILIAN WAR OF SUCCESSION in 1367, per- between ARMAGNACS (Orle´ans’s faction) and suaded the estates of Aquitaine to grant him a BURGUNDIANS that erupted after 1407. A dis- fouage, or hearth tax, of 10 sous per hearth pute over which appanage prince would ex- for five years. The nobility of GASCONY, ercise the powers of the Crown as regent for accustomed to the lax administration of a the mad king, the civil war offered the English distant king, balked at the invasive rule of a a golden opportunity to intervene. French resident duke, and several of the most pow- internal quarrels, culminating in 1419 with the erful, including John, count of Armagnac, murder of John the Fearless by supporters of and Arnaud-Amanieu, lord of ALBRET, re- the Dauphin Charles, then the Armagnac fused to allow collection of the tax in their leader, allowed HENRY VtoinvadeFrance, domains. These lords appealed to Edward III, conquer NORMANDY, and impose the Treaty of but, before the English king could respond, TROYES on the French Crown. Conclusion of Armagnac, in PARIS for the wedding of Albret the latter and the maintenance of Lancastrian to the French queen’s sister, lodged a secret France thereafter were made possible by the appeal against the duke with the king of formal alliance of PHILIP THE GOOD,thenew France, who was addressed as ‘‘the sovereign duke of Burgundy, with the English. Al- lord of the Duke and whole duchy of Aqui- though that alliance ended in 1435, the policy taine’’ (Sumption, 574). of the French Crown thereafter was to reduce Although Charles V had heretofore scru- the independence of appanage princes. Much pulously observed the Bre´tigny agreement, of Burgundy was reabsorbed by the Crown he had been seeking a means of eventually after the death of the last Valois duke in 1477 undermining it, and Armagnac’s appeal, if it and Bourbon, the last great appanage, was could be legally justified, presented such an seized by the Crown in 1520, thereby ending opportunity. On 30 June 1368, Charles held a all threats to the unity of France from appa- meeting of an enlarged royal council to nage princes. discuss whether or not the appeal should be Further Reading: Lewis, Andrew. Royal Succes- received. Although lawyers were asked to sion in Capetian France. Cambridge, MA: Harvard debate such legal questions as ‘‘Did the fail- University Press, 1981; Wood, Charles T. The ure of each king to make the renunciations French Apanages and the Capetian Monarchy, 1224– required by the treaty mean Charles still 1328. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, held sovereignty over Aquitaine?’’ and ‘‘Did 1966; Vaughan, Richard. Valois Burgundy. Lon- Edward’s failure to prevent English ROUTIERS don: Archon, 1975. from continuing to wage war invalidate the

14 AQUITAINE agreement?’’ Charles decided the issue on AQUITAINE politics. If he rejected the appeal, he would The duchy of Aquitaine (also known as be acknowledging the loss of VALOIS sover- Guienne) was one of the largest and most eignty in the duchy and losing an oppor- important feudal territories of medieval tunity to act against the prince with the France. Comprising, at its greatest extent, support of the prince’s own vassals. Because most of southwestern France, Aquitaine was such a chance would likely not come again, held by the English royal family for three Charles accepted the appeal, knowing that hundred years. Because they were both sov- to do so meant resumption of the war. ereign rulers and vassals of the Crown of However, before this secret decision was France, the PLANTAGENET dukes of Aquitaine formally announced on 3 December and the were caught in a political dilemma that, for prince was summoned to Paris in January them, could be satisfactorily resolved only (he replied by promising to come at the head by achieving full sovereignty over the prov- of an army), Charles undertook a number ince. Through the Plantagenets’ pursuit of of diplomatic initiatives to strengthen his this goal, Aquitaine became both a primary position. In November, he signed a formal cause and a chief battleground of the HUN- treaty with Henry of Trasta´mare, the Casti- DRED YEARS WAR. lian pretender, who, with the resulting Although its boundaries, which were al- French aid, defeated and killed Pedro I in ways ill-defined, shifted dramatically with March 1369, thereby turning Castile into a the course of events, Aquitaine comprised at firm French ally. Charles also pushed for- it broadest more than a dozen counties, in- ward discussions that led to agreement in cluding Poitou, Berry, La Marche, Limousin, April 1369 on a marriage between his Angoumois, Saintonge, Pe´rigord, Agenais, brother PHILIP THE BOLD, duke of BURGUNDY, Quercy, Rouergue, and Auvergne. In the and MARGUERITE DE FLANDERS, the daughter eleventh century, the dukes of Aquitaine of LOUIS DE MALE, count of FLANDERS, also incorporated the thereby ending any possibility of an Anglo- into their domains, thus extending their Flemish marriage that would have made authority from the Loire to the Pyre´ne´es. Flanders an English APPANAGE. He also in- Wealthy and semi-independent, Aquitaine structed his brother, LOUIS, DUKE OF ANJOU, fell under foreign rule in the twelfth cen- to encourage discontent among the Gascon tury, when Eleanor, daughter and sole heir nobility, so that by the time the PARLEMENT of Duke William X (d. 1137), married Louis declared the prince contumacious (i.e., in VII of France, thus bringing the duchy to the rebellion) on 2 May 1369, almost nine hun- House of CAPET. In 1152, Eleanor divorced dred separate appeals had been lodged Louis and married Henry, count of Anjou, against him in Paris. Despite attempts by who in 1154 became Henry II of England. Edward III to avert war, Charles officially Under Henry, Aquitaine was part of the confiscated Aquitaine on 30 November, vast , a conglomeration of thereby repeating the action by which PHILIP English feudal holdings that comprised VI had begun the war in 1337. Aided by most of western France. Henry granted the disaffection of the Gascon nobility, Aquitaine to his son, who, after his acces- French armies entered the duchy in 1369, sion to the English throne as Richard I in and by 1374 had reduced PLANTAGENET 1189, restored the duchy to Eleanor. After Aquitaine to little more than BORDEAUX and her death in 1204, Eleanor’s son John, king its environs. since 1199, lost most of the Angevin hold- Further Reading: Perroy, Edouard. The Hun- ings to the French Crown. The Plantagenets dred Years War. Trans. W. B. Wells. New York: retained only a greatly reduced Aquitaine, Capricorn Books, 1965; Sumption, Jonathan. The their possession of which was disputed by Hundred Years War. Vol. 2, Trial by Fire. Philadel- the Capetian kings of France for over fifty phia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2001. years.

15 ARCHERS

In 1259, this unsatisfactory situation was agreement gave a greatly enlarged Aqui- resolved by the Treaty of PARIS, by which taine, amounting to almost one-third of Louis IX of France recognized Henry III of France, to Edward in full sovereignty. The England as duke of Aquitaine in return for king’s heir, EDWARD, THE BLACK PRINCE, Henry’s renunciation of claims to all other ruled over the new principality, but the former Plantagenet provinces. Although the harshness of his rule alienated the Gascon duchy now comprised little more than a nobility and by 1368 CHARLES V was again strip of Gascon territory running along the accepting appeals against the duke, thereby coast from BORDEAUX to the Pyre´ne´es, overthrowing the treaty (see APPEAL OF THE English authority in the region was gen- GASCON LORDS). By 1380, the French had erally accepted by the people, who found reconquered much of the duchy and English distant and often indifferent Plantagenet authority was again largely restricted to rule preferable to French taxes and bu- coastal Gascony. In the , RICHARD II reaucracy. Also, the booming Anglo-Gascon granted the duchy to his uncle, JOHN OF wine trade, which developed in the thir- GAUNT, duke of Lancaster, an attempt to teenth century, became vital to the local create a new ducal line that was unpopular economy. with the Gascons. The problem resolved it- Because the treaty made the king-duke of self in 1399 when Lancaster’s son became Aquitaine subordinate to the king of France, king of England as HENRY IV, thus reuniting the Gascon nobility could appeal any dis- the duchy to the Crown. putes with their feudal overlord to his When HENRY V renewed the war with overlord. The resulting French interference France in 1415, his efforts focused mainly on in the rule of the duchy proved intolerable to NORMANDY and northern France, and Aqui- the Plantagenets and led twice to open taine saw less fighting than it had in the conflict. During the ANGLO-FRENCH WAR OF previous century, when the duchy was dev- 1294–1303 and the War of SAINT-SARDOS in astated by frequent military campaigns the 1320s, French monarchs confiscated and destructive ROUTIER bands. In 1450, Aquitaine after English king-dukes refused CHARLES VII, having expelled the English to appear before the PARLEMENT in PARIS to from northern France, launched a new answer charges arising out of their admin- campaign against Aquitaine. Bordeaux fell istration of the duchy. Both wars ended with in 1451, but the Gascons appealed to HENRY negotiated settlements that restored Aqui- VI, who dispatched John TALBOT, earl of taine to the Plantagenets. However, in the Shrewsbury, with an expeditionary force 1330s, EDWARD III, in an effort to end con- that recaptured much of the duchy by late tinual French encroachments on his ducal 1452. However, in July 1453 at the Battle of authority, went to war with France to win CASTILLON, the French slew Shrewsbury and full sovereignty over Aquitaine. Thanks to a destroyed his army, thus ending the Hun- marriage arranged as part of the 1303 peace dred Years War and English rule in Aqui- agreement, Edward was the grandson of taine. PHILIP IV. After the House of VALOIS re- Further Reading: Labarge, Margaret Wade. placed the Capetian line on the French Gascony, England’s First Colony: 1204–1453. Lon- throne in 1328, Edward used this family don: Hamish Hamilton, 1980; Vale, Malcolm. connection to pursue a more radical solution English Gascony, 1399–1453. London: Oxford Uni- to the Aquitaine question—Plantagenet ac- versity Press, 1970; Vale, Malcolm. The Origins of quisition of the French Crown. If Edward the Hundred Years War. Oxford: Clarendon Press, became his own overlord, all sovereignty 2000. issues would fade away. After capturing JOHN II at the Battle of ARCHERS POITIERS in 1356, Edward wrung the Treaty Archers were specialized troops who fired of BRE´ TIGNY from the French in 1360. The the two main types of missile weapons used

16 ARCHERS during the HUNDRED YEARS WAR, the cross- French often employed hired Genoese cross- bow and the longbow. The increasing use of bowmen, who were known for their profi- archers, particularly mounted archers, rev- ciency with the weapon. olutionized medieval warfare, for the abil- The favorite missile weapon of the En- ity of massed archers to disrupt a cavalry glish, the longbow, had an incalculable im- charge increased the use and importance of pact on the course of the war. Made of yew dismounted infantry. English longbowmen wood that was frequently imported from frequently affected the outcome of battles, Spain or AQUITAINE, the typical longbow of particularly during the war’s earlier phases the war period was about six feet long. Yew (see HUNDRED YEARS WAR,PHASES OF). was the best bow wood because it contained The favorite missile weapon of the French two layers, the white sapwood that could was the crossbow, a complicated device withstand high tension and the red heart- consisting of a bow, or lath, mounted cross- wood that could resist compression and thus wise on a wooden stock, or tiller. To draw give the bow its power. A skilled bow the bow, the crossbowman placed his foot in maker, or bowyer, had to fashion the weapon an iron stirrup on the front of the stock and, to leave a thin layer of sapwood over the while crouching down, attached the string to heartwood, a requirement that usually left a hook and pulley on his belt; by standing some irregularity in the curve of the bow. up, he could then draw back the string suf- The bowstring was looped to horn tips, ficiently to attach it to the trigger mecha- called notches or nocks, at the ends of better nism. The overall length of the stock was bows or simply to grooves cut into the wood about two and a half feet, while the bow of lesser ones. The string was made of good span was just over two feet. The crossbow quality flax or linen and, when strung, had sights and fired short, heavy wooden coated with beeswax to repel moisture. The arrows known as quarrels, which were center of the string had thread wound about 15 inches in length. The flights, or tightly about it to protect it from the arrow vanes, were made of leather, horn, or wood, nock and the shooting hand, on which the rather than feather. The tip of the quarrel archer wore a leather shooting glove. The was iron and the rear end was tapered to longbow fired wooden arrows that were allow it to fit into the revolving nut mech- about 30 inches long, fledged with goose or anism that was released to fire the quarrel. peacock feathers, and tipped with an iron The quarrel sat atop the stock in a grooved barb. Although there were many types of rest made of antler. The bow was a compos- arrowheads, the most common military ite of wood, horn, and sinew, which gave it head was the bodkin, a deadly, four-sided greater flexibility. Although the crossbow steel spike. The longbow had a range of 150– possessed greater velocity than the longbow, 200 yards, a draw-weight of 80–100 pounds, it had a shorter range and was heavier, and the ability to pierce plate ARMOR at up to weighing up to 20 pounds. Because of its 60 yards. A skilled longbowman could fire complicated firing process, the crossbow’s ten to twelve arrows per minute and waves most serious disadvantage was its slow rate of arrows fired simultaneously by hundreds of fire. At best, an experienced crossbowman of bowmen could darken the sky and ter- could fire four quarrels per minute, while a rorize an enemy with their dramatic sound longbowman could fire three times as many and impact. Each archer carried a sheaf of arrows in the same time. This slower rate twenty-four arrows, and common practice made the crossbow far more useful for SIEGE during combat was to retrieve and reuse WARFARE than for pitched battles, as was arrows whenever possible. clearly illustrated by the devastation wrought The English first encountered the long- by English archers on PHILIP VI’s crossbow- bow in Wales in the twelfth century and men at CRE´ CY. Because proper use of the adopted it for their own use in the thir- crossbow required specialized skills, the teenth century, especially during the reign

17 ‘‘ARCHPRIEST’’ of EDWARD I, who commanded Sunday ar- New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1996; chery practice in every village. During their Seward, Desmond. The Hundred Years War. New campaigns in SCOTLAND in the early four- York: Penguin, 1999. teenth century, the English used archers in combination with dismounted men-at-arms, ‘‘ARCHPRIEST.’’ See CERVOLE,ARNAUD DE placing the former on the wings or inter- spersed in wedges set between and slightly ARMAGNAC, COUNT OF. See BERNARD, before the latter. Properly integrated and COUNT OF ARMAGNAC coordinated, each force gave protection to the other. The archers could disrupt a cav- ARMAGNACS alry charge long before it reached the men- ‘‘Armagnac’’ was the name given to one of at-arms, who could then advance on foot or the political factions that fought the FRENCH remount to fall upon the disordered enemy. CIVIL WAR, thereby allowing HENRY Vto This powerful defensive combination, successfully resume the HUNDRED YEARS which was unknown on the Continent be- WAR. The term was first used by Parisians in fore the 1340s, proved its effectiveness in 1411 for supporters of CHARLES, DUKE OF OR- numerous battles, including MORLAIX, LE´ ANS, and his allies in their struggle for Cre´cy, and AGINCOURT. The ability of these control of the French government with JOHN two groups to fight in concert was one of THE FEARLESS, duke of BURGUNDY. The name the most important tactical developments of arose because of the growing influence the period. Another important innovation within the Orle´anist party of Duke Charles’s was the appearance of mounted archers father-in-law, BERNARD, COUNT OF ARMA- during EDWARD III’s Scottish campaigns in GNAC. the early 1330s. Although the longbow was The Armagnac party originated among a defensive weapon—mounted archers had the supporters of LOUIS, DUKE OF ORLE´ ANS to dismount to shoot—horse archers were a and brother of CHARLES VI, who, before he devastating combination of mobility and was murdered by his rival’s agents in No- firepower, and became mainstays of the vember 1407, waged a bitter feud for polit- swift-moving English CHEVAUCHE´ES of ical dominance with his cousin Burgundy. the fourteenth century. However, foot ar- On Orle´ans’s death, leadership of the anti- chers outnumbered mounted archers in Burgundian party fell nominally on the English armies until the fifteenth century, duke’s young sons, Charles and Philip, when HENRY V recruited more of the latter whose following swelled in 1410–11, when for the Agincourt campaign. Although bet- Burgundy’s exclusion of all rivals from court ter plate armor for men and horses some- and council drove most princes of royal what limited the effectiveness of the long- blood into alliance with the Orle´anists. bow later in the war, the advantage in Besides Armagnac, whose daughter Bonne missile weapons did not shift until the mid- married Charles of Orle´ans in 1410, the Ar- fifteenth century when technical improve- magnac leadership eventually included ments allowed ARTILLERY to dominate the JOHN, DUKE OF BERRY, last surviving brother battlefield. See also BATTLE,NATURE OF; of CHARLES V; Louis, duke of Anjou; John, STRATEGY AND TACTICS. duke of Bourbon; John, duke of Alenc¸on; Further Reading: Bradbury, Jim. The Medieval JOHN V, duke of BRITTANY; Charles, lord of Archer. Woodbridge, England: Boydell Press, 2002; ALBRET and constable of France; and John, Featherstone, Donald. The Bowman of England. count of Clermont. Barnsley, England: Pen and Sword Books, 2003; The king averted civil war in 1410 by Hardy, Robert. Longbow: A Social and Military imposing the Peace of Biceˆtre on both par- History. 3rd ed. Sparkford, England: Patrick ties, but the Armagnacs besieged PARIS in Stephens, 1992; Prestwich, Michael. Armies and 1411, forcing Burgundy to seek assistance Warfare in the : The English Experience. from HENRY IV. The English king sent a

18 ARMIES, COMMAND OF small force—the first English army to land In September 1419, when the dauphin’s in France in twenty-eight years—that broke Armagnac councilors murdered Burgundy the siege and allowed Burgundy to drive the during a peace conference at MONTEREAU, Armagnacs south of the Loire. Fearing at- PHILIP THE GOOD, the new duke of Burgundy, tack by the royal army Burgundy was gath- accepted transfer of the Crown to Henry V ering, the Armagnac leaders also turned to rather than see it pass to the Armagnac- Henry IV; in the Treaty of BOURGES, con- dominated dauphin. In 1420, in the Treaty of cluded in May 1412, Henry agreed to send TROYES, Charles VI and Burgundy agreed to another force in return for territorial con- disinherit the dauphin in favor of the English cessions. However, before this new English king. After the deaths of both Charles VI and army could take the field, Burgundy forced Henry V in 1422, the Armagnac faction be- the Armagnac lords to capitulate and LOUIS came the dauphinist party, committed to of Guienne, the dauphin, helped negotiate a continuing the VALOIS monarchy in the per- reconciliation that was embodied in the son of the dauphin. Charles was finally Treaty of Auxerre in August. In 1413, Bur- crowned in 1429 after the intervention of gundy overreached himself by inciting his JOAN OF ARC improved the military situation supporters in Paris to riot; called CA- and made possible his coronation in Rheims. BOCHIENS after their most prominent leader, In 1435, at the Congress of ARRAS, the king the butcher Simon Caboche, the violent was reconciled with Burgundy, an event that Burgundian bands turned the capital against finally transformed Charles from Armagnac the duke, who fled Paris in August. leader to monarch of all France. Burgundy’s fall instituted an Armagnac Further Reading: Famiglietti, Richard. Royal regime that fell increasingly under the Intrigue: Crisis at the Court of Charles VI, 1392– dominance of Armagnac himself. Defeat at 1420. New York: AMS Press, 1986; Perroy, the Battle of AGINCOURT in 1415 discredited Edouard. The Hundred Years War. Trans. W. B. the Armagnac government as did the sub- Wells. New York: Capricorn Books, 1965. sequent English conquest of NORMANDY and the count’s ruthless use of his Gascon re- ARMIES, COMMAND OF tainers to overawe the capital. By 1417, the Supreme command of all medieval military Armagnac leadership had been decimated forces in both France and England was vested and the regime was powerless to halt the in the king, but, because of the temporal English advance. Berry, Anjou, and Albret length and geographic scope of the HUNDRED were dead, as were Charles VI’s two eldest YEARS WAR, the royal power of command was sons, the Dauphins Louis and John, both of often delegated to the Crown’s chief military whom were at least nominally associated officers, the constables and marshals. Thus, as with the Armagnac government. Orle´ans the war progressed, the powers, authority, and Bourbon, captured at Agincourt, were and privileges of these officers grew steadily. prisoners in England. Deeply hated for the In France, the war saw significant expan- excesses of his supporters, Armagnac tried sion in the powers of the constable. This to rule through the king’s last son, the weak growth was fueled in part by the ability of and sickly Dauphin Charles (see CHARLES some of the men who held the office, and in VII). When Charles’s mother, Queen ISA- part by the incapacity of some of the kings BEAU, began plotting against the regime, the they served. During much of the reign of count banished her from Paris in 1417; she CHARLES V, whose fragile constitution did responded by allying with Burgundy, whose not allow him to lead armies, the constable supporters in the capital rioted in May 1418, was the formidable Breton captain, Bertrand murdering Armagnac and many of his du GUESCLIN (1370–80). During the minority party. Burgundy regained power, but the of CHARLES VI, the constable was du Gue- remnants of the Armagnac faction, now led sclin’s able comrade, Olivier de CLISSON by the dauphin, fled to Bourges. (1380–92), and during much of the FRENCH

19 ARMIES, COMMAND OF

CIVIL WAR, when Charles was enfeebled by Their chief task was the supervision of troop madness, the constables were equally strong musters, preparing camps and reviewing figures, Charles d’ALBRET (1403–11, 1413–15) troops once in camp. Marshals also dealt and BERNARD, count of Armagnac (1415–18). with all civilian complaints against soldiers Under CHARLES VII, another nonmartial and commanded the army in the absence of king, the vigorous Arthur de Richemont (see the king and constable. They also enjoyed ARTHUR III) (1425–58) led the campaigns of numerous perquisites and were paid 2,000 reconquest and oversaw the vital military livres tournois per year. The holders of the reforms of the 1440s (see CHARLES VII, MILI- marshal’s office were less celebrated than the TARY REFORMS OF). According to the pres- great constables. Jean de Clermont was slain ident of the PARLEMENT, by the time the at POITIERS in 1356, John de Boucicaut was French retook PARIS in 1436, the constable captured at AGINCOURT in 1415, and Pierre de was ‘‘the principal and first office of France Rieux was captured in 1419. One of the most in honors and prerogatives, coming before famous French marshals of the war, Arnoul that of chancellor and all others’’ (Fowler, d’AUDREHEM, who was himself captured at 119). The office became so prestigious that NA´ JERA in 1367, had previously served in the dauphin, who was anxious to attract another high military office, the keeper of the more volunteers from SCOTLAND, rewarded , the war banner of French kings. John STEWART, the Scottish earl of Buchan, The keeper, who was appointed for life, with it after his victory at BAUGE´ in 1421. swore to die before surrendering the banner, In the absence of the king, the constable an oath that Geoffrey de Charny, JOHN II’s had power to make treaties and truces and keeper, fulfilled at Poitiers. Another im- to grant pardons; by the late fourteenth portant French military officer was the mas- century, he was a member of the royal con- ter of the crossbowmen, who commanded all seil prive´, where military policy and strategy infantry and ARTILLERY, although, in the fif- were devised. Clisson, for instance, was a teenth century, the latter came under the strong proponent of avoiding pitched battle, control of the master of the king’s artillery, a strategy employed with much success who, like Jean BUREAU, was more adminis- under Charles V. The constable was also trator and technician than military man. entitled to lodging at court and to assist at In England, the offices of constable and coronations, where he carried the ‘‘Holy marshal were, unlike in France, hereditary Ampule’’ containing the oil of anointment, in great noble families, the former residing, and any crimes committed against him were up to 1372, with the Bohuns and the latter, considered crimes against the king’s maj- after 1385, mostly with the Mowbrays. Even esty. When the king was not in the field, the when not held by members of these families, constable had supreme command of the ar- the offices were exercised by great noblemen, mies, making all troop dispositions, tactical never by members of the lesser nobility as arrangements, and personnel decisions. He occurred in France, for instance, with du sent out all messengers and spies and also Guesclin. During the most active phases of decided all garrison assignments and troop the war, the English had energetic martial detachments. The Crown met all his wartime kings and princes—EDWARD III, HENRY V, costs, including replacement of horses for and EDWARD, THE BLACK PRINCE. Their dom- himself and his retinue and double pay of inance prevented English constables and 100 livres tournois per day during sieges and marshals from attaining the powers and battles. Save for gold and prisoner RANSOMS, prominence achieved by their French coun- he was also entitled to share all booty taken terparts. Under less martial kings, high during battle or from captured fortresses. military offices were held by relatives; THO- French marshals commanded the cavalry MAS OF WOODSTOCK, duke of Gloucester, was under the constable and also had responsi- constable for his nephew, RICHARD II, and bility for army discipline and administration. JOHN, DUKE OF BEDFORD, exercised the same

20 ARMIES, COMPOSITION OF office for his nephew, HENRY VI. Other im- England, Edward I’s campaigns in Wales and portant English military commands usually SCOTLAND, mountainous countries unsuited went to noblemen, such as HENRY OF GROS- to the use of cavalry, demonstrated the im- MONT, duke of Lancaster; WILLIAM DE BOHUN, portance of foot soldiers, while in France, the earl of Northampton; RICHARD BEAUCHAMP, destruction of French knights by massed earl of Warwick; THOMAS MONTAGU, earl of Flemish infantry at Courtrai in July 1302 de- Salisbury; and John TALBOT, earl of Shrews- monstrated how foot soldiers could defeat bury. However, command opportunities for mounted warriors. Nonetheless, the mounted talented men of lesser social rank appeared knight was far from obsolete, as the French, in AQUITAINE and BRITTANY, where virtually still relying primarily on cavalry, proved constant conflict, particularly during the with their crushing defeat of later Flemish BRETON CIVIL WAR, allowed such captains as rebels at Cassel in 1328. However, to subdue Sir John CHANDOS, Walter MAUNY, Sir Tho- the Welsh and defeat the Scots, the English mas DAGWORTH, Sir Hugh CALVELEY, and Sir needed to modify their battle tactics in ways Robert KNOLLES to have famous and lucrative that significantly altered the role and im- military careers. See also ARMIES,COMPOSITION portance of cavalry. EDWARD Ibeganrecruit- OF;ARMIES,RECRUITMENT OF;ARMIES,SIZE OF; ing armies composed mainly of infantry; the ARMIES,SUPPLYING OF;APPENDIX 6: CON- force he marched into North Wales in 1277 STABLES AND MARSHALS OF FRANCE AND EN- comprised over fifteen thousand foot sol- GLAND DURING THE HUNDRED YEARS WAR. diers, many of them bowmen, and less than Further Reading: Allmand, Christopher. The one thousand cavalry. Over time, the English Hundred Years War. Cambridge: Cambridge Uni- devised effective ways to integrate foot with versity Press, 1988; Fowler, Kenneth. The Age of horse, such as at Maes Moydog in 1295, when Plantagenet and Valois: The Struggle for Supremacy, William Beauchamp, earl of Warwick, de- 1328–1498. New York: G. P. Putnam’s Sons, 1967; feated the Welsh by employing the novel Prestwich, Michael. Armies and Warfare in the Middle tactic of interspersing crossbowmen with the Ages: The English Experience. New Haven, CT: Yale cavalry. By July 1333, when EDWARD III de- University Press, 1996. feated the Scots at HALIDON HILL, the English had learned to combine dismounted cavalry ARMIES, COMPOSITION OF with archers to create a defensive formation The armies of the HUNDRED YEARS WAR were that could withstand a cavalry charge. When composed of two types of troops, men who the French experienced the effectiveness of fought on horseback, the cavalry, and men such formations at MORLAIX,CRE´CY,and who fought on foot, the infantry. Although elsewhere, archers and infantrymen came to the war saw the former fight increasingly on comprise increasingly larger percentages of foot and many of the latter ride to the battle- both armies. Cavalry also began to fight more field, the social and military distinctions that frequently on foot; at POITIERS in 1356, JOHN II defined these two groups remained largely took the unprecedented step of ordering the unchanged throughout the conflict. Drawn French cavalry to dismount. Meanwhile, in- from the landed classes, the nobility and ar- fantrymen and archers found themselves in- migerous gentry, the cavalry was the elite creasingly on horseback—not to fight, but to wing of medieval armies. Drawn from provide mobility for rapid deployment in townsmen and peasants, both free and un- battle or to maximize destruction during free, the infantry lacked the social distinctions raids. The border raids of the Scottish wars of their mounted comrades, but it was the and the swift English CHEVAUCHE´ES of the infantry, particularly the English ARCHERS, Anglo-French war proved the worth of who became increasingly important, both in mounted bowmen and the light horsemen numbers and employment, during the war. known as hobelars. The mounted knight dominated medieval Fighting on horseback required wealth to warfare until the late thirteenth century. In acquire and maintain the necessary equi-

21 ARMIES, COMPOSITION OF page, and freedom from other employment JOHN OF GAUNT, duke of Lancaster, and to undertake the training. Knighthood also PHILIP THE BOLD, duke of Burgundy, also conferred honor and social distinction, and maintained large retinues. In combat, the CHIVALRY was its code of conduct. Weapons, cavalry was often organized into ‘‘battles’’; ARMOR, and, especially, warhorses were ex- Edward III divided his army into three bat- pensive and beyond the reach of anyone not tles at Cre´cy, as did John II at Poitiers. In the in possession of land or in the paid service of 1440s, the military reforms of CHARLES VII, someone in such possession. In previous drawing upon organizational innovations centuries, all who fought on horseback were developed by such ROUTIER captains as Sir called knights (milites), but, by the four- John HAWKWOOD, organized the French cav- teenth century, gradations of rank began to alry into lances, a grouping that included appear. Bannerets constituted a superior one cavalryman, one squire, two archers, military rank based not only on social status, and two pages. but also on personal reputation. The rank of Armed with bows, daggers, swords, axes, banneret was not hereditary, but its holders halberds, and similar weapons, and lightly commanded other knights, from whom they or totally unarmored, infantrymen were re- were distinguished by their use of rectan- cruited from the towns and rural peasantry. gular banners, rather than simple pennants. In England, the king sent commissions of According to Jean FROISSART,EDWARD, THE array, composed usually of nobles or BLACK PRINCE, elevated Sir John CHANDOS to knights of local influence, into certain the rank of banneret by cutting off the end of counties or districts to raise a certain num- his pennant to form a banner. Below ban- ber of men for royal service. In many cases, nerets were knights. In France, knighthood the selection of men was made by local of- was hereditary, but it was not necessarily so ficials. Occasionally, townsmen or villagers in England. The term ‘‘knight’’ could en- pooled their resources to hire people to compass a wide range of men, from sub- serve on their behalf. The system had great stantial landholders to landless men retained potential for corruption and the troops as mounted warriors by the king or noble- raised were often of poor quality. Pay was men. In many cases, the term was simply meager, meant only to provide subsistence. applied to anyone who had the training and In English armies, an ordinary foot soldier equipage of a mounted soldier, and by received 3d per day, although a mounted the fourteenth century the main qualifica- archer got twice that amount. The real in- tion for knighthood appears to have been ducements were the opportunities the war the financial ability to bear the cost of arm- provided for quick wealth through plunder ing oneself as a knight. Below the level of and RANSOMS. In some cases, men fought for knight were various ill-defined ranks often the promise of a royal pardon for past crimes. encompassed in the generic term ‘‘men-at- Lacking the coats of arms of the cavalry, the arms,’’ but also broken down into such infantry saw the first appearance of uniforms categories as sergeants, valets, and squires, to help men identify friend from foe in battle. the last two being virtually synonymous French towns often dressed the men they and usually designating men in training for sent in identical attire, while the Welsh knighthood. bowmen who accompanied the Black Prince Medieval cavalry was organized around a on the CHEVAUCHE´ E OF 1355 all wore green and series of retinues attached to the king and white parti-colored hats and tunics. The war great nobles. The knights, sergeants, and probably raised the social status of most in- squires of the royal household often formed fantrymen, since the poorest and least ca- the core of the army. At the start of the war, pable of a village or town could not serve as Edward III had seventeen bannerets, forty- archers or hobelars; most such men were four knights, and almost ninety squires in likely free townsmen and peasants. How- his paid service. Such powerful lords as ever, stories of men rising through the ranks,

22 ARMIES, RECRUITMENT OF such as that of Sir Robert KNOLLES,who quota of ARCHERS, infantry, and even cav- supposedly went from being an archer in alry, whom they were to muster into royal BRITTANY to command of a campaign, are service and lead to predetermined mobili- rare. See also ARMIES,COMMAND OF;ARMIES, zation points. The men thus raised were RECRUITMENT OF;ARMIES,SIZE OF;ARMIES, given INDENTURES, which were written con- SUPPLYING OF;CHARLES VII, MILITARY REFORMS tracts spelling out rates of pay, terms of OF;INDENTURES;STRATEGY AND TACTICS; service, ransom arrangements, and such TOWNS AND THE HUNDRED YEARS WAR. details as the provision of horses and Further Reading: Allmand, Christopher. The transport. By the 1380s, the use of indentures Hundred Years War. Cambridge: Cambridge Uni- had largely replaced the feudal levy as the versity Press, 1988; DeVries, Kelly. Infantry War- chief means of raising royal armies in En- fare in the Early Fourteenth Century: Discipline, gland. Although English war aims changed Tactics, and Technology. Rochester, NY: Boydell significantly in the fifteenth century, when Press, 1996; Prestwich, Michael. Armies and War- HENRY V abandoned the CHEVAUCHE´ E in favor fare in the Middle Ages: The English Experience. New of the conquest and defense of territory, the Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1996. English system of recruitment by indenture changed little. ARMIES, RECRUITMENT OF In France, where men were being called In both France and England, the HUNDRED upon to fight in defense of their homes and YEARS WAR, which required kings to field country, feudal traditions lasted longer. The larger forces for longer periods of time, ARRIE` RE-BAN, by which the king could sum- witnessed a significant change in the way mon able-bodied men between the ages of royal governments raised armies. The war eighteen and sixty to provide military ser- accelerated a preexisting trend—by the late vice in an emergency, was issued at least fourteenth century, most men fought for the seven times during the first two decades of Crown not because they had a feudal ob- the war. In most cases, the king accepted ligation to do so, but because the Crown money in lieu of service. Towns often agreed paid them to do so. In both countries, this to raise and pay for a troop of crossbowmen, move to a voluntary system of recruitment and the Church, forbidden from active par- also led to the development of a system of ticipation in war, often provided money, national TAXATION to pay for military forces. supplies, or horses. However, this system By the 1330s, the practice of paying men to proved inadequate, being too cumbersome, serve in the king’s army was already well inefficient, and slow to effectively address established in England. Although armies the frequent military emergencies caused by were raised by feudal summons for EDWARD English invasions. After the Battle of POI- III’s early campaigns in SCOTLAND, most of TIERS in 1356, the French Crown abandoned the troops sent to France went voluntarily, the arrie`re-ban. Under CHARLES V, French being persuaded by the promise of steady recruitment practices were thoroughly re- pay or the possibility of profits derived from vised, creating a smaller army of volunteers RANSOM or plunder. Because the English raised by letters de retente, which, like En- king wanted men to travel abroad and fight glish indentures, spelled out details of pay an offensive war, he needed to convince and service. Conducted by royal officials, them that it was in their interest to do so. the centralized military recruitment of the Royal recruiting agents acting through 1360s was better organized and more effi- county commissions of array were charged cient. The armies raised were truly royal with mustering a certain number of troops armies, paid by the king, commanded by from a certain region. Although all able- officers chosen by the king, and operating bodied subjects between the ages of sixteen under strategies and toward goals devised and sixty were liable for military service, by the king. Under Charles and his con- Edward’s commissioners were given a set stable, Betrand du GUESCLIN, French armies

23 ARMIES, SIZE OF avoided pitched battle and concentrated on trian rivals. On several occasions, especially the reconquest of AQUITAINE. earlier in the war, French kings commanded After Charles’s death in 1380, French re- armies numbering 20,000, which was usually cruitment practices reverted to a feudal about as large a force as could be effectively basis, as powerful APPANAGE princes, such as raised and supplied. In most cases, these PHILIP THE BOLD, duke of BURGUNDY, domi- large armies were commanded by the king nated the royal government, using it to serve himself or by the heir to the throne. For in- their own interests. After 1410, as the stance, during the THIE´ RACHE CAMPAIGN in FRENCH CIVIL WAR intensified, the arrie`re-ban 1340, PHILIP VI shadowed EDWARD III with an reappeared, and French armies, such as the army of about 20,000, while John, duke of one Henry V defeated at AGINCOURT in 1415, Normandy, the future JOHN II, led a force of became aggregations of magnate retinues about the same size at the siege of AIGUILLON lacking a clear organization or unified com- in GASCONY in 1346. Philip commanded an mand. However, in the 1440s, CHARLES VII even larger army—some English chroniclers prepared for a final push against the English say 100,000—at CRE´ CY in 1346 and he also by reinstituting many of his grandfather’s gathered about 20,000 for his abortive at- reforms, thereby creating a permanent na- tempt to break the siege of CALAIS in 1347. tional army paid for by the king and led by John II had about 11,000 men at POITIERS in officers of his choosing (see CHARLES VII, 1356. The largest English armies of the war MILITARY REFORMS OF). Thus, by the end of were also usually commanded by the king or the war in 1453, the recruitment of armies by the prince of Wales. Edward III, in what was feudal summons had largely disappeared probably the war’s largest concentration of from both kingdoms. See also ARMIES,COM- English troops, eventually gathered more MAND, OF;ARMIES;COMPOSITION OF;ARMIES, than 20,000 men to besiege Calais—over SIZE OF;ARMIES,SUPPLYING OF. 30,000 if one includes the king’s allies from Further Reading: Allmand, Christopher. The FLANDERS. Edward had an army of about Hundred Years War. Cambridge: Cambridge Uni- 10,000 men during the Thie´rache Campaign, versity Press, 1988; Contamine, Philippe. War in although more than half of these were sup- the Middle Ages. Trans. Michael Jones. Oxford: plied by members of the king’s ANTI-FRENCH Basil Blackwell, 1984; Prestwich, Michael. Armies COALITION. Edward also commanded about and Warfare in the Middle Ages: The English Ex- 10,000 at Cre´cy and over 12,000 during the perience. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, RHEIMS CAMPAIGN in 1359–60, when he tried 1996. unsuccessfully to take Rheims and have himself crowned king of France. EDWARD, ARMIES, SIZE OF THE BLACK PRINCE, commanded about 6,000 Realistic calculation of the size of HUNDRED men at Poitiers, although chronicle estimates YEARS WAR armies is difficult, since official vary from about 3,000 to 12,000, and he had records are sparse and chronicle estimates over 10,000 at NA´ JERA in 1367, when many of notoriously untrustworthy. Yet, since most his men were Gascon ROUTIERS. The one large men were in receipt of the king’s wages, army of the war not personally commanded having been recruited by INDENTURES or by the king was the French force of 20,000 other types of contracts, surviving pay re- that fought at AGINCOURT in 1415, the mad cords, particularly in England, allow some CHARLES VI being incapable of military plausible estimates of army size to be made command. for most major battles and campaigns. The many fourteenth-century English Being able, at least in the fourteenth cen- CHEVAUCHE´ ES, campaigns of swift movement tury, to recruit from a larger geographic area intended to devastate countryside rather with a larger population, the VALOIS kings of than fight battles, used smaller armies to France were usually able to field larger ar- increase mobility. The force of over 10,000 mies than their PLANTAGENET and Lancas- with which JOHN OF GAUNT, duke of

24 ARMIES, SUPPLYING OF

Lancaster, swept around PARIS during the V’s abandonment of the chevauche´e for cam- CHEVAUCHE´ E OF 1373 was entirely excep- paigns of siege and conquest meant that tional, and even the 6,000 men who accom- many men were on garrison duty while panied the Black Prince on the CHEVAUCHE´ E others formed smaller forces besieging var- OF 1355 constituted a large force for such a ious castles and strongpoints (see SIEGE campaign. Because the BRETON CIVIL WAR WARFARE). The 9,000 men Henry took to was largely a sideshow after the 1340s, most France in 1415 comprised one of the largest of the armies there were smaller. For in- English expeditions of the century, although stance, at LA ROCHE-DERRIEN in 1347, the he had only about 6,000 with him at Agin- army of CHARLES OF BLOIS, the French- court. JOHN, DUKE OF BEDFORD, had almost backed duke, numbered about 3,000, while 10,000 men, gathered from numerous garri- the English force under Sir Thomas DAG- sons, at Verneuil, but that was one of the WORTH, numbered scarcely 1,000. At AURAY, largest encounters of the century; most in 1364, Blois again had about 3,000 men, English armies of the period were well while his opponent, the future JOHN IV, under that number. THOMAS, DUKE OF CLAR- commanded about 2,000. ENCE, led only about 1,500 men at Bauge´, The military reforms of two nonmartial while the English armies at Cravant, Patay, kings—CHARLES V in the and CHARLES FORMIGNY, and Castillon were all between VII in the 1440s—promoted creation of about 3,000 and 5,000 men. Thomas MON- smaller but more professional French armies TAGU, earl of Salisbury, besieged Orle´ans in paid by the king and led by his hand-picked 1428 with 5,000 men, which was a sizable officers. Thus, French armies at most of English force for the time. See also ARMIES, the major encounters of the fifteenth cen- COMMAND OF;ARMIES,RECRUITMENT OF;AR- tury, when French kings almost never took MIES,SUPPLYING OF;CHARLES VII, MILITARY the field themselves, were smaller than REFORMS OF;LANCASTER,HOUSE OF. fourteenth-century forces. For instance, at Further Reading: Allmand, Christopher. The BAUGE´ in 1421, the French force numbered Hundred Years War. Cambridge: Cambridge Uni- about 5,000; at CRAVANT in 1423, about 8,000; versity Press, 1988; Prestwich, Michael. Armies and and at CASTILLON in 1453, about 9,000. Warfare in the Middle Ages: The English Experience. The huge French force at Agincourt was due New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1996. mainly to the collapse of Charles V’s reforms during the FRENCH CIVIL WAR, which meant ARMIES, SUPPLYING OF that the Agincourt army was drawn largely Few factors had a greater impact on the from the retinues of great ARMAGNAC lords. length, course, and outcome of a military During the early 1420s, the French relied campaign during the HUNDRED YEARS WAR heavily on troops from SCOTLAND,who than a ruler’s ability to feed and supply his comprised a great part of the unusually armies. Operating in a preindustrial age, late large 15,000-man French force at VERNEUIL medieval governments faced no more diffi- in 1424. Even JOAN OF ARC, whose activity cult problem than that of maintaining an in 1429 greatly enhanced dauphinist re- army in the field. cruitment, brought only about 4,000 to OR- To be effective, all military forces, whether LE´ ANS and had no more than 8,000 with her field armies, castle or town garrisons, or on the LOIRE CAMPAIGN and at the Battle of ships’ crews had to be regularly fed and PATAY. supplied. In 1359–60, EDWARD III’s RHEIMS English armies had always been smaller, CAMPAIGN achieved less than intended in so fifteenth-century English forces did not part because it was difficult to keep such a shrink as much in comparison to their large force fed during a harsh winter. In fourteenth-century counterparts, although 1416, the series of encounters known as the the large armies of the Calais siege or the Battle of VALMONT occurred primarily be- Rheims Campaign did not reappear. HENRY cause Thomas BEAUFORT, earl of Dorset,

25 ARMIES, SUPPLYING OF desperately needed to collect supplies for the town and garrison of CALAIS had also to his starving garrison at HARFLEUR. In 1421– be supplied from England. During the siege 22, during the siege of MEAUX,HENRY V was of ROUEN in 1418–19, Henry V also had obliged to send away his horses for lack of supplies ferried across the Channel, thus forage and to organize convoys to maintain necessitating his creation of a (see the flow of supplies from PARIS. Because NAVAL WARFARE). most men, at least after the mid-fourteenth In France, the prise constituted the usual century, fought for wages (see ARMIES,RE- system of raising provisions from both in- CRUITMENT OF;INDENTURES), the Crown was dividuals and such corporate entities as under no obligation to also provide food. towns and monasteries. A royal household However, leaving soldiers to provision officer known as the panetier du roi oversaw themselves while on campaign was to invite the collection of supplies, often delegating disaster, for discipline could collapse as men his authority to local officials and command- spent more time acquiring food than making ers, who sent out agents to gather the re- war. Foraging troops were also not usually quired provisions in the required quantities. particular about how or where they ob- Under PHILIP VI, the collection officers were tained supplies and the hostility they bred divided into three groups: those gathering among local populations could hamper cereal products, those collecting wine, and military operations. During the BRETON CIVIL those obtaining fodder for horses. Because WAR, English soldiers in BRITTANY were so many people obtained exemption from the hated for levying PAˆ TIS on the regions they prise, and many others were or believed controlled that furious peasants used sticks themselves abused by prise officers, the sys- and stones to attack the garrison of LA tem generated many disputes that even- ROCHE-DERRIEN when it was besieged in tually ended in the courts. In England, 1347. During the NORMAN CAMPAIGN OF 1417– where the system of supply collection was 19, Henry V was so concerned with the ill known as purveyance, the gathering of food effects of uncontrolled foraging on both the for royal armies generated even more fric- local people and food supplies that he or- tion, largely because, as one commentator dered full and immediate payment for all put it, the king’s purveyors ‘‘were sent to act food obtained by his men in NORMANDY. in this world as the devil acts in Hell’’ Problems of supply differed for the two (Allmand, 98). Having already paid taxes Crowns. The French had a certain advantage voted by PARLIAMENT for support of the war, in that they were fighting in their own many people resented the additional ob- country and were more likely to obtain co- ligation of providing cheap food for the operation and less likely to meet resistance army. Purveyance allowed the sheriff to com- in the collection of provisions. They could pel people or institutions like monasteries to more easily anticipate the needs of their ar- accept deferred payment at below-market mies by sending agents in advance into rates for their contributions to a general areas of operation to collect and distribute supply requisition. food, and they had greater opportunity to The provision of nonfood items, such as organize local merchants in the collection weapons, clothing, and horses was also to and stockpiling of food. Thus, the French some degree borne by the Crown. A knight usually had less necessity to live off the land was expected to provide himself with arms, and less need to bring vital supplies over ARMOR, and a horse, although he might ex- long distances. Being the invaders, the pect the Crown to reimburse him if the an- English received less cooperation from local imal was killed or injured in combat. For this populations and often had to bring supplies purpose, all horses were appraised by the from far away. Edward III arranged supply king’s experts before the campaign began. from England to maintain his siege of Calais English soldiers raised by commissions of in 1347 (see CALAIS,SIEGE OF), and thereafter array were to be armed at the expense of

26 ARMOR AND NONMISSILE WEAPONRY their locality, which provided bows, arrows, ment of various types of nonmissile weap- and other smaller weapons and supplies, ons for use in hand-to-hand combat. including, according to a royal order of 1417, In the mid-fourteenth century, most Eng- six wing feathers from every goose in the lish men-at-arms still wore chainmail, which district. Nonetheless, the need for weaponry was made of interlinked metal rings. The was enormous, forcing both Crowns to typical English man-at-arms had a mail provide some of what was needed. In En- shirt, running from neck to knees, that cov- gland, the keeper of the king’s arms worked ered a thick padded tunic and was laced to a from the Tower of London, purchasing, conical, open-faced helmet, although visors storing, and delivering weapons to armies, were becoming more common. His chest garrisons, and ships. The demands of a long was protected by steel breastplates, his arms war are illustrated by the following figures by steel plates with articulated elbow pieces, from the Tower armory: in 1360, the keeper and his feet by metal footguards worn reported having on hand over 23,000 over mail stockings. Covering all this, he sheaves of arrows (24 arrows to a sheaf), but wore a short linen surcoat. Most French by 1381, a decade after resumption of the knights of the period wore less old- war, that number had dropped to less than fashioned protection—plate armor for shoul- 1,000 sheaves. Finally, Hundred Years War ders and limbs topped by a bascinet, a metal armies did not have uniforms in the modern helmet with projecting hinged visors and air sense, and, for the most part, soldiers were holes. Instead of the surcoat, they wore a expected to provide their own clothing, shorter leather jupon, and their warhorses making no doubt for a great variety of attire. were also armored, with plate covering their However, some effort was made, particu- heads and mail or leather their flanks. In larly by local communities, to standardize both armies, the basic weapon was a long what solders wore. For instance, the town of straight sword, worn usually on the left side Tournai outfitted the men it sent to the and balanced on the right by a short dagger French royal army in 1340 in identical uni- called a misericord, because it was often used forms, while archers sent to the English to grant the ‘‘mercy’’ of death to the mortally army from Wales and Cheshire after 1350 wounded. On horseback, the principal usually appeared in green and white. See weapon was a 10-foot-long wooden lance also ARMIES,COMMAND OF;ARMIES,COMPOSI- carried with a small wedge-shaped shield TION OF;ARMIES, SIZE OF. and sometimes a short, steel-handled bat- Further Reading: Allmand, Christopher. The tleaxe. On foot, especially among the En- Hundred Years War. Cambridge: Cambridge Uni- glish, the primary weapon was a halberd, versity Press, 1988; Prestwich, Michael. Armies and which carried a spiked axe head and had Warfare in the Middle Ages: The English Experience. to be swung at an opponent to be most ef- New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1996. fective. By the fifteenth century, the making of ARMOR AND NONMISSILE plate armor had become a fine art, and new WEAPONRY methods of forging iron allowed for the During the HUNDRED YEARS WAR, the in- production of lighter, stronger, more flexible creasing use of the longbow, of mounted suits of armor that could better protect a ARCHERS, and of dismounted cavalry led to larger portion of the body and allowed for new developments in metal armor, the de- greater mobility and endurance. Although a fensive body covering for men and horses complete set of armor was expensive, and designed to deflect blows from heavy might only be available to wealthy nobles weapons in close combat and to ward off and knights, most men went into combat at arrows, crossbow quarrels, or other pro- least partially armored, even if with older, jectiles shot from a distance. These trends lower-quality pieces. The finest armor had also fostered the development and employ- curved and fluted design elements, which

27 ARMOR AND NONMISSILE WEAPONRY gave it strength and allowed it to deflect plates for the head, neck, chest, rump, and blows more easily. Totally encased in metal, flank, and might even include armor-plated a knight in full armor had greater confidence reins to prevent an enemy from cutting them in battle, and, by the mid-fifteenth century, and depriving the rider of control. None- many discarded the shields and opted in- theless, the weight and expense of horse stead to wield heavier two-handed weapons armor limited its use to the wealthiest designed to crush the new fluted armor. combatants, who, by the fifteenth century, More lightly armored men-at-arms con- generally used their mounts only to ride to tinued to carry a small, round shield known or escape from the battlefield. as a buckler, which could be easily slung For close-quarter combat, the fifteenth- from a belt or strap worn around the waist. century knight usually carried a sword that Full armor was worn over a heavy pad- could be used for both cutting and thrusting. ded doublet that was slit for ventilation. Such weapons varied greatly in length and Gussets (i.e., metal or mail inserts) were width, from a broad, single-handed sword sewn to the doublet to protect vulnerable that was about two and a half feet in length areas such as the arms, elbows, and armpits, to a narrower, two-handed version that was where metal joints would have been too re- almost three and a half feet long. Swords strictive of movement. Wax cords (arming meant solely for thrusting tended to have points) were attached to the doublet to allow longer, narrower blades and longer hilts. the plate armor to be secured to the body. When not in use, a sword fit into a scabbard Other undergarments included heavy, pad- that hung from a hip belt in such a way as to ded hose and leather shoes. The main body position the point a little to the rear where it armor comprised upper and lower breast- could not trip its owner. From the other hip plates, which were hinged vertically on one many men hung a rondel dagger, which was side, and backplates, a metal skirt, and tas- used to exploit gaps in an opponent’s armor sets, which hung from straps on the skirt or to pry open the visor of a downed enemy, and protected the lower body. The feet were who was then dispatched by a thrust to the encased in plate shoes called sabatons, eye or throat. The rondel was characterized which were attached to lower leg coverings by a disk- or conical-shaped guard between called greaves. The greaves and the upper hilt and blade and a similarly shaped pom- leg coverings, known as cuisses, had two mel at the other end of the hilt. Because it halves that hinged on the side and were was used for stabbing, the rondel had a secured by buckles and straps. A special straight, slender blade that was triangular in knee piece, attached by rivets or pins, pro- shape and up to fifteen inches in length to tected the gap between greaves and cuisses. allow for maximum penetration of an en- Arms were protected by two similar cover- emy’s body. ings, the vambraces (lower arm) and re- Because the stronger, fluted armor used in rebraces (upper arm), with special pieces the fifteenth century could deflect sword called cowters and pauldrons attached by and spear thrusts, many knights began car- straps to protect, respectively, the elbows rying new types of heavy weapons, often and shoulders. Gauntlets fitted over the with hooks or spikes, which were designed vambrace protected the hands and wrists. to crush or puncture plate armor. Perhaps The sallet, a visored metal helmet worn over the most deadly of these weapons was the a padded arming cap, protected the head, pollaxe, which consisted of a wooden shaft, while the bevor, a triangular metal plate four to six feet long, topped by a long spike worn below the sallet, protected the neck. that was flanked on one side by an axe head Fourteenth-century battles like Cre´cy and on the other by a spiked hammer or showed how vulnerable unarmored or in- fluke (a curved, beaklike extension for adequately armored horses were to archers. hooking an opponent to the ground). The The heavier horse armor involved protective spike could puncture plate or damage

28 ARRAS, CONGRESS OF armored joints and rob a man of mobility. spired by JOAN OF ARC in 1429–30, Charles The axe and hammer could crush both VII, who preferred negotiation to combat, armor and the flesh it covered. Against un- was financially unable to raise the armies armored opponents, a skillfully wielded required to carry the war into Anglo-Bur- pollaxe was devastating. gundian France. Although he personally de- While the pollaxe was used only for tested Charles, the man he held responsible combat on foot, such other battering weap- for the murder of his father, JOHN THE FEAR- ons as the battle-axe, the mace, and the war LESS, Philip had come to believe that he could hammer were carried primarily by horse- more easily dominate a French government men, who swung their weapon with one headed by the weak and indolent Charles hand and held their reins with the other. than one controlled by the forceful English Weighing from two to five pounds, the war regent, JOHN, DUKE OF BEDFORD. When death hammer was serrated and usually carried a removed the mediation of ANNE OF BUR- fluke opposite the hammer head. Of a sim- GUNDY, Philip’s sister and Bedford’s wife, in ilar weight, the mace had a head composed November 1432, relations between the two of six interlocking serrated edges or some men deteriorated. Also, with the French similarly formidable configuration of spikes blockading PARIS, the growing hardship of and points. Like the pollaxe, these weapons life in the capital was turning many citizens were used to deliver crushing blows to ar- against the English and threatening to erode mored opponents. Burgundy’s great popularity within the city. Further Reading: DeVries, Kelly. Medieval With the pope also advocating peace, pri- Military Technology. Peterborough, Ontario: Broad- marily as a means of strengthening his au- view Press, 1992; Prestwich, Michael. Armies and thority within the antipapal Council of Basle, Warfare in the Middle Ages: The English Experience. the desire for some agreement was strong New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1996. among all parties except the English. Although Franco-Burgundian talks re- ARRAS, CONGRESS OF (1435) garding a reconciliation began in 1432, an Held in the Burgundian town of Arras in agreement that resulted in the calling of an August and September 1435, the Congress of all-party congress was not achieved until Arras was the largest, most comprehensive early 1435. Philip’s desire to avoid the ap- diplomatic gathering of the HUNDRED YEARS pearance of betraying his ally was satisfied WAR. Mediated by cardinals appointed by by his chancellor, Nicholas Rolin, who de- the pope, the Congress brought together clared that HENRY VI had no valid claim to delegations from England, France, BUR- the French Crown since the Treaty of Troyes GUNDY, and other interested parties, such as passed the Crown only to HENRY V, who had various towns, princes, and the University died before actually inheriting it and so of Paris. The first Anglo-French negotiation could not pass it on to his son. That the since the talks that resulted in the Treaty of Troyes agreement also disinherited Charles TROYES in 1420, the Congress made no peace VII was conveniently ignored. Under Rolin’s between the two Crowns, but, as intended interpretation, Philip could abandon the by its host, PHILIP THE GOOD, duke of Bur- English alliance while remaining technically gundy, replaced the fifteen-year-old Anglo- faithful to the treaty that created it. Burgundian alliance with the Treaty of When the Congress opened in August, the Arras, a reconciliation between Philip and French delegation, led by Arthur de Riche- CHARLES VII that changed the nature of the mont (see ARTHUR III) the brother of JOHN V war and led eventually to the English ex- of BRITTANY, and Regnault of Chartres, arch- pulsion from France. bishop of Rheims, demanded that Henry VI By 1431, interest in a negotiated settlement renounce his claim to the French Crown as a was growing at both the French and Bur- preliminary to any further talks. The English gundian courts. Despite the victories in- delegation, led by Henry BEAUFORT, cardinal

29 ARRAS, PEACE OF of Winchester, refused to even discuss ARRAS, PEACE OF. See FRENCH CIVIL WAR Henry’s claim and proposed instead that Charles could retain those parts of the ARRAS, TREATY OF. See ARRAS,CONGRESS kingdom under his control if he paid hom- OF age for them to Henry as his king. The French found this offer as ridiculous as the ARRIE` RE-BAN English found the renunciation demand. The arrie`re-ban was a military summons With no compromise possible, the English employed by the French Crown to call into left the Congress on 1 September. service all men able to bear arms. The term With the English gone, the French and derived from the Latin retrobannum, and Burgundians quickly came to terms, con- meant literally the summoning of the king’s cluding the Treaty of Arras on 20 September. back-vassals, who owed military service to In the agreement, Charles confirmed almost an intermediate lord rather than directly to all the territorial concessions made to Philip the monarch. As employed during the by the English, including the Somme towns, HUNDRED YEARS WAR, the arrie`re-ban was a which constituted a line of fortresses that device for impressing upon the people the protected Burgundian Artois and threatened seriousness of the military situation and Paris. A special clause exempted Philip from thereby facilitating the mustering of men making homage for his lifetime to Charles and the payment of money in lieu of service. for all the duke’s French fiefs. Finally, Philip Although the arrie`re-ban was employed exacted a measure of revenge for his father’s since at least the twelfth century to summon death. Charles was forced to deny any per- the king’s feudal vassals, its scope was ex- sonal involvement in the murder, to agree to panded following the defeat of a French punish the guilty parties (who were named), army by Flemish rebels at Courtrai in 1302. to erect an expiatory monument, and to pay Thereafter, PHILIP IV and his successors for Masses for the late duke’s soul. Charles claimed the right to summon all men of also sent a councilor, who, on the king’s military age and capacity. However, beyond behalf, made humble apology on his knees the cavalry supplied by the nobility and the before Philip. contingents of ARCHERS and infantrymen Although humiliating for Charles, the supplied by the towns, the king neither ex- treaty, combined with the death of Bedford pected nor wanted a mustering of all those on 14 September, brought the king great fit to bear arms. Thus, one of the main rewards. The treaty immediately returned components of the arrie`re-ban was the ex- Burgundian France to its VALOIS allegiance pectation that many of those called would and, through its implied renunciation of the not actually serve, but would instead pur- ARMAGNAC party, finally transformed chase an exemption. Like the ORIFLAMME, the Charles from faction leader to king of all arrie`re-ban was employed in times of na- France. In April 1436, French forces retook tional emergency and served to convey the Paris and revolts erupted in English NOR- urgent need for men or money. MANDY. Although it took almost another The arrie`re-ban was used most frequently twenty years to expel the English entirely, during the early decades of the Hundred the Treaty of Arras initiated the process by Years War. PHILIP VI proclaimed it throughout undercutting English authority in the occu- the kingdom on 30 April 1337 prior to im- pied territories and depriving Lancastrian plementing his decision to confiscate EDWARD France of vital Burgundian support. III’s duchy of AQUITAINE, the act that initiated Further Reading: Dickinson, Jocelyne G. The the Anglo-French war. The arrie`re-ban of 1339, Congress of Arras: A Study in Medieval Diplomacy. called to meet a threatened English invasion, Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1955; Griffiths, Ralph raised large sums of money, which Philip A. The Reign of Henry VI. Berkeley: University of agreed to place with representatives of the California Press, 1981. local communities for disbursal upon con-

30 ARTEVELDE, JAMES VAN

firmation that the king or his eldest son had willingness to recognize EDWARD III’s right to actually taken the field. The arrie`re-ban of 4 July the French Crown, played a key role in the 1340, which was proclaimed in northern first campaigns of the HUNDRED YEARS WAR. France to meet the Anglo-Flemish campaigns Little is known of van Artevelde before of that year, resulted in the mustering of an his appointment on 3 January 1338 as one of army of over twenty thousand at Arras (see five captains in the emergency government SAINT-OMER,BATTLE OF). of Ghent, the revolutionary regime estab- In 1341, the arrie`re-ban was issued twice— lished in the city at the start of the uprising in June to prosecute the war in GASCONY, against the pro-French count, LOUIS DE where the Truce of ESPLECHIN had never NEVERS. A prosperous broker and trader in taken hold; and in August for the whole foodstuffs, van Artevelde had held no other kingdom to respond to English intervention office prior to his election as captain. Com- in BRITTANY. Multiple proclamations were bining a fierce determination and an auto- also made in 1345—to meet English threats cratic temperament with a flair for politics in both the north and —and in and PROPAGANDA, van Artevelde quickly 1346—to support the operations of John, brought Bruges, Ypres, and the smaller duke of Normandy (see JOHN II), in the Flemish towns into a union governed from southwest, and to gather the northern army Ghent by a commission under his presi- that fought at CRE´CY. dency. Convinced that the future of Flanders Use of the arrie`re-ban declined after 1356 depended on the friendship of England, and particularly during the reign of CHARLES from which came the wool required to fuel V, when institution of the hearth tax (fouage) the Flemish cloth industry, but fearful of the provided a larger and more assured source wrath of PHILIP VI, to whose court Louis de of revenue. Charles’s policy of refusing to Nevers fled in 1339, van Artevelde offered meet the English in battle also reduced the Edward III a benevolent neutrality, which government’s need to summon large masses was sufficient to obtain partial restoration of of common people to arms. Henceforth, the the Anglo-Flemish wool trade in July 1338. Crown sought to maintain smaller more Following the inconclusive ending of the professional armies. Although use of the THIE´ RACHE CAMPAIGN, a large French army arrie`re-ban revived in the decade after 1410 remained massed upon the Flemish border. during the FRENCH CIVIL WAR, the summons Under threat of this army and the probable was considered archaic and ineffective by imposition on Flanders of a papal interdict the 1440s, when, under the military reforms (officially declared in April 1340), van Ar- of CHARLES VII, the term reacquired its orig- tevelde at last gave way to English pressure inal meaning as a formal summoning of and, after much hard bargaining, concluded the king’s feudal tenants-in-chief. See also a formal alliance with Edward. Signed on 3 CHARLES VII, MILITARY REFORMS OF. December 1339, the Anglo-Flemish compact Further Reading: Contamine, Philippe. War in gave Flanders free access to English wool, a the Middle Ages. Trans. Michael Jones. Oxford: subsidy of 140,000 livres to purchase mili- Basil Blackwell, 1984; Henneman, John Bell. Royal tary equipment, and the promise of English Taxation in Fourteenth-Century France: The Devel- assistance in repelling any attack by Philip. opment of War Financing, 1322–1356. Princeton, NJ: In return, the Flemings recognized Edward Princeton University Press, 1971. as king of France and promised men for his campaigns. In 1340, van Artevelde, who had ARTEVELDE, JAMES VAN (c. 1290–1345) become a personal friend of the English James van Artevelde, a wealthy merchant of king, led the Flemish contingents that par- Ghent who became leader of a Flemish rev- ticipated in the inconclusive siege of TOUR- olution, was the effective ruler of FLANDERS NAI. He argued strongly against the Truce of from 1338 to 1345. An architect of the ANGLO- ESPLECHIN, which ended the campaign, be- FLEMISH ALLIANCE, van Artevelde, by his lieving that it left Flanders open to French

31 ARTEVELDE, PHILIP VAN attack, and he demanded and got assurances Little is known of van Artevelde before his from Philip that no exiled opponents of the appointment as confiscation commissioner of revolutionary regime would be allowed to Ghent in December 1381, more than two return to the province. years after Flanders rose in rebellion against However, the truce, which was extended Count LOUIS DE MALE. On 24 January 1382, in 1342, reduced fears of a French attack and van Artevelde, largely with the support of thereby reopened political and social divi- the weavers’ guild, won election as captain of sions within Flanders. The weavers’ guild, Ghent, which was then under a blockade which supported van Artevelde and domi- organized by the count with the cooperation nated the municipal governments, was soon of neighboring towns and provinces. De- at odds with the Flemish landowners and claring himself rewaert, or regent, of Flanders, with the other guilds, particularly the fullers. van Artevelde assumed the wider powers In 1344–45, van Artevelde lost popularity by exercised by his father in the 1340s, which he associating himself with the weavers’ sup- used initially to destroy the descendents of pression of demands by the fullers for a wage men who had been implicated in his father’s increase. Often portrayed as a democratic assassination in 1345. On 3 May, with Ghent reformer for his initial success in uniting rival near starvation, van Artevelde launched a classes and factions, van Artevelde became in successful surprise attack on Bruges. Within fact dictator of Ghent, maintaining himself in weeks, most of the Flemish towns recognized power through the violence and intimidation van Artevelde’s authority. Forced to flee of his large personal bodyguard. He survived Bruges by swimming the moat, the count a coup attempt in 1343, but in early 1345 his appealed for aid to his overlord CHARLES VI, opponents deprived him of his captaincy. whose minority government was dominated Believing him to be too ambitious and too by his uncle PHILIP THE BOLD, duke of BUR- willing to use Edward III’s friendship to GUNDY. As Louis’s son-in-law and thus the bolster his personal position, van Artevelde’s future ruler of Flanders, Burgundy swiftly enemies in Ghent spread rumors that he secured royal intervention on the count’s planned to recognize Prince EDWARD (the behalf. future Black Prince) as count of Flanders. On On 9 June, after destroying most of the 17 July 1345, a Ghent mob murdered van fortifications of Bruges, van Artevelde laid Artevelde. Shortly thereafter, the new mu- siege to Oudenaarde, one of the few Flemish nicipal regime confiscated his property and towns still loyal to the count. The growing banished his family. See also ARTEVELDE, threat from France and the failure of the PHILIP VAN. Oudenaarde siege, which, according to Further Reading: Carson, Patricia. James van the chronicler Jean FROISSART, was due to the Artevelde: The Man from Ghent. Ghent: Story, 1980; regent’s military inexperience, led van Ar- Nicholas, David. The van Arteveldes of Ghent: The tevelde to pursue an alliance with the gov- Varieties of Vendetta and the Hero in History. Ithaca, ernment of RICHARD II. Talks continued over NY: Cornell University Press, 1988. the summer, but the Flemish demands, which included repayment of the 200,000 ARTEVELDE, PHILIP VAN (1340–1382) crowns van Artevelde claimed his father Philip van Artevelde, the youngest son of had loaned to EDWARD III and removal of the James van ARTEVELDE, was, like his father, wool staple from CALAIS to Bruges and then captain of Ghent and leader of a Flemish to a town of Ghent’s choosing, proved too uprising. Attempting, again like his father, to high for the English. Thanks to the PEA- overthrow the Dampierre counts of FLANDERS SANTS’REVOLT of the previous year, they and end VALOIS influence over the province, were hesitant to make common cause with van Artevelde sought an alliance with the men in rebellion against their lawful lord. English Crown, thus briefly reinvolving With Anglo-Flemish talks stalled, van Ar- Flanders in the HUNDRED YEARS WAR. tevelde entered into an equally fruitless

32 ARTHUR III, DUKE OF BRITTANY correspondence with Charles VI in October. the daughter of CHARLES THE BAD, king of On 3 November, the king left PARIS to join Navarre, had taken HENRY IV of England as Burgundy, who was gathering forces on the her second husband in 1403, and, in 1423, Flemish frontier. Formally led by the con- Richemont had himself married Margaret, stable, Olivier de CLISSON, but accompanied the sister of PHILIP THE GOOD, duke of BUR- by the king, Burgundy, and the other royal GUNDY; the sister-in-law of JOHN, DUKE OF uncle, JOHN, DUKE OF BERRY, a French army of BEDFORD; and the widow of Guienne. In June perhaps ten thousand entered Flanders in 1424, Bedford, perhaps distrusting Riche- mid-November and quickly forced the capit- mont’s loyalty, refused his request to be ulation of Ypres and other towns. Leading an given command of an Anglo-Breton force to army drawn from the militia of Ghent and defend PARIS from dauphinist raiders. The allied towns and implausibly estimated at resulting rift between the two stubborn, self- forty thousand men, van Artevelde moved to righteous men caused Richemont to aban- intercept the French before they reached don HENRY VI and offer his services to the Bruges. On 27 November 1382, van Arte- dauphin, who appointed him constable of velde was slain at the Battle of Roosebeke. France in March 1425. Further Reading: Nicholas, David. The van Now eager to harm the English, Riche- Arteveldes of Ghent: The Varieties of Vendetta and the mont persuaded his brother to abandon the Hero in History. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University tripartite alliance with Burgundy and Bed- Press, 1988. ford created by the Treaty of AMIENS. How- ever, his efforts at spurring the dauphin to military action were frustrated by the fac- ARTHUR DE RICHEMONT. See ARTHUR tionalism the riddled the dauphinist court. III, DUKE OF BRITTANY Influenced by the royal favorite, Georges de La Tre´moı¨lle, whom Richemont had helped ARTHUR III, DUKE OF BRITTANY bring to power, the dauphin banished the (1393–1458) constable from court in 1428. In June 1429, Constable of France and one of the leading the constable, acting on his own initiative, French commanders of the fifteenth century, joined the French army led by JOHN, DUKE OF Arthur III, duke of BRITTANY, reformed the ALENC¸ON, and JOAN OF ARC, and thus took French army in the 1440s and led the re- part in the LOIRE CAMPAIGN and the Battle of conquest of NORMANDY in 1449–50. PATAY. Although the disgraced constable The third son of JOHN IV, duke of Brittany, should not have been received, Joan, ignor- Arthur inherited his father’s English earl- ing the reluctance of her companions, wel- dom of Richmond in 1399 and was thus comed Richemont and his men. Despite this, known for most of his life by the French the constable, who should have carried the form of that title, comte de Richemont. A sword of state before the king, was excluded strong-willed and combative man, Riche- from the coronation of CHARLES VII in July mont became a close friend of CHARLES VI’s 1429. son, LOUIS, DUKE OF GUIENNE, and an ad- Finally returned to favor in June 1433, herent of the ARMAGNAC party during the Richemont urged the king to make peace FRENCH CIVIL WAR. He was captured at with Burgundy and was present at the AGINCOURT in 1415 and remained a prisoner Congress of ARRAS in 1435 when Charles did until 1420, when HENRY V released him in so. On 13 April 1436, the constable led a return for help in persuading his brother, French army into Paris, where he purged the JOHN V, duke of Brittany, to accept the royal administration of Anglo-Burgundian Treaty of TROYES. In the early 1420s, Riche- officials. In 1439–40, he helped suppress the mont supported the House of LANCASTER Praguerie, an uprising of disaffected French and the ANGLO-BURGUNDIAN ALLIANCE, hav- noblemen that included Alenc¸on and La ing personal ties to both. His mother, Joan, Tre´moı¨lle, and, by late 1441, he cleared the

33 ARTILLERY environs of Paris of English garrisons and siege of 1347. The effect of these weapons, e´corcheurs (see ROUTIERS). Following conclu- especially on the battlefield, was primarily sion of the Truce of TOURS in 1444, Riche- psychological; their noise and smoke fright- mont worked with the king to reform the ened men and horses and caused confusion French army, transforming it into a profes- among attackers. sional force that was well trained, paid, and The resumption of war in 1369 following led. During the NORMAN CAMPAIGN that collapse of the Treaty of BRE´ TIGNY coincided began in 1449, Richemont was instrumental with important breakthroughs in the pro- in achieving decisive victory at the Battle of duction and use of artillery. Prior to 1370, FORMIGNY in April 1450 and was present at most guns were made of copper or brass and the successful sieges of Caen and Cherbourg weighed between 20 and 40 pounds; how- that concluded the campaign in the follow- ever, during the last decades of the century, ing summer. On the unexpected death of increasingly larger guns of wrought and cast his nephew, Peter II, in September 1457, iron began to appear. In 1375, the French Arthur became duke of Brittany, but ruled besieged Saint-Sauveur-le-Vicomte in AQUI- only a short time, dying childless on 26 TAINE with guns that weighed over a ton and December 1458. See also CHARLES VII, MILI- were capable of firing 100-pound stone balls. TARY REFORMS OF. Although the English captain defending Further Reading: Jones, Michael. Between Cherbourg in 1379 had several guns capable France and England: Politics, Power and Society in of firing large stones, the English before 1400 Late Medieval Brittany. Burlington, VT: Ashgate had few weapons to match the size of the Publishing Company, 2003; Jones, Michael. The Saint-Sauveur cannon. The end of the cen- Creation of Brittany: A Late Medieval State. London: tury also saw the appearance of various Hambledon Press, 1988; Vale, M. G. A. Charles small mortars, different types of handguns, VII. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1974. and the ribaudequin, a large multibarreled weapon that could shoot stone balls and ARTILLERY lead pellets or quarrels. The evolution of modern artillery, large By the early fifteenth century, artillery of guns capable of firing heavy stones or metal varying sizes and increasing effectiveness pellets, was one of the most important de- were common in both armies. The largest velopments in military technology to occur guns, known as bombardes, could weigh during the HUNDRED YEARS WAR. over 5 tons and fire stone balls weighing up Artillery made its first appearance in to 300 pounds; bombardes were probably European warfare in the early fourteenth more common among the French than the century. Although cannon never supplanted English until the early 1420s. Veuglaires or the longbow or crossbow (see ARCHERS) dur- fowlers could be up to 8 feet long and ranged ing the course of the war, firearms eventually in weight from 300 pounds to several tons, altered SIEGE WARFARE by replacing the wood- while crapaudaux or crapaudins were 4 to 8 en siege engines used since antiquity to feet long and generally lighter than veu- assault towns and fortresses. The war also glaires. Many other types of much smaller saw the beginning of changes in NAVAL and lighter guns, such as serpentines and WARFARE that were not complete until the culverins, also came into common use in the sixteenth century, when ships became float- fifteenth century. ing artillery platforms. Small guns projecting Intending a war of siege and conquest, quarrels (like crossbow bolts) or lead pellets rather than one of CHEVAUCHE´ ES,HENRY V were used at the naval battle of SLUYS in June arrived in France in 1415 with a large artillery 1340 and at the French defense of TOURNAI in train that immediately proved its effective- the following August. EDWARD III employed ness at the siege of HARFLEUR. English artil- similar weapons at CRE´CY in 1346 and to lery was vital to the success of the NORMAN guard the approaches to CALAIS during the CAMPAIGN of 1417–19, and especially to the

34 AUBEROCHE, BATTLE OF campaign’s culminating triumph, the siege view Press, 1992; Smith, Robert D. ‘‘Artillery and of ROUEN. French cannon killed Thomas the Hundred Years War: Myth and Interpretation’’ MONTAGU, earl of Salisbury, at ORLE´ ANS in in Arms, Armies and Fortifications in the Hundred 1428 and were used effectively by JOAN OF Years War, ed. Anne Curry and Michael Hughes, ARC’s army during the LOIRE CAMPAIGN of 151–60. Woodbridge, England: Boydell Press, 1429. From the mid-1430s to the end of the 1994. war, CHARLES VII’s artillery was collected, maintained, and deployed by the king’s ARTOIS. See ROBERT OF ARTOIS capable master gunner, Jean BUREAU, whose handling of the artillery was key to the success of French sieges at Meaux in 1439, AUBEROCHE, BATTLE OF (1345) PONTOISE in 1441, and Caen and other On 21 October 1345, a numerically inferior strongholds in NORMANDY during the NOR- English force destroyed a French army be- MAN CAMPAIGN of 1449–50. Although they sieging the castle of Auberoche in GASCONY. had no one to match Bureau, the English had Besides yielding a host of important HOS- long collected artillery in the Tower of Lon- TAGES, the victory cemented recent English don, where succeeding members of the gains in Gascony and disrupted French Byker family had stored and maintained the military efforts in the southwest for the next king’s cannon since the time of Edward III. year. The last encounter of the war, the Battle of In mid-October 1345, an army of some CASTILLON in GASCONY in 1453, was the first seven thousand men commanded by Louis in which artillery played a significant role. of Poitiers, count of Valentinois, left La This success was due largely to the place- Re´ole to begin the process of clearing Gas- ment of the guns, which Bureau sited in an cony of English garrisons. Moving up the entrenched artillery park. The concentrated narrow valley of the Auveze`re, the French firepower of this formation decimated the invested the fortress of Auberoche, which attacking English army and slew its famous sat on a rocky height commanding the river. commander, John TALBOT, earl of Shrews- The castle garrison was commanded by Sir bury. Frank Halle, who managed to get word of As cannon came into common use in fif- his plight to Henry, earl of Derby, in Bor- teenth-century siege warfare, military ar- deaux (see HENRY OF GROSMONT). Ordering chitecture also evolved. Walls became Lawrence Hastings, earl of Pembroke, to thicker and lower and many were scarped to rendezvous with him somewhere en route, deflect cannonballs. Angular towers gave Derby set out for Auberoche with a force of way to round towers provided with loops twelve hundred to fourteen hundred men- for small cannon and handguns. Because at-arms and eight hundred ARCHERS. artillery could not be fired long within a On the evening of 20 October, the English tower, where smoke and the restrictive an- reached Auberoche without being detected gles of the loops were problems, the guns by the besieging army. That night and most were moved to the tops of towers, and gun of the next morning, Derby kept his men platforms were built into all existing castles hidden in a nearby wood to await the arrival and fortresses where such modifications of Pembroke. When the earl failed to appear, were possible. Gunports were particularly Derby decided to attack before his presence important for coastal fortifications, and was discovered and the advantage of sur- many appeared after 1380 at such fortresses prise lost. At a signal from Derby, the En- as Cherbourg, Brest, Calais, and Dover. glish cavalry charged from the wood into the Further Reading: Allmand, Christopher. The rear of the French camp while the archers Hundred Years War. Cambridge: Cambridge Uni- opened fire from a position directly in front versity Press, 1988; DeVries, Kelly. Medieval of the camp. Taken completely unawares, Military Technology. Peterborough, Ontario: Broad- the French suffered heavy casualties before

35 AUDLEY, SIR JAMES most of their men could struggle into their WINCHELSEA in 1350 and at the relief of the ARMOR. As the English cavalry drove deeper Anglo-Gascon garrison of St.-Jean-d’Ange´ly into the camp, the archers were forced to in 1351. He was with the prince in LONDON hold their fire until knots of French soldiers, in June 1351 and was rewarded with ARMOR attempting to rally on the edges of the camp, for his presence at a tournament with his again offered them clear targets. frequent companion, Sir John CHANDOS,in When Halle led a mounted sortie out of the December 1353. For his past service, he also castle, French resistance collapsed. As always received at about this time a generous pen- happened when one army was put to flight, sion of £80 per year. the pursuers inflicted heavy casualties and In 1355, Audley accompanied the prince seized large numbers of prisoners. Valentinois to AQUITAINE, and participated in the CHE- died of his wounds and his second in com- VAUCHE´ E OF 1355, during which Audley and mand, Bertrand de l’Isle, was taken hostage. Chandos conducted a separate raid against Other prisoners included seven viscounts, the lands of John, count of Armagnac, in the three barons, twelve bannerets, the seneschals region of . In early 1356, Audley of Toulouse and Clermont, numerous knights, and Chandos raided the Agenais, using the and the nephew of Pope CLEMENT VI. The fortress at Moissac as a base, and on 28 defeat convinced the French to immediately August, the two knights routed a French lift three other sieges of Anglo-Gascon garri- force near Vierzon. In September, Audley sons and to delay a planned campaign in the participated in negotiations conducted with region by John, duke of Normandy (see JOHN JOHN II on the eve of Poitiers, through which II). Although fought by relatively small num- the prince attempted to avoid battle. How- bers of men, the battle of Auberoche was one ever, when fighting began, Audley was in of the most important encounters of the war in the forefront, having supposedly vowed to Gascony, establishing English military dom- strike the first blow. Several accounts of the inance in the region for the next two decades. battle confirm that Audley was later found Further Reading: Burne, Alfred H. The Cre´cy on the field severely wounded and only re- War. Ware, England: Wordsworth Editions Ltd., vived when carried to the prince, who in- 1999; Sumption, Jonathan. The Hundred Years War. terrupted his supper with the captive French Vol. 1, Trial by Battle. Philadelphia: University of king to praise and comfort the injured Pennsylvania Press, 1991. knight. Audley was later rewarded for his service at Poitiers with a grant of £400 a year AUDLEY, SIR JAMES (d. 1369) for life and the lordship of Ole´ron. Celebrated in the Chronicles of Jean FROISSART In 1359–60, Audley and Chandos were as a hero of the Battle of POITIERS, Sir James members of the prince’s retinue during the Audley was a companion-in-arms of ED- RHEIMS CAMPAIGN, and Audley witnessed WARD, THE BLACK PRINCE, and a con- the signing of the Treaty of BRE´ TIGNY in 1360. temporary model of knightly CHIVALRY. After a brief visit to England, he accom- The son of Sir James Audley of Stratton panied the prince to Aquitaine in 1362. In Audley in Oxfordshire, Audley began his 1367, Audley remained in BORDEAUX as military career in 1346, when, as a knight in governor of Aquitaine when the prince in- the prince’s retinue, he witnessed EDWARD tervened in the CASTILIAN WAR OF SUCCESSION III conferring knighthood on the prince and led an army into Spain for the campaign upon landing in NORMANDY on 12 July. He that culminated at NA´ JERA. In 1369, Audley fought at CRE´CY on 26 August and then was the prince’s lieutenant in Poitou and the participated in the siege of CALAIS, which Limousin and besieged La Roche-sur-Yon concluded successfully in August 1347. At with Edward III’s son, EDMUND OF LANGLEY, about this same time, he became a founding earl of Cambridge. After the town fell, member of the Order of the GARTER.He Audley withdrew to Fontenay-le-Comte, probably also fought at the naval battle of where he died on 23 August. Much praised

36 AUDREHEM, ARNOUL D’, MARSHAL OF FRANCE by both friends and foes as a gallant and accorded with contemporary notions of chivalrous knight, he was buried with hon- CHIVALRY but that invariably came to naught. ors at Poitiers. In March 1356, Audrehem ruthlessly sup- Further Reading: Barber, Richard. Edward, pressed a tax revolt in Arras, and, in April, Prince of Wales and Aquitaine. New York: Charles he participated in the king’s surprise de- Scribner’s Sons, 1978; Harvey, John. The Black scent on ROUEN to arrest CHARLES THE BAD, Prince and His Age. London: Rowman and Little- king of Navarre. In September at POITIERS, field, 1976; Hewitt, Herbert J. The Black Prince’s Audrehem commanded one of the cavalry Expeditions of 1355–1357. Manchester: Manchester contingents charged with dispersing the University Press, 1958. English ARCHERS. Scoffing at attempts to persuade the king to avoid battle and wait for EDWARD, THE BLACK PRINCE, to be starved AUDREHEM, ARNOUL D’, out of his strong defensive position, Au- MARSHAL OF FRANCE (c. 1300–1370) drehem attacked prematurely and was cap- Arnoul d’Audrehem, marshal of France tured when his force was flanked by the under JOHN II and CHARLES V, was a loyal English. He spent the next four years in and experienced French commander who captivity, being unable to pay the sum de- led VALOIS armies against the English in manded by the prince, who had purchased BRITTANY and GASCONY, and against ROUTIERS the marshal’s RANSOM. Audrehem was re- in Languedoc and Provence. leased on parole in May 1359 to carry news Born near CALAIS in the Ardres region of of the conclusion of the Second Treaty of northern France, Audrehem, a prote´ge´ of LONDON to PARIS, but returned within weeks Constable Charles of Spain, was appointed with the Estates-General’s rejection of the marshal in September 1351. During the HUN- agreement (see ESTATES,GENERAL AND PRO- DRED YEARS WAR, the marshals—PHILIP VI had VINCIAL). appointed two—were second in command of Released with the king in late 1360, Au- the French army under the constable; they had drehem became royal lieutenant in Langue- responsibility for recruitment, inspection, and doc in 1362, and spent most of that year payment of troops, as well as for the main- fighting routiers. To remove the companies tenance of discipline. Prior to his appointment, from France, he negotiated the ultimately Audrehem commanded French garrisons in unsuccessful Treaty of Clermont with Henry AQUITAINE, being captain of Angouleˆme when of Trasta´mare, who agreed to lead routier he was captured by the English at the Battle of bands into Spain. In 1365, he accompanied SAINTES in April 1351. Ransomed within a du Guesclin to Castile, where their routier month, Audrehem conducted operations army put Trasta´mare on the throne. In 1367, against Ralph STAFFORD,earlofStafford,in he was again in Castile, where he was cap- Gascony in 1352 and against Anglo-Gascon tured with du Guesclin at NA´ JERA. Because routiers in the Limousin in 1353. In 1354, he his Poitiers ransom was still unpaid, Au- was in Brittany, where he captured Sir Hugh drehem was personally accused by the CALVELEY in a sharp encounter at the castle of prince of breaking his oath not to fight Tinte´niac near Montmuran on April 10. After against the English. The marshal defended the battle, the marshal knighted a young Ber- himself by saying that he had taken arms trand du GUESCLIN, who had distinguished against Pedro I of Castile, not against the himself in the battle. prince. Now over sixty, and well known to In 1355, as John II prepared to resume the most of the Anglo-Gascon captains, the war, Audrehem was one of the king’s key marshal elicited much sympathy and was military advisers. In November, with ED- acquitted of the charge by a jury of English, WARD III marching through , the Gascon, and Breton knights. Audrehem re- marshal suggested that the two kings meet signed as marshal on 20 June 1368 and died in single combat, a common proposal that in 1370.

37 AULD ALLIANCE

Further Reading: Sumption, Jonathan. The manding de Montfort’s forces, which he po- Hundred Years War. Vol. 2, Trial by Fire. Philadel- sitioned on the heights beyond the river, phia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2001. Chandos deployed his army in three divi- sions, with himself and Sir Matthew Gourney AULD ALLIANCE. See FRANCO-SCOTTISH commanding the right, Knolles the left, and de ALLIANCE;SCOTLAND Montfort the center. Calveley, much to his chagrin, was sent behind the lines to lead the AURAY, BATTLE OF (1364) reserves. Deploying his army in similar fash- Fought on 29 September 1364 outside the ion, Charles of Blois gave command of its Breton port of the same name, the decisive three divisions to du Guesclin; Jean de Cha- Battle of Auray ended the long BRETON lon, son of the Count of Auxerre; and himself. CIVIL WAR. During the negotiations that preceded the In 1363, after twenty-three years of war, battle, the Bretons in each party displayed a the two rivals for the ducal title agreed to greater willingness to compromise than either divide the Duchy of BRITTANY between them, their English or French allies. The English with John de Montfort, the English-backed threatened to kill Charles’s representatives if claimant, taking the southwest, and CHARLES they prolonged the talks and du Guesclin OF BLOIS, the French-backed claimant, hold- urged Charles to win the entire duchy for ing the northeast. Official conferral of the himself, a belligerence that convinced some of title and the peerage of duke of Brittany was Charles’s Bretons to quit the field. to be decided by the kings of England and Fought on foot, which limited the effec- France, EDWARD III and JOHN II, who were tiveness of the English ARCHERS,thebattle both technically neutral in the dispute. opened with the Anglo-Breton army captur- However, the question remained un- ing Jean de Chalon and driving his men into answered when civil war resumed in April du Guesclin’s force. Chandos then focused 1364. In July, de Montfort laid siege to his attack on Charles of Blois, whose position Auray, one of the few south coast towns was made vulnerable by further desertions under his rival’s control. With the help of from his division. When Charles’s division Bertrand du GUESCLIN, a Breton then serving was overwhelmed, he was slain and his army CHARLES V, the new French king, Charles of dissolved. The battle now became a rout. De Blois raised an army of over three thousand Montfort’s men killed nearly eight hundred men. Although backed by royal officials in and took over fifteen hundred captives, in- NORMANDY, Charles of Blois received no of- cluding du Guesclin, who brought Chandos ficial support from Charles V, who even almost £20,000 in RANSOM. stripped du Guesclin of his Norman cap- With Charles of Blois dead and his sons taincy for intervening in Brittany. either dead or captive, his cause collapsed De Montfort received no assistance from and his supporters submitted to de Mont- LONDON but vital aid from such local En- fort. Although he had won the duchy with glish captains as Sir Robert KNOLLES and Sir English aid, de Montfort, now freed of the Hugh CALVELEY. Sir John CHANDOS also need for allies, quickly offered his allegiance joined de Montfort with a small English to Charles V. The French king accepted the force from GASCONY. By September, de outcome of Auray and brokered the favor- Montfort’s army numbered over two thou- able Treaty of GUE´ RANDE, whereby Jeanne de sand, with most drawn from the local En- Penthie`vre, Charles of Blois’s widow, in glish companies. Thus, although the Crowns whose right he had claimed the duchy, ac- of England and France remained neutral, knowledged de Montfort as Duke JOHN IV in their agents in Brittany were actively in- April 1365. volved in the war. Further Reading: Sumption, Jonathan. The Arriving at Auray on 29 September, Charles Hundred Years War. Vol. 2, Trial by Fire. Philadel- of Blois prepared for immediate battle. Com- phia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2001.

38 AVIGNON PAPACY

AUXERRE, TREATY OF. See FRENCH CIVIL member his kingdom. The cardinals now WAR proposed that Edward renounce GASCONY in exchange for all lands in England held by the AVIGNON PEACE CONFERENCE (1344) Hospitallers and by foreign religious houses, The Anglo-French conference convened by a suggestion that the English denounced as Pope CLEMENT VI in Avignon in 1344 was an unequal and dishonorable bargain. The the most ambitious papal attempt to achieve cardinals next proposed that Edward re- a negotiated settlement of the HUNDRED nounce Gascony in exchange for the Crown YEARS WAR. During the talks, the differences of SCOTLAND, which Philip would convince between the parties proved irreconcilable DAVID II to surrender in return for lands in and neither EDWARD III nor PHILIP VI dis- France. Since Edward already considered played any willingness to modify his de- Scotland to be his by right, the English am- mands. Doomed by this intransigence, the bassadors declared this plan acceptable. Fi- conference collapsed within weeks and war nally, the cardinals suggested that Edward resumed in 1345. grant Gascony as an APPANAGE to one of his On 19 January 1343, papal representatives sons, who could thus accept Valois over- negotiated the Anglo-French Truce of MAL- lordship without any diminution of status ESTROIT, which was to run until 29 September or honor. The English also rejected this pro- 1346. The stated purpose of the truce was to posal and on 10 November declined to con- allow the warring parties to send repre- sider any plan for surrendering Gascony in sentatives to Avignon to discuss a permanent return for territorial compensation outside end to the war. English distrust of papal in- France. When the French confirmed their re- tentions, manifested through a series of pro- fusal to consider any plan that extinguished cedural objections, delayed the conference Valois sovereignty over the duchy, the En- until 22 October 1344. When the delegations glish refused to continue the talks. finally arrived, Clement kept them separated Although Clement tried to persuade the and himself acted as go-between. The Eng- English to remain in Avignon, their money lish began by demanding recognition of Ed- was short and the mood in the city was dis- ward’s claim to the French Crown, which the tinctly anti-English, leading several delegates French refused to even discuss. Having pro- to leave for England by mid-December. A claimed himself rightful king of France, Ed- papal suggestion that Edward replace his ward could not accept any possibility of VA- largely clerical delegation with a new em- LOIS overlordship in AQUITAINE. When, after bassy led by influential noblemen, such as four sessions, neither side would budge from HENRY OF GROSMONT, earl of Derby, and its original position, Clement withdrew from William de BOHUN, earl of Northampton, also the conference, leaving its conduct to a came to naught. In February 1345, the last commission of two cardinals. English delegate in Avignon, Bishop John The cardinals attempted to shift the focus Offord, whom Clement had not allowed to to Aquitaine, asking if the English would depart, fled the city without leave, thus ef- accept restitution of the duchy as it had ex- fectively ending the conference. On 15 June, isted before the War of SAINT-SARDOS. Al- more then a year before the truce’s expira- though they again reiterated their refusal to tion, Edward renounced the Malestroit discuss Aquitaine separately from the rest of agreement and resumed the war. Edward’s French kingdom, the English Further Reading: Sumption, Jonathan. The eventually admitted the possibility of a set- Hundred Years War. Vol. 1, Trial by Battle. Phila- tlement based on an Aquitaine defined by delphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1999. the borders specified in the Treaty of PARIS and held in full sovereignty by the PLANTAG- ENETS. The French flatly rejected this sug- AVIGNON PAPACY. See PAPACY AND THE gestion, declaring that Philip could not dis- HUNDRED YEARS WAR

39 B

BABYLONIAN CAPTIVITY. See PAPACY Remaining quiet until the summer of 1363, AND THE HUNDRED YEARS WAR Badefol resumed command of the Great Company and on 13 September seized and BADEFOL, SE´ GUIN DE (c. 1331–1366) looted the town of Brioude on the borders of Se´guin de Badefol was a famous soldier of Auvergne. Making Brioude their base, the fortune and a notorious captain of ROUTIERS. companies devastated the surrounding His company was widely known and feared countryside. News of Badefol’s success and was one of the largest components of drew many other captains and their com- the GREAT COMPANY, a powerful army of panies to Brioude, and by the late autumn routiers that terrorized southeastern France of 1363 the town was said to contain almost in the 1360s. ten thousand routiers. Needing to expand Badefol was the second son of the lord of his area of operations to keep his men sup- Badefol-sur-Dordogne, a small castle on the plied, Badefol soon launched raids eastward frontier of GASCONY in territory that had into the wealthy duchy of BURGUNDY.In long been in dispute between the kings of April 1364, the Estates of Auvergne pur- England and France. He fought for the chased Badefol’s withdrawal from Brioude French at POITIERS in 1356, but the capture for a royal pardon, a papal absolution, and there of JOHN II and the resulting truce 40,000 florins, the largest RANSOM ever re- ended payments from the French Crown corded. and led Badefol to form his own route,or Ostensibly accepting employment with company of men, which, with other similar CHARLES THE BAD, king of Navarre, who was bands, took to pillage to support themselves. then at odds with the French Crown, Badefol Nicknamed ‘‘le Margot,’’ and numbering and his routiers seized the town of Anse near almost two thousand men, Badefol’s com- on 1 November 1364. Although calling pany was part of the Great Company that himself one of Navarre’s captains, Badefol attacked Pont-Saint-Esprit in the spring of turned Anse into a second Brioude and again 1361. Bought off by Pope Innocent VI and became the scourge of the surrounding re- Robert Fiennes, constable of France, the gion. Pope Urban V excommunicated Bade- companies were promised employment in fol and his associates, and even offered a Italy or Spain but the cessation of wars in crusade indulgence to anyone who expelled those lands largely frustrated the plan and them from the town, but the routiers did not Badefol remained in command of a large depart Anse until they were paid another force of brigands that continued to plague 40,000 florins in September 1365. Leaving the the southern provinces. companies, Badefol withdrew to Navarre In November 1361, Badefol abandoned his where he demanded the payment promised leadership of the companies as part of a deal him by Charles the Bad. Unhappy with the whereby the local administrations in Tou- services rendered and offended by Badefol’s louse, , and Beaucaire paid the importunity, Charles, in January 1366, in- Great Company to leave their territories. vited the routier to dine and offered him a

40 BASTIDES poisoned pear, from which Badefol died granted charters of settlement (pariage) that after six days of agony. conferred attractive and valuable rights and Further Reading: Henneman, John Bell. Royal franchises on settlers, bastides came into Taxation in Fourteenth Century France: The Captivity conflict with neighboring towns, villages, or and Ransom of John II. Philadelphia: American lords, who were often adversely affected by Philosophical Society, 1976 (see particularly chap. the activities of the new community. Since 5); Sumption, Jonathan. The Hundred Years War. bastides were settlements of free peasants, Vol. 2, Trial by Fire. Philadelphia: University of serfs from neighboring manors were drawn Pennsylvania Press, 2001. to the new communities, and economic priv- ileges granted to settlers frequently harmed BASTIDES the trade of local merchants. Bastides were fortified settlements estab- Bastide disputes gradually increased in lished in western France in the thirteenth number over the three decades that pre- and early fourteenth centuries by kings or ceded EDWARD III’s accession in 1327. Typi- nobles for mainly economic purposes. In a cal of such cases were the complaints that period of population growth, a bastide gen- ducal officials lodged with Edward I in the erated for its lord an increased income from early 1290s regarding Jean Archier, admin- land that had been previously underutilized istrator of the new French bastide of Grenade, or uncultivated. In AQUITAINE, where bastides who frequently heard cases that were clearly were founded by both Capetian kings (see within the king-duke’s jurisdiction. Two CAPET,HOUSE OF) and PLANTAGENET king- decades later, EDWARD II asked PHILIP IV to dukes, the settlements also served to define ensure that all French foundations in Aqui- spheres of influence within contested re- taine observed the same law enforced by the gions. As such, local frictions generated by ducal administration in existing commu- bastides often aggravated the larger Anglo- nities. By the eve of the War of SAINT-SARDOS French jurisdictional dispute over Aqui- in March 1324, at least five Gascon cases taine, and thus contributed to the coming of involving bastides were pending before the the HUNDRED YEARS WAR. PARLEMENT in PARIS. Because it was the im- Although bastide creation had occurred in mediate cause of the Anglo-French war of southwestern France since the 1240s, the first the same name, the bastide at Saint-Sardos new settlement in Plantagenet Aquitaine was was the most famous of the disputed Gascon Monse´gur, established in 1263. Until con- communities. In October 1323, a ducal vas- clusion of the Treaty of PARIS in 1259, the sal, Raymond-Bernard, lord of Montpezat, uncertain status of English rule within the protested the construction of a French bastide duchy had inhibited bastide foundation, and at Saint-Sardos by burning the village and proliferation of bastides within the Plan- hanging the royal official in charge. When tagenet domains only followed EDWARD I’s CHARLES IV intruded on ducal jurisdiction acquisition of the Agenais in 1279. However, by ordering Montpezat’s arrest, the resulting by 1287, the seneschal of Gascony, acting dispute led eventually to confiscation of the under the king-duke’s authority, founded duchy and a French invasion that overran two dozen bastides, particularly within newly most of Plantagenet GASCONY. Although the acquired or weakly administered territories, conflict ended in 1325 with the restoration of where the settlements did not so much de- Aquitaine, which Edward II then granted to fend frontiers as define jurisdictional and his son, who did homage for it to the French administrative boundaries. Such attempts at king, the war effectively halted bastide crea- demarcation often caused disputes that tion in southwestern France, and the polit- wound up in ducal or royal courts. Bastides ical crises of the 1330s and constant warfare also tended to disrupt established economic of the following decades destroyed the eco- and social patterns, thus creating further nomic climate that had earlier favored their jurisdictional friction. Because their founders foundation.

41 BATTLE OF THE THIRTY

Further Reading: Beresford, Maurice. New also sought to draw the French into battle, Towns of the Middle Ages: Town Plantation in English CHEVAUCHE´ ES focused on ravaging England, Wales, and Gascony. New York: Praeger, the countryside, destroying property and 1967; Vale, Malcolm. The Origins of the Hundred morale. The great battles of the war—Cre´cy, Years War. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 2000. Poitiers, and AGINCOURT—can all be seen either as chevauche´es during which the En- BATTLE OF THE THIRTY. See COMBAT OF glish were trapped and forced to fight against THE THIRTY their will or campaigns by which the English all along intended to bring the enemy to BATTLE, NATURE OF battle. In some instances, men were eager Although the battles of the HUNDRED YEARS for combat. At AURAY in 1364, poor English WAR varied as to the reasons they were knights in need of booty and RANSOMS begged fought, the ground they were fought over, Sir John CHANDOS, commander of the Mont- the tactics they displayed, and the length of fortist army, to forego negotiations. time they lasted, most comprised at least Battles could take many forms. At AUBER- some of the basic elements of a medieval OCHE in 1345, HENRY OF GROSMONT, earl of military encounter, including an exchange of Derby, won by means of a sudden cavalry missile weapons, a cavalry charge, a hand- charge on an unprepared enemy. At the to-hand meˆle´e, and a final rout. Battle of the HERRINGS in 1429, the French Prior to the outbreak of the Anglo-French came suddenly upon an English force under conflict, full-scale battles were uncommon Sir John FASTOLF, who repelled his attackers and many warriors had surprisingly little by quickly forming his men behind a laager experience of them. Although the length of of wagons. In most cases, however, both ar- the war gave such men as Sir Walter MAUNY mies had time to prepare for combat. These and Bertrand du GUESCLIN considerable ex- preparations could take different forms de- perience in skirmishes, ambushes, and other pending on circumstances. For instance, at small-scale encounters, major battles were Agincourt in 1415, the overconfident French still infrequent. Even such a seasoned cam- spent the night gambling for prisoners to be paigner as EDWARD III was present at only won next day, while the English took con- two large battles—HALIDON HILL in 1333 and fession and silently contemplated their prob- CRE´ CY in 1346. The king’s other expeditions, able demise. Hearing Mass and taking such as the THIE´RACHE CAMPAIGN in 1339 and communion, as Edward III and EDWARD, THE the RHEIMS CAMPAIGN in 1359–60, resulted in BLACK PRINCE, did before Cre´cy, was com- no great battle. Such encounters were often mon in most armies. Also common were considered a matter of seeking judgment stirring speeches delivered by king or com- from God, who sent victory only to the mander to encourage the men. The prince of righteous. Battle was therefore a large risk, Wales supposedly gave two before Poitiers and kings and commanders would avoid in 1356, and HENRY V famously reminded his combat if they believed themselves able to men before Agincourt of the justice of their win in another way. PHILIP VI did not fight cause and earlier English triumphs. Henry in 1339 and 1340 because he knew that Ed- also told his ARCHERS of a French threat to cut ward III could not hold together his ANTI- off three fingers of their right hands so they FRENCH COALITION if he did not fight and win would never draw bow again. Sometimes a battle. The future CHARLES V did not fight battle was preceded by challenges to single in 1359–60 because he did not want to risk combat—one of Edward III’s household another Cre´cy or POITIERS and because he knights defeated a Scottish champion prior believed the English could not long maintain to Halidon Hill—or to a joust between an army in the field if unable to live off the groups of knights from both armies. land or win a battle. Although some histori- Actual combat was a confusing affair with ans argue that the largest such campaigns commanders often uncertain about what

42 BAUGE´ , BATTLE OF was happening on other parts of the field. NA´ JERA in 1367, more than half the Franco- Chroniclers who were able to interview Castilian army was slain fleeing the field. participants often got good accounts of Many battles fought near a river ended with preparations and aftermaths, but few in- a great slaughter of men trying to cross the formative details about the fighting itself. water. The rout often took longer than the The start of a battle was often extremely battle itself. At Poitiers, the battle was fought noisy, in part to instill fear in the enemy. in the morning, but the pursuit continued Trumpets, drums, and ARTILLERY opened the through the afternoon and into the evening. fighting at Cre´cy, while the noise of Poitiers The duration of battles could vary greatly. was said to have reverberated off the walls Agincourt was over in a few hours as was of the town seven miles away. Battle cries Cre´cy, which began in the late afternoon and from thousands of men—‘‘Montjoie St. ended at dusk, but NEVILLE’S CROSS lasted Denis’’ for the French and ‘‘St. George for from about nine in the morning until eve- Guienne’’ for the English—added to the din. ning and MORLAIX in 1343 was lengthened Although long-distance archery duals were by the repeated need for exhausted combat- rare, many battles began with an exchange ants to stop and refresh themselves. See also of archer fire. Artillery made its presence CHIVALRY;SIEGE WARFARE;STRATEGY AND increasingly felt in the fifteenth century, al- TACTICS. though big guns were a major factor on the Further Reading: Burne, Alfred H. The Agin- battlefield only at CASTILLON in 1453. After court War. Ware, England: Wordsworth Editions English bowmen devastated French horse- Ltd., 1999; Burne, Alfred H. The Cre´cy War. Ware, men at Cre´cy, the coordinated cavalry England: Wordsworth Editions Ltd., 1999; Prest- charge, which is traditionally considered wich, Michael. Armies and Warfare in the Middle the classic tactic of medieval warfare, was Ages: The English Experience. New Haven, CT: Yale rarely used to start battles. However, cavalry University Press, 1996. charges still had their place. Derby’s knights launched a surprise charge to good effect at BAUGE´ , BATTLE OF (1421) Auberoche, while the Black Prince re- On 22 March 1421, a Franco-Scottish army mounted some of his men to ride down overwhelmed a smaller English force near groups of dismounted French knights at the village of Bauge´, some twenty miles east Poitiers. The hardest part of the battle to of the Angevin capital of Angers. The Battle comprehend is the meˆle´e, the confused press of Bauge´, a rare English defeat in pitched of horses and men engaged in combat at battle, resulted in the death of the heir pre- close quarters. Friends advancing from the sumptive to the English throne and a great rear could cause as much harm as enemies to boost in morale for supporters of the dau- the front. At Agincourt, men in later waves phinist cause. could only engage the enemy by climbing When HENRY V returned to England in onto piles of dead from the initial clash. February 1421, he left his brother and heir, Many men in heavy ARMOR, such as Edward, THOMAS, DUKE OF CLARENCE, in command in duke of York, died when they suffocated PARIS. Following the king’s instructions, under piles of corpses six feet high. The Clarence led four thousand men on a largely meˆle´e usually ended when one side could no unopposed raid through Maine and Anjou, longer hold a line or maintain an attack, or which culminated with the duke basing when a new force, such as that led around the himself at the castle of Beaufort, roughly flank at Poitiers by Jean de GRAILLY, captal de halfway between Angers and Bauge´.On Buch, tipped the balance. Good Friday, 21 March, a dauphinist army Often, most of the CASUALTIES sustained of five thousand, composed of newly arrived during a battle occurred at the end during Scottish troops under John STEWART, earl of the rout, when the beaten army fled and Buchan, and a sprinkling of local French its members were run down and slain. At levies under Marshal Lafayette, reached

43 BEAUCHAMP, RICHARD, EARL OF WARWICK

Bauge´. The allies dispatched reconnaissance to invade English-held NORMANDY.Although patrols, one of which fell into English hands, the battle ultimately caused little change in thereby alerting Clarence of the enemy’s the military situation, it had great if opposite presence at Bauge´. effects on the morale of both sides. See also Althoughhistroopswerewidelydispersed, SCOTLAND. the duke, who had missed AGINCOURT, was Further Reading: Allmand, Christopher. Henry eager to fight. Ordering his second-in-com- V. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1993; mand, Thomas MONTAGU, earl of Salisbury, Burne, Alfred H. The Agincourt War. Ware, En- to collect the ARCHERS and follow as quickly gland: Wordsworth Editions Ltd., 1999. as possible, Clarence rode off at once with a force of no more than fifteen hundred men- BEAUCHAMP, RICHARD, EARL at-arms. Although several of his captains OF WARWICK (1382–1439) counseled caution, urging the duke to wait Richard Beauchamp, thirteenth earl of until the entire army could be gathered, Warwick, was a councilor and companion- Clarence would brook no delay. To enter in-arms of HENRY V, and governor and tutor Bauge´, which he reached shortly before of HENRY VI. Like such other nobles as dusk, Clarence had to cross the River Thomas MONTAGU, earl of Salisbury, and Couosnon, which was narrow but marshy John TALBOT, earl of Shrewsbury, Warwick along its banks. The Scots held the bridge, was one of the chief English captains of the forcing the English to dismount and wade fifteenth century. across the water in full ARMOR. Thus flanked, Richard was the grandson of Thomas the bridge defenders fled into the village BEAUCHAMP, the eleventh earl, who fought in church, where they were quickly besieged. France under EDWARD III, and the godson However, the bridge fight and the river of RICHARD II, who, in 1397, imprisoned crossing had scattered and disordered the Richard’s father, Thomas Beauchamp, the English forces, and Clarence had no more twelfth earl, for treason. However, when than a few hundred men under effective HENRY IV deposed his cousin in 1399, he command when the bulk of the allied army restored the Beauchamps to favor by re- appeared on the ridge above the village. leasing the earl and knighting his son. Rich- Undaunted by his foe’s advantage in ard inherited his father’s lands and titles in numbers and ground, Clarence led a charge April 1401. In 1403, he fought for the House uphill into the enemy, initiating a desperate of LANCASTER at the , for mele´e. The allies rapidly enveloped Clar- which he was rewarded with admittance to ence’s men, and, in less than an hour, the the Order of the GARTER. The earl also fought duke, many of his captains, and most of his with Prince Henry in Wales until about 1407, men were dead. John Holland, earl of after which he spent some years visiting Huntingdon, and John BEAUFORT, earl of Rome and the Holy Land and winning a Somerset, were taken for RANSOM. Salisbury reputation as a jouster in continental tour- reached the field either just before sunset or naments. Although Warwick joined the early the next day and was able by some royal council in 1410, when the prince means to retrieve the bodies of Clarence and dominated the government in place of his his leading officers, which were eventually ailing father, the earl was dismissed in 1411 shipped back to England. The Battle of when the king resumed control. Bauge´ temporarily jeopardized the English The accession of the prince as Henry V in position in France and spurred both Henry 1413 saw Warwick achieve immediate polit- V and the dauphin (see CHARLES VII) to im- ical prominence. He became captain of CA- mediate action. The English king began LAIS in February 1414 and by 1415 had preparing a new army, while the dauphin, served on diplomatic missions to France, who honored Buchan with appointment as BURGUNDY, and the . constable of France, announced his intention Warwick fought at the siege of HARFLEUR in

44 BEAUCHAMP, THOMAS, EARL OF WARWICK

1415, but was then ordered to convey pris- ARRAS in 1435. Warwick died in Rouen on 30 oners to Calais and so missed the Battle of April 1439. AGINCOURT. The earl participated in the Further Reading: Allmand, Christopher. Henry conquest of NORMANDY after 1417, including V. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1993; the sieges of Caen and ROUEN, and played a Carpenter, Christine. Locality and Polity: A Study major role in the negotiations surrounding of Warwickshire Landed Society, 1401–1499. Cam- conclusion of the Treaty of TROYES in 1420. bridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992; Har- He was deputy steward at the coronation of riss, G. L. Cardinal Beaufort: A Study of Lancastrian Queen CATHERINE OF VALOIS in February Ascendency and Decline. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1421, but was back in France with the king 1988. by May to conclude the siege of MEAUX, and then to lead independent expeditions BEAUCHAMP, THOMAS, EARL OF that captured Gamaches and St. Vale´ry- WARWICK (c. 1314–1369) sur-Somme. At Henry V’s death in August Thomas Beauchamp, eleventh earl of War- 1422, Warwick was named an executor of the wick and one of EDWARD III’s most important royal will, and, in December, he joined and distinguished companions-in-arms, par- Henry VI’s minority council. ticipated in most of the early battles and Although one of the wealthiest men in campaigns of the HUNDRED YEARS WAR. England and politically dominant in the west Beauchamp was only a child when his Midlands, Warwick’s influence declined father, Guy de Beauchamp, tenth earl of during the early years of the new reign, Warwick, died in 1315. EDWARD II gave when the earl became associated with the custody of the Warwick lands to his favorite, council faction led by Cardinal Henry BEAU- Hugh Despenser the Elder, but the young FORT. This connection persuaded Beaufort’s earl’s person and marriage were entrusted rival, HUMPHREY, DUKE OF GLOUCESTER,to to Roger Mortimer, the future earl of March, support Warwick’s political opponents and whose daughter Warwick married in about so diminish his local standing. Warwick re- 1327. In February 1329, the minority regime turned to France in late 1425, when he was of his father-in-law and Queen Isabella (see made custodian of Normandy by the regent, ISABELLA,QUEEN OF ENGLAND [c. 1292–1358]) JOHN, DUKE OF BEDFORD. In early 1427, the earl allowed Warwick to be knighted and to take captured Pontorson in BRITTANY, but, in possession of his lands, even though he was September, he was defeated at the siege of still under age. In the 1330s, Warwick fought MONTARGIS by a dauphinist force under in SCOTLAND, where he was appointed JOHN, the Bastard of Orle´ans. commander of the army in 1337. In 1339, he In 1428, Warwick returned to England to accompanied Edward III to France and in become governor of seven-year-old Henry 1340 was present at the siege of TOURNAI and VI, whom, in a famous episode, the earl took part in the talks leading to the Truce of carried to his coronation in November 1429. ESPLECHIN. From September 1340 until May Except for accompanying the king to his 1341, the earl was imprisoned in Malines as French coronation in PARIS in 1431, Warwick surety for payment of the king’s debts. remained in England until 1436, when he In 1342, Warwick served at the siege of served with Gloucester’s expeditions to Ca- in BRITTANY and in 1346 fought lais and FLANDERS. In July 1437, the king alongside EDWARD, THE BLACK PRINCE,at named Warwick lieutenant-general and CRE´ CY, where the earl’s already considerable governor of France and Normandy, but in- military reputation was enhanced. Warwick adequate manpower and funding allowed was present at the siege of CALAIS in 1347 him to do no more than maintain the status and accompanied the Black Prince on his quo against both CHARLES VII and PHILIP THE CHEVAUCHE´ E through southern France in GOOD, duke of Burgundy, who had aban- 1355. The chronicler Geoffrey Baker wrote doned his English alliance at the Congress of that Warwick and his comrades fought ‘‘like

45 BEAUFORT, EDMUND, DUKE OF SOMERSET lions’’ at POITIERS in September 1356, and, in English embassy at the Congress of ARRAS in 1359–60, the earl participated in the RHEIMS 1435. In 1436, Beaufort successfully defended CAMPAIGN and was a witness at the signing CALAIS and was rewarded with admission to of the Treaty of BRE´ TIGNY. the Order of the GARTER. He relieved Av- Warwick was handsomely rewarded for ranches in 1439 and distinguished himself at his service, being appointed earl marshal of the recapture of HARFLEUR in 1440. In August England in 1344 and receiving a gift of over 1442, HENRY VI ennobled his kinsman as earl £1,300 in 1347. In 1348, the king granted of Dorset and in 1443 raised him to a mar- Warwick an annuity of 1,000 marks and also quisate. Upon his brother’s death in May chose him to become a founding member of 1444, Dorset became earl of Somerset. the Order of the GARTER, taking precedence In about 1427, Beaufort conducted a brief after Prince Edward and HENRY OF GROS- affair with CATHERINE OF VALOIS, the widow MONT, duke of Lancaster. In the 1360s, the of Henry V and mother of Henry VI. Al- earl served with the Black Prince in AQUI- though little is known about the liaison, it led TAINE, went crusading in Prussia, and led a to passage of a parliamentary statute con- diplomatic mission to Scotland. On the re- trolling the remarriage of former queens and sumption of war in 1369, Warwick accom- may also have resulted in the birth of Cath- panied JOHN OF GAUNT, duke of Lancaster, to erine’s son Edmund, who is usually con- Calais, where news of the earl’s arrival al- sidered the child of Owen Tudor and thus an legedly convinced PHILIP THE BOLD, duke of ancestor of the royal House of Tudor. While it BURGUNDY, to withdraw his army from the is unlikely that Beaufort fathered Catherine’s area. Warwick then participated in Gaunt’s son, it is not impossible, since the dates of chevauche´e into NORMANDY; upon his return Catherine’s secret marriage to Tudor and of to Calais, the earl contracted the plague and Edmund Tudor’s birth are unknown. died on 13 November 1369. See also CHE- In the 1440s, Somerset became associated VAUCHE´ E OF 1355. with the court faction led by William de la Further Reading: Fowler, Kenneth. The King’s POLE, duke of Suffolk, a prote´ge´ of Somer- Lieutenant: Henry of Grosmont, First Duke of Lan- set’s uncle, Cardinal Henry BEAUFORT, caster, 1310–1361. London: Elek, 1969; Ormrod, bishop of Winchester. In December 1447, the W. M. The Reign of Edward III: Crown and Political king, influenced by Suffolk, appointed Society in England, 1327–1377. New Haven, CT: Somerset lieutenant of France and governor- Yale University Press, 1990. general of the duchies of Normandy and AQUITAINE. Succeeding Suffolk’s opponent, BEAUFORT, EDMUND, DUKE OF RICHARD, DUKE OF YORK, Somerset, who was SOMERSET (c. 1406–1455) himself raised to a dukedom on 31 March As king’s lieutenant in France when NOR- 1448, was thus responsible for the defense of MANDY fell to the French in 1450, Edmund Lancastrian France when CHARLES VII ended Beaufort, duke of Somerset, was blamed the Truce of TOURS by invading Normandy both by contemporaries and later historians in July 1449. The French resumption of the for causing the final English defeat in the war, which caught the English unprepared HUNDRED YEARS WAR. to defend Normandy, was triggered in Edmund Beaufort was the third son of March 1449 by the English seizure of the John, marquis of Dorset, and thus a grandson Breton town of FOUGE` RES, an ill-advised of JOHN OF GAUNT, duke of Lancaster, and a venture for which Somerset was partially cousin of HENRY V. Beaufort was in his teens responsible. Somerset was also involved in when he went to war in France, being cap- the unpopular English surrender of MAINE tured with his elder brother John BEAUFORT at in 1448. Although ceding the province was BAUGE´ in 1421. Released in about 1427, the king’s idea, Somerset, as captain-general Beaufort received his first independent com- of Maine since 1438, had held up the trans- mand in 1431 and was a member of the action, not out of opposition to the voluntary

46 BEAUFORT, HENRY, CARDINAL-BISHOP OF WINCHESTER surrender of territory, but out of unwilling- clerical politician in Lancastrian England. A ness to yield the revenues of his office skilled diplomat who was three times without compensation from the Crown. chancellor of England, Beaufort played Unable to properly fund Norman defense leading roles in both domestic and foreign needs, the government found itself com- affairs. A wealthy prelate who provided the pelled to pay Somerset a huge annual sum Crown with large loans to fund the war, out of the duchy’s revenues before he would Beaufort in the 1430s led the court party that undertake the French lieutenancy. favored a negotiated settlement of the HUN- Charles VII’s NORMAN CAMPAIGN lasted DRED YEARS WAR. barely a year, with many towns offering the The second of four children born to JOHN French no resistance. Although not present at OF GAUNT, duke of Lancaster, by his mistress the decisive English defeat at FORMIGNY in Katherine Swynford, Beaufort and his sib- April 1450, Somerset personally surrendered lings were legitimated by RICHARD II in 1397, ROUEN on 29 October 1449 and Caen on 1 July a year after Lancaster married their mother 1450. Returning to England, where the loss of as his third wife. Named bishop of Lincoln Normandy had already driven Suffolk from in February 1399, Beaufort played no part power, Somerset found himself blamed for later in the year when his half-brother de- the disaster. York considered Somerset’s posed Richard and took the Crown as HENRY feeble defense of the duchy to be treasonous, IV, first king of the House of LANCASTER. but the king and his wife, MARGARET OF Little interested in ecclesiastical affairs, ANJOU, protected the duke, who became ef- Beaufort began an active political career in fective head of the government and captain of 1402 when he joined the royal council. In Calais in 1451. In 1453, the defeat at CASTILLON February 1403, he became chancellor, hold- and the final loss of GASCONY triggered Henry ing the post until March 1405; in November VI’s first bout of mental illness and made 1404, he was elevated to the bishopric of York protector of the realm. Committed to the Winchester, the wealthiest see in England. Tower by the protector in November, Som- He began a diplomatic career in 1408–09 by erset remained there until Christmas 1454 negotiating a renewal of the Anglo-French when a newly recovered Henry VI released truce. In 1410, Prince Henry, assuming con- him. In the spring of 1455, Somerset was of- trol of the government for his ailing father, ficially exonerated of all charges brought by placed Beaufort and his young brother, York. Fearing that a conference called by Thomas BEAUFORT, future duke of Exeter, at Somerset to discuss threats to the king was the head of the royal administration. At the aimed at them, York and his allies, the earls of prince’s direction, the Beauforts pursued a Salisbury and Warwick, intercepted the royal pro-BURGUNDIAN foreign policy, providing army at St. Albans on 21 May 1455. At what military support to JOHN THE FEARLESS, duke became the first armed encounter of the Wars of BURGUNDY, in his struggle with the AR- of the Roses, the partisans of York slew MAGNACS (see FRENCH CIVIL WAR). Opposed Somerset and other political opponents in the to this policy, the king resumed the gov- streets of St. Albans. ernment in 1412 and the Beauforts were Further Reading: Allmand, C. T. Lancastrian dismissed from office. Normandy, 1415–1450: The History of a Medieval At HENRY V’s accession in March 1413, Occupation. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1983; Grif- Beaufort again became chancellor, his main fiths, Ralph A. The Reign of Henry VI. Berkeley: task being to persuade PARLIAMENT to fi- University of California Press, 1981. nancially support the king’s campaign to secure the French Crown. In July 1415, he BEAUFORT, HENRY, CARDINAL- rejected, on the king’s behalf, the final BISHOP OF WINCHESTER (c. 1375–1447) French offers to avert war, and, on the fol- Henry Beaufort, Cardinal-Bishop of Win- lowing 29 October, he announced the vic- chester, was the most powerful and influential tory of AGINCOURT to the citizens of LONDON.

47 BEAUFORT, JOHN, DUKE OF SOMERSET

Involved in securing new funding for the led the army to Bedford’s assistance, thus war, Beaufort also participated in negotia- earning the duke’s gratitude and the pope’s tions with Emperor Sigismund for the enmity. The cardinal witnessed the burning Treaty of CANTERBURY and with Burgundy of JOAN OF ARC at ROUEN in May 1431 and for a possible alliance against the Armagnac crowned Henry VI in Paris in the following government that controlled PARIS and December. In 1432, further efforts by Glou- CHARLES VI. In 1417, the bishop resigned the cester to deprive the cardinal of his wealth chancellorship and made his first substantial and see compelled Beaufort to return and loan to the Crown, providing £14,000 for the defend himself before Parliament. Thanks to forthcoming NORMAN CAMPAIGN. In 1418, he Bedford’s support and his own indis- attended the Council of Constance, where pensability as a source of loans, Beaufort the king directed him to secure election of a weathered the storm and in 1435 rep- pope sympathetic to the English cause. Al- resented the English at the Congress of though Beaufort was himself considered a ARRAS where he made an unsuccessful plea candidate, the council chose Martin V, who, to PHILIP THE GOOD to maintain the ANGLO- while allowing him to retain the see of BURGUNDIAN ALLIANCE. Winchester, rewarded the bishop with ele- Convinced of the need for a negotiated vation to the cardinalate, appointment as settlement that secured Lancastrian control legate a latere, and exemption from the au- of NORMANDY, Beaufort tried unsuccessfully thority of Canterbury. Upon hearing of these to arrange such an agreement in 1439. Al- appointments, Henry V, who was unhappy though Gloucester, who favored vigorous with Martin’s selection, accused the bishop prosecution of the war, continued his efforts of conspiring with the pope for his own to undermine the bishop, Beaufort’s peace enrichment, and forbade Beaufort to accept policy was supported by the king, who as- any rewards. Having lost Henry’s trust, sumed personal control of the government Beaufort spent the rest of the reign out of in 1437. After 1440, Beaufort, old and ill, favor and office. gradually withdrew from government, his On the king’s death in 1422, Beaufort be- place being taken by William de la POLE, earl came a prominent member of HENRY VI’s of Suffolk. In the mid-1440s, Beaufort used minority council, where he made a lasting his money and influence to advance the ca- enemy of HUMPHREY, DUKE OF GLOUCESTER, reers of his nephews, John BEAUFORT and by leading the successful opposition to the Edmund BEAUFORT, successively dukes of duke’s attempt to have himself named re- Somerset. The cardinal died on 11 April gent. In 1424, shortly before being named 1447. chancellor for the third time, Beaufort Further Reading: Griffiths, Ralph A. The Reign loaned the Crown £9,300, which financed of King Henry VI. Berkeley: University of Califor- the army with which JOHN, DUKE OF BEDFORD, nia Press, 1981; Harriss, G. L. Cardinal Beaufort: A won the Battle of VERNEUIL. In 1425, the Study of Lancastrian Ascendency and Decline. bishop’s rivalry with Gloucester turned Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1988. violent, as Beaufort’s retinue forcibly pre- vented the duke’s men from taking custody BEAUFORT, JOHN, DUKE OF of the king. When Bedford returned from SOMERSET (1403–1444) France in 1426, he enforced a settlement In 1443, John Beaufort, first duke of Somer- whereby Beaufort resigned the chancellor- set, organized and led a costly and spectac- ship and left the council, although the duke ularly unsuccessful campaign in northern did allow Beaufort to finally accept a cardi- France. Somerset’s incompetent leadership nal’s hat. Commissioned by the pope to raise destroyed his career, impoverished and an army for a crusade against the Hussite embarrassed the English Crown, and seri- heretics, Beaufort, in the wake of the di- ously damaged relations between England sasters at ORLE´ ANS and PATAY in 1429, instead and BRITTANY.

48 BEAUFORT, THOMAS, DUKE OF EXETER

Beaufort’s father, John Beaufort, earl of be patient and ‘‘forbear ...for a time’’ when Somerset (d. 1409), was a half-brother of the duke asked about reimbursement of his HENRY IV, being the eldest son of JOHN expenses (Seward, 241). In early July, an OF GAUNT, duke of Lancaster, by his mistress exasperated council ordered Somerset to sail (and future wife) Katherine Swynford. Suc- at once for Normandy. Landing with a force ceeding to the earldom of Somerset upon the of over four thousand, and keeping his plans death of his brother Henry in 1419, Beaufort secret from even his chief subordinates, gained his first military experience in 1420, Somerset launched an ineffective and dis- when, at the age of seventeen, he accom- organized CHEVAUCHE´ E into Maine, which panied his cousin HENRY V on campaign in turned into complete disaster when the duke France. In 1421, Somerset fought with the inexplicably entered Brittany, where he pil- king’s brother, THOMAS,DUKE OF CLARENCE, laged the countryside and seized the town of at the disastrous Battle of BAUGE´ , where La Guerche. As an ally of England, Duke Clarence was slain and Somerset captured. Francis I complained bitterly to an embar- Eventually ransomed, Somerset continued rassed council in LONDON, which in turn his military career in France, holding var- sternly rebuked Somerset. After only a few ious commands and captaincies demanded weeks of campaigning, the duke returned to by his rank, but otherwise doing little to England to find himself disgraced and ban- distinguish himself. ished from court. The entire episode de- In March 1443, HENRY VI made Somerset a moralized the Lancastrian war effort and duke and named him lieutenant and captain- boosted the confidence of CHARLES VII, who general of Aquitaine. Somerset was also had witnessed the English inability to find given authority to act outside his province, proper funding or leadership for an effective including in Anjou and Maine, where his campaign. Although Charles acceded to the powers conflicted with those of RICHARD, English desire for a temporary end to the DUKE OF YORK, another royal cousin serving fighting, agreeing to the Truce of TOURS in as lieutenant-general of France. Somerset’s 1444, it was only to strengthen his position appointment was clearly political, designed against Burgundy and to complete the by his uncle, Henry BEAUFORT, cardinal of military reforms that would prepare his ar- Winchester, to undercut the standing and mies for the final push against the English. influence of York. Provided with an annual On 27 May 1444, Somerset died, a probable income of 600 marks and given authority to suicide. His only child, Margaret Beaufort engage the French in GASCONY and in all (1443–1509), later transmitted the Lancas- lands in which ‘‘my said Lord of York com- trian claim to the Crown to her only child, eth not’’ (Griffiths, 466), Somerset was in Henry Tudor, earl of Richmond, the future effect the political and military successor to Henry VII. See also CHARLES VII, MILITARY JOHN, DUKE OF BEDFORD, in all areas of En- REFORMS OF. glish activity outside NORMANDY. This broad Further Reading: Griffiths, Ralph A. The Reign brief drew strong protests both from York of Henry VI. Berkeley: University of California and from the military establishment in Press, 1981; Seward, Desmond. The Hundred Years Lancastrian France. War. New York: Penguin, 1999. Although much was expected of Somer- set’s campaign, the duke proved a poor BEAUFORT, THOMAS, DUKE OF planner, failing twice to appear on the ap- EXETER (c. 1377–1426) pointed muster date and offering the king Thomas Beaufort, duke of Exeter, was a and council only delays, excuses, and de- staunch supporter of the House of LAN- mands for money. Deficient as they were, CASTER and a leading lieutenant of HENRY V, his preparations absorbed an increasingly who entrusted Exeter with guardianship of larger share of the government’s scarce re- the most important English conquests in sources—the council even had to tell York to France.

49 BEDFORD, DUCHESS OF

The third son of JOHN OF GAUNT, duke of In 1418, Exeter returned to France to take Lancaster, by his mistress Katherine Swyn- part in the siege of ROUEN, which was placed ford, Thomas and his siblings were officially in his custody after its fall in January 1419. legitimated in 1397. In 1399, Beaufort, al- He then besieged and captured various though a member of RICHARD II’s retinue, important enemy strongholds, including abandoned the king to support his half- Chaˆteau Gaillard in September. After par- brother, who seized the Crown as HENRY IV. ticipating in the negotiations that led to the Named captain of Ludlow on the Welsh Treaty of TROYES in 1420, Exeter was en- marches in 1402, Beaufort fought with Prince trusted with the captaincies of Conches and Henry at the Battle of Shrewsbury in 1403 Melun, and, in January 1421, with the mili- and commanded a series of garrisons in tary governorship of Paris, a position that Wales between 1404 and 1407. Named ad- made him custodian of CHARLES VI. In 1422, miral of the north in November 1403, Beau- the duke served at the siege of MEAUX and fort thwarted a French attempt to blockade was present when Henry V died at Vin- CALAIS in 1404. Because he supported the cennes in August. In his will, the king prince’s pro-BURGUNDIAN policy, Beaufort named Exeter governor of the person of his became chancellor of England in January infant son HENRY VI. Returning to England 1410 when the king’s illness allowed the with the king’s body, Exeter joined his prince to dominate the council. A soldier brother, Henry BEAUFORT, cardinal-bishop of who was ill-suited to such an administrative Winchester, in opposing the claim of HUM- position, Beaufort nonetheless retained the PHREY, DUKE OF GLOUCESTER, to the regency. king’s favor when Henry dismissed the Although he returned to France in 1423, prince’s council in the following December. Exeter’s service was limited by illness and Created earl of Dorset in July 1411 and ad- he died childless at Greenwich on 31 De- miral of England for life in March 1412, cember 1426. Beaufort participated in the expedition of Further Reading: Allmand, Christopher. Henry THOMAS, DUKE OF CLARENCE, which was sent V. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1993; to France in July 1412 under the terms of the Harriss, G. L. Cardinal Beaufort: A Study of Anglo-ARMAGNAC Treaty of BOURGES. Lancastrian Ascendency and Decline. Oxford: Cla- On his accession in March 1413, Henry V rendon Press, 1988. appointed Dorset lieutenant of AQUITAINE and in 1415 named him to the embassy BEDFORD, DUCHESS OF. See ANNE OF charged with presenting the king’s demands BURGUNDY,DUCHESS OF BEDFORD in PARIS. Dorset organized and commanded the fleet that transported the English army to BEDFORD, DUKE OF. See JOHN,DUKE OF France in August 1415 and in the following BEDFORD month took charge of the garrison of newly captured HARFLEUR. In March 1416, in an BENEDICT XII. See PAPACY AND THE HUN- effort to supply the besieged town, Dorset DRED YEARS WAR launched a foray into NORMANDY that was ambushed at VALMONT, although the earl BENTLEY, SIR WALTER (c. 1310–1359) was able, after a series of skirmishes, to re- Through military prowess and a fortuitous turn with most of his force to Harfleur. marriage, Walter Bentley, an obscure York- Nonetheless, the town was near to starva- shire knight and soldier of fortune, achieved tion when it was finally relieved by JOHN, a meteoric rise in wealth and position. DUKE OF BEDFORD, at the Battle of the SEINE in Bentley fought in SCOTLAND in the early August 1416. In November, Dorset was re- 1330s and served as king’s sergeant in warded for the discipline and resolve he France in 1339. He arrived in BRITTANY in displayed at Harfleur with elevation to the 1342 as a member of the retinue of William dukedom of Exeter. de BOHUN, earl of Northampton. In the

50 BERGERAC, CAPTURE OF mid-1340s, Bentley formed his own mer- victory that secured English dominance in cenary band and by 1346 controlled two Brittany for the next decade. Dismissed from castles in western Brittany, including the his lieutenancy in early 1353, Bentley re- island fortress of Tristan, from which his sumed his mercenary career. Later in the men levied tolls on passing ships. In about year, when the king demanded that he sur- 1348, Bentley married Jeanne de Belleville, render the Clisson fortresses in accordance the widow of Olivier de Clisson, head of a with a treaty concluded with the captive powerful Breton family. For consorting with CHARLES OF BLOIS, Bentley refused and sailed the English, Clisson was executed in PARIS in to England to plead his case. Imprisoned in 1343, but his widow, with the aid of English the Tower of London, Bentley was even- soldiers, saved most of the family lands tually released and allowed to return to from confiscation. Brittany, where, in January 1357, he and his In 1349, Bentley began feuding with Raoul wife were granted the barony of La Roche- de Caours, the English lieutenant of Bas- Moisan. Bentley died in December 1359 still Poitou, over the possession of certain Clis- possessed of most of his wife’s Breton lord- son fortresses that Caours had seized from ships. See also BRETON CIVIL WAR. the French. The quarrel divided the English Further Reading: Jones, Michael. ‘‘Edward III’s command in the duchy and drove Caours to Captains in Brittany.’’ In Between France and intrigue with the French, who promised him England: Politics, Power and Society in Late Medieval the disputed fortresses in return for his Brittany, 98–118. Burlington, VT: Ashgate Pub- change of allegiance. The scheme collapsed lishing Company, 2003; Sumption, Jonathan. The when EDWARD III took the strongholds and Hundred Years War. Vol. 2, Trial by Fire. Philadel- their loyal English garrisons into his pos- phia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2001. session before Caours could act. In October 1349, Edward granted these fortresses to BERGERAC, CAPTURE OF (1345) Bentley, who thereafter carved a personal In late August 1345, HENRY OF GROSMONT, military fiefdom out of his wife’s lands. earl of Derby, captured Bergerac, a French On 8 September 1350, Bentley succeeded garrison town on the Dordogne about sixty Sir Thomas DAGWORTH as king’s lieutenant miles east of BORDEAUX in southern Pe´rigord. in Brittany. In June 1351, when the French The sudden seizure of the town disrupted laid siege to Ploermel, Bentley relieved the French operations in southwestern France, Breton town by gathering a force from the opened Pe´rigord to English penetration, and English garrisons and raiding into Maine initiated an English campaign that even- and along the Loire. In a memorandum tually cleared GASCONY of enemy garrisons. written in early 1352, Bentley complained On 9 August 1345, Derby, newly ap- that many of the frontier captains supported pointed king’s lieutenant in AQUITAINE, land- themselves and their men through the ex- ed at Bordeaux with two thousand men. action of PAˆ TIS and thus were effectively Accompanied by such veteran captains as beyond his control and that of the king. The Sir Walter MAUNY and Sir James AUDLEY, memorandum, which was a fair description Derby was to do ‘‘whatever could be done’’ of Bentley’s own career, caused much con- (Sumption, 455) to drive the French from the sternation in LONDON but changed little in duchy. Although Derby’s expedition was Brittany. originally planned as part of a dual opera- Bentley was in England in May 1352, tion involving a simultaneous campaign in when a French army under Guy de Nesle northern France by EDWARD III, the king’s invaded Brittany. Given a special subsidy expedition, delayed by the overthrow of and the right to recruit men in the West James van ARTEVELDE in FLANDERS and vio- Country, the lieutenant returned to the lent storms in the Channel, was cancelled in duchy in late July and on 14 August de- late July. With PHILIP VI now free to send feated de Nesle at the Battle of MAURON,a men and resources to the southwest, Derby

51 BERNARD, COUNT OF ARMAGNAC decided to strike quickly before the scattered son, John, duke of NORMANDY (see JOHN II) to French forces in the region could be con- the southwest, but the duke was unable to centrated against him. Accordingly, he lifted keep his army in the field, which allowed sieges being conducted against Blaye and Derby to take La Re´ole in January 1346. Al- Langon by Ralph STAFFORD, seneschal of though Normandy returned in March, the Aquitaine, and marched their combined English kept him occupied at AIGUILLON forces, perhaps five thousand men, against until it was too late for him or his men to the VALOIS garrison at Bergerac, a town take part in the CRE´ CY campaign, then un- ideally located to serve as a base of opera- derway in northern France. tions against French-held Poitou. Further Reading: Sumption, Jonathan. The The attack on Bergerac was strongly en- Hundred Years War. Vol. 1, Trial by Battle. Phila- dorsed by Bernard-Aiz V, lord of ALBRET, delphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1999. whose castle of Montcuq, standing only three miles from Bergerac, was under siege BERNARD, COUNT OF ARMAGNAC by the French. Derby’s swiftly moving force (1391–1418) reached Montcuq before the besiegers re- Bernard VII, count of Armagnac, was con- ceived word of their coming. Panicked by the stable of France and a central figure in the sudden arrival of a large Anglo-Gascon FRENCH CIVIL WAR. His leadership of the Or- army, the French fled northward toward the le´anist party caused its members to become village of La Madeleine, which stood on known as ‘‘ARMAGNACS.’’ After the faction the south end of a fortified bridge across the came to power in 1413, the count’s Gascon Dordogne that led to Bergerac on the north supporters ruthlessly enforced the authority bank. Derby’s cavalry reached the bridge just of the regime, thereby helping to make Ar- as the Montcuq besiegers, now reduced to a magnac the most powerful figure in the disorderly mob, were flooding through the royal government and the most hated man barbican that defended the bridge’s southern in PARIS. end. Dismounted English men-at-arms as- The counts of Armagnac, a county in saulted the barbican, which they carried with southwestern France that formed part of the the help of ARCHERS on the south bank, who province of GASCONY, had long been allies of did great execution among the Montcuq the French Crown against the PLANTAGENET troops and a force from the Bergerac garrison dukes of AQUITAINE. In 1410, Armagnac’s that sortied out onto the bridge. As fright- daughter Bonne married CHARLES, DUKE OF ened men and horses crowded into the town, ORLE´ ANS, the son of LOUIS, DUKE OF ORLE´ ANS, preventing the garrison from dropping the whose murder by Burgundian assassins in portcullis that defended the bridge’s north- 1407 had ignited civil war. The marriage ern end, Derby’s men rushed into Bergerac, sealed Armagnac’s adherence to the Orle´a- which fell shortly thereafter. Besides sig- nist faction, which he had joined in April nificant amounts of war material and large 1410 by entering the League of Gien, an anti- numbers of horses, the fall of the town gave Burgundian alliance that included Orle´ans the English the largest haul of RANSOM-wor- and Armagnac’s father-in-law, JOHN, DUKE thy prisoners yet seen in the HUNDRED YEARS OF BERRY, as well as JOHN V, duke of BRIT- WAR, including the seneschal of Pe´rigord TANY, and the counts of Alenc¸on and Cler- and ten French nobles. mont. A stronger personality and more The capture of Bergerac and Derby’s vigorous leader than either Orle´ans or Berry, subsequent victory at AUBEROCHE revived Armagnac soon became the dominating the PLANTAGENET position in southwestern member of the Orle´anist alliance. The count France, freeing Gascony of French garrisons also commanded numerous bands of armed and opening Poitou to English invasion. Gascons, whose clashes with the supporters Alarmed at the deterioration of the French of JOHN THE FEARLESS, duke of BURGUNDY, position in Aquitaine, Philip dispatched his frustrated royal attempts to end the feud.

52 BLACK DEATH

These bands, whose emblem was a white with Burgundy. On 29 May 1418, a new shoulder sash, became so identified with the uprising erupted in Paris. Although the Orle´anist cause that by the summer of 1411 count’s supporters spirited the dauphin out the name ‘‘Armagnacs’’ was being used in of the capital, violent mobs slew any Ar- Paris to describe all partisans of Orle´ans and magnac official they caught, including the his allies. count, who was murdered on 12 July, two In 1412, Armagnac was party to the Treaty days before Burgundy and the queen reen- of BOURGES, a compact with HENRY IV tered Paris. whereby the Armagnacs agreed to surrender Further Reading: Burne, Alfred H. The Agin- territory in return for English military as- court War. Ware, England: Wordsworth Editions sistance against Burgundy, who then con- Ltd., 1999; Famiglietti, Richard C. Royal Intrigue: trolled the royal government and the person Crisis at the Court of Charles VI, 1392–1420. New of CHARLES VI. Although the English sent an York: AMS Press, 1986; Perroy, Edouard. The expedition, the dauphin, LOUIS, DUKE OF Hundred Years War. Trans. W. B. Wells. New York: GUIENNE, negotiated a formal reconciliation Capricorn Books, 1965. at Auxerre in August 1412. In August 1413, Burgundy, having eroded his popularity BERRY, DUKE OF. See JOHN,DUKE OF BERRY through his incitement of the CARBOCHIEN riots in Paris, fled the capital, allowing the ˆ Armagnacs to take power. Acting under the BICETRE, PEACE OF. See FRENCH CIVIL nominal leadership of Guienne, who tried to WAR distance himself from the count and the Armagnac leaders, the new government BLACK DEATH negotiated with HENRY V, but talks broke off Black Death was the name given to the bu- over the English king’s territorial demands bonic plague, which struck Western Europe and the HUNDRED YEARS WAR resumed in with unprecedented virulence between 1347 August 1415. and 1350. This fourteenth-century epidemic In the following October, the battle of was the greatest natural disaster in Euro- AGINCOURT decimated the ranks of the pean history. At its height in France and Armagnac leadership; Constable Charles England, the Black Death destroyed about d’ALBRET was slain and the dukes of Orle´ans one-third of the population; damaged com- and Bourbon were captured. These losses, merce and agriculture; disrupted the func- when coupled with the deaths of Guienne in tioning of the Church and national and local December 1415 and Berry in June 1416, governments; and brought the HUNDRED made Armagnac virtual ruler of France. YEARS WAR to a virtual standstill. Named constable at the end of 1415, the Carried by flea-infested rats, the disease, count moved quickly to expel the English which had been endemic in the east for from HARFLEUR, an effort that was frustrated centuries, appeared in Italy in late 1347. Over at VALMONT in March 1416 and completely the winter, it followed the trade routes into defeated at the Battle of the SEINE in the southern France and GASCONY; by July 1348, following August. In April 1416, dis- it reached ROUEN in NORMANDY and was in satisfaction with the regime led to an up- PARIS by September. In England, the first case rising in Paris, which the count ruthlessly was reported in July 1348 in Dorset, from suppressed. In April 1417, Armagnac, now where the disease moved north to Bristol by acting in the name of fourteen-year-old August and east to LONDON by November. Dauphin Charles (see CHARLES VII), removed Winter brought a slackening of the initial another rival for power by exiling Queen outbreak, but also saw the first appearance of ISABEAU from Paris for plotting against the an even deadlier form of the disease, the regime. The queen escaped to Troyes, where pneumonic plague, which spread rapidly she set up a rival government in alliance from person to person by exhalation. The

53 ‘‘BLACK MONDAY’’ epidemic was most intense in the summer of War recruitment was only slightly af- 1349 before finally fading away in 1350. In fected by the plague. The high mortality France, mortality rates were especially high rates in French towns made them more dif- in the south, where a warmer climate and ficult to defend, since manning the walls war-ravaged populations fostered the was the citizens’ duty, and the English had spread of the disease. Perhaps half the pop- some difficulty recruiting ARCHERS in the ulation of BORDEAUX succumbed, while Paris early 1350s. However, the nobility and gen- and Rheims in the north lost about one- try—the men who comprised the bulk of the quarter of their residents. In England, where armies in both countries—were better fed, a cooler climate may have promoted spread clothed, and housed than the lower classes of the pneumonic form, the mortality rates and so suffered lower death rates. The high were generally higher than in France. Over mortality among the young in the 1340s may 40 percent of the rural population of south- have caused a shortage of recruits in the ern England may have died, and rates were mid-1360s, but there were no major recruit- likely higher in London and the larger towns. ing problems in either kingdom in the 1350s. The war largely ceased during the height For instance, the army Edward III raised for of the plague in 1348 and 1349. EDWARD III, the RHEIMS CAMPAIGN of 1359 was one of the who likely could not have afforded a new largest of the war. Thus, once the plague campaign, proposed that the Truce of CALAIS passed and campaigning resumed in the be extended and PHILIP VI dropped plans for mid-1350s, lack of finance and supply, rather an invasion of England and for a resumption than plague-induced manpower shortages, of the war in BRITTANY and AQUITAINE.As had the greatest impact on the size and fre- royal courts fled to country air and ministers quency of campaigns. or officials either dispersed or died, gov- Further Reading: Gottfried, Robert S. The Black ernment ceased to function and taxes went Death: Natural and Human Disaster in Medieval uncollected. In terms of the war, the most Europe. New York: Free Press, 1985; Herlihy, serious consequence of the plague in France David. The Black Death and the Transformation of was the disruption of royal finances. The the West. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Black Death caused the demand for land Press, 1997; Twigg, Graham. The Black Death: A and food to fall and for agricultural labor to Biological Reappraisal. London: Batsford, 1984; rise. Since the Crown was the premier Ziegler, Philip. The Black Death. New York: landowner and financed the war through Harper and Row, 1969. taxes imposed on other landowners, the plague-related declines in noble and eccle- ‘‘BLACK MONDAY.’’ See RHEIMS CAM- siastical incomes precipitated a severe fiscal PAIGN crisis in France in the 1350s. To compensate for a shrinking tax base, the government BLACK PRINCE. See EDWARD, THE BLACK raised rates and devised new taxes, actions PRINCE that only provoked taxpayer resistance, especially during the period of political BOHUN, WILLIAM DE, EARL OF instability that followed the defeat and NORTHAMPTON (c. 1312–1360) capture of JOHN II at POITIERS in 1356 (see William de Bohun, first earl of North- JACQUERIE). In England, where the systems of ampton, a cousin and confidant of EDWARD assessment and collection were more effi- III, was twice king’s lieutenant in BRITTANY cient, and the country free of armies, ROU- during the BRETON CIVIL WAR and a leading TIERS, and political turmoil, taxes continued English commander during the first phase of to be gathered at preplague rates and tax- the HUNDRED YEARS WAR. payer discontent was suppressed until the The fifth son of Humphrey de Bohun, earl 1380s by close cooperation between Crown of Hereford and Essex, and Elizabeth, the and nobility (see PEASANTS’ REVOLT OF 1381). daughter of EDWARD I, Bohun was one of the

54 BORDEAUX royal favorites who, in October 1330, seized gotiations, Northampton was reappointed Roger Mortimer, earl of March, at Notting- lieutenant in Brittany on 24 April 1345. He ham Castle, thereby initiating the personal fought at CRE´ CY in August 1346 and served rule of Edward III. Bohun fought in SCOT- at the siege of CALAIS until January 1347, LAND in the early 1330s, and in 1336 nego- when he again resigned the Breton lieuten- tiated an Anglo-Scottish truce. In 1332, ancy to conduct negotiations with the Bohun received lands formerly held by the French and Flemings. Admitted to the Order king’s uncle, Thomas of Brotherton, earl of of the GARTER in September 1349, North- Norfolk, and in 1335 married Elizabeth, the ampton returned to Scotland in the 1350s, widow of March’s heir, who thereby serving as warden of the marches, admiral brought Bohun not only a portion of her of the northern fleet, and commander of father’s estates but also her Mortimer dower Carlisle. In 1359–60, the earl returned to lands. On 16 March 1337, Bohun was en- France, serving in the RHEIMS CAMPAIGN and nobled as earl of Northampton, one of six witnessing the signing of the Treaty of BRE´ - new earls created to enlarge the number of TIGNY. He died on 16 September 1360. English aristocrats capable of providing Further Reading: Jones, Michael. ‘‘Edward III’s military leadership in the coming war with Captains in Brittany.’’ In Between France and France. To support this new dignity, the earl England: Politics, Power and Society in Late Medieval received future rights in various lordships Brittany, 98–118. Burlington, VT: Ashgate Publish- and an annuity from the customs revenue of ing Company, 2003; Sumption, Jonathan.The LONDON and Essex to maintain himself until Hundred Years War. Vol. 1, Trial by Battle. Philadel- these properties came into his possession. phia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1999. Northampton negotiated for Edward with the French and with prospective allies in the BONIFACE VIII. See PAPACY AND THE Low Countries in 1337–38, and, in the latter HUNDRED YEARS WAR year, was the king’s liaison to the council in England. He fought in the 1339 campaigns in northern France (see THIE´ RACHE CAM- BORDEAUX PAIGN) and in the June 1340 naval battle at Located on the Gironde River in south- SLUYS, for which campaign he loaned the western France, the city of Bordeaux was the king £800. In July 1340, he was briefly de- seat of PLANTAGENET government in AQUI- tained in Brussels as a hostage for the king’s TAINE. Although the frequent objective of extensive debts and only avoided further French campaigns in the fourteenth century, confinement by absconding for England Bordeaux remained under English control with Edward in November. Northampton until 1453, when its fall to the French sig- spoke on the king’s behalf with John STRAT- naled the end of the HUNDRED YEARS WAR. FORD, archbishop of Canterbury, during the Originally a Gallic settlement that evolved political CRISIS OF 1340–1341, and was one of into a major commercial center of Roman the peers named to hear the royal charges Gaul, Bordeaux became the capital of Aqui- leveled against Stratford’s administration. taine in about 630. The city and duchy came Appointed king’s lieutenant in Brittany on to the Plantagenets in 1152, when Eleanor, 20 July 1342, Northampton raised the siege duchess of Aquitaine, married Henry, count of Brest and defeated CHARLES OF BLOIS, the of Anjou, the future Henry II of England. French-backed candidate for the ducal title, Although much of Henry’s continental em- at MORLAIX on 30 September. He then laid pire was lost to the House of CAPET after siege to Nantes before resigning the lieuten- 1204, Bordeaux remained under English rule ancy on 2 April 1343 to take part in peace as the capital of GASCONY, the portion of talks proposed by CLEMENT VI as part of the Aquitaine never retaken by the French Truce of MALESTROIT (see AVIGNON PEACE Crown. In the thirteenth century, increasing CONFERENCE). With the collapse of these ne- English importation of the red wine of

55 BORDEAUX, TRUCE OF

Bordeaux created a strong economic link with John TALBOT, earl of Shrewsbury, when between the town and the merchant com- he retook the town in October 1452. How- munity of LONDON. Bordeaux was briefly ever, Shrewsbury’s defeat at CASTILLON in seized by PHILIP IV during the ANGLO- the following July led to the surrender of FRENCH WAR OF 1294–1303, but its citizens Bordeaux on 19 October 1453, an act that had little taste for French rule and the town effectively ended English Aquitaine and the held out for EDWARD II during the War of Hundred Years War. SAINT-SARDOS in the 1320s. Further Reading: Labarge, Margaret Wade. With the start of the Hundred Years War Gascony, England’s First Colony, 1204–1453. Lon- in 1337, Aquitaine became a main theater of don: H. Hamilton, 1980. conflict and Bordeaux an important staging center for English campaigns in the south- BORDEAUX, TRUCE OF (1357) west. In July 1339, Jean d’Marigny, bishop Concluded in BORDEAUX on 23 March 1357 by Beauvais, attacked Bordeaux with a force of representatives of the captive French king, almost fifteen thousand. The French were JOHN II, and those of his captor, EDWARD, THE admitted by sympathizers within the walls BLACK PRINCE, the Truce of Bordeaux ended and the town seemed about to fall when Anglo-French hostilities for two years. The Oliver Ingham, the English commander, or- purpose of the truce was to preserve the ganized a counterattack and drove the territorial status quo until a secret peace French out. Unprepared for a long siege, agreement negotiated by the prince and his while the town and garrison could be read- royal captive could be ratified by EDWARD III. ily supplied by water, the bishop abandoned Because this agreement represented John’s the siege on 19 July. repudiation of the reformist regime that had In the 1340s, Bordeaux was the base of seized power in PARIS since his captivity, operations for the Gascon campaigns of neither the truce nor the accompanying treaty HENRY OF GROSMONT, duke of Lancaster, and ever took effect. in the winter of 1347–48, the BLACK DEATH Following John’s capture at POITIERS in devastated Bordeaux, which may have suf- September 1356, discontent with the Crown’s fered a mortality rate of nearly 70 percent. In conduct of the war led many in France to the 1360s, EDWARD, THE BLACK PRINCE, es- demand a thoroughgoing reform of the royal tablished his court at Bordeaux, from where administration. Led by Robert le Coq, bishop he ruled the enlarged duchy of Aquitaine of Laon, a royal opponent and associate of created by the Treaty of BRE´TIGNY. The CHARLES THE BAD, king of Navarre, and by prince’s son, the future RICHARD II, was born E´ tienne MARCEL, provost of the merchants in at Bordeaux in January 1367. Although the Paris, the Estates-General demanded reform French retook much of the duchy after 1369, of the government and more vigorous pros- when CHARLES V resumed the war by ac- ecution of the war. By early 1357, the as- cepting the APPEAL OF THE GASCON LORDS, sembly forced the dauphin (see CHARLES V) to Bordeaux remained English, withstanding accept a sweeping reform ordinance, which even Bertrand du GUESCLIN’s 1377 cam- removed the government from the control of paign, which brought VALOIS forces within a professional administrators and jurists and day’s march of the city. placed it in the hands of noblemen primarily In the fifteenth century, the war shifted to interested in winning the war and friends of NORMANDY and northern France; Bordeaux Charles of Navarre primarily interested in was unsuccessfully besieged in 1438, but bringing him to power. otherwise saw little military activity until 30 Frightened by news of events in Paris, June 1451, when the city fell to the armies of where the new regime seemed uninterested CHARLES VII. Preferring distant English rule in negotiating for his RANSOM and release, to the more invasive authority of the French John, convinced that his son was no longer a Crown, the citizens of Bordeaux cooperated free agent, decided to take matters into his

56 BOURGES, TREATY OF own hands. In early March 1357, a new DON,FIRST TREATY OF;LONDON,SECOND peace conference opened in Bordeaux, TREATY OF). See also ESTATES,GENERAL AND where John was being held in honorable PROVINCIAL. confinement. Ignoring the Paris govern- Further Reading: Sumption, Jonathan. The ment, the king nominated his own ambas- Hundred Years War. Vol. 2, Trial by Fire. Philadel- sadors. Eight of the eleven men selected phia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2001. were fellow prisoners, while the other three were royal ministers dismissed by the new BOURGES, KINGDOM OF. See CHARLES regime. After brief negotiations, a peace VII treaty was concluded with the prince’s rep- resentatives on 18 March. Because no copy BOURGES, TREATY OF (1412) of the agreement has survived, its exact Concluded on 18 May 1412, during a period terms are unknown, but given John’s desire of formal truce between England and for a quick release and the prince’s ready France, the Treaty of Bourges allied HENRY acceptance, the treaty likely contained sub- IV of England with a French political faction stantial territorial concessions to the House then contending for control of the French of PLANTAGENET. Fearing an adverse reaction king and government. Although the agree- in Paris, the parties were anxious to keep the ment promised substantial territorial con- agreement secret until Edward could ap- cessions, it failed to bring the English prove it. To protect the treaty from any immediate gains. It did, however, whet En- changes in the military situation that might glish appetites for French RANSOMS and con- occur in the meantime, the parties, on 23 vince the English leadership that advantage March, also agreed to a truce, which was to could be won by exploiting French disunity hold for all of France until Easter 1359. The and reopening the HUNDRED YEARS WAR. agreement also declared that neither party In November 1407, shortly after arranging would be deemed to have broken the truce if the murder of his rival and cousin, LOUIS, any of their partisans continued to fight, DUKE OF ORLE´ ANS, brother of CHARLES VI, provided that the Crowns gave no support JOHN THE FEARLESS, duke of BURGUNDY, fled to such disobedient subordinates. PARIS. Popular with the Parisians, Burgundy Three of John’s ambassadors were im- returned to the capital in 1408 and won the mediately paroled and sent to Paris with king’s pardon. By 1411, he controlled the royal letters-patent announcing the truce royal administration. The leaders of the Or- (but not the treaty) and commanding all le´ans faction—now known as ARMAGNACS,a subjects to observe it. The king also issued name derived from BERNARD, COUNT OF AR- an odd directive commanding all French MAGNAC, the father-in-law of the murdered taxpayers to refuse payment of the war tax duke’s son—assembled an army and be- recently approved by the Estates-General. sieged the capital. Turning to Henry IV for All contrary ordinances or declarations of help, Burgundy agreed to wed his daughter either the Estates or the dauphin were to be to the prince of Wales, to surrender four ignored. News of the truce threw Paris into FLANDERS towns to the English, and to assist turmoil. Led by le Coq and Marcel, the Es- in the eventual conquest of NORMANDY in tates forced the dauphin to officially coun- return for twenty-eight hundred English termand his father’s orders on 10 April. By ARCHERS and men-at-arms. With this English the time John landed in England on 5 May, force and three thousand Parisian militia, the treaty concluded in Bordeaux was ef- Burgundy captured the fortress at Saint- fectively dead and the truce, while officially Cloud and broke the Armagnac blockade in in effect, went largely unobserved through- October 1411. out much of France. In LONDON, the two Now totally excluded from the royal gov- kings reopened negotiations, producing two ernment, the leading Armagnac princes— more failed agreements by 1359 (see LON- JOHN,DUKE OF BERRY, the sole surviving

57 BOWMEN brother of CHARLES V; CHARLES,DUKE OF OR- as HENRY V, that the French princes were LE´ANS, the son of Burgundy’s slain rival; murderously divided against themselves Charles D’ALBRET, the constable of France; and willing to make almost any concession John, Duke of Bourbon; John, Duke of Alen- for aid in defeating their rivals. See also c¸on; and Armagnac himself—approached GASCONY. Henry IV with even more attractive terms Further Reading: Allmand, Christopher. Henry than those conceded by Burgundy. The V. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1993; princes offered to recognize the English Perroy, Edouard. The Hundred Years War. Trans. king’s right to the duchy of AQUITAINE and W. B. Wells. New York: Capricorn Books, 1965; promised to support his efforts to recover the Seward, Desmond. The Hundred Years War. New duchy. They also agreed to hold certain of York: Penguin, 1999; Vaughan, Richard. John the their lands as fiefs of the king of England and Fearless. London: Longman, 1979. to cede twenty Gascon towns and castles (not in their possession) to Henry. In return for BOWMEN. See ARCHERS these concessions, Henry promised to make no agreements with Burgundy and to send BRE´ TIGNY, TREATY OF (1360) four thousand archers and men-at-arms to Concluded on 8 May 1360 at the village of assist his allies against the duke. In July 1412, Bre´tigny near Chartres, the Anglo-French two months after the conclusion of the Treaty Treaty of Bre´tigny ended the first phase of of Bourges, Henry’s second son, THOMAS, the HUNDRED YEARS WAR. Considered at the DUKE OF CLARENCE, led the agreed-upon force time and by later historians to be a victory to France. for EDWARD III and a disaster for VALOIS Burgundy reacted to the treaty by sending France, the treaty was never fully im- a royal and Burgundian army to besiege plemented and war resumed within a de- Bourges, the capital of the duchy of Berry. cade of its signing. The success of this campaign and Burgun- Since the capture of JOHN II at POITIERS in dy’s issuance of a royal letter ordering all 1356, Edward III had negotiated two abortive French princes (including Burgundy) to treaties with the French, the First and Second disavow any agreements with the English Treaties of LONDON. Both agreements foun- overthrew the Bourges alliance and isolated dered on the French inability to meet Ed- Clarence in Normandy. With the Treaty of ward’s RANSOM demands for John’s release Auxerre, the VALOIS princes effected a sol- and on their unwillingness to accept Ed- emn reconciliation within the royal family ward’s territorial demands for almost half of and the FRENCH CIVIL WAR seemed at last to France in full sovereignty. To force the French be over. to accept a settlement on his terms, Edward Before leading his army on a destruc- launched the RHEIMS CAMPAIGN in October tive CHEVAUCHE´E to English-held BORDEAUX, 1359. One of the largest campaigns of the war, Clarence extracted ransom from the French the march on Rheims aimed at having Ed- princes, including handsome individual ward crowned king of France at the tradi- payments for himself and the other English tional coronation site of French monarchs. leaders. By the Treaty of BUZANC¸AIS, the However, the English were unable to take Armagnac leaders bought off Clarence for Rheims and the campaign, bedeviled by bad the sum of 150,000 e´cus, with 66,000 e´cus weather, lack of supply, and the French re- paid immediately by Berry and the rest fusal to fight a pitched battle, ended in failure guaranteed by the surrender of seven hos- in April 1360, forcing Edward to modify his tages, including Orle´ans’s younger brother. demands and seek the best settlement he Although the Bourges agreement had not could get. As a result, an English delegation, brought the English the rewards it prom- led by EDWARD, THE BLACK PRINCE,andHENRY ised, the treaty had revealed to the ambi- OF GROSMONT, duke of Lancaster, met John’s tious prince of Wales, who was soon to rule representatives at Bre´tigny on 1 May.

58 BRETON CIVIL WAR

Although Dauphin Charles, believing the ratification never occurred and the chief English could no longer continue their cam- terms of the treaty were thus nullified. The paign, was reluctant to treat with them, John reasons for this failure to ratify the charter was eager to win his release and the final are unclear. Edward may have wanted legal agreement was largely the work of his ad- grounds to resume the war and the French visors, not the dauphin’s. With both sides Crown, should he decide to do so, and John desiring a quick settlement, the main terms may have been simply unwilling to part of the treaty were agreed by 3 May. In return forever with the ceded lands. In January for renouncing his claim to the French 1364, John returned to LONDON, ostensibly to throne, Edward received territory amount- expunge the dishonor brought upon him ing to one-third of France in full sovereignty. when Anjou broke parole, but perhaps also In the southwest, an enlarged AQUITAINE in- to personally negotiate a reduction of his cluded Poitou, Saintonge, Quercy, Rouergue, ransom, which had fallen seriously in ar- and the Agenais; and in the north, the rears. When John died in London in April, PLANTAGENET holdings included , implementation of the Bre´tigny settlement Montreuil, and CALAIS. Although a signifi- fell to the dauphin, now CHARLES V, who cant concession by the French, these territo- had never supported it. In 1369, Charles re- ries also represented a significant reduction sumed the war and effectively renounced in Edward’s demands, which had earlier the treaty by accepting the APPEAL OF THE included the former Plantagenet possessions GASCON LORDS and thereby declaring Valois of NORMANDY,BRITTANY, Maine, Anjou, and sovereignty over Aquitaine. Touraine. Edward also agreed to surrender Further Reading: Allmand, Christopher. The all English-held castles and fortresses in Hundred Years War. Cambridge: Cambridge Uni- areas remaining under Valois control and to versity Press, 1988; Curry, Anne. The Hundred forego any alliance with FLANDERS while the Years War. 2nd ed. Houndmills, England: Pal- French agreed to end the ‘‘Auld Alliance’’ grave Macmillan, 2003; Le Patourel, John. ‘‘The with SCOTLAND (see FRANCO-SCOTTISH ALLI- Treaty of Bre´tigny, 1360.’’ Transactions of the Royal ANCE). Historical Society, 5th ser., 10 (1960): 19–39; Sump- John’s ransom was set at 3 million e´cus tion, Jonathan. The Hundred Years War. Vol. 2, Trial (about £500,000), another reduction of En- by Fire. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania glish demands, and was to include sixteen Press, 2001. prominent French prisoners taken at Poi- tiers. The French were to pay 600,000 e´cus BRETON CIVIL WAR (1341–1365) before the king’s release and the rest in six Initiated by the death of Duke John III in annual installments, payment of which was 1341 and ended by conclusion of the Treaty to be secured by the giving of hostages, in- of GUE´ RANDE in 1365, the Breton civil war, cluding John’s sons LOUIS, DUKE OF ANJOU, the result of a bitter succession dispute in and JOHN, DUKE OF BERRY. The two kings the duchy of BRITTANY, was prolonged and ratified the treaty at Calais (thus the settle- intensified by its incorporation into the ment is sometimes called the Treaty of Ca- HUNDRED YEARS WAR. By intervening in the lais) on 24 October, after which John was Breton conflict on behalf of one of the claim- released. The two most important provisions ants, EDWARD III gained a new front upon of the agreement—the French renunciations which to attack the VALOIS. of sovereignty over the ceded territories and John III died childless on 30 April 1341, the English renunciation of the French leaving two possible candidates for the Crown—were embodied in a separate char- ducal title—his niece, Jeanne de Penthie`vre, ter known, from its opening words, as the who was married to CHARLES OF BLOIS,a C’est Assavoir. This document was to be rat- nephew of PHILIP VI of France, and his half ified upon completion of the territorial brother, John de MONTFORT. In May, Mont- transfers or by November 1361. In fact, the fort, who was not well known in Brittany,

59 BRETON CIVIL WAR

nephew secure his new duchy. In October, Montfort concluded a treaty of alliance with Edward, agreeing to accept PLANTAGENET overlordship in return for military aid. However, before English troops could arrive, a French army commanded by John, duke of NORMANDY (see JOHN II), invaded Brittany and defeated Montfort, who surrendered Nantes on 2 No- vember. With her husband imprisoned in Paris, and Blois installed as duke, Montfort’s wife, Jeanne de FLAN- DERS, assumed leadership of the Montfortist cause, holding various strongpoints until the landing, in April 1342, of an English army commanded by ROBERT OF ARTOIS and William de BOHUN, earl of Northampton. Known as the ‘‘war of the two Joans,’’ because of the leading roles played by Jeanne de Penthie`vre and Jeanne de Flanders, this period of conflict split Brittany between the factions, opened the door to outside intervention, and ended any hope of a quick settle- The English, on the left with their leopard standard, and the ment. When Montfort died in 1345, French, on the right with their fleur-de-lys standard, fight a Edward assumed guardianship of battle during the Breton civil war in this illustration from the his son and leadership of his cause. Chronicles of Jean Froissart. Erich Lessing/Art Resource, Thus, the Breton war, now an ex- New York. tension of the Anglo-French war, became an endless, bloody af- arrived at Nantes, the ducal capital, and fair. Most of Breton-speaking western Brit- proclaimed himself duke. He received only tany, many of the towns, and a majority of qualified acceptance from the Breton nobil- the gentry supported Montfort, while the ity, especially in the pro-French eastern re- French-speaking eastern districts, the clergy, gion, where a military campaign was re- and most of the nobility backed Blois. quired to enforce his authority. Blois On 30 September 1342, Northampton appealed to his uncle for help, but received fought Blois to a standstill at MORLAIX, no response until August, when rumors that thereby establishing an English foothold in Montfort was negotiating with the English the duchy and denying Blois a quick victory. led Philip to summon him to PARIS. Ordered In January 1343, with the Breton conflict stale- not to leave the capital, Montfort fled to mated, Edward and Philip accepted the Brittany, where he immediately sought papal-mediated Truce of MALESTROIT,which English assistance. On 7 September, the allowed Pope CLEMENT VI to convene the PARLEMENT declared in favor of Blois and AVIGNON PEACE CONFERENCE in 1344. Because Philip began gathering an army to help his neither king had firm control over his Breton

60 BRIGNAIS, BATTLE OF allies, fighting between the factions continued Treaty of Gue´rande with Jeanne de Pen- throughout the conference, which ended in thie`vre, thus ending the war. Now re- failure in 1345. On 20 June 1347, an Anglo- cognized as Duke JOHN IV by his rival and Breton force under Sir Thomas DAGWORTH, by CHARLES V of France, Montfort did hom- the English governor in Brittany, defeated age to the latter while maintaining friendly and captured Blois at LA ROCHE-DERRIEN.Be- relations with England. For the remainder cause Blois’s partisans refused to capitulate or of the Anglo-French war, the Breton dukes accept any agreement made by him for his strove to maintain military neutrality and release, the civil war continued. In March political independence. 1351, the COMBAT OF THE THIRTY, one of the Further Reading: Jones, Michael. Between most famous episodes of the Hundred Years France and England: Politics, Power and Society in War, was fought between members of nearby Late Medieval Brittany. Burlington, VT: Ashgate English and French garrisons in Brittany, and Publishing Company, 2003; Jones, Michael. The included such noted warriors as Sir Robert Creation of Brittany: A Late Medieval State. London: KNOLLES and Sir Hugh CALVELEY.On14Au- Hambledon Press, 1988; Sumption, Jonathan. The gust 1352, Sir Walter BENTLEY, Dagworth’s Hundred Years War. Vol. 2, Trial by Fire. Philadel- successor, won at major victory at MAURON, phia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2001. which largely ended direct French involve- ment in the civil war, but not the war itself. BRIGNAIS, BATTLE OF (1362) The reason for this was explained in a mem- The Battle of Brignais, a shocking defeat orandum Bentley had sent to LONDON earlier of French royal forces by a ROUTIER army in the year. By the 1350s, the English were temporarily formed by the free companies of fighting the Breton war mainly through hired southeastern France, was fought on 6 April ROUTIER captains who were ostensibly under 1362 outside the castle of Brignais near the authority of the English governor. In his Lyon. Although a terrible blow to the au- memo, Bentley complained that most of these thority and confidence of JOHN II’s govern- captains supported themselves and their men ment, and a cause of great panic in eastern through the exaction of PAˆ TIS and thus were France, the battle was quickly followed by effectively beyond his control and that of the the break-up of the routier force and was king. Although the English were largely in thus of little political consequence. How- the ascendant in Brittany in the late 1350s, the ever, the defeat forced the French Crown to civil war between the supporters of Blois and continue military reforms leading to the Montfort continued unabated. creation of a salaried standing army that In 1360, Brittany was excluded from the proved more effective against both the rou- provisions of the Treaty of BRE´TIGNY and tiers and the English. both Crowns now proclaimed neutrality in When Philip de Rouvre, the fifteen-year- the ongoing civil war. Finally released in old duke of BURGUNDY, died without heirs in August 1356, Blois kept his promise not to November 1361, John II annexed the wealthy take up arms against Edward until 1362, duchy to the French Crown. The king’s an- when the English king terminated his guard- nouncement was greeted with gloom in the ianship and allowed Montfort’s son to re- duchy, where the plague was rife, the nobil- turn to Brittany. Assisted by Bertrand du ity were suspicious of their new overlord, GUESCLIN, Blois launched a series of cam- and elements of the GREAT COMPANY, a con- paigns that culminated in September 1364 stantly shifting combination of routier bands, with an attempt to relieve the besieged town were threatening the southern border. In of AURAY. In the resulting battle, an Anglo- January 1362, the king ordered local peasants Breton force led by Sir John CHANDOS slew to bring themselves and their goods inside Blois and captured du Guesclin. With Blois the nearest walled town or fortress and dead, most of his supporters submitted to placed Burgundy and the eastern provinces Montfort, who in April 1365 concluded the under the military command of Jean de

61 BRITTANY

Melun, count of Tancarville, who by 1380, these new armies had regained much mid-March had gathered an army of about of AQUITAINE from the English and largely four thousand men comprising the military suppressed the routiers. strength of Burgundy and the surrounding Further Reading: Sumption, Jonathan. The provinces. Tancarville marched south and Hundred Years War.Vol.2,Trial by Fire.Philadel- laid siege to the small castle of Brignais, phia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2001. which was held by a detachment from the company of He´lie (or Petit) Meschin, who, BRITTANY with Garciot du Chaˆtel, an associate of the Occupying a long peninsula with an ex- brigand leader Se´guin de BADEFOL; Perrin tensive Channel coastline lying opposite Boias; and other routier captains, was a leader western Britain, the duchy of Brittany was of the Great Company. Although Brignais one of the most politically and culturally was of little importance, the brigand leaders distinctive regions of medieval France. Dur- could not ignore the threat from Tancarville, ing the Edwardian phase of the HUNDRED especially since another royal army under YEARS WAR, Brittany experienced a long and Arnoul d’AUDREHEM was advancing on them bloody succession struggle that made it a from the south. By early April, Meschin and major theater of Anglo-French conflict. For other routier leaders had collected a force of over a century thereafter, Breton dukes pre- about five thousand north of Lyon. served the independence of their duchy by Early on the morning of 6 April, the Great carefully maintaining ties with England and Company caught the royal army totally France without firmly adhering to either one. unawares. Being contemptuous of the com- In the fifth and sixth centuries, migrants panies, Tancarville and his fellow com- from Cornwall and Wales settled the western mander, Jacques de Bourbon, count of La portion of the old Roman province of Ar- Marche, had made no reconnaissance of the morica, thus giving rise to the name ‘‘Brit- area or taken few precautions to defend the tany,’’ which first appears in the late sixth camp. The royal forces were overrun before century in the writings of Gregory of Tours. they could fully arm; over a thousand were With strong similarities to Welsh and Cor- captured, including Tancarville, and most of nish, the Breton language, as well as the the rest were slain, including La Marche, survival of British religious and social tradi- who died of his wounds after the battle. tions, differentiated the Bretons from their The royal government was stunned by Frankish-Latin neighbors throughout the news of the defeat and eastern France was Middle Ages. In the late ninth century, a thrown into turmoil, with all localities daily Breton ruler illustrated his independence expecting the arrival of the Great Company. from the Carolingian kings to the east by However, the routier commanders could not calling himself rex (king) in his charters and hold their forces together once the battle was by creating an autonomous Breton arch- won. They paroled Tancarville and agreed bishopric for the Breton Church. By the late to a truce to last until 26 May. By then, talks eleventh century, much of Brittany ac- between the routiers and the government knowledged Norman overlordship, and in having broken down, and the Great Com- the twelfth century, Henry II, first English pany having dissolved into its constituent king of the and duke parts, the immediate danger had passed of NORMANDY, brought the duchy into his without further consequences to the gov- family by marrying his son Geoffrey to ernment, although Burgundy and its neigh- Constance, the daughter and heiress of bors continued to be plagued by bands of Henry’s vassal Conan IV, duke of Brittany. routiers. However, the shock of Brignais On Conan’s death in 1166, Henry assumed helped spur reforms that resulted in new control of the duchy on behalf of his young taxes to fund new standing armies during son. In 1203, Henry’s son John murdered his the reign of CHARLES V. By Charles’s death in nephew Arthur, who, as the son of John’s

62 BRUGES PEACE CONFERENCE elder brother, had claims to both Brittany French kings and the papacy did not apply to and England. In 1212, Philip II of France Brittany. brought Brittany under Capetian overlord- In the fifteenth century, John V remained ship (see CAPET,HOUSE OF) by marrying his aloof from the Anglo-French war, shifting kinsman, Peter Mauclerc, to Arthur’s ma- allegiance from one party to the other as cir- ternal half sister, Alix. Thus, over the next cumstances dictated. In 1422, he acknowl- century, the penetration into Brittany of edged the Treaty of TROYES making HENRY V French language and culture gradually in- heir to the French throne. In 1423, he joined creased. with JOHN, DUKE OF BEDFORD, and PHILIP THE The death of Duke John III in April 1341, GOOD, duke of BURGUNDY, in the anti-French five years after the start of the Hundred Treaty of AMIENS, but later repudiated that Years War, initiated the BRETON CIVIL WAR agreement and thereafter gradually in- (1341–1365), a bitter succession dispute be- creased Breton neutrality. After his accession tween John’s niece, Jeanne de Penthie`vre, in 1458, as England descended into civil war, and his half brother, John de MONTFORT. Duke Francis II came under increasing pres- When PHILIP VI, as feudal suzerain, decided sure to submit to French overlordship. In the question in favor of Jeanne and her hus- 1488, only months before the duke’s death, band, CHARLES OF BLOIS, who was Philip’s Charles VIII attacked Brittany. Now ruled by nephew, Montfort allied himself with ED- Francis’s daughter Anne, Brittany capitu- WARD III, who, after Montfort’s death in 1345, lated in 1491, when Anne, despite English assumed guardianship of Montfort’s son and objections, agreed to marry Charles and ac- leadership of his cause. In 1362, Edward cept gradual incorporation of Brittany into terminated his guardianship and allowed the French state. In 1532, in return for the young Montfort to return to Brittany and Crown’s promise to protect the duchy’s an- press his own claims. After defeating and cient liberties, the Breton estates voted for killing Blois at AURAY in September 1364, perpetual union with France. Montfort concluded the Treaty of GUE´RANDE Further Reading: Galliou, Patrick, and Michael with his cousin. Jeanne recognized Montfort C. E. Jones. The Bretons. Oxford: Blackwell, 1991; as Duke JOHN IV, while the new duke ren- Jones, Michael. Between France and England: dered homage to CHARLES V of France. Al- Politics, Power and Society in Late Medieval Brittany. though John maintained generally good re- Burlington, VT: Ashgate Publishing Company, lations with England, with which Brittany 2003; Jones, Michael. The Creation of Brittany: A had strong economic ties, the Breton nobility Late Medieval State. London: Hambledon Press, developed a strong pro-French element, 1988; Jones, Michael. Ducal Brittany, 1364–1399. with such Breton noblemen as Bertrand du London: Oxford University Press, 1970. GUESCLIN, Olivier de CLISSON, and Arthur de Richemont (see ARTHUR III) entering French BRITTANY, DUKE OF. See ARTHUR III, service. However, after the accession of DUKE OF BRITTANY;CHARLES OF BLOIS,DUKE OF CHARLES VI in 1380 and the start of the BRITTANY;JOHN IV, DUKE OF BRITTANY;JOHN FRENCH CIVIL WAR after 1407, John IV and his V, DUKE OF BRITTANY son JOHN V took advantage of increasing French weakness to strengthen Breton in- BRUGES PEACE CONFERENCE dependence and national identity. Refusing (1375–1377) liege homage to the VALOIS, the Breton dukes Encouraged by the papacy and by their own established an elaborate court ceremonial to financial exhaustion, EDWARD III and enhance their own prestige, while collecting CHARLES V sent representatives to a peace taxes, administering justice, and conduct- conference that opened in Bruges in March ing foreign policy independent of the 1375. Although the negotiators came close to French Crown. The Breton Church was also a final settlement of the HUNDRED YEARS independent; any agreement between WAR, the old issue of sovereignty in AQUI-

63 BUCH, CAPTAL DE

TAINE proved insoluble, causing the talks to for the English willingness to reduce the end without agreement in 1377. remaining balance of JOHN II’s RANSOM. Upon becoming pope in 1370, Gregory XI, However, despite agreement on all these the nephew of CLEMENT VI, who had spon- issues, the question of sovereignty could not sored the abortive AVIGNON PEACE CON- be resolved. The English insisted that Ed- FERENCE in 1344, sought to effect an Anglo- ward’s territories, whatever their size, be French reconciliation as a prelude to his plan held in full sovereignty, while Charles was for returning the papacy to Rome. Gregory’s equally insistent that the Valois retain initial contacts with LONDON and PARIS, and overlordship of any Plantagenet provinces. with EDWARD, THE BLACK PRINCE,inBOR- Although the pope proposed a temporary DEAUX, and LOUIS, DUKE OF ANJOU, the royal sovereignty, whereby Aquitaine be wholly lieutenant of Languedoc in Toulouse, were English during the lifetimes of Edward and largely unsuccessful. Edward believed the the Black Prince and then revert to Valois Avignon popes had conspired with the overlordship, neither side would agree. For French to restart the war and Charles was Charles, such a plan would undermine his unwilling to halt the successful French justification for restarting the war, and for campaigns in GASCONY. Brief talks were held the English, with the king in his sixties and in CALAIS in 1372 and in Bruges in 1373, but the prince in poor health, their period of English demands for the French Crown sovereignty seemed likely to be brief. Al- or for restoration of the Treaty of BRE´TIGNY though talks continued for some time at could not be reconciled with French Bruges and elsewhere, agreement on the demands that Edward first surrender Calais sovereignty issue could not be reached and and the remainder of PLANTAGENET Gascony. the war resumed in 1377. See also PAPACY However, by 1375, the French campaign in AND THE HUNDRED YEARS WAR. the southwest had stalled and neither mon- Further Reading: Perroy, Edouard. The Hun- arch had the economic resources to continue dred Years War. Trans. W. B. Wells. New York: a long war, making some type of negotiated Capricorn Books, 1965. settlement more attractive to both parties. With LOUIS DE MALE, count of FLANDERS, acting as mediator and the archbishop of BUCH, CAPTAL DE. See GRAILLY,JEAN DE, Ravenna as president, a full peace con- CAPTAL DE BUCH ference opened at Bruges in March. Char- HILIP THE OLD UR- les’s brother, P B , duke of B BUCHAN, EARL OF. See STEWART,JOHN, GUNDY , led the French delegation, while EARL OF BUCHAN Edward’s son, JOHN OF GAUNT, duke of Lancaster, headed the English deputation. On 27 June, the parties concluded a one-year BUREAU, JOHN (d. 1463) truce, which was subsequently extended to Although a lawyer and administrator rather 1377. To obtain a final peace, the English than a military man, John Bureau, master of were willing to retreat from the Bre´tigny the king’s ARTILLERY, played a major role in agreement and accept a partition of the en- the last campaigns of the HUNDRED YEARS larged Aquitaine created in 1360, while the WAR. By modernizing and enlarging the French were willing to return some of their French supply of siege and field ordnance, recent conquests in the southwest. Either the and by expertly overseeing its deployment Aquitaine of 1360 could be divided equally and use, Bureau helped ensure the final ex- between Plantagenet and VALOIS, or Charles pulsion of the English from NORMANDY and could grant half his conquests as a fief to an GASCONY. English prince, with Edward retaining the Born in Champagne, Bureau came to unconquered portion of Gascony. Charles PARIS, where he studied law and became a was also willing to concede Calais in return legal officer in the city’s Lancastrian ad-

64 BURGHERSH, HENRY, BISHOP OF LINCOLN ministration. In 1434, Bureau left the capital OF DUNOIS, on campaign in Gascony. The and entered the service of CHARLES VII, who French artillery helped quickly reduce the appointed him receiver of Paris in 1436 and remaining English towns and fortresses, in- treasurer of France in 1443. Although he had cluding BORDEAUX, which fell on 30 June. no training as a soldier, Bureau had served When John TALBOT, earl of Shrewsbury, re- as a gunner for the English under JOHN, took the town for HENRY VI in the following DUKE OF BEDFORD. Perhaps sensing a fi- year, Bureau returned in 1453 with an army nancial opportunity, Bureau and his brother over which he shared command. It was Gaspard soon made themselves experts in Bureau who laid out the fortified camp the use of artillery, a branch of fifteenth- and directed the artillery that destroyed century military science that was largely in Shrewsbury and his army at CASTILLON in the hands of civilian specialists. Described July 1453 and thereby effectively ended the as a small man with a precise and practical Hundred Years War. As a reward for Bu- mind, Bureau may also have been naturally reau’s services, the king appointed him drawn to a field that required technical mayor of Bordeaux for life. Until his death in imagination and a willingness to adapt to Paris on 5 July 1463, Bureau continued to changing technology. Recognizing the im- serve both Charles and his son Louis XI in portance of the brothers’ expertise, Charles various administrative capacities. placed them in charge of the royal artillery, Further Reading: Seward, Desmond. The Hun- the quality and use of which they signif- dred Years War. New York: Penguin, 1999; Vale, icantly improved over the last two decades M. G. A. Charles VII. Berkeley: University of of the war. California Press, 1974. Deftly handled by Bureau, the royal guns quickly proved their worth at the sieges of numerous English-held towns—at Monter- BURGHERSH, HENRY, BISHOP OF eau in October 1437; at Meaux in the sum- LINCOLN (1292–1340) mer of 1439; and at PONTOISE, which capit- Henry Burghersh, bishop of Lincoln, was ulated in September 1441 after Bureau’s EDWARD III’s chief foreign policy advisor guns destroyed the fortified bridge that during the opening years of the HUNDRED protected the southern end of the town. YEARS WAR. Burghersh conducted Edward’s Bureau’s handling of the artillery was par- policy of negotiating alliances with princes ticularly important during the NORMAN in Germany and the Low Countries and was CAMPAIGN of 1449–50, when conquest of the therefore primarily responsible for creation duchy became largely a matter of reducing of the extensive ANTI-FRENCH COALITION of enemy strongholds. At the siege of Caen, 1337–38. Edmund BEAUFORT, duke of Somerset, sur- The third son of a noble family, rendered the town after one of Bureau’s Burghersh opted for an ecclesiastical career cannonballs smashed into the room occu- and undertook the study of civil and canon pied by the duke’s wife and children. At law. In 1320, EDWARD II named him bishop Cherbourg, Bureau determined that the of Lincoln, an appointment that owed much most advantageous placement of his guns to the influence of Burghersh’s uncle, Bar- was on the beach, which would be sub- tholomew, Lord Badlesmere. However, in merged each day by high tide. To solve the 1322, Badlesmere’s involvement in the un- problem, he had the weapons covered in successful rebellion against the king and his tallow and hides, in effect waterproofing favorites led to confiscation of the bishop’s them so that the bombardment could re- temporalities. Although eventually restored sume as soon as the tide receded. to Edward’s favor, Burghersh was among In 1451, Bureau, overseeing an artillery the first to join Queen Isabella (see ISABELLA, train that was said to contain three hundred QUEEN OF ENGLAND [c. 1292–1358]) in Sep- guns of all sizes, accompanied JOHN, COUNT tember 1326, when she returned from the

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Continent to overthrow her husband. In ments also bound Edward to pay some January 1327, Burghersh was one of the £160,000 in fees as well as the usual costs of commissioners sent to Kenilworth to secure war. Because these commitments were far Edward’s surrender of the Crown, and, in beyond the king’s means, payments fell into 1328, the bishop was appointed treasurer arrears, leading inevitably to desperate fi- and then chancellor of England. In June nancing schemes, such as the DORDRECHT 1329, Burghersh accompanied Edward III to BONDS, and to the eventual collapse of the Amiens, where the sixteen-year-old king did alliance. In 1339, as Edward realized the im- homage to PHILIP VI for the duchy of AQUI- possibility of meeting the financial obliga- TAINE. When disputes arose over the form of tions to which he was committed, the homage required, Burghersh, acting for the bishop’s influence declined. By the time of king, delivered a brief speech protesting the Burghersh’s death in Ghent on 2 December French demands and outlining the English 1340, many of Edward’s long unpaid allies position. When Edward seized power from had opened negotiations with France. See also his mother in October 1330, Burghersh, ANGLO-FLEMISH ALLIANCE. being too closely associated with the pre- Further Reading: Sumption, Jonathan. The vious regime, was imprisoned in the Tower Hundred Years War. Vol. 1, Trial by Battle. Philadel- of London and deprived of the chancellor- phia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1999. ship. Being a capable administrator and diplo- BURGUNDIANS mat, Burghersh was soon restored to favor, One of the political factions that fought the winning reappointment as treasurer in FRENCH CIVIL WAR, the Burgundian party 1334. By 1337, Burghersh, whom a contem- comprised adherents of the dukes of BUR- porary described as ‘‘an ingenious advisor, GUNDY, particularly those supporting the audacious and smooth’’ (Sumption, 194), political supremacy of JOHN THE FEARLESS became one of Edward’s most influential between 1404 and 1419. The Burgundians councilors, assuming prime responsibility were opposed by the ARMAGNACS, a faction for the implementation of foreign policy. derived from supporters of LOUIS, DUKE OF Having decided upon war with France and ORLE´ ANS, chief rival of the dukes of Bur- the creation of a grand anti-French alliance, gundy for paramount influence within the Edward left negotiation of the necessary royal government. After 1420, the ANGLO- agreements largely to Burghersh, who, being BURGUNDIAN ALLIANCE created by the Treaty an ambitious man with few scruples, prom- of TROYES fostered development of an in- ised whatever was necessary to carry out the dependent Burgundy and maintained Lan- royal will. In March 1338, the bishop nego- castrian rule in NORMANDY and northern tiated a favorable treaty with the new rev- France for two decades. olutionary government of FLANDERS; the PHILIP THE BOLD, first VALOIS duke of agreement effectively committed the prov- Burgundy, became a dominant figure in the ince to neutrality in the coming Anglo- royal government in 1380, when his nephew French war and thereby deprived Philip of CHARLES VI ascended the throne. Following Flemish manpower and ports. In May 1338, the onset of the king’s schizophrenia in 1392, Burghersh delivered Edward’s formal dec- the duke filled the royal administration with laration of war to Philip in PARIS. men devoted to his interests. Although Throughout 1337 and 1338, Burghersh Burgundy’s position was increasingly chal- negotiated a series of agreements with var- lenged by LOUIS, DUKE OF ORLE´ ANS, Charles’s ious princes, including the German emperor, younger brother, the dukes’ rivalry did not Ludwig of Bavaria; the duke of Brabant; the become violent until after Burgundy’s death margrave of Juliers; and the counts of Hai- in 1404. Because John, the new duke of nault and Guelders. Although theoretically Burgundy, lacked his father’s experience creating a large anti-French army, the agree- and authority, Orle´ans, in alliance with

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Queen ISABEAU, was able to frustrate many Excluded from power, Burgundy with- of his rival’s plans and ambitions. In drew to his domains until 1418, taking no consequence, Burgundy arranged Orle´ans’s part in the interval in negotiations with murder in November 1407. In early 1408, HENRY V, in the AGINCOURT campaign, or in Burgundy, taking advantage of the king’s the defense of Normandy and ROUEN (see mental instability, returned to court, where NORMAN CAMPAIGN [1417–1419]). Anxious he issued the JUSTIFICATION OF THE DUKE OF only to regain power in Paris, Burgundy BURGUNDY, a document that, by way of supported the queen when she fled the ca- condoning Burgundy’s action, brazenly de- pital in 1417 after quarreling with her sur- tailed the many alleged crimes and enor- viving son Charles, who was now dauphin mities of Orle´ans. When public opinion and nominal leader of the Armagnacs. In largely accepted the Justification, Burgundy May 1418, an uprising in Paris overthrew quickly established his dominance over the the Armagnac regime, forcing the dauphin court, and, by 1409, the Burgundians en- to flee and allowing Burgundy and his ad- joyed a near monopoly of power. herents to resume control of both king and Civil war began in 1410, as the Arma- government. Believing he could dominate gnacs—the name given to supporters of the dauphin, who was young and in- CHARLES, DUKE OF ORLE´ANS, and his father-in- experienced, Burgundy sought some ac- law, BERNARD, COUNT OF ARMAGNAC—be- commodation whereby he could eliminate sieged the capital. Because he controlled the the Armagnacs, unite the kingdom, and royal person, Burgundy was able to portray expel the English. However, when the two himself as the king’s lieutenant and his op- parties met at MONTEREAU in September 1419, ponents as rebels and traitors. In 1411–12, old servants of Orle´ans in the dauphin’s both Burgundy and the Armagnacs sought entourage avenged their late master by military assistance from HENRY IV of Eng- murdering Burgundy. land. Although an expedition led by THOMAS, Since no accommodation was possible DUKE OF CLARENCE, landed in 1412 in ac- with his father’s killer, PHILIP THE GOOD, the cordance with the Anglo-Armagnac Treaty new duke of Burgundy, allied himself with of BOURGES, Burgundy used his control of the Henry V in 1420. By accepting the Treaty of government to raise an army under royal Troyes, Philip recognized Henry as regent authority and force the Armagnacs to re- and heir to the French throne. Although the pudiate the agreement. In 1413, the dauphin, royal administration remained largely in LOUIS, DUKE OF GUIENNE, attempted to form a Burgundian hands, the Crown itself was royalist party capable of reconciling the fac- pledged to the House of LANCASTER. After the tions, while members of the ESTATES-GENERAL deaths of Henry V and Charles VI in 1422, leveled charges of corruption against the Burgundy took little direct part in English Burgundian administration. In response, efforts to defend HENRY VI’s rights against Burgundy, who was popular in PARIS, in- the dauphin and his party, which was now stigated a riot by his supporters in the city. essentially an amalgam of Armagnacs and Led by a member of the butchers’ guild others who supported the continuance of named Simon Caboche, the rioters, who thus Valois rule. Rather than pursue his father’s became known as CABOCHIENS, rampaged dream of ruling in Paris, Burgundy con- through Paris on 28 April, seizing or killing centrated on consolidating his holdings in the dauphin’s officers. Moving quickly be- France and on expanding his territory in the yond the duke’s control, the Cabochien up- Low Countries, efforts that made the state of rising became a reign of terror that alienated Burgundy a power in northwestern Europe many Parisians, who turned to the dauphin and turned the one-time Burgundian faction and the Armagnacs for deliverance. In Au- into the administration of an independent gust, Burgundy fled the capital, leaving the principality. In 1435, the duke abandoned king and the government to his rivals. the Anglo-Burgundian alliance at the

67 BURGUNDY

Congress of ARRAS, thus allowing the dau- 1405, their eldest son, JOHN THE FEARLESS, in- phin, now CHARLES VII, to enter Paris in 1436 herited his parents’ lands and his father’s and finally end the factional divisions of the political rivalry with LOUIS, DUKE OF ORLE´ ANS, civil war. the king’s brother. Descending to violence, Further Reading: Perroy, Edouard. The Hun- this rivalry led in 1407 to the murder of Or- dred Years War. Trans. W. B. Wells. New York: le´ans by assassins hired by Burgundy and to Capricorn Books, 1965; Vaughan, Richard. John the development of the BURGUNDIAN and the Fearless. London: Longman, 1979; Vaughan, ARMAGNAC (Orle´anist) factions, whose Richard. Philip the Good: The Apogee of Burgundy. struggle for political dominance in PARIS led Woodbridge, England: Boydell Press, 2002. after 1410 to eruption of the French civil war. Expelled from Paris in 1413, Burgundy did BURGUNDY not fight at AGINCOURT in 1415 and took no In the fourteenth century, the term ‘‘Bur- part in defending NORMANDY against HENRY gundy’’ referred both to a duchy of eastern V(see NORMAN CAMPAIGN [1417–1419]), pre- France owning homage to the French king ferring to concentrate on overthrowing the and to a county across the Saoˆne owing Armagnac regime in Paris, which he did in homage to the German emperor. In 1363, the 1418. On 10 September 1419, partisans of the duchy of Burgundy became a VALOIS APPA- dauphin, who was nominal head of the Ar- NAGE, which, in the fifteenth century, magnacs, murdered Burgundy during a became the center of an autonomous prin- peace conference on the bridge at MONTER- cipality that also encompassed the county of EAU. Rejecting any agreement with his fa- Burgundy, other lordships in northern and ther’s murderers, the new duke, PHILIP THE eastern France, and most of the Low Coun- GOOD, allied himself with Henry V, whom, tries. This accumulation of territory allowed through acceptance of the Treaty of TROYES, the fifteenth-century dukes of Burgundy to he recognized as heir to the French throne. play a central role in both the FRENCH CIVIL Establishment of an Anglo-Burgundian gov- WAR and the HUNDRED YEARS WAR. ernment in Paris allowed Philip to con- Until 1361, the duchy of Burgundy was solidate his holdings in France and to enlarge ruled by a of the House of his territories in the Low Countries. By 1440, CAPET. Upon the death in that year of Philip Namur, Brabant, Luxembourg, Holland, de Rouvre, the last Capetian duke, the duchy Zeeland, and Hainault had all been in- passed to JOHN II, who granted it to his corporated into the Burgundian state, which, youngest son, PHILIP THE BOLD, in 1363. thanks to the weakness of the French mon- CHARLES V enabled his brother to expand his archy, was now effectively independent. holdings by arranging for Philip to marry However, despite the ANGLO-BURGUNDIAN MARGUERITE DE FLANDERS, the only child of ALLIANCE, Philip provided little military as- LOUIS DE MALE, count of FLANDERS. Besides sistance to the English, and in 1435 aban- her father’s provinces of Flanders, Nevers, doned his allies at the Congress of ARRAS, and Rethel, which she inherited in 1384, where the dauphin, now CHARLES VII, Marguerite was her grandmother’s heir to agreed to exempt the duke from paying Artois and to the county of Burgundy (the homage for his French fiefs and to send a Franche-Comte´), which she inherited in 1382. courtier to apologize on the king’s behalf for Through her mother, Marguerite also had a the murder at Montereau. Although Bur- claim to Brabant, although this duchy did not gundy remained a culturally influential come to the dukes of Burgundy until 1430. state, particularly in terms of music, art, Ruling both his own and his wife’s terri- and literature, the reconciliation effectively tories, Philip, thanks to the mental illness of ended Burgundian involvement in the his nephew, CHARLES VI, also dominated the Hundred Years War or in royal administra- French government after 1392. Following tion. The expulsion of the English from Philip’s death in 1404 and Marguerite’s in France in 1453 and the subsequent revival of

68 BUZANC¸AIS, TREATY OF

French royal authority gradually reduced the brother of CHARLES V; CHARLES, DUKE OF the ability of the dukes to thwart French ORLE´ ANS; Charles d’ALBRET, constable of designs on Burgundy. After Philip’s son, France; John, Duke of Bourbon; John, Duke , died without male heirs in of Alenc¸on; and BERNARD, COUNT OF AR- 1477, the duchy of Burgundy was eventually MAGNAC—swore homage to Henry, whom reincorporated into the kingdom of France. they recognized as ruler of AQUITAINE.On11 Further Reading: Vaughan, Richard. John the July, Clarence, Henry’s second son, landed Fearless. London: Longman, 1979; Vaughan, Rich- in NORMANDY and marched south toward ard. Philip the Bold: The Formation of the Burgun- Blois. On 21 July, Burgundy, acting in the dian State. Woodbridge, England: Boydell Press, king’s name, ordered all princes, including 2002; Vaughan, Richard. Philip the Good: The himself, to disavow any agreements with Apogee of Burgundy. Woodbridge, England: Boy- England. Unwilling to disobey the king, and dell Press, 2002; Vaughan, Richard. Valois Bur- facing a Burgundian invasion of Berry’s gundy. London: Archon, 1975. territories, the Armagnac leaders capitulated and wrote to Henry on 22 July repudiating BURGUNDY, DUCHESS OF the Bourges agreement. See MARGUERITE DE FLANDERS,DUCHESS OF In August, the Treaty of Auxerre effected BURGUNDY a reconciliation within the royal family (see VALOIS) and seemed to end the civil war. BURGUNDY, DUKE OF Now facing a France ostensibly united See JOHN THE FEARLESS,DUKE OF BURGUNDY; against him, an angry Clarence led a CHE- PHILIP THE BOLD,DUKE OF BURGUNDY;PHILIP VAUCHE´ E across the Loire and into the Indre THE GOOD,DUKE OF BURGUNDY Valley, where, at the village of Buzanc¸ais, he concluded a financial settlement with his BUZANC¸AIS, TREATY OF (1412) erstwhile allies. The duke agreed to with- Concluded on 14 November 1412, the Treaty draw to GASCONY for a promise of 150,000 of Buzanc¸ais was an agreement whereby the e´cus (over £30,000), with two-thirds to be leaders of the ARMAGNAC faction in the paid by the end of the month and the bal- FRENCH CIVIL WAR bought off THOMAS, DUKE ance by Christmas. Clarence and his noble OF CLARENCE, the leader of an English mili- lieutenants also demanded personal gifts tary expedition sent to France to assist the that eventually amounted, in money and Armagnacs under the Treaty of BOURGES. treasure, to over 66,000 e´cus. For himself, the Although the settlement ended English in- duke received 40,000 e´cus (he had de- tervention in France without any political or manded 120,000), mainly in the form of military benefit being derived from Clar- jewels and precious artifacts supplied by ence’s expedition, the French willingness to Berry. To ensure fulfillment of the terms, pay handsomely for Clarence’s withdrawal Clarence took seven hostages, including revealed the bitter divisions within the John, count of Angouleˆme, the younger French nobility and rekindled an appetite brother of Orle´ans. Because payment of the for plunder within the English nobility. settlement’s final installment was long de- Under the Bourges agreement of May layed, Angouleˆme spent over thirty years in 1412, HENRY IV undertook to send a force of captivity. four thousand men to support the Arma- Further Reading: Allmand, Christopher. Henry gnac princes in their struggle for power with V. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1997; JOHN THE FEARLESS, duke of BURGUNDY,who Seward, Desmond. The Hundred Years War. New controlled the person of CHARLES VI and York: Penguin, 1999; Tuck, Anthony. Crown and thus the royal government. In return, the Nobility: England, 1272–1461. 2nd ed. Oxford: Armagnac leaders—JOHN, DUKE OF BERRY, Blackwell, 1999.

69 C

CABOCHE, SIMON. See CABOCHIENS had always favored him, to rise in defense of the regime. On 27 April, rioters, led by Ca- CABOCHIENS (1413) boche, besieged the , invaded the Named for one of their leaders, the butcher dauphin’s palace, and seized or murdered Simon Caboche, whose fellow butchers and suspected Armagnacs across the city. Many of flayers represented a leading element in the the dauphin’s officers were arrested and de- movement, the Cabochiens were pro-BUR- nounced as traitors, and many anti-Burgun- GUNDIAN tradesmen and burgesses of PARIS dian courtiers, such as the queen’s brother, who were used by JOHN THE FEARLESS, duke Ludwig of Bavaria, were also seized. of BURGUNDY, to overawe the royal court and Riots occurred almost daily for the next destroy his ARMAGNAC rivals. For three month, with the Cabochiens several times months in 1413, the Cabochiens imposed a entering the Hoˆtel Saint-Pol, where they reign of terror on the city, thwarting efforts terrorized the court by demanding that all by the dauphin, LOUIS, DUKE OF GUIENNE,to opponents of Burgundy be turned over to end the FRENCH CIVIL WAR and reunite the them. Ill and frightened, CHARLES VI took no country on the eve of HENRY V’s renewal of action against the Cabochiens, who de- the HUNDRED YEARS WAR. manded that the king act upon the reforms Fearing an English invasion, Burgundy, earlier proposed by the Estates-General. On who had controlled the royal government 26 and 27 May, Charles presided over a lit de since 1409, summoned the Estates-General to justice (i.e., a royally attended session of the Paris in January 1413 to grant new war TAX- PARLEMENT of Paris) at which was promul- ATION. However, the assembly refused to gated a massive reform ordinance of 258 discuss supply until the government under- articles that became known as the Ordon- took a series of administrative and financial nance Cabochienne. Reviving many of the reforms. The Estates also charged the Bur- administrative reforms earlier advocated by gundian administration with corruption, de- the MARMOUSETS, the Ordonnance did not manding the dismissal of some thirty royal seek to control the Crown, but merely to officials accused of misappropriation of gov- make royal administration more economical ernment funds. The action of the Estates and efficient. Offices were eliminated, the heartened the Armagnac partisans in the pay of royal officials was reduced, the pro- households of the dauphin and Queen ISA- vision of services was consolidated, and BEAU. Under the leadership of the dauphin, stricter supervision, especially of financial talks for ending the civil war were begun with affairs, was mandated. To fund the war with CHARLES, DUKE OF ORLE´ANS;JOHN, DUKE OF England, a special treasury was established BERRY;BERNARD, COUNT OF ARMAGNAC;and in Paris to receive half of any taxes collected. other self-exiled Armagnac leaders. Because Once he had unleashed insurrection, the dauphin’s efforts, if successful, would end Burgundy found he could not control it, and Burgundy’s dictatorship, the duke struck at Cabochien violence continued throughout his enemies by inciting the Parisians, who the summer. By August, the excesses of the

70 CADZAND, BATTLE OF rioters had alienated many Parisians, who concerned by the government’s failure to turned to the dauphin and the Armagnac respond to a threatened French invasion, leaders to save them from anarchy. In late established a commission to reform the royal July, the dauphin, having secured a royal household and administration and re- order freeing those imprisoned by the Ca- invigorate the English war effort. With Par- bochiens, concluded the peace of Pontoise liament’s approval, the commission began with the Armagnac princes. On 4 August, gathering men and ships for a descent on the dauphin was cheered as he rode through Flanders, which was aimed at provoking an Paris, a welcome that incited a failed Ca- insurrection that would replace the govern- bochien attack on the Town Hall. Realizing ment of PHILIP THE BOLD, duke of BURGUNDY, he had lost the support of the city, Burgundy with a pro-English regime. On 10 December, made an unsuccessful attempt to kidnap the Arundel, a member of the commission, was king and then fled the capital on 23 August. appointed admiral; a week later, the earl The Armagnac leaders entered Paris on 1 indented (see INDENTURES) with the Crown to September, and the Gascon bands of the serve with twenty-five hundred men for count of Armagnac immediately imposed three months beginning on 1 March 1387. order by arresting or killing leading Ca- On 16 March, Arundel arrived at Sand- bochiens. On 5 September, the king formally wich, where he took command of a fleet of annulled the Ordonnance Cabochienne at a sixty ships. Intending to invade England, the new lit de justice. Rather than ending the civil French had gathered an army of thirty war and securing Burgundian rule, the Ca- thousand men and a fleet of twelve hundred bochien insurrection aggravated civil strife vessels at Sluys in the previous autumn, but and handed power to the Armagnacs. See when Burgundy, who was the driving force also ESTATES,GENERAL AND PROVINCIAL. in CHARLES VI’s minority government, fell Further Reading: Famiglietti, Richard C. Royal ill, the expedition was cancelled and the fleet Intrigue: Crisis at the Court of Charles VI, 1392– dispersed. The ships that Arundel engaged 1420. New York: AMS Press, 1986; Perroy, on 24 March 1387 were part of a 250-vessel Edouard. The Hundred Years War. Trans. W. B. fleet carrying wine from La Rochelle to Wells. New York: Capricorn Books, 1965. Sluys. Although significantly larger than Arundel’s flotilla, the French fleet, which CADORET, BATTLE OF. See DAGWORTH, included contingents of Flemish, German, SIR THOMAS and Castilian vessels, was inferior in both manpower and armaments, having an in- CADZAND, BATTLE OF (1387) adequate complement of soldiers to defend Fought off Margate on 24 March 1387, the it from the English attack. After some Ger- Battle of Cadzand (or Margate) was a naval man and Flemish vessels deserted to them, engagement between an English flotilla un- the English were eventually able to over- der Richard Fitzalan, earl of Arundel, and a come the enemy, capturing some fifty ships Franco-Flemish wine fleet. Besides lower- and the fleet’s Flemish commander. Over a ing the cost of wine in LONDON and thereby dozen ships were sunk or burned, and al- winning much popularity for Arundel, the most nine thousand tuns of wine were cap- victory gave the English temporary com- tured and carried to London, where they mand of the Channel and allowed the earl to sold for a fraction of the normal price. raid the Flemish coast, although he failed to Arundel, meanwhile, pursued remnants achieve the ultimate goal of his enterprise, the of the enemy fleet to Sluys, which was vir- incitement of an anti-BURGUNDIAN uprising in tually undefended. However, instead of FLANDERS. seizing the port, which might have initiated In October 1386, the so-called Wonderful the Flemish uprising he was seeking, the PARLIAMENT, angered by the financial ex- earl pillaged the surrounding countryside, cesses of RICHARD II and his court, and thereby capturing much booty but setting off

71 CALAIS no rebellion. On 14 April, with supplies diately became an important base for En- running low and his men falling ill, Arundel glish military operations, being, for instance, returned to England. After refitting, the earl the staging point for the RHEIMS CAMPAIGN in sailed to BRITTANY, where he resupplied the 1359. In 1363, when Edward established the besieged garrison at Brest, but failed to effect wool staple in Calais, the town took on a a reconciliation with Duke JOHN IV. Al- new economic significance. By concentrating though Arundel won a major victory, dam- the export of English wool in Calais, Edward aged French naval capabilities, and ended made easier the Crown’s collection of export the threat of French invasion for the next duties on wool, England’s largest and most decade, he had failed to achieve his main profitable trade commodity. Besides ex- goal—the destruction of Burgundian rule in panding royal revenue, placing the staple in Flanders. When Arundel’s term of service English territory allowed the profits of the ended in June, the military initiative again trade to flow into the hands of a small group passed to the French. of English merchants, known as the Com- Further Reading: Goodman, Anthony. The pany of the Staple, whose resulting wealth Loyal Conspiracy: The Lords Appellant under Richard allowed them to make regular loans to the II. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1971; Crown. Palmer, J.J.N. England, France, and Christendom, Calais also became vital to English de- 1377–99. Chapel Hill: University of North Car- fense. The Calais garrison was the Crown’s olina Press, 1972; Saul, Nigel. Richard II. New only standing army, numbering, by the early Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1997; Tuck, fifteenth century, eight hundred men in Anthony. Richard II and the English Nobility. peacetime and a thousand in war. Divided London: Edward Arnold, 1973. equally between men-at-arms and ARCHERS, the garrison was paid out of the customs CALAIS duties collected on the wool exported to Located on the only twen- Calais. By 1400, the wages and expenses of ty-three miles from Dover, the French town the garrison came to over £10,000 per year, of Calais was the closest continental port to and more in time of war, sums that con- the English coast and thus of great strategic sumed almost one-quarter of the Crown’s importance during the HUNDRED YEARS WAR. annual income. In the fifteenth century, and Captured by EDWARD III in 1347, Calais especially during the reign of HENRY VI, rapidly became vital to the economy and when the Crown was chronically short of security of England, and was the only French funds, the profits of the Calais wool trade possession to remain in English hands after were often diverted to meet other royal ex- 1453. penses, causing the unpaid garrison to rebel, On 4 September 1346, only a week after as happened in 1407 and 1454. After the his victory at CRE´CY, Edward laid siege to latter uprising, the government instituted a Calais. Besides its proximity to English allies new system of payment, whereby the mer- in FLANDERS and the Low Countries, the chants of the staple collected the customs town was ideally situated to serve as a sup- and paid the garrison, accounting for any ply depot and base of operations for English surplus to the Crown. armies in France. After a long and difficult The king entrusted Calais to a lieutenant siege, Calais surrendered on 3 August 1347, or captain, who was usually a military man. thus beginning over two hundred years of Besides commanding the garrison of Calais, English possession. After expelling most of the captain had authority over the captains the inhabitants, Edward resettled the town and garrisons of Guisnes, Hammes, Newn- and its surrounding pale with English citi- ham Bridge, Rysbank, and the other for- zens, who were granted tax exemptions and tresses defending the approaches to the town. other privileges for taking up property The Calais captaincy was thus an important abandoned by the French. The town imme- and coveted position. During the Wars of

72 CALAIS, SIEGE OF the Roses in the late fifteenth century, con- cross-Channel convoys of men and supplies trol of Calais and its garrison was of vital were quickly established and within weeks importance. By the sixteenth century, Calais Edward had over twelve thousand men in was an English town and was considered the rapidly growing siege works outside English territory. In the 1530s, its citizens Calais. However, the success of French were even allowed to send representatives convoys in carrying supplies into the port to PARLIAMENT. prolonged the town’s resistance and forced The French made numerous attempts to the English, much to the dismay of Ed- regain the town. In the 1390s, the govern- ward’s men, to continue the siege through ment of CHARLES VI demanded Calais as the winter, a most unusual occurrence in part of the price for signing a peace treaty. medieval warfare. Although RICHARD II was eager for a final The town contained a strong garrison settlement, he declined to surrender Calais. commanded by Jean de Vienne, but in April In 1406–7, JOHN THE FEARLESS, duke of BUR- 1347 the English completed their encircle- GUNDY, launched an unsuccessful attack on ment of the port, thereby ending any hope of Calais, and in 1435–36, his son, PHILIP THE further resupply by sea. English victories GOOD, having just abandoned the ANGLO- elsewhere, including over France’s ally BURGUNDIAN ALLIANCE, conducted a long and DAVID II of SCOTLAND at the Battle of NE- equally fruitless siege of the town. Despite VILLE’S CROSS in October 1346, and over various other French efforts over the years, France’s client in the BRETON CIVIL WAR, Calais remained English until captured by CHARLES OF BLOIS, at the Battle of LA ROCHE- Francis, duke of Guise, in January 1558. See DERRIEN in June 1347, sapped the willingness also CALAIS,SIEGE OF. of the French nobility to fight for the VALOIS. Further Reading: Perroy, Edouard. The Hun- Although Philip took the ORIFLAMME from dred Years War. Trans. W. B. Wells. New York: St.-Denis in March, intending to have an Capricorn Books, 1965; Sumption, Jonathan. The army at Calais by the end of April, it was not Hundred Years War. Vol. 1, Trial by Battle. until July that he had sufficient forces to Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, engage the English. On 27 July, Philip 1999. brought an army of twenty thousand to within six miles of Calais. Before the town, CALAIS, SIEGE OF (1346–1347) he found English forces numbering over The eleven-month siege of CALAIS, a small thirty-two thousand and allied Flemish port in the county of Boulogne, led to the contingents numbering almost twenty English capture of a secure base in northern thousand. Reconnaissance patrols showed France. that the swampy ground was not suited to Following his victory at the Battle of CRE´ CY cavalry and all possible approaches to the on 26 August 1346, EDWARD III marched town were heavily guarded. Philip con- north seeking a port from which to embark cluded that relieving Calais was impossible, his army. Believing Calais could be taken but he held his position for several days to quickly, Edward demanded the town’s sur- pursue negotiation. When none of the render. When the citizens refused, the king French proposals proved acceptable to Ed- laid siege on 4 September. PHILIP VI quickly ward, Philip abandoned his camp and the began gathering relief forces, but, thanks to town surrendered the next day, 3 August. the loss of confidence engendered by Cre´cy, Angered by the length and cost of the found himself unable to raise either money siege, Edward declared that all lives and or troops. Edward, meanwhile, was enabled property within Calais were at his disposal, to undertake what ultimately became one of a harshness that shocked his nobles and the longest and costliest campaigns of the councilors. After much entreaty, they per- HUNDRED YEARS WAR by a wave of public suaded him to spare the lives of the garrison support stemming from his victory. Regular and citizens, although Edward demanded

73 CALAIS, TREATY OF that six of the wealthiest burgesses appear Under the agreement, each side maintained before him wearing halters and bearing the its present positions, terms which favored keys of the town. In one of the most famous the English, who retained Calais and held episodes of the war, Edward’s wife, Queen the upper hand in BRITTANY,GASCONY, and PHILIPPA, interceded for the captives and SCOTLAND. Each king also swore not to convinced the king to rescind his order for threaten or intrigue with the other’s allies their immediate execution. Nonetheless, during the truce period. Edward expelled most of Calais’s inhabi- When the Estates-General convened in tants and repopulated the town with Eng- PARIS on 30 November, members condemned lishmen. In September, Edward, financially the truce as a shameful capitulation and exhausted by the siege, concluded the Truce demanded that a large army be raised in of CALAIS with the French. Later an impor- 1348 to undertake an invasion of England. tant entrepoˆt for English trade, Calais came French preparations were well underway in to be considered English soil and key to the May, when Edward proposed extending the realm’s defense. The town remained English truce. Since he was having difficulty raising until 1558, well beyond the end of the war. money for a new campaign, the continuing Further Reading: DeVries, Kelly. ‘‘Hunger, cessation of hostilities suited him. Philip, Flemish Participation and the Flight of Philip buoyed by a general willingness to support VI: Contemporary Accounts of the Siege of Calais, the invasion plan, rejected the proposal and 1346–47.’’ Studies in Medieval and Renaissance the truce lapsed. However, by August, the History 12 (1991): 129–81; Perroy, Edouard. The Black Death, which had been ravaging Hundred Years War. Trans. W. B. Wells. New York: southern France since the winter, struck Capricorn Books, 1965; Sumption, Jonathan. The Paris; by November, the plague was in Hundred Years War. Vol. 1, Trial by Battle. Phila- LONDON, and military plans in both king- delphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1999. doms ground to a halt. The truce was there- fore renewed in November 1348 and in the following year was extended to May 1350. CALAIS, TREATY OF. See BRE´ TIGNY, TREATY However, neither truce nor plague ended OF the fighting in the southwest, where local garrison commanders attacked each other CALAIS, TRUCE OF (1347) and recently discharged English troops, now Concluded on 28 September 1347, the turned to brigandage, seized French strong- Anglo-French Truce of Calais was the first of holds (see ROUTIERS). Angered by these a series of truces that limited fighting until losses, the French repudiated the truce in Au- 1355. Although mutual financial exhaustion gust 1349, and the war in Gascony resumed provided the initial impetus for a truce, the its course. On 13 June 1350, the two gov- onset of the BLACK DEATH was largely re- ernments renewed the truce until August sponsible for its repeated extension. 1351. But when Philip died on 22 August Like the earlier Truce of MALESTROIT, the 1350, the new French king, JOHN II, repudi- Truce of Calais was mediated by represen- ated his father’s agreement, and war re- tatives of Pope CLEMENT VI. Although eager sumed in the southwest, with the Battle of to continue the war after his victories at SAINTES occurring in April 1351. At sea, the CRE´ CY and the siege of CALAIS,EDWARD III truce was never effective, and the English found himself unable to fund new cam- engaged a Castilian fleet at the Battle of paigns or even to pay the men already under WINCHELSEA in late August 1350. In Brittany, arms. PHILIP VI faced a depletion of both the fighting also continued, neither Crown money and morale; the recent defeats bred being able to effectively control its clients in an unwillingness to join royal armies or pay the BRETON CIVIL WAR. royal taxes. As a result, both monarchs However, the aftereffects of plague and agreed to a truce to last until 8 July 1348. continuing financial weakness convinced

74 CALVELEY, SIR HUGH both monarchs to renew the truce for one BAD, king of Navarre, for whom he com- year on 11 September 1351; the agreement manded a large company in NORMANDY and largely held in the north, but fighting con- central France in 1358–59. tinued in the southwest. Despite frequent Following conclusion of the Treaty of breaches of the peace in Brittany and Gas- BRE´ TIGNY in 1360, Calveley led his own band cony, the truce was extended again in March of routiers, capturing Bertrand du GUESCLIN 1353 and once more in the following De- at Juigne´-sur-Sarthe in about 1360 and cember. On 6 April 1354, as part of the fighting for Pedro the Cruel of Castile in a newly concluded Treaty of GUINES, the truce campaign against the Moors in 1362. By was extended to 1 April 1355. But by that 1364, he was back in Brittany, where he date, the French had repudiated the treaty fought for JOHN IV at AURAY. In 1365, Cal- and both kingdoms were preparing for full- veley joined the routier army that du Gue- scale resumption of war. Any possibility of sclin was recruiting for service in Spain. continuing the series of truces ended in May Since the ultimate aim of this French-backed 1355, when John retrieved the ORIFLAMME expedition was the replacement of Pedro the from Saint-Denis and proclaimed the AR- Cruel with his pro-French half brother RIE`RE-BAN to summon a new army for oper- Henry of Trasta´mare, EDWARD III ordered ations against the English. See also ESTATES, Calveley and all other English captains to GENERAL AND PROVINCIAL. keep English soldiers out of Spain. This Further Reading: Barber, Richard. Edward, order arrived too late to prevent Calveley Prince of Wales and Aquitaine. New York: Charles from contracting to provide troops for the Scribner’s Sons, 1978; Sumption, Jonathan. The campaign in return for wages and an inter- Hundred Years War. Vol. 2, Trial by Fire. Philadel- est in the territorial grants promised to du phia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2001. Guesclin by Trastamare and Pedro IV of Aragon. Although the contract allowed him CALVELEY, SIR HUGH (d. 1394) to withdraw if the English actively inter- Sir Hugh Calveley was one of the most vened in the Castilian war, Calveley com- prominent English captains and ROUTIER manded a company of a thousand men in leaders of the HUNDRED YEARS WAR. Serving the campaign that placed Trasta´mare on the on the Continent for almost forty years, he Castilian throne. was particularly active in BRITTANY during In 1367, Calveley returned to AQUITAINE the BRETON CIVIL WAR and in Spain during and joined the Anglo-Gascon army that the the CASTILIAN WAR OF SUCCESSION. Black Prince was recruiting to restore Pedro, Born into a Cheshire gentry family, Cal- an objective that was accomplished at NA´ - veley was closely associated with his fellow JERA on 3 April. In 1368, Calveley married an Cheshire captain, Sir Robert KNOLLES,whois Aragonese lady who brought him lands and often portrayed as his close kinsman, al- wealth in that kingdom. However, if his in- though no familial relationship can be prov- tention was to settle in Spain, his plans en. Calveley’s military career began in changed in 1369, when the Black Prince re- Brittany, where he fought under the English called him to Aquitaine to lead raids into lieutenant, Sir Thomas DAGWORTH, at the Armagnac and the lordship of ALBRET.In Battle of LA ROCHE-DERRIEN in 1347. In 1351, 1370, Calveley joined the CHEVAUCHE´ E led by he and Knolles were among the English Knolles, and, in 1371, he was retained by knights who participated in the famous JOHN OF GAUNT, duke of Lancaster, whom he COMBAT OF THE THIRTY, which ended with accompanied on the great CHEVAUCHE´ E OF their capture. In 1354, Calveley was cap- 1373. In 1374, when LOUIS, DUKE OF ANJOU, tured again at Be´cherel, a Breton town under besieged La Re´ole in GASCONY, Calveley his command. He fought for EDWARD, THE vigorously but unsuccessfully defended the BLACK PRINCE,atPOITIERS in 1356, but town. In 1375, Calveley returned to England, thereafter took service with CHARLES THE where he was appointed captain of CALAIS

75 , SIEGE OF and admiral of the western fleet. Over the him the Lancastrian S.S. collar, and arrang- next decade, he participated in several naval ing for him to witness a session of PARLIA- campaigns and oversaw English coastal de- MENT. Although Henry impressed upon his fenses during the invasion scare of 1385–86; guest the righteousness of his cause and the his last major expedition was the chevauche´e duplicity of the French, Sigismund contin- led by THOMAS OF WOODSTOCK, earl of ued to work for a peace settlement. How- Buckingham, in 1380. Calveley died on 23 ever, in July, Armagnac, embarrassed by his April 1394. recent defeat at VALMONT and believing that Further Reading: Sumption, Jonathan. The truce talks were merely a device to save Hundred Years War. Vol. 2, Trial by Fire. Philadel- Harfleur, convinced the French government phia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2001. to refuse reception of an English embassy. This decision persuaded Sigismund to con- CAMBRAI, SIEGE OF. See THIE´RACHE CAM- clude an alliance with Henry. PAIGN The Treaty of Canterbury, which was signed on the same day the English victory CAMPAIGN OF 1339. See THIE´ RACHE CAM- at the Battle of the SEINE relieved Harfleur, PAIGN pledged each signatory to support the other in recovering by any means necessary any CANTERBURY, ARCHBISHOP OF. See rights or territories currently withheld by STRATFORD,JOHN,ARCHBISHOP OF CANTERBURY the French. Subjects of one ruler were also given free access to the lands and trade of CANTERBURY, TREATY OF (1416) the other, and neither side was to shelter the Concluded on 15 August 1416, the Treaty of traitors or rebels of the other. A perpetual Canterbury created an alliance between agreement that also bound the emperor to HENRY V and Holy Roman Emperor Sig- Henry’s heirs, the treaty completed the en- ismund (1368–1437). For Henry, the treaty circlement of France that English diplomacy meant acceptance by a major European ruler had sought and bound the allies to assist one of the Lancastrian right to the French Crown another against attack from any quarter, and recognition of the justice of Henry’s war saving only the pope. against France, as well as the promise of Although Henry now viewed the emperor Imperial assistance in prosecuting that war. as committed to the English cause, Sig- In 1414, Sigismund helped convene the ismund still saw himself as a mediator and Council of Constance to heal the schism in his main interests remained the Council of the Church. Since 1378, two lines of popes Constance and the cementing of his author- had claimed the obedience of different na- ity in his kingdom of Bohemia, both of tional churches, with politics generally de- which absorbed his attention and his politi- termining which countries gave allegiance to cal and financial resources. As a result, Im- which popes. Convinced that Anglo-French perial military assistance never materialized hostility was a major obstacle to ecclesiasti- and the subsequent English abandonment of cal unity, the emperor came west in 1416 to Sigismund’s policies at Constance made the reconcile the two kingdoms. In Paris, he Treaty of Canterbury a dead letter before the found the ARMAGNAC-controlled government end of Henry’s reign. divided, with BERNARD, COUNT OF ARMAG- Further Reading: Allmand, Christopher. Henry NAC, determined to maintain the blockade of V. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1997; HARFLEUR and deny the English a base in Jacob, E. F. The Fifteenth Century, 1399–1485. NORMANDY. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1993. Rebuffed by the French, Sigismund sailed to England in May, where Henry provided CAOURS, RAOUL LE. See BENTLEY,SIR him with every comfort and courtesy, mak- WALTER;BRETON CIVIL WAR;DAGWORTH,SIR ing him a knight of the GARTER, awarding THOMAS

76 CAPET, HOUSE OF

CAPET, HOUSE OF original family patrimony intact to the el- The House of Capet was the ruling dynasty dest son, finding endowments for younger of France from 987 to 1328, although the brothers in newly acquired lands or through kings of the succeeding House of VALOIS and advantageous marriages. This practice es- all later monarchs down to the French Rev- tablished cadet branches of the family in olution were descendents in the male line of important provinces and became the basis the first Capetian king. Initially little more of the APPANAGE system, which developed than rulers of PARIS and its environs, the in the thirteenth century. Capetians gradually expanded their terri- In the early twelfth century, Louis VI tory and succeeded in enforcing their su- married his son, the future Louis VII, to zerainty over their vassals. This process Eleanor, heiress of the duchy of AQUITAINE. brought the later Capetians into conflict with However, Capetian control of Aquitaine the House of PLANTAGENET, the royal dy- ended in 1152, when Eleanor divorced Louis nasty of England since 1154, and, as lords of and married Henry, count of Anjou, who various territories in western France, vassals became Henry II, the first Plantagenet king of the French Crown. Because the English of England, in 1154. Although the other kings found this feudal subordination to be French territories held in virtual sovereignty incompatible with their status as sovereign by Henry, including NORMANDY, Maine, and monarchs, Capetian overlordship of the Anjou, were conquered and annexed to the Plantagenet provinces became a root cause French Crown by Louis’s son, Philip II, in of the HUNDRED YEARS WAR. the early thirteenth century, GASCONY, the Although the term ‘‘Capetian’’ first came southern portion of Aquitaine, remained into use during the French Revolution, the under English control. In 1259, Philip’s name ‘‘Capet,’’ meaning cap or cape, had grandson, Louis IX (St. Louis), regularized been applied to Hugh, the founder of the the status of Gascony by signing the Treaty dynasty, since the thirteenth century. Hugh of PARIS, which recognized Henry III of Capet and his immediate successors exer- England as duke of Aquitaine in return for cised little authority outside Paris, but the Henry’s renunciation of all other former dynasty enjoyed important advantages over Plantagenet provinces. This formal subordi- all other ducal and comital families and nation of the Plantagenet king-dukes to the thus gradually made effective its claim to Capetians, and the growing tendency of the overlordship. First, the Capetians were seen royal bureaucracy to interfere in the ad- as heirs of Charlemagne and the Carolin- ministration of the great feudal territories, gian kings, and thus attained a sacred aura caused numerous jurisdictional disputes in that prevented any other family from Aquitaine and led to the ANGLO-FRENCH WAR claiming royal authority after the tenth OF 1294–1303 and the War of SAINT-SARDOS century. In the eleventh century, Robert II in the 1320s. Because the former was settled extended this quasi-religious status by in part by arrangement of a marriage be- claiming the ability to heal by his touch the tween Isabella, the daughter of PHILIP IV of disease scrofula, which became known as France (see ISABELLA,QUEEN OF ENGLAND [c. ‘‘the king’s evil.’’ Second, the Capetians 1292–1358]), and Edward (see EDWARD II), produced a male heir to the Crown in every the son of EDWARD I of England, their son generation for over three hundred years. EDWARD III, who assumed the English Until the twelfth century, the dynasty Crown in 1327, had a strong claim to the practiced anticipatory succession—crown- Capetian throne. When the direct Capetian ing eldest sons before the deaths of their line ended with the death of CHARLES IV in fathers. Third, several Capetians had only 1328, Edward’s claim was set aside in favor one son, thus eliminating the kinds of sib- of Philip, count of Valois, who, as eldest ling quarrels that disrupted twelfth-century nephew of Philip IV, was the Capetian heir England. The Capetians always passed the in the male line. As PHILIP VI, the count

77 CASSEL, BATTLE OF became first king of the House of Valois. In Fearful of the coalition building against his reign, the continuing dispute over Aqui- him, Pedro sought an alliance with EDWARD taine and the Plantagenet claim to be rightful III’s son, EDWARD, THE BLACK PRINCE, the heirs of the House of Capet became the un- ruler of English Aquitaine. To honor the derlying causes of the Hundred Years War. Bre´tigny settlement, the prince agreed to Further Reading: Dunbabin, Jean. France in the provide military assistance solely as duke of Making, 843–1180. Oxford: Oxford University Aquitaine and not as a representative of the Press, 1985; Fawtier, Robert. The Capetian Kings English Crown. Besides a large sum of of France: Monarchy and Nation, 987–1328. Trans. money, Pedro offered the prince a Castilian Lionel Butler and R. J. Adam. New York: St. dukedom, tax exemptions for English mer- Martin’s Press, 1960; Hallam, Elizabeth M. Cape- chants, and the hereditary right to lead tian France, 987–1328. London: Longman, 1980. armies into Castile. Henry, meanwhile, concluded a similar agreement with LOUIS, CASSEL, BATTLE OF. See FLANDERS;LOUIS DUKE OF ANJOU, the brother of CHARLES V DE NEVERS,COUNT OF FLANDERS and king’s lieutenant in Languedoc. Largely comprised of routier bands from southern CASTILE France, an army bearing the flag of Castile See CASTILIAN WAR OF SUCCESSION;JOHN OF but led by the French constable Bertrand du GAUNT,DUKE OF LANCASTER GUESCLIN entered Castile in late 1365. Pedro immediately appealed to the prince, but CASTILIAN WAR OF SUCCESSION the king’s support quickly dissolved and by (1362–1369) April 1366 Pedro was in exile in Aquitaine Occurring during the nominal peace created and his rival was king of Castile as Henry II. by the Treaty of BRE´ TIGNY, the disputed Although opposed by many of his advi- succession in the central Spanish kingdom sors, the prince honored his agreement with of Castile provided the French and English Pedro and led an Anglo-Gascon army into Crowns with an opportunity to strike indi- Spain. After Edward’s attempts at mediation rectly at each other’s interests. War in Spain failed, the two sides met on 3 April 1367 at also offered the governments of France and NA´ JERA, where the prince won a major vic- AQUITAINE a way to employ the bands of tory. Although Pedro was restored to power, ROUTIERS ravaging their territories. his half brother eluded capture and imme- On the death of Alfonso XI in 1350, the diately renewed his alliance with Anjou, Castilian Crown passed to his son, Pedro I who hoped a friendly Castile would assist (1334–69), who quickly acquired the epithet the French reconquest of Aquitaine. Unable ‘‘the Cruel’’ by executing his father’s mis- to raise the money he owed, Pedro soon tress, Leonor de Guzman. Leonor was the quarreled with the prince, who, ill and de- mother of ten children by the late king, and spairing of payment, withdrew to Aquitaine. her death drove her eldest son, Henry of With the increasingly open assistance of Trasta´mare (1333–79), to declare himself France, Henry of Trasta´mare launched a king and raise an unsuccessful rebellion second invasion that concluded with Ped- against his half brother. Although Henry ro’s death after the battle of Montiel in fled Castile, Pedro revived his rival’s cause March 1369. Firmly allied with France, the by executing several of Henry’s brothers and new Castilian regime thereafter provided by quarreling with the Castilian Church, valuable naval support for French cam- actions which won Henry support from the paigns against Aquitaine and England. See pope and the king of Aragon. In 1361, the also LA ROCHELLE,BATTLE OF. mysterious death of Pedro’s French queen, Further Reading: Harvey, John. The Black Blanche of Bourbon, soured Castilian rela- Prince and His Age. London: Rowman and Little- tions with France, where Pedro was sus- field, 1976; Hillgarth, J. N. The Spanish Kingdoms, pected of poisoning his wife. 1250–1516. 2 vols. Oxford: Oxford University

78 CASTILLON, BATTLE OF

Press, 1976–78; O’Callaghan, James F. A History of Early next morning, Shrewsbury arrived Medieval Spain. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University at Castillon with his mounted contingents, Press, 1992; Russell, P. E. The English Intervention and led an immediate and successful assault in Spain and Portugal in the Time of Edward III and on the French ARCHERS holding the Priory of Richard II. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1955. St. Laurent. The surviving archers fled to the fortified French camp east of the priory, CASTILLON, BATTLE OF (1453) thereby alerting the main army of Shrews- Fought on 17 July 1453 near the town of bury’s arrival. Although the French army Castillon in eastern GASCONY, the Battle of was commanded by committee, the camp Castillon ended the HUNDRED YEARS WAR and been laid out by Charles VII’s ordinance and stripped the English of all French officer, Jean BUREAU. Designed to maximize holdings except the town of CALAIS. the opportunity for oblique and enfilading After the French conquest of NORMANDY in fire from the French ARTILLERY, which may 1450, CHARLES VII focused his military re- have numbered almost three hundred guns sources on Gascony, the last English-held of all sizes, Bureau’s camp was protected on province in France. As an army of seven three sides by a ditch and palisaded rampart thousand entered the province, other French and on the fourth side by the steep bank of forces besieged the fortresses protecting BOR- the River Lidoire. DEAUX, the Gascon capital, while a joint French, Upon receiving reports that the enemy Spanish, and Breton fleet blockaded the mouth was retreating, Shrewsbury reversed an of the Gironde to prevent the English from earlier decision to wait for the rest of his relieving the city. Isolated and outnumbered, army to arrive and attacked immediately the English garrison in Bordeaux surrendered with the twelve hundred men he had at on 30 June 1451. A severe blow to English hand. The reports proved inaccurate, and national pride, the loss of Bordeaux was re- when the French guns opened fire, the dis- versed in 1452, thanks to the English sympa- mounted English suffered severe casualties. thies of the Gascon people and the military Shrewsbury, who wore no ARMOR to honor skill of John TALBOT, earl of Shrewsbury, the pledge he had made when last released who led an army of three thousand ashore on from French custody, pressed the attack, 17 October. Within months of reentering Bor- believing the arrival of his remaining troops deaux on 23 October, Shrewsbury had largely would secure victory. However, as rein- restored Gascony to English control. forcements came up, they suffered the same Respected and feared in France, Shrews- fate as the initial attackers, and the eventual bury was the most famous English com- arrival of French reserves broke the English mander of the war’s last decades. By the attack and sent the survivors streaming back summer of 1453, three French armies were to Bordeaux. converging on Gascony. Although rein- With both Shrewsbury and his son dead forcements brought by his son raised his on the field, the English position in Gascony strength to over five thousand, Shrewsbury quickly collapsed and the French entered was still heavily outnumbered by the com- Bordeaux to stay on 19 October 1453. After bined French forces, and his only option was three hundred years, English rule in Gas- to wait in Bordeaux until an opportunity cony, like the Hundred Years War itself, was arose to fall upon one army before the others over. In England, news of the battle may could support it. However, when a French have triggered HENRY VI’s mental collapse, force of nine thousand laid siege to Cas- for the king’s illness descended upon him in tillon about thirty miles east of Bordeaux, early August, about the time he would have Shrewsbury, against his better judgment, learned of the disaster. yielded to the pleas of representatives from Further Reading: Pollard, A. J. John Talbot and both Castillon and Bordeaux and marched the War in France, 1427–1453. London: Royal to the relief of the town on 16 July. Historical Society, 1983.

79 CASUALTIES

CASUALTIES It might be expected that as RANSOM As with the overall size of armies during the amounts rose during the course of the war, HUNDRED YEARS WAR, casualty figures, even the emphasis placed on capturing men for for major battles, are difficult to calculate profit would reduce casualties among the and often seriously inflated by contempo- warrior class; however, this does not appear rary commentators. Also, most contempo- to be the case. In 1356 at POITIERS, which rary tallies of men killed took account only degenerated into a mad scramble for pris- of noble and knightly dead; slain ARCHERS oners after the capture of JOHN II, the official and infantrymen were rarely counted. English tally of enemy dead was 2,345, with The size of the armies involved and the casualties among ordinary foot soldiers un- increasing bitterness engendered between counted. One modern historian estimates the two peoples by the long conflict led to a that the French lost 40 percent of their cav- sharp rise in casualty levels during the war, alry at both Poitiers and AGINCOURT. The especially when compared to European bat- latter battle was particularly bloody, with tles of the previous two centuries. Contem- HENRY V’s chaplain putting the French dead porary casualty figures for twelfth- and at almost 100 nobles and up to 6,500 knights thirteenth-century battles were usually and other gentlemen. Some modern esti- small. Orderic Vitalis claimed that only three mates put the number of French dead at knights were slain at Bre´mule in 1119, while Agincourt near 10,000. Support is given to only one French lord died at Lincoln in 1217. these figures by the fact that five grave pits Even at the vicious Battle of Evesham in containing over 1,200 men each were dug 1265, when Prince Edward’s men mutilated near Agincourt field. As to English dead, the the body of Simon de Montfort, earl of chaplain numbered them at less than Leicester, only about thirty knights were twenty, with the king’s cousin, Edward, killed, and the deaths of sixteen knights and duke of York, being the most prominent. No many common soldiers in Anglesey in 1282 effort was made to count the number of during EDWARD I’s Welsh war were consid- English archers and common infantrymen ered shocking losses. With such figures who were slain. common before the Anglo-French war, Part of the reason for these high figures counting the thousands who lay dead on the may be that at most major engagements, field after one of the war’s major encounters such as Cre´cy, Poitiers, and Agincourt, the must have been difficult, and the temptation victorious English found themselves heavily to exaggerate great. At CRE´ CY in 1346, ED- outnumbered and thus were less willing to WARD III ordered Sir Reginald Cobham to give quarter than they might have been had organize the heralds (who could recognize their numbers been larger. At Agincourt, the coats of arms) and make a careful tally of process of rounding up prisoners was well dead knights and nobles. So long and diffi- underway when the French threatened a cult was their task that the spot on the bat- new assault. Faced with the possibility of tlefield where they worked is still known as many abandoned French prisoners re- the ‘‘valley of the clerks.’’ Cobham’s clerks grouping and attacking his men from the counted 1,542 French dead, although con- rear, Henry V ordered no quarter, and a temporary chroniclers offered much differ- large but unknown number of captives had ent figures. JEAN LE BEL put the French losses their throats cut before the new French at- at 12,000 knights and over 15,000 others, but tack dissolved. At VERNEUIL in 1424, the claimed that the English lost only three large Scottish contingent in the dauphinist knights. Although Geoffrey le Baker’s num- army was virtually annihilated because the ber—4,000 knightly dead—seems more re- Scottish leaders, Archibald DOUGLAS, earl of alistic, one modern historian, by reckoning Douglas, and John STEWART, earl of Buchan, three kills for every English archer, estimates informed JOHN, DUKE OF BEDFORD, that they the total French dead at over 10,000. would neither give nor expect quarter. Thus,

80 CATHERINE OF VALOIS, QUEEN OF ENGLAND while many smaller battles, sieges, and that year. On 6 December 1421, Catherine skirmishes, especially in GASCONY and in gave birth to the future HENRY VI at Wind- BRITTANY during the BRETON CIVIL WAR, saw sor. In the following spring, she returned to small numbers engaged and few killed, ca- France with her husband and was at Senlis sualties in the great battles numbered in the with her parents when Henry died on 31 thousands, far beyond the figures seen in August 1422. such earlier conflicts as the ANGLO-FRENCH Returning to England, Catherine lived for WAR OF 1294–1303, the War of SAINT-SARDOS, a time with her son at Windsor. In 1424, she and the English wars in Wales and SCOT- took up residence at Baynard’s Castle, LAND. See also ARMIES,COMPOSITION OF;AR- which had been granted to her by PARLIA- MIES,SIZE OF. MENT. In response to rumors that the young Further Reading: Burne, Alfred H. The Agin- widow might marry, and fearful of the in- court War. Ware, England: Wordsworth Editions fluence a stepfather might have on the boy Ltd., 1999; Burne, Alfred H. The Cre´cy War. Ware, king, the council, led by the king’s uncle England: Wordsworth Editions Ltd., 1999; Prest- HUMPHREY, DUKE OF GLOUCESTER, persuaded wich, Michael. Armies and Warfare in the Middle Parliament to enact a statute prohibiting Ages: The English Experience. New Haven, CT: Yale anyone from marrying the queen dowager University Press, 1996. without the consent of the king and his council. Since the king’s consent could not CATHERINE OF VALOIS, QUEEN OF be given until he reached full age, Catherine ENGLAND (1401–1437) was effectively barred from remarrying for The youngest daughter of CHARLES VI, Cath- almost a decade. However, by about 1429, erine of VALOIS became, as part of the Treaty Catherine became sexually involved with of TROYES, the wife of HENRY V. Through her Owen Tudor, a minor Welsh gentleman who children born of a later liaison with one of was master of the queen’s wardrobe. The her household officers, the widowed queen couple may have secretly married in 1430 also became an ancestor of the royal House when Catherine became pregnant, although of Tudor. this is uncertain. She eventually bore Tudor HENRY IV tried several times to arrange a four children. Edmund, the eldest, and Jas- marriage for his eldest son with a daughter per, the second brother, were raised to the of Charles VI. Negotiations focusing on Cath- English peerage by Henry VI, becoming the erine opened in 1413 and continued until earls of Richmond and Pembroke, respec- 1415, when Henry V, king since 1413, col- tively. Owen became a monk at Westminster lapsed the talks by demanding a dowry of and the daughter, Tacina, married Lord two million crowns and the surrender of Grey de Wilton. most of western France. By 1419, Henry had Catherine retired to Bermondsy Abbey in conquered NORMANDY, and the French, still 1436, dying there on 3 January 1437 after a distracted by civil war, were eager to reopen long but unknown illness. Although briefly negotiations. Concluded in 1420, the Treaty imprisoned, Tudor was eventually taken of Troyes made Henry regent of France into royal favor and lived the life of an En- during Charles’s lifetime and arranged a glish gentleman until his execution by the marriage between Henry and Catherine, Yorkists following the Battle of Mortimer’s who had charmed her prospective husband Cross in 1461. By his marriage to Margaret during a meeting set up by Catherine’s Beaufort, daughter of John BEAUFORT, duke mother, Queen ISABEAU. Betrothed on 21 of Somerset, the king’s cousin, Catherine’s May and married at Troyes on 2 June 1420, son Edmund became the father of Henry Catherine accompanied her husband to Tudor, earl of Richmond, who was born England in February 1421. The new queen posthumously in 1457. In 1485, Richmond was crowned at Westminster on 24 February became Henry VII, first king of the House of and went on progress with the king later Tudor. See also FRENCH CIVIL WAR.

81 CAUCHON, PIERRE

Further Reading: Allmand, Christopher. Henry men of arms by the capture of the king at V. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1997; Poitiers and the resulting breakdown of Griffiths, Ralph A., and Roger S. Thomas. The French royal authority. From the bands of Making of the Tudor Dynasty. New York: St. Gascon freebooters left unemployed after Martin’s Press, 1985; Wolffe, Bertram. Henry VI. Poitiers, Cervole formed the Great Company, London: Eyre Methuen, 1981. the name given to a succession of large routier armies that terrorized Provence and CAUCHON, PIERRE. See JOAN OF ARC southern France after 1357. The ease with which Cervole and his brigands gathered CAVALRY. See ARMIES,COMPOSITION OF plunder and RANSOMS soon encouraged other routier leaders to follow the Archpriest’s CERVOLE, ARNAUD DE (c. 1320–1366) example. Arnaud de Cervole, known as ‘‘the Arch- Beginning in July 1357, Cervole led his priest,’’ was the creator of the GREAT COM- army, which eventually numbered almost PANY and one of the most feared ROUTIER three thousand men, down the Rhoˆne to captains of the HUNDRED YEARS WAR. Provence, where the routiers maintained The younger son of minor Pe´rigord no- themselves through pillage and extortion. bility, Cervole joined the clergy, becoming The Great Company even threatened Mar- archpriest of Ve´lines, the position from seille, but the town proved too strong and in which his later sobriquet derived. Eschew- April 1358 Cervole departed for the north, ing his clerical duties for the company where revolutionary disorders in PARIS and of brigands, Cervole soon showed himself the intrigues of Charles of Navarre seemed to be more suited to warfare than to the to promise easier pickings. Although the Church, which eventually deprived him Great Company began to disband, many of all his benefices. His first recorded mili- routiers were still active in Provence and the tary action, undertaken in VALOIS service, vicinity of Avignon when Cervole returned was the capture of the Gascon fortress of in September 1358 to strike a bargain with Montravel in April 1351. An associate of Pope Innocent VI. In return for withdrawing the French constable, Charles of Spain, Cer- the companies from Provence and restoring vole received the lordship of Chateauneuf- all captured papal properties, Cervole re- sur-Charente and served as king’s lieutenant ceived a payment of 20,000 gold florins. in the region between the Dordogne From 1358 to 1361, Cervole was in the pay of and Loire Rivers. After the constable’s LOUIS DE MAˆ LE, count of FLANDERS, who murder by henchmen of CHARLES THE BAD, commissioned the routier leader to defend king of Navarre, in 1354, Cervole raised Berry and the Nivernais from other brig- his own company of men and undertook ands, an unfortunate decision that left both military operations on his own account, provinces open to the depredations of routier seizing three castles in Angouleˆme and, bands. later, while serving under JOHN II at the In 1362, Cervole fought for the Crown siege of Breteuil, another fortress in NOR- against the Great Company at the Battle of MANDY. BRIGNAIS, where he was captured, and, in In September 1356, Cervole was captured 1364, he served under Bertrand du GUESCLIN by the English at POITIERS. In March 1357, in the royal army that defeated the forces of Cervole, who had acquired several lordships Charles of Navarre at COCHEREL. In 1365, the in the region through marriage to a rich Archpriest received payment to lead rem- widow, was named in the Truce of BOR- nants of the Great Company out of eastern DEAUX as one of the French conservators for France and into the Holy Roman Empire, Berry. Upon regaining his freedom, Cervole where it was hoped most would join a cru- became the first routier leader to understand sade against the Turks. However, delays in the opportunities for enrichment offered to arranging passage and payment made his

82 CHARLES, DUKE OF ORLE´ ANS men restive, and, on 25 May 1366, Cervole JOHN IV, while du Guesclin’s capture was killed while arguing with some mal- brought Chandos a huge RANSOM. Returning contents. to Aquitaine, Chandos opposed the prince’s Further Reading: Sumption, Jonathan. The plan to intervene in the CASTILIAN WAR OF Hundred Years War. Vol. 2, Trial by Fire. Philadel- SUCCESSION, but recruited large numbers of phia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2001. ROUTIERS from the GREAT COMPANY when the prince decided on the campaign. At the re- C’EST ASSAVOIR. See BRE´ TIGNY, TREATY OF sulting battle of NA´ JERA in April 1367, Chandos further distinguished himself by CHANDOS, SIR JOHN (d. 1370) again capturing du Guesclin. A friend and comrade-in-arms of EDWARD, In May 1368, after failing to convince the THE BLACK PRINCE, Sir John Chandos, like Sir prince to remit the highly unpopular hearth Thomas DAGWORTH and Sir Robert KNOLLES, tax, Chandos retired to the estates in NOR- was among the circle of well-known and MANDY given to him by Edward III. How- respected nonnoble commanders who ever, the prince sorely missed his counsel served EDWARD III during the first decades and in December 1368 Chandos returned to of the HUNDRED YEARS WAR. For his war- Aquitaine at the prince’s request. Named time exploits, Chandos, like Walter MAUNY, seneschal of Poitou in March 1369, Chandos earned a European reputation for CHIVALRY vigorously defended the frontier of the and valor. duchy from renewed French incursions. The son of Sir Edward Chandos, a knight Wounded while, typically, fighting in an of Derbyshire, Chandos traced his ancestry avoidable skirmish against superior num- back to a companion of William the Con- bers, Chandos died on 1 January 1370. One queror. Chandos participated in many of the of the founding members of the Order of the major campaigns of the fourteenth century. GARTER, Chandos had an unparalleled rep- He is first mentioned at the siege of Cambrai utation for courage and gallantry, and his in 1337, distinguished himself at the Battles death was mourned even by his enemies, of CRE´CY in 1346 and WINCHELSEA in 1350, including du Guesclin and CHARLES Vof and took a prominent part in the prince’s France. CHEVAUCHE´E to the Mediterranean in 1355 and Chandos’s officer of arms, the Chandos the RHEIMS CAMPAIGN of 1359–60. At POITIERS Herald, an unknown native of Hainault, in 1356, Chandos fought alongside the wrote the French poem La Vie du Prince Noir prince, whom he advised during the battle, a (Life of the Black Prince) in about 1385. The service for which he received a substantial work is an important source for the life and annuity and the Lincolnshire manor of career of the prince as well as for the major Kirkton. In 1360, Chandos was a member of English campaigns of the mid-fourteenth the English commission that negotiated the century. See also CHEVAUCHE´ E OF 1355. Treaty of BRE´ TIGNY and, as constable of Gui- Further Reading: Barber, Richard. Edward, enne from 1362, helped oversee the transfer Prince of Wales and Aquitaine. New York: Charles of lands called for in the agreement. Scribner’s Sons, 1978; Harvey, John. The Black He was one of the prince’s closest advi- Prince and His Age. London: Rowman and Little- sors in the government of AQUITAINE until field, 1976. 1364, when Chandos took command of the English-backed Montfortist forces in BRIT- CHARLES, DUKE OF ORLE´ ANS TANY. In October, he won the Battle of (1394–1465) AURAY, where John de Montfort’s rival, The son of LOUIS, DUKE OF ORLE´ ANS, and a CHARLES OF BLOIS, was killed and the great nephew of CHARLES VI, Charles of Orle´ans pro-French captain, Bertrand du GUESCLIN, was leader of the ARMAGNAC faction and was captured. The battle ended the BRETON thus a central figure in the FRENCH CIVIL CIVIL WAR and made de Montfort duke as WAR. Considered largely ineffective as a

83 CHARLES, DUKE OF ORLE´ ANS politician, Orle´ans is today best remembered In 1412, both factions sought military aid as a talented and prolific poet. from England. In May, Orle´ans, with his In June 1406, Charles, then eleven, married Gien allies, signed the Treaty of BOURGES, his cousin Isabella, the daughter of Charles whereby the Armagnac leaders, in return for VI and widow of RICHARD II of England (see such assistance, swore homage to HENRY IV ISABELLA,QUEEN OF ENGLAND [1388–1409]). and recognized him as ruler of AQUITAINE. Charles was only thirteen in November 1407 Controlling both the royal army and royal when his father was murdered by agents of person, Burgundy forced the Armagnacs to JOHN THE FEARLESS, duke of BURGUNDY. The disavow the Bourges agreement. By the death of his mother, Valentine Visconti, in Treaty of BUZANC¸AIS, concluded in Novem- December 1408, left the fourteen-year-old ber, Orle´ans and his allies bribed THOMAS, boy as nominal head of his father’s political DUKE OF CLARENCE, leader of the English faction, which, in the previous year, had expedition, to withdraw. The settlement was been excluded from power by Burgundy guaranteed by the giving of hostages, who and his supporters. To curb the growing included Orle´ans’s younger brother, John, violence between adherents of the two par- count of Angouleˆme. ties, the king ordered all royal princes, In 1413, Burgundy’s high-handed rule including Orle´ans and Burgundy, to partic- and, in particular, his fomenting of the CA- ipate in a ceremony of reconciliation at BOCHIEN uprising in Paris turned the king Chartres on 9 March 1409. and dauphin against him. The latter negoti- However, the Chartres agreement proved ated the peace of Pontoise with Orle´ans and unworkable and, in April 1410, Orle´ans joined his allies in July and, in late August, Bur- the League of Gien, an alliance of anti-Bur- gundy, sensing his loss of support in the gundian nobles that included JOHN, DUKE OF capital, fled Paris. On 1 September, Orle´ans BERRY,Orle´ans’s great-uncle, and JOHN V, and the Armagnac princes entered the city duke of BRITTANY. Another member of the al- and took control of both king and govern- liance, and, with Orle´ans, a driving force in its ment. In October 1415, the English captured formation, was BERNARD, COUNT OF ARMA- Orle´ans at AGINCOURT. Unable to pay his GNAC, who became the duke’s father-in-law in RANSOM, the duke remained a prisoner in 1410, when Orle´ans married his daughter England for twenty-five years. Bonne, Duchess Isabella having died in Sep- During most of the duke’s captivity, his tember 1409. Because of the count’s growing estates were administered by officials of the influence within the alliance and the escalat- dauphin, Charles, who won the allegiance of ing violence that his Gascon supporters per- Orle´ans’s half brother, JOHN, COUNT OF DU- petrated on its behalf, the Orle´anist faction NOIS, the leader, with JOAN OF ARC, of the soon became known as the Armagnac party. 1429 campaign that drove the English from The Gien agreement created an army of the town of Orle´ans and allowed the dau- nine thousand men to be used ‘‘for the good phin to be crowned as CHARLES VII. Ironi- of the kingdom’’ (Vaughan, 82), which, in a cally, the duke’s freedom was finally September manifesto, the allies defined as secured by PHILIP THE GOOD, duke of Bur- rescuing the king and the dauphin (see gundy, the son of Orle´ans’s old enemy. LOUIS, DUKE OF GUIENNE) from Burgundy. Seeking allies against Charles VII, Burgundy Orle´ans led the alliance army on PARIS, but formed an alliance with the duke and ar- open war was avoided by the conclusion of ranged his marriage to a kinswoman, al- the peace of Biceˆtre in November 1410. In though Orle´ans took little part in politics July 1411, Orle´ans, having superceded Berry after his release, preferring instead to pre- as effective leader of the Armagnacs, re- side over a court of poets at Blois. Orle´ans’s opened the struggle by sending a defiant son by his third wife became king of France letter to the king demanding punishment of as Louis XII in 1498. The duke died at Am- his father’s murderers. boise on 4 January 1465.

84 CHARLES IV, KING OF FRANCE

Orle´ans wrote poetry all his life; the first Much influenced by his uncle, Charles, poem attributed to him dates from about count of VALOIS, Charles took strong steps to 1405, when he was ten. His surviving works improve his finances, employing such un- include over 120 ballades, over 400 ron- popular and questionable methods as selling deaux, 4 carols, and almost 90 chansons. offices, manipulating the coinage, and de- Many of his poems, such as the ‘‘Complainte manding payment to the Crown of debts de France’’ (1433), were written in England owed to exiled Jews by Christian debtors. during his captivity, and about 125 of them Charles also vigorously enforced obedience are in English. Although traditionally dis- to his authority throughout the realm, dis- missed as conventional and superficial, the patching an army to disaffected FLANDERS last examples of medieval court poetry, the and making a long progress through the duke’s poems have found more favor south after executing a rebellious southern among modern literary scholars, who now noble, Count Jourdain de l’Isle. consider Orle´ans a precursor of the romantic Charles also reversed the more tolerant and symbolist poets of the nineteenth cen- policy of his brothers toward EDWARD II of tury. England, who, as duke of AQUITAINE, had Further Reading: Arn, Mary-Jo, ed. Charles been lax in recognizing the authority of his d’Orle´ans in England, 1415–1440. Woodbridge, feudal suzerain, the king of France. In 1323, England: D. S. Brewer, 2000; Fein, David A. violence against royal officials arising from a Charles d’Orle´ans. Boston: Twayne Publishers, dispute over a Gascon BASTIDE initiated the 1983; Fox, John. The Lyric Poetry of Charles War of SAINT-SARDOS and led Charles to d’Orle´ans. Oxford: Clarendon, 1969; Goodrich, confiscate Aquitaine in July 1324. A cam- Norma Lorre. Charles, Duke of Orleans: A Literary paign by Valois quickly overran the entire Biography. New York: Macmillan, 1963; Steele, duchy except for BORDEAUX and a few other Robert, and Mabel Day. The English Poems of strongholds. In May 1325, Charles agreed to Charles d’Orle´ans. London: Oxford University restore the duchy under a settlement pro- Press, 1941; Vaughan, Richard. John the Fearless. posed by his sister Isabella, the wife of Ed- London: Longman, 1979. ward II (see ISABELLA,QUEEN OF ENGLAND [c. 1292–1358]), with whom she was increas- CHARLES IV, KING OF FRANCE ingly at odds. Under Isabella’s plan, Edward (1294–1328) granted the duchy to his twelve-year-old Known as ‘‘the Fair,’’ Charles IV was the last son, Prince Edward, who joined his mother king of the House of CAPET. His death at the French court, where, on 24 September, without male heirs threw the succession into he did homage to Charles for Aquitaine. doubt and left his nephew, EDWARD III of This arrangement collapsed in January 1327, England, as one of the leading candidates when Isabella and her lover Roger Mortimer for the French throne, a claim that was to deposed Edward and crowned her son as complicate the history of the HUNDRED YEARS Edward III. WAR. Charles died at Vincennes on 1 February The youngest son of PHILIP IV, Charles 1328. Although he left no sons, his wife, ascended the throne in January 1322 on the Jeanne of E´ vreux, was pregnant, and an as- death of his brother, PHILIP V. Charles’s su- sembly of nobles vested the regency in the persession of his nieces, Philip’s daughters, late king’s cousin, Philip of Valois. When aroused no opposition, for Philip had him- Jeanne gave birth to a girl on 1 April, Valois self taken the throne in 1317 by overriding convened another assembly to decide be- the rights of another niece, the daughter of tween the two strongest claims to the throne, Philip IV’s eldest son, LOUIS X. In February his own, and that of Charles’s nephew, Ed- 1317, as confirmation of Philip’s actions, an ward III, whose claim came through his assembly of notables declared women inca- mother. The chief legal issue—whether or pable of succeeding to the throne of France. not a woman, who, under the 1317 decision,

85 CHARLES V, KING OF FRANCE was herself barred from the throne, could ported. John’s subsequent capture thrust the pass her claim to her male heirs—carried inexperienced dauphin into the political less weight than practical considerations. arena, where, as regent for his father, he The assembly rejected the young foreign faced a host of crises, including E´ tienne prince dominated by his mother for the MARCEL’s PARIS revolution, the JACQUERIE mature French prince already ruling the uprising, growing noble defiance of royal kingdom. Although Edward was to resur- authority, a severely disordered currency, rect his claim when it suited his purposes, the depredations of ROUTIERS, and the rebel- Valois was crowned as PHILIP VI in May. See lion of Navarre. By 1359, Charles, through also SALIC LAW OF SUCCESSION. skill and good fortune, saw his position Further Reading: Brown, Elizabeth A. R. The improve, as the nobility, alienated by Mar- Monarchy of Capetian France and Royal Ceremonial. cel’s radicalism, the Jacques’ violence, and London: Variorum, 1991; Jordan, William Ches- Navarre’s ambition, rallied to the Crown. In ter. The French Monarchy and the Jews from Philip 1360, the failure of EDWARD III’s RHEIMS Augustus to the Last Capetians. Philadelphia: Uni- CAMPAIGN, due mainly to bad weather and versity of Pennsylvania Press, 1989. Charles’s avoidance of pitched battle, forced the English king to conclude the Treaty of CHARLES V, KING OF FRANCE BRE´ TIGNY on terms more favorable to the (1338–1380) French. Known as le Sage, ‘‘the Wise,’’ Charles V, the During the four years between John’s re- son of JOHN II, was the third VALOIS king of lease in 1360 and his death in 1364, royal France. Because his reign, in stark contrast to authority revived, as the Crown secured those of his predecessor and successor, wit- new and regular TAXATION that stabilized the nessed a strengthening of royal authority currency, met the king’s RANSOM payments, and the triumph of French arms, Charles has and rebuilt a royal army capable of sup- traditionally been considered the most able pressing routiers and defeating the English. of the early Valois kings, an assessment that Historians are divided on the question of has been questioned by some modern his- who deserves the most credit for this re- torians. covery—Charles or his father. On 6 May In 1349, Charles, by acquiring Vienne 1364, one month after Charles’s accession, a from its last count, or dauphin, became the royal army defeated the forces of Navarre at first heir to the French throne to bear the title COCHEREL, thereby ending his rebellion. The ‘‘dauphin.’’ In 1355, Charles was implicated new king was unlike his father in that poor in the St. Cloud plot, which was hatched health and personal inclination prevented against his father by his kinsman, CHARLES him from leading armies. An obscure chronic THE BAD, king of Navarre. Although the ex- illness contracted in the late 1350s eventu- tent of the dauphin’s involvement is unclear, ally left him unable to carry a weapon or Charles appeared willing to countenance a ride a horse. Nonetheless, Charles possessed significant limitation of John’s authority, al- a keen mind and a shrewd judgment, which though likely not any harm to his person. allowed him to choose capable advisors and The king uncovered the plot and regained to view political and military issues in clear his son’s support by granting Charles the and realistic terms. Despite these talents, APPANAGE of NORMANDY and by paying off Charles’s favorable reputation rests in large his debts. In September 1356, Charles was in part upon the writings of CHRISTINE DE nominal command of the first French divi- PIZAN, who depicted him as an exceptionally sion at POITIERS, where his retirement from wise and skilled ruler, a fact that has led the field following the repulse of his attack some historians to attribute his successes may have unwittingly initiated the with- more to luck and PROPAGANDA than to ability. drawal of the unengaged second division, a The heart of Charles’s policy from the retreat that left the king’s division unsup- start of his reign was to avenge the defeats at

86 CHARLES VI, KING OF FRANCE

CRE´CY and Poitiers and to regain AQUITAINE much concerned with the rightness of his and the other provinces lost to the PLANTAG- actions, cancelled the fouage (hearth tax), ENETS through the Bre´tigny agreement. To which had financed his armies. Although this end, Charles made his capable brother, this impolitic act eased the king’s con- LOUIS, DUKE OF ANJOU, royal lieutenant in science, it created problems for his succes- Languedoc, where he arranged an ulti- sor. Charles died on 16 September 1380 at mately successful French intervention in the the age of 42; he was succeeded by his son, CASTILIAN WAR OF SUCCESSION, thereby plac- CHARLES VI. See also MARMOUSETS. ing a pro-French king on the Castilian Further Reading: Perroy, Edouard. The Hun- throne by 1369. Charles secured another dred Years War. Trans. W. B. Wells. New York: important ally by convincing the pope to Capricorn Books, 1965; Sumption, Jonathan. The forbid a proposed marriage between MAR- Hundred Years War. Vol. 2, Trial by Fire. Philadel- GUERITE, the daughter of LOUIS DE MALE, phia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2001. count of FLANDERS, and EDMUND OF LANGLEY, a son of Edward III. In place of that match, CHARLES VI, KING OF FRANCE which would have created a dangerous En- (1368–1422) glish appanage on France’s northern fron- Afflicted by recurring mental illness, tier, he arranged for his brother, PHILIP THE Charles VI, the son of CHARLES V and fourth BOLD, duke of BURGUNDY, to marry Mar- VALOIS king of France, presided over the guerite, thus turning Flanders and, eventu- near dissolution of his country and his dy- ally, much of northwestern Europe, into a nasty. Unable to govern effectively, Charles Valois appanage. Although the resulting was for much of his reign a mere figurehead, state of Burgundy ultimately threatened the while other members of the royal family French Crown, it was in the short-term im- sought to control his person and govern- portant in helping to overthrow the Bre´tigny ment. settlement. Charles was eleven when he succeeded Charles also used money and DIPLOMACY his father in September 1380. Charles V had to cultivate the Gascon nobility, thereby in- appointed his eldest brother, LOUIS, DUKE OF ducing key southwestern noblemen to ig- ANJOU, as regent, but, under pressure from nore the treaty and appeal to the PARLEMENT the young king’s other uncles, JOHN, DUKE OF against taxes imposed in Aquitaine by ED- BERRY;PHILIP THE BOLD, duke of BURGUNDY; WARD, THE BLACK PRINCE. Accepted by and Louis, duke of Bourbon, Anjou agreed Charles in 1369, this APPEAL OF THE GASCON to share power. After Anjou’s death in 1384, LORDS restarted the HUNDRED YEARS WAR. power largely fell to Burgundy, who used it Led by such experienced Breton warriors as to promote his personal interests, and to Bertrand du GUESCLIN, whom Charles made Berry, who used it to finance his passion for constable, and Olivier de CLISSON,who collecting. In July 1385, Charles, in fulfill- promoted the policy of avoiding battle, the ment of a match promoted by Burgundy, royal armies, now effectively paid and sup- married ISABEAU OF BAVARIA, the sixteen- plied, restored much of Aquitaine to French year-old king being so smitten that he ac- control by 1380. Despite this success, cepted her without dowry. Charles, in 1378, made two misjudgments in In November 1388, one month short of the foreign policy. He confiscated BRITTANY from king’s twentieth birthday, Charles’s younger Duke JOHN IV, thereby alienating the Breton brother, Louis, duke of Touraine, persuaded nobility and losing their valuable military the king to dismiss his uncles and take service, and he recognized the questionable power into his own hands. Weak and im- election of Clement VII as pope, thereby mature, the king, taking his brother’s lead, initiating the great schism that split the gave himself over to a continuous round of Church for almost four decades. On his court festivities, while real power lay in the deathbed, Charles, who was a pious man hands of a group of ministers allied with

87 CHARLES VI, KING OF FRANCE

Touraine. Led by Constable Olivier de CLIS- sanity. Although Charles remained the SON and Cardinal Pierre Aycelin, the king’s source of power, he could not exercise it, new councilors, who became known as and the royal family began to fragment as its MARMOUSETS, were former servants of more ambitious members sought to do so in Charles V who sought to reform royal gov- the king’s stead. After Burgundy’s death in ernment by making it more rational and 1404, a bitter rivalry developed between the efficient. In June 1389, the Marmousets, fol- king’s brother, now duke of Orle´ans, and the lowing what they believed to be the policy of king’s cousin, JOHN THE FEARLESS, the new their late master, concluded the Truce of duke of Burgundy. In November 1407, Bur- LEULINGHEN with the government of RICHARD gundy had Orle´ans assassinated. Unable to II. The agreement provided for a three-year deal either consistently or rationally with his cessation of hostilities and the initiation of brother’s murder, Charles allowed Bur- talks for a permanent settlement. Although gundy to return to court (see JUSTIFICATION OF no peace treaty resulted, Charles married his THE DUKE OF BURGUNDY) and seize power. daughter Isabella (see ISABELLA,QUEEN OF The refusal of the ARMAGNACS (the Orle´anist ENGLAND [1388–1409]) to Richard in 1396. faction) to accept Burgundy’s rule initiated The Marmouset regime collapsed in Au- the FRENCH CIVIL WAR, during which the king gust 1392 when the king suffered his first was largely the pawn of the party in schizophrenic episode. On 5 August, while power—Burgundy from 1409 to 1413, the leading an army into BRITTANY, the king was Armagnacs from 1413 to 1418, and Bur- accosted by a madman, whose sudden ap- gundy again in 1418–19. pearance, in concert with the heat and noise, In 1413, the dauphin, LOUIS, DUKE OF GUI- threw Charles into a fit of violent madness, ENNE, tried to end civil strife by forming a during which he attacked members of his royalist party, but this effort was frustrated entourage. This eruption was followed by a by HENRY V’s victory at AGINCOURT in Oc- stupefied daze in which the king babbled tober 1415 and by the dauphin’s death two nonsense and recognized no one. With their months later. When his second son, John, nephew incapacitated, the uncles resumed duke of Touraine, died in April 1417, Char- power. By mid-September, Charles seemed les’s only remaining male heir was fourteen- fully recovered, although he relapsed in the year-old Charles, who was largely a tool of following year, only to recover again. Dur- BERNARD, COUNT OF ARMAGNAC, leader of the ing the episodes, the king exhibited schizo- unpopular Armagnac regime then ruling in phrenic delusions of persecution, believing PARIS. In May 1418, with Paris about to fall to that all around him sought to harm him. He the BURGUNDIANS, the dauphin fled. Efforts also refused to let anyone touch or tend him, to reconcile Charles, now the nominal head believing himself to be made of glass. For of a Burgundian government, with his son, the rest of the reign, occasional periods of now the nominal head of the Armagnac lucidity were invariably followed by peri- opposition, collapsed after the dauphin ap- ods of madness, with the former growing proved the murder of Burgundy at the shorter and less frequent and the latter lon- MONTEREAU CONFERENCE in September 1419. ger and more intense. In 1420, after the dauphin committed tech- On 28 January 1393, the king barely es- nical treason by declaring himself regent, caped death at the so-called Bal des Ardents Charles disinherited his son by accepting the (Burning Men’s Ball), during which Charles Treaty of TROYES, whereby Henry V became and a group of courtiers, dressed as wild regent and heir to the French Crown. By also animals for a court masquerade, caught fire marrying his daughter, CATHERINE OF when their costumes of pitch and flax were VALOIS, to Henry, Charles accepted the ignited by a torch. Such excesses of court life eventual accession of a PLANTAGENET to the robbed the king of any sense of duty or re- Valois throne. However, Charles unexpect- sponsibility and overwhelmed his fragile edly outlived his son-in-law by two months,

88 CHARLES VII, KING OF FRANCE dying on 21 October 1422. He was eventually succeeded by his son, who was crowned as CHARLES VII in 1429. In the 1450s, Charles’s English grandson, HENRY VI, also suffered bouts of recurring mental illness. Further Reading: Famiglietti, Rich- ard. Royal Intrigue: Crisis at the Court of Charles VI, 1392–1420. New York: AMS Press, 1986; Perroy, Edouard. The Hun- dred Years War. Trans. W. B. Wells. New York: Capricorn Books, 1965; Seward, Desmond. The Hundred Years War. New York: Penguin, 1999.

CHARLES VII, KING OF FRANCE (1403–1461) Charles VII, the fifth VALOIS king of France, is often known as ‘‘the Victorious’’ or ‘‘the Well-Served’’ because his reign witnessed the final defeat of the English and the end of the HUNDRED YEARS WAR. Although condemned by both contemporaries and later historians for his abandonment of JOAN OF ARC, his ingratitude toward long- time servants, and his avoidance of Jean Fouquet’s portrait of Charles VII. Erich Lessing/Art combat, Charles, during the course Resource, New York. of his reign, brought France and the Valois Crown from weakness, disorder, and dismemberment to strength, creasingly unpopular regime held PARIS. peace, and unity. Dominated by the regime’s true leader, The eleventh child and fifth son of BERNARD, COUNT OF ARMAGNAC, Charles CHARLES VI and ISABEAU OF BAVARIA, quarreled with his mother, whom he ban- Charles, in his youth, had no expectation of ished from the capital. In May 1418, an up- the Crown. He became dauphin in 1417 at rising in Paris delivered the city to JOHN the age of fourteen following the deaths of THE FEARLESS, duke of BURGUNDY, whose his older brothers, LOUIS, DUKE OF GUIENNE, supporters massacred the count and nearly and John, duke of Touraine. His political two thousand other Armagnacs. Spirited career began at a dark moment in French out of Paris at night by his servants Tanguy history, with HENRY V, the recent victor of du Chaˆtel and Guillaume d’Avaugour, AGINCOURT, poised to begin the conquest of Charles fled south of the Loire, where he NORMANDY (see NORMAN CAMPAIGN [1417– became the center of an alternative court 1419]), while the BURGUNDIAN and ARMA- dominated by Armagnacs. On 29 June, with GNAC factions continued to fight one another his addled father now under the influence of for control of the schizophrenic king and his Burgundy, Charles, on his own initiative, government. As dauphin, Charles became assumed the title of lieutenant-general of nominal head of the Armagnacs, whose in- France.

89 CHARLES VII, KING OF FRANCE

Believing the dauphin to be weak and mission was accepted by the public as di- easily led, Burgundy sought a reconciliation vinely inspired and Charles’s association that would end the civil war and allow with her legitimated his authority and re- united action against the English. On 10 stored the prestige of his dynasty. However, September 1419, at a conference arranged by the king, who favored DIPLOMACY to battle, the dauphin’s officers, Charles met the duke was always uncomfortable with Joan’s in- at MONTEREAU. During the meeting, Char- sistence on vigorous offensive warfare. After les’s servants, acting to avenge the murder the failure of her attack on Paris in Sep- of their former master, LOUIS, DUKE OF OR- tember, he negotiated a truce and disbanded LE´ANS, slew Burgundy. Although the extent the army. When Joan was captured by the of Charles’s involvement in the killing is Burgundians in 1430, and then tried and unclear, it appears likely that he condoned executed by the English in 1431, Charles the act. Condemned by PHILIP THE GOOD, the made no attempt to help her, an inaction for new duke of Burgundy, as a murderer, and which he has ever since been condemned by repudiated by his estranged mother as a Joan’s friends and admirers. Nonetheless, bastard unfit to rule, Charles was formally the victories of 1429 turned the tide of the disinherited by the Treaty of TROYES, which war. In 1435, Charles reconciled with Bur- made Henry V heir to the French throne. gundy at the Congress of ARRAS. Although Concluded in May 1420, the treaty also cre- the settlement was personally humiliating, ated an ANGLO-BURGUNDIAN ALLIANCE and requiring Charles to apologize, through a arranged a marriage between Henry and the representative, for the murder at Montereau, dauphin’s sister, CATHERINE OF VALOIS. Al- it ended the divisions of the civil war and though the unexpected death of the English finally won Charles widespread recognition king in August 1422, two months before the as king. death of Charles VI, heartened the dau- In 1436, Charles entered Paris for the first phin’s supporters, Charles controlled only time in nineteen years, and, by 1440, Lan- the southern third of France, which was castrian France had been largely reduced to contemptuously referred to as the ‘‘kingdom Normandy (see LANCASTER,HOUSE OF). In of Bourges.’’ Even though his rival for the preparation for a final push against the En- throne was his infant nephew, HENRY VI, glish, Charles undertook to reform his gov- Charles, who had a weak constitution, odd ernment, reorganize his army, and rebuild appearance, and disinclination to lead ar- his authority. Once much influenced by mies himself, generated little enthusiasm in ambitious favorites, Charles dismissed the Anglo-Burgundian France, where his asso- worst of them, Georges de la Tre´moı¨lle, in ciation with the Armagnacs and the murder 1433, and turned to more prudent advisors, of Burgundy also worked against him. Vic- such as Arthur de Richemont (see ARTHUR tories at CRAVANT in 1423 and VERNEUIL in III), who led the successful campaigns of the 1424 allowed the English to advance to the 1430s and the army reform of the 1440s, and Loire, where they laid siege to ORLE´ ANS in Jacques Coeur, a merchant who financed the 1428. Uncrowned and unsuccessful in battle, final campaigns against the English. In 1438, the dauphin faced the possibility of never Charles issued the Pragmatic Sanction, ruling the whole kingdom. whereby the Crown claimed control from This gloomy situation was radically the papacy of ecclesiastical appointments transformed in the spring of 1429 by the and revenues. In 1439, the king won new advent of Joan of Arc, whose claim that God taxes from the Estates-General and issued supported the dauphinist cause made pos- the first of his ordinances reforming the sible the relief of Orle´ans in May, the victory army (see CHARLES VII, MILITARY REFORMS at PATAY in June (see LOIRE CAMPAIGN), and OF), although these attempts to enlarge royal Charles’s coronation at Rheims in July. power led to a revolt of the dauphin and the Confirmed by her military success, Joan’s nobility known as the Praguerie. Charles

90 CHARLES VII, MILITARY REFORMS OF defeated the rebels in 1440, but was forced to French countryside, the Truce of Tours wit- delay army reform until after 1444, when the nessed the first attempt by any royal gov- Truce of TOURS temporarily ended the ernment to maintain troops under arms Anglo-French war. during peacetime. To prepare for the final Now possessing a smaller but better expulsion of the English, and to resolve ra- trained army led by hand-picked com- ther than aggravate the e´corcheur problem manders and supported by excellent ARTIL- created in 1435 by the Franco-Burgundian LERY, Charles reopened the war in 1449 with reconciliation at the Congress of ARRAS, a campaign of successful sieges that culmi- Charles VII attempted, even before conclu- nated in August 1450 with the reconquest of sion of the truce, to reinstitute some of the Normandy (see FORMIGNY,BATTLE OF; military reforms carried out in the 1360s by NORMAN CAMPAIGN [1449–50]). In 1451, a his grandfather, CHARLES V. In November campaign led by JOHN, COUNT OF DUNOIS, 1439, the king declared military recruiting a overran GASCONY, which passed finally to royal monopoly, limited the strength of French control after the Battle of CASTILLON royal companies to one hundred men, and in July 1453. With the end of the Anglo- established permanent regular garrisons French war, Charles continued the consoli- around the country. When accompanied by dation of royal authority, beginning a pro- more regular pay and stricter attention to cess that eventually culminated with the discipline, these efforts reduced brigandage French reabsorption of much of Burgundy. and strengthened royal control over French In 1450, Charles convened a nullification military resources. trial that in 1456 overturned the original When the Truce of Tours took effect in verdict against Joan of Arc. Undertaken 1444, the government did not automatically perhaps to clear the king of association with disband its forces, but, under the supervi- a condemned heretic, the trial transcripts sion of Constable Arthur de Richemont (see have provided historians with much infor- ARTHUR III), purged the army of its most mation on Joan. Charles died on 22 July 1461 unruly elements and formed the rest into and was succeeded by his son, Louis XI. See some twenty standing cavalry units known also ESTATES,GENERAL AND PROVINCIAL. as ‘‘companies of the king’s ordinance’’ or Further Reading: Vale, M. G. A. Charles VII. companies d’ordonnance, which contained Berkeley: University of California Press, 1974. one hundred ‘‘lances’’ consisting of a man- at-arms and five more lightly armed at- CHARLES VII, MILITARY REFORMS OF tendants. In 1446, this organization was During the five-year cessation of hostilities also applied to Languedoc in southern that followed conclusion of the Truce of France, which was required to raise five TOURS in 1444, the government of CHARLES more companies. Each town and province VII undertook a series of military reforms had to house and maintain a certain num- designed to create a professional standing ber of lances, a special tax being levied army paid and controlled by the French for that purpose. Through these reforms, Crown, and capable of rapid and flexible the French Crown succeeded in doing deployment against both e´corcheur bands what had not been done before in Western (see ROUTIERS) and English garrisons. When Europe—raise and maintain an army in fighting resumed in 1449, this new French time of peace. army drove the English out of NORMANDY On 28 April 1448, in an effort to raise a and GASCONY within four years and thus similar body of infantry, the king issued an ended the HUNDRED YEARS WAR. ordonnance requiring every parish to pay for Unlike previous truces and treaties, the the maintenance of one ARCHER. To entice proclamation of which had disbanded ar- men to volunteer, the Crown granted an mies and thereby unleashed thousands of exemption from all taxes to anyone who unemployed soldiers to prey upon the participated, thus giving rise to the name

91 CHARLES OF BLOIS, DUKE OF BRITTANY

‘‘franc-archers’’ or ‘‘free-archers’’ for the Besieged in Brest, Montfort’s wife, Jeanne resulting militia units. Paid 9 livres tournois of Flanders, appealed to EDWARD III, who, per year and up to 4 livres tournois per in 1342, seized the opportunity to open a month when called into active service, the new front against France and intervened franc-archers trained once a week and stood militarily in Brittany. Faced with a growing ready to join their companies should war English presence, Charles was unable to erupt. The ordonnance called for companies secure the duchy, which now lapsed into of 500 men formed into four divisions 4,000 civil war. In 1347, an English force under strong, thus theoretically providing the Sir Thomas DAGWORTH defeated and cap- Crown with an infantry force of 16,000. Al- tured Charles at the Battle of LA ROCHE- though never fully mobilized, the franc- DERRIEN. After four years of captivity in archers, like the professional cavalry units, Vannes and LONDON, Charles was paroled played an important role in the final cam- in late 1351 and returned to PARIS where paigns of the Hundred Years War, and in JOHN II agreed to pay his RANSOM. When the the eventual suppression of the e´corcheurs. king could not meet the first payment, See also ARTILLERY;NORMAN CAMPAIGN Charles, a rigidly upright man, surrendered (1449–1450). himself and was again confined in the Further Reading: Contamine, Philippe. War in Tower of London. the Middle Ages. Trans. Michael Jones. London: Disheartened by news of the English vic- Blackwell, 1984; Perroy, Edouard. The Hundred tory at MAURON in 1352, Charles agreed to Years War. Trans. W. B. Wells. New York: Cap- Breton neutrality in the Anglo-French war in ricorn Books, 1965; Vale, M. G. A. Charles VII. return for his freedom (for a ransom of Berkeley: University of California Press, 1974. £50,000) and English recognition of his right to the ducal title. This agreement was con- CHARLES OF BLOIS, DUKE OF cluded on 1 March 1353 and Charles re- BRITTANY (c. 1319–1364) turned to the duchy on parole, but his sup- Charles of Blois was the French-backed porters continued the war, slaughtering the claimant to the duchy of BRITTANY during English garrison of Tristan Castle in Sep- the BRETON CIVIL WAR. tember and forcing Charles to return again Charles was the second son of Guy de to English custody. Finally released in Au- Chaˆtillon, count of Blois, and Margaret of gust 1356, Charles, who had pledged not to VALOIS, the sister of PHILIP VI of France. In take arms against Edward, had to watch 1337, Charles married Jeanne, countess of while a campaign led by HENRY OF GROS- Penthie`vre, the niece of John III, duke of MONT, duke of Lancaster, brought much of Brittany, who, being childless, promised Brittany under English control. the ducal succession to Jeanne in preference In 1360, Brittany, its succession still in to his half brother, John de MONTFORT. dispute, was largely excepted from the However, upon the duke’s death in April Treaty of BRE´ TIGNY, and civil war flared 1341, both Charles, by right of his wife, anew in 1362, when Edward III surrendered and Montfort claimed the duchy, leaving the duchy to Montfort’s son, John, who was Philip VI, as feudal overlord, to decide be- now old enough to lead his own cause. With tween them. When Philip declared for the assistance of Bertrand du GUESCLIN, Charles, Montfort refused to renounce his Charles launched a series of campaigns that claims and the king imprisoned him in the culminated in September 1364 with his at- Louvre. Montfort died in 1345. Charles, who tempt to relieve the besieged port of AURAY. was supported by a majority of the Breton Overwhelmed by an Anglo-Breton force nobility, quickly reduced most of the under Sir John CHANDOS, Charles was slain Montfortist strongholds with the assistance and his cause overthrown. In April 1365, the of a French army led by Philip’s son, John, long civil war finally ended when Charles’s duke of NORMANDY. widow signed the Treaty of GUE´ RANDE rec-

92 CHARLES THE BAD, KING OF NAVARRE ognizing young John de Montfort as Duke English aid, Navarre initiated a decade-long JOHN IV. rebellion against his father-in-law. Further Reading: Jones, Michael. The Creation Because of the support Navarre enjoyed of Brittany: A Late Medieval State. London: Ham- among the French nobility, particularly in bledon Press, 1988. the northwest, John was forced, in February 1354, to conclude the Treaty of Mantes, CHARLES THE BAD, KING OF whereby Navarre agreed to renounce Cham- NAVARRE (1332–1387) pagne and Brie in return for a pardon and a Like EDWARD III of England, Charles II, ruler substantial grant of lands in NORMANDY. of the small Spanish kingdom of Navarre, However, Navarre continued to intrigue had a claim to the Crown of France that with Edward III, whose failed attempt to descended through his mother. In the 1350s, invade Normandy in concert with Navarre Navarre, in furtherance of that claim, tried to allowed John to force the more favorable wrest the throne for his VALOIS kinsmen by Treaty of Valognes on his son-in-law in exploiting the economic distress and social September 1355. But Navarre continued to unrest fostered by military failure in the foment rebellion and even plotted to kidnap HUNDRED YEARS WAR. Because his quest for the king and turn the dauphin against his power seriously weakened the authority of father. On 5 April 1356, Navarre was a guest the Crown, Navarre became known in the at a banquet hosted by the dauphin in sixteenth century as ‘‘El Malo,’’ ‘‘the Bad,’’ a ROUEN. Leading a large body of armed men, sobriquet later adopted by French historians. the king burst in and, seizing Navarre by the The son of Philip, count of E´ vreux, and throat, denounced him as a traitor. With Jeanne, the daughter of LOUIS X, Charles Navarre in prison and his chief support- succeeded to his father’s title in 1343 and to ers executed, Normandy erupted in civil his mother’s kingdom of Navarre in 1349. war between royalists and Navarrese parti- When PHILIP V displaced Jeanne as heir to sans. the French throne in 1316, an action that led When the English captured John at POI- to the formal prohibition of female royal TIERS in the following September, criticism of succession, he promised her possession of the Crown and its policies overwhelmed the the rest of her inheritance—Navarre, where inexperienced dauphin, who faced a host of a woman could succeed, and the counties of discontented factions demanding Navarre’s Champagne and Brie. However, neither release. On 9 November 1357, he escaped Philip nor his Valois successors relinquished from prison. Hailed as the savior of France the latter two territories. When other lands by those who sought governmental reform, and revenues promised as compensation for Navarre quickly eroded his popularity by Champagne and Brie were also withheld or cooperating with the Parisian revolutionar- delayed, the disgruntled House of E´ vreux ies led by E´ tienne MARCEL, whose excesses quickly became the focus of magnate dis- alienated the nobility, and by negotiating content in northwestern France. Royal at- with the English, an act that seemed moti- tempts at pacifying the family included vated more by personal ambition than by an PHILIP VI’s marriage to Navarre’s sister in interest in reform. Following John’s release 1350 and Navarre’s marriage to JOHN II’s in 1360, Navarre began recruiting troops daughter in 1352. However, John’s failure to among the bands of ROUTIERS left unem- promptly pay his daughter’s dowry and his ployed by the Treaty of BRE´ TIGNY. In 1363, decision to grant Angouleˆme, a county to when the king gave BURGUNDY as an APPA- which Navarre had claim, to Charles of NAGE to his son PHILIP THE BOLD, Navarre Spain, a royal favorite recently made con- claimed the duchy, thereby initiating a new stable, led Navarre to arrange the consta- civil war. In May 1364, only days before the ble’s murder in January 1354. With this act, dauphin was crowned as CHARLES V, a royal and his subsequent attempts to negotiate for army commanded by Bertrand du GUESCLIN

93 CHARTRES, PEACE OF crushed Navarre’s forces at COCHEREL, there- easier and cheaper to plan and organize, less by destroying Navarrese power in Nor- hazardous to English troops, and very mandy and around PARIS. Forced to accept a damaging to the defender’s economic ability treaty relinquishing his Norman strong- to make war. Scarce resources were tied up holds, Navarre’s political importance rap- building and maintaining town walls and idly diminished, although he continued to other fortifications for subjects whose ability intrigue against the Crown until his death to pay taxes had been significantly reduced. on 1 January 1387. Frequent repetition of such attacks over Further Reading: Sumption, Jonathan. The wide areas could also stimulate a popular Hundred Years War. Vol. 2, Trial by Fire. Philadel- demand for peace that could not be ignored phia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2001. by the defenders and that would allow the attackers to dictate terms. Although historians have traditionally CHARTRES, PEACE OF. See FRENCH CIVIL argued that the English chevauche´e was also WAR intended to force the French to give battle, more recent theories suggest that this was ˆ CHATEL, TANGUY DU. See CHARLES VII; not always the case. Leading a mobile force MONTEREAU CONFERENCE that rarely numbered more than a few thousand, English commanders needed to CHEVALIERS DE L’E´ TOILE. See STAR, move quickly through enemy lands, doing ORDER OF THE as much damage as possible and collecting sufficient plunder and prisoners to make the CHEVAUCHE´ E whole venture profitable. Seeking battle The chevauche´e, a swift and highly destruc- was, especially for outnumbered English tive raid through enemy territory, was a forces in enemy territory, a risky tactic. To military tactic frequently employed by En- the medieval mind, such a plan was to invite glish forces during the HUNDRED YEARS WAR, the intervention of God, who often seemed especially in campaigns before 1380. Such willing to bring defeat upon the issuer of the raids sought to destroy the authority and invitation. Thus, the early raids, such as legitimacy of the VALOIS monarchy and to those of HENRY OF GROSMONT, duke of Lan- win profit and honor for the English Crown caster, in 1345, and EDWARD, THE BLACK and soldiery. PRINCE, in 1355 and 1356, were, despite the Derived from strategies used both by and culmination of the 1356 campaign in the against the English in the Anglo-Scottish Battle of POITIERS, aimed mainly at destroy- wars of the early fourteenth century, the ing the authority and not the armies of the chevauche´e was employed in France as early French king (see CHEVAUCHE´ E OF 1355). as 1339, when English burning and looting By the 1360s, the immense scale of de- of the rich French countryside shocked all struction and the frequency of the raids re- Europe (see THIE´ RACHE CAMPAIGN). However, duced their effectiveness. Also, any attempt the tactic offered the English many advan- to invite battle failed completely of its pur- tages and was highly effective in the early pose after 1364, when CHARLES V refused to stages of the war. The goal of the chevauche´e fight. This strategy left the countryside open was to challenge the authority and military to plunder but also avoided the repetition of effectiveness of the French king by demon- defeats like CRE´ CY and Poitiers, which strating his inability to defend his lands and proved even more damaging to morale than people. A long sweeping raid into the heart the chevauche´es. The RHEIMS CAMPAIGN of of Valois territory also illustrated EDWARD 1359–60, essentially a grand chevauche´e de- III’s superior military might and therefore signed to have Edward III crowned at his superior claim to be king of France. A Rheims, failed due to bad weather and the campaign against noncombatants was also ironic inability of the English-devastated

94 CHEVAUCHE´ E OF 1355 countryside to supply the army. When war prince from England. Among the army’s resumed in 1369, the English initiated a se- captains were Sir John CHANDOS; Thomas ries of overly ambitious chevauche´es, with BEAUCHAMP, earl of Warwick; and the Gas- JOHN OF GAUNT, duke of Lancaster, looting con nobles Jean de GRAILLY, Captal de Buch, Artois, Picardy, and NORMANDY in 1369; Sir and Bernard-Aiz V, lord of ALBRET.On12 Robert KNOLLES raiding around PARIS and October, the army left Aquitaine and en- into BRITTANY and Poitou in 1370; and tered the county of Armagnac. Moving Gaunt, in one of the longest chevauche´es ever quickly in three columns across a broad attempted, plundering in a wide arc around front so as to maximize opportunities for Paris from CALAIS to BORDEAUX in 1373 (see both forage and destruction, the army mar- CHEVAUCHE´ E OF 1373). The failure of these ched southeast through a rich, undefended raids to produce any concrete results made country, destroying everything in its path. English use of the chevauche´e far less fre- The French commanders in the region— quent thereafter, although occasional plun- Armagnac, Marshal Jean de Clermont, and dering campaigns, such as those of THOMAS, Constable John of Bourbon—fearing a repeat DUKE OF CLARENCE, in 1412 and John BEAU- of the disasters at AUBEROCHE and CRE´ CY, FORT, duke of Somerset, in 1443, continued refused to give battle and instead prepared to be undertaken. See also STRATEGY AND to defend the wealthy town of Toulouse, to TACTICS. which the prince appeared to be heading. Further Reading: Allmand, Christopher. The However, having neither time nor equip- Hundred Years War. Cambridge: Cambridge Uni- ment for a long siege, the prince bypassed versity Press, 1988; Curry, Anne. The Hundred Toulouse in late October. On 3 November, Years War. 2nd ed. Houndmills, England: Pal- the raiders reached Carcassonne, where, grave Macmillan, 2003; Seward, Desmond. The after rejecting an offer of payment to be left Hundred Years War. New York: Penguin, 1999. alone, the prince destroyed the lower town but bypassed the walled fortress. On 8 No- CHEVAUCHE´ E OF 1355 vember, the army reached Narbonne, where Led by EDWARD, THE BLACK PRINCE, the two- it came within sight of the Mediterranean. month-long English CHEVAUCHE´ E of 1355 After dismissing papal representatives at- covered over six hundred miles on a route tempting to negotiate a truce, the prince that ran across southern France from BOR- learned that the French commanders were at DEAUX to the Mediterranean and back again. last on the move, attempting to block his Although the campaign precipitated neither return. He therefore left Narbonne on 10 pitched battles nor territorial conquests, it November, as soldiers and townsmen in the significantly reduced the economic ability of fortress, which was again unmolested, the region to support the VALOIS war effort, began bombarding his men with catapults and severely shook French confidence in and burning arrows. JOHN II’s ability to defend his subjects. Taking a more southerly return route to On 21 September, the day after his arrival avoid the enemy, the army passed through in Bordeaux, the prince was officially in- a region of difficult terrain and few towns; stalled as royal lieutenant in AQUITAINE. the men suffered much from lack of food Anxious to strike at the Valois lieutenant of and water, and from cold and freezing rain Languedoc, John, count of Armagnac, who when the weather turned. The French har- had been raiding PLANTAGENET territories assed stragglers and foragers, but made no since the spring, the prince called upon his attempt to give battle until 20 November, Gascon vassals to provide troops for an when an English contingent captured more autumn campaign. On 5 October, he left than thirty prisoners in a clash with a Bordeaux with an Anglo-Gascon force French detachment. The two armies spent numbering over six thousand, of which the night watching each other across the twenty-two hundred had come with the River Save, and then, on 21 November, Ar-

95 CHEVAUCHE´ E OF 1373 magnac, having destroyed all the bridges, then south, ravaging Picardy, Champagne, withdrew northward. The prince resumed and BURGUNDY, perhaps in an effort to draw his march and continued unhindered to Charles out of PARIS. The English inflicted Bordeaux, which he reached on 9 December. tremendous damage on the provinces they Returning with hundreds of carts of booty entered, but the French king forbade direct and many prisoners for RANSOM, the expe- confrontations and urged people to flee to dition was a great success, having destroyed the fortified towns. almost five hundred villages, more than In late autumn, Lancaster turned south, twenty walled towns, and the trade and moving through the Bourbonnais into residential centers of three large cities. mountainous, lightly populated Auvergne, What’s more, the outcry across France where the French constable, Bertrand du against the inactivity of the French com- GUESCLIN, subjected the English to the same manders embarrassed the royal government harassing attacks and ambushes they had and forced the king, who was focused on suffered earlier from the forces of PHILIP THE EDWARD III’s activities in northern France, to BOLD, duke of Burgundy. As winter arrived devote more time and resources to the de- in November and December, horses and fense of Languedoc. men died for lack of shelter, while du Gue- Further Reading: Burne, Alfred H. The Cre´cy sclin’s attacks, which continued almost to War. Ware, England: Wordsworth Editions Ltd., BORDEAUX, became bolder and more fre- 1999; Sumption, Jonathan. The Hundred Years War. quent. Hungry, tired, and increasingly on Vol. 2, Trial by Fire. Philadelphia: University of foot, the English army finally stumbled into Pennsylvania Press, 2001. the Gascon capital at the beginning of Jan- uary 1374. About half the army had been lost to exposure, starvation, and enemy action. CHEVAUCHE´ E OF 1373 The raid had covered almost a thousand The largest and longest English CHEVAUCHE´E miles and had severely damaged the econ- of the HUNDRED YEARS WAR, the five-month omies of the regions through which it passed; campaign led by JOHN OF GAUNT, duke of it also relieved French pressure on Brittany, Lancaster, in 1373 brought great destruction from which du Guesclin was recalled to to eastern and central France but accom- defend France, and brought reinforcements plished little for the flagging PLANTAGENET war to the shrinking remnant of Plantagenet effort and was considered a failure in England. Aquitaine, which also experienced relief With the resumption of war in 1369, the while the French were focused on Lancaster. English response to CHARLES V’s policy of However, no battles had been won and avoiding pitched battles was a series of no towns had been taken and the raid’s di- chevauche´es designed to cripple the French sastrous ending precluded the securing of economy and force Charles to fight. In 1369, sufficient plunder to compensate for its Lancaster led a brief raid from CALAIS to high cost in money and men. The English HARFLEUR, and in 1370, Sir Robert KNOLLES subsequently conducted two more such led a chevauche´e across northern France to campaigns—EDMUND OF LANGLEY, earl of BRITTANY. That expedition ended in failure Cambridge, raided in Brittany in 1375, and when Knolles was deserted by his cocomm- THOMAS OF WOODSTOCK, earl of Buckingham, anders, one of whom was subsequently de- plundered northern France in 1380—but feated by the French at Pontvallain. For the neither was successful, and no further che- 1373 campaign, Lancaster left Calais in Au- vauche´es were undertaken in the fourteenth gust with a force of between ten and fifteen century. By 1380, the only parts of Aquitaine thousand men, over half of whom were AR- still in English hands were Bordeaux and its CHERS. Instead of striking south toward environs. AQUITAINE, which was under increasing Further Reading: Burne, Alfred H. The Agin- enemy pressure, the duke moved east and court War. Ware, England: Wordsworth Editions

96 CHIVALRY

Ltd., 1999; Packe, Michael. King Edward III. Ed. Eu, surrendered his castle of Guines, an im- L. C. B. Seaman. London: Routledge and Kegan portant strongpoint on the CALAIS march, to Paul, 1983; Seward, Desmond. The Hundred Years EDWARD III to pay Eu’s RANSOM,JOHN II in- War. New York: Penguin, 1999. terpreted the transfer, which the constable saw as a private arrangement to meet a just CHIVALRY obligation, as treason and had Eu executed. Related to the French word for knight— The virtue of prowess in battle was particu- chevalier, from cheval, ‘‘horse’’—chivalry is a larly recognized by the great orders of chiv- complex term referring both to a class of alry established during the war—the Order knights or armed horsemen, and to a set of of the GARTER in England and of the STAR in values, qualities, and behaviors that became, France. At annual meetings of the latter, a between the eleventh and fifteenth centuries, special table was set aside for those members an internationally recognized code of con- who were judged to have performed the duct for those who belonged or aspired to most valiant feats of arms during the previ- the European aristocracy of mounted war- ous year. riors. Because war justified the existence and Other key chivalric qualities included privileged status of knights, the HUNDRED largess, courtesy, honor, and nobility. De- YEARS WAR was the perfect stage for the riving probably from the need for equita- promotion of chivalrous ideals and the ble distribution of booty among a war display of chivalrous conduct. Many con- band, largess came to encompass the eco- temporaries saw the war primarily in chi- nomic dimension of chivalry, for medieval valric terms, such as the chroniclers JEAN LE knighthood was expensive, requiring a man BEL and JEAN FROISSART, who, in the words of to equip himself with a warhorse and much the latter, wrote so that ‘‘the honourable costly ARMOR and weaponry. Without land, enterprises, noble adventures, and deeds of a man could not acquire a knight’s training arms which took place during the wars or equipage unless helped by his lord. Thus, waged by France and England should be after many French knights were captured at fittingly related and preserved for posterity’’ AUBEROCHE in 1345, PHILIP VI demonstrated (Froissart, 37). chivalrous lordship by paying to reequip Medieval chivalry had its greatest flower- those who had to sell their horses and ing in France, where much of the literature of armor to meet their ransoms. Beyond this, chivalry, whether ecclesiastical, instruc- the quality of largess was much lauded by tional, or literary/romantic, was written and troubadours, whose livelihood depended disseminated. Although notions of chivalry upon the generosity of the nobility. varied by time and place, certain virtues and Although later associated mainly with the values were near universal attributes of the proper treatment of women, courtesy origi- chivalrous knight. The most prominent were nally encompassed protection of the weak loyalty, which grew out of the feudal concept and defenseless, punishment of those who of faithfulness to one’s lord, to whom one broke the code of chivalry, and the expec- owed military service in return for land, and tation of being rewarded for chivalrous be- military prowess, which meant not only the havior with land, office, or the hand of an ability to handle arms, but to do so with heiress. In 1346, during the CRE´ CY campaign, courage and style in battle. During the course Sir John CHANDOS famously escorted two of the war, the feudal duty of loyalty to one’s French ladies safely away from the battle lord evolved into an obligation of loyalty to zone. In 1357, Jean de GRAILLY, the Captal de one’s king. As kings came increasingly to be Buch, a famous companion of EDWARD, THE seen as the embodiment of the state, disloy- BLACK PRINCE, assisted a band of French alty came to be treated as treason, as betrayal knights in defending the wife and children of one’s king and country. Thus, in 1350, of the future CHARLES V from the violence of when Constable Raoul de Brienne, count of the JACQUERIE rebels.

97 CHRISTINE DE PIZAN

Honor, the esteem of one’s peers and Further Reading: Barber, Richard. The Reign of others, was particularly important during Chivalry. New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1980; wartime, for it could best be won and Froissart, Jean. Chronicles. Trans. Geoffrey Brer- maintained on the battlefield. The war is eton. New York: Penguin Books, 1978; Keen, replete with stories of men who took un- Maurice. Chivalry. New Haven, CT: Yale Univer- necessary risks to be the first into a besieged sity Press, 1984; Painter, Sidney. French Chivalry: castle or to raid an enemy encampment. In Chivalric Ideas and Practices. Ithaca, NY: Cornell 1342, for instance, Sir Walter MAUNY, rather University Press, 1940; Vale, Malcolm. War and than evade a party of French horsemen by Chivalry: Warfare and Aristocratic Culture in En- retiring, vowed to unhorse one of them and gland, France, and Burgundy at the End of the Middle was nearly captured as a result. One of the Ages. London: Duckworth, 1981. most famous episodes of the war, the COM- BAT OF THE THIRTY, which occurred in 1351 CHRISTINE DE PIZAN (c. 1364–c. 1430) during the BRETON CIVIL WAR, was an entirely Christine de Pizan was the first European unnecessary encounter between members of woman of letters to earn her living by writ- two Breton garrisons; nonetheless, partici- ing. Influenced by the FRENCH CIVIL WAR and pants on both sides won everlasting renown the renewal of the HUNDRED YEARS WAR, and throughout both kingdoms. Because one by the tastes of her patrons, Christine wrote could not win honor if one was not in the a host of popular commentaries on monar- forefront of battle, Sir Hugh CALVELEY,in chy, CHIVALRY, war, and contemporary poli- what was considered an act of chivalry ra- tics, focusing particularly on the need for a ther than one of insubordination, refused to leader to save France from itself and from command the rearguard at AURAY in 1364, the English. while Edward, duke of York, lost his life Italian by birth, Christine came to France when HENRY V granted the duke’s request to as a child, when her father won appoint- lead the van at AGINCOURT. The maintenance ment as CHARLES V’s astrologer. Through of honor also demanded that prisoners not her father’s position, Christine was able to take up arms against their captors until their indulge a studious nature and indirectly ransoms had been honorably met. Thus, benefit from the cultural and educational John II returned voluntarily to captivity in opportunities made possible by contact with 1364 when his son, LOUIS, DUKE OF ANJOU, the VALOIS court. She married E´ tienne du broke parole, and CHARLES OF BLOIS, the Castel, a royal clerk, in 1380, the year the French-backed duke of BRITTANY, twice re- king’s death ended her father’s association turned to English captivity when he could with the court. When her husband died not honor the terms of his parole. unexpectedly in 1390, Christine found her- The final attribute, nobility, encompassed self responsible for supporting three chil- the social aspect of chivalry. By the four- dren and a widowed mother. To express her teenth century, many nonnobles, particu- grief, she wrote poetry, which soon attracted larly among the royal bureaucracy in France the attention of LOUIS, DUKE OF ORLE´ ANS, the and the urban merchant elites of both brother of CHARLES VI. Christine dedicated a realms, had grown wealthy and were no series of poems to the duke, including the longer economically inferior to the aristoc- E´ pistre au Dieu d’Amour (1399), a narrative racy. This trend placed a new emphasis on poem that pokes fun at the literary preten- high birth and aristocratic heritage as a sions of young courtiers; the E´ pistre Othea (c. qualification for membership in the chival- 1400), a partly prose commentary on classi- rous class. Thus, in 1369, John Hastings, earl cal mythology that also offers advice to of Pembroke, considered it socially de- young knights; the Chemin de long estude meaning to serve under the command of (1402–3), a partly autobiographical work even so experienced and chivalrous a figure that proposes creation of an international as Chandos. monarchy to cure society’s ills; and the

98 CLEMENT VI

Mutacion de Fortune (1403), an examination corps de policie (1407), which described the of the role of Fortune in history. Although ideal prince; the Livre des fais d’armes et de Christine continued to favor the Orle´anist chevalerie (c. 1410), which explored military (ARMAGNAC) party in the subsequent civil leadership and called for international laws war, she ceased dedicating works to the to govern warfare; and the Livre de la paix duke in 1404, when Orle´ans declined to (1412–14), which was a reaction to the CA- employ her son. BOCHIEN uprising in PARIS. When the dau- Christine also wrote a number of works phin died in December 1415, two months that examined the condition of women in after the Battle of AGINCOURT, Christine contemporary society. In about 1402, she dedicated the E´ pistre de la prison de vie hu- was drawn into the debate over Jean de maine to Berry’s daughter. The work ad- Meun’s (c. 1235–1305) completion of the dressed the suffering of women who had Roman de la Rose, a long narrative poem that lost loved ones in the battle or to war in was considered the first masterwork of general. French literature. By criticizing Meun’s mi- As the armies of HENRY V spread across sogynistic tone and the unfortunate affect it northern France and violence increased in had on general attitudes toward women, Paris, Christine took refuge in the abbey of Christine countered the acclaim accorded Poissy, where her daughter was a nun. The the poem by male commentators. She savior she had sought finally appeared in brought the debate into the public con- 1429 in the unlikely person of JOAN OF ARC, sciousness by giving copies of the letters it of whom Christine wrote her last poem, the generated to Queen ISABEAU, an act that Ditie´ de Jehanne d’Arc, which was completed bolstered Christine’s own literary reputa- shortly after the coronation of CHARLES VII. tion. The debate also inspired her to write Although the exact date of Christine’s death three other works that commented on the is unknown, it appears likely that she died place of women in contemporary French before she could have heard of Joan’s cap- society: the Dit de la Rose (c. 1403), the Cite´ ture on 23 May 1430. des dames (c. 1405), and the Livre des trios Further Reading: Richards, J. E. Reinterpreting vertus (1405). Christine de Pizan. Athens: University of Georgia In 1404, PHILIP THE BOLD, duke of BUR- Press, 1991; Willard, Charity Cannon. Christine de GUNDY, commissioned Christine to write a Pizan: Her Life and Works. New York: Persea, 1984. biography of his late brother, Charles V; the result was her first entirely prose work, the CLARENCE, DUKE OF. See THOMAS,DUKE Livre des fais et bonnes meurs du sage roy OF CLARENCE Charles V. The laudatory nature of this work is today considered to have had an impor- CLEMENT V. See PAPACY AND THE HUNDRED tant role in creating Charles’s posthumous YEARS WAR reputation as a wise and skillful ruler. After 1405, as the country slid into anarchy, CLEMENT VI (1291–1352) Christine’s writing began focusing on poli- As a prominent former servant of the French tics and public affairs. On 5 October 1405, Crown, Pierre Roger, elected in 1342 as Christine addressed a letter to the queen, Clement VI, the fourth of the Avignon begging her to intervene in the increasingly popes, aroused the mistrust of the English violent feud between Orle´ans and Bur- and failed to broker an end to the HUNDRED gundy. In 1410, she wrote a letter to JOHN, YEARS WAR. DUKE OF BERRY, last surviving brother of Born at Maumont in the Limousin in Charles V, asking him to save the country 1291, Roger was by birth a subject of the from civil war. When these efforts failed, she English Crown. He entered the Benedictine turned to the dauphin, LOUIS, DUKE OF GUI- monastery of La Chaise-Dieu around 1301 ENNE, to whom she dedicated the Livre du and later studied theology in PARIS, receiving

99 CLEMENT VI his doctorate in May 1323. Trusted by Pope pointed two cardinals to mediate the Anglo- John XXII and King PHILIP VI, Roger ad- French dispute, but then undercut their vanced rapidly in both his ecclesiastical and effectiveness by granting Philip’s request to secular careers. By 1330, he was archbishop lift the longstanding papal interdict imposed of Rouen, having served previously as abbot through French influence on rebellious of Fe´camp, bishop of Arras, and archbishop FLANDERS. Although the action did not break of Sens, as well as chancellor of France, the ANGLO-FLEMISH ALLIANCE, it made the having distinguished himself as a diplomat Flemings reluctant to actively support the and orator. In 1328, Philip sent Roger to English cause and led such other English England to summon EDWARD III to pay allies as the duke of Brabant to conclude a homage for his duchy of AQUITAINE. separate peace with France. Harshly rebuffed by Queen Isabella, Ed- Clement was instrumental in arranging ward’s mother (see ISABELLA,QUEEN OF the 1343 Truce of MALESTROIT, which ENGLAND [c. 1292–1358]), Roger upon his charged the pope to act as a ‘‘mutual friend return served on a commission charged not a judge’’ (Sumption, 437). English dis- with sequestering Edward’s ducal revenues. trust of papal impartiality delayed peace In 1334, Roger helped negotiate a treaty talks until October 1344, when commission- with English commissioners at Senlis, al- ers for the two realms met in Avignon. Al- though the agreement dissolved when Phil- though the pope himself initially acted as ip insisted on including the Scots in the go-between, the AVIGNON PEACE CONFERENCE peace. In July 1335, Roger announced Phil- collapsed in early 1345. The English blamed ip’s decision to intervene in the Anglo- papal bias, but neither Edward nor Philip Scottish war on behalf of the exiled DAVID II had been seriously interested in peace. The of SCOTLAND. The archbishop declared the English believed that papal fees and taxes new policy during the course of an official collected in England were supporting the sermon preached in the palace courtyard in French war effort and that papal provision Paris. After being created a cardinal in De- of vacant English benefices (ecclesiastical cember 1338, Roger served on another un- offices) to foreigners supported anti-English successful peace commission, meeting at clerics in Avignon and France. The latter Arras and Paris with such high-ranking belief provided the stimulus for the 1351 English representatives as Archbishop John passage by PARLIAMENT of the Statute of STRATFORD. Provisors, an act that confirmed the Crown’s Because he was well known to the English right to reject papal appointees to English as a favored VALOIS minister, Roger’s elec- livings. tion as pope in May 1342 was as unwelcome Although the increasing vehemence of to them as it was heartening to Philip, who their hostility to the pope provoked some of had sent his son John, duke of Normandy Clement’s pro-French actions, the English (see JOHN II), to Avignon to secure Roger’s had legitimate complaints. Clement had al- election. The trip was unnecessary, for the lowed Philip to annually levy a tax of a tenth cardinals—largely French in nationality— on French ecclesiastical incomes—some- were happy to replace the rigid Benedict XII thing Edward was not similarly authorized with the more worldly and pliable Roger, to do in England—and the pope had re- who chose the name Clement to emphasize lieved Philip of the duty to repay the money his belief that power should be exercised previously collected in France for the abort- with clemency. Although he viewed the war ed crusade, something Benedict XII had as a French courtier and politician, seeing never allowed. In 1343, Clement loaned Edward III as a contumacious feudal vassal, Philip 50,000 florins (£7,500), and in 1345 Clement sincerely desired peace for Europe. and 1346 the pope agreed to secret loans of Within weeks of his coronation, he ap- 42,000 and 330,000 florins (£6,300 and

100 CLISSON, OLIVIER, CONSTABLE OF FRANCE

£49,500, respectively). Money from these his tomb and burned his remains. See also taxes and loans was used to supply French PAPACY AND THE HUNDRED YEARS WAR. troops and hire Genoese mercenaries. Further Reading: Kelly, J. N. D. The Oxford Clement also irritated the English king by Dictionary of Popes. Oxford: Oxford University withholding the dispensation for EDWARD, Press, 1988, s.v. ‘‘Clement VI’’; McBrien, Richard THE BLACK PRINCE, to marry the daughter of P. Lives of the Popes. New York: HarperCollins, the duke of Brabant. Although the granting 1997, s.v. ‘‘Clement VI’’; Renouard, Yves. Avignon of such documents was normally a formal- Papacy, 1305–1403. Trans. Denis Bethell. London: ity, Clement had privately assured Philip Faber, 1970 (especially pp. 42–49); Sumption, that he would never permit the politically Jonathan. The Hundred Years War. Vol. 1, Trial by sensitive union. Thus, when Clement Battle. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania arranged another truce in 1347 following Press, 1999; Wood, Diana. Pope Clement VI: The Edward’s capture of CALAIS, the English re- Pontificate and Ideas of an Avignon Pope. Cam- jected the pope’s mediation as biased and bridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989. the new peace effort collapsed (see CALAIS, TRUCE OF). CLEMENT VII. See PAPACY AND THE HUN- Clement also ensured that the papacy DRED YEARS WAR remained under French influence in Avignon, which he purchased in 1348 and where he built the sumptuous Palais Neuf CLISSON, OLIVIER, CONSTABLE OF as a new papal residence. He refused to FRANCE (1336–1407) return the papal court to Rome, but granted Originally a supporter of the English-backed that city’s request to reduce the hundred- Montfort faction in the BRETON CIVIL WAR, year interval between jubilees, thus allow- the Breton nobleman Olivier IV de Clisson ing Rome to reap the economic benefits supported the VALOIS cause after 1370, derived from the hordes of pilgrims who leading French armies in the reconquest came to celebrate the jubilee of 1350. By also of AQUITAINE and eventually becoming defining the ‘‘treasury of merit’’ earned by constable of France. In the 1380s, Clisson Christ and the saints, Unigenitus, the bull became leader of the MARMOUSETS, a political announcing the jubilee decision, had far- faction that controlled the government of reaching consequences. Over the next two CHARLES VI for four years. Although even- centuries, the Church began dispensing this tually driven from power and deprived of reservoir of merit to sinners through a sys- office, Clisson remained a political force in tem of indulgences; by the sixteenth cen- France and BRITTANY until his death. tury, the growing abuse surrounding the The son of Olivier III de Clisson, a Mont- sale of indulgences helped precipitate the fort partisan who was executed for treason Reformation. by PHILIP VI in 1343, Olivier IV was raised in Although he maintained a lavish and England, where he fled with his mother after worldly court, engaged in nepotism, and the French Crown confiscated the family’s stood accused of sexual misconduct, Clem- estates. Clisson’s mother later married Sir ent distinguished himself during the dev- Walter BENTLEY, an English ROUTIER captain, astating appearance of the BLACK DEATH in who helped her regain some of the Clisson Avignon in 1348–49. He defended the Jews lands. By the early 1360s, Clisson had in- against charges that they were responsible herited the Breton estates given to his mo- for the pestilence and he took vigorous steps ther by the English and had regained the to relieve the suffering of the city’s poor and original family lands seized by the French. afflicted. Clement died on 6 December 1352 In 1364, he fought at AURAY, the battle that and was buried at La Chaise-Dieu. In 1562, made John de Montfort duke of Brittany Huguenots (French Protestants) destroyed as JOHN IV. In 1367, Clisson fought with

101 COCHEREL, BATTLE OF

EDWARD, THE BLACK PRINCE, at the Battle of Clisson died on 23 April 1407, he left his NA´ JERA. daughters a large landed estate, which his In 1370, Clisson, increasingly at odds with Penthie`vre grandsons forfeited in 1420 by John IV, threw off his English allegiance and kidnapping Duke JOHN V. brought his Breton supporters into the ser- Further Reading: Henneman, John Bell. ‘‘Re- vice of CHARLES V by concluding a private assessing the Career of Olivier de Clisson, Con- compact with the French constable, Bertrand stable of France.’’ In Law, Custom, and the Social du GUESCLIN. Clisson played a leading role Fabric in Medieval Europe: Essays in Honor of Bruce in the French reconquest of Saintonge and Lyon, ed. Bernard Bachrach and David Nicholas, Poitou in 1371–72 and in the invasion of 211–33. Kalamazoo, MI: Medieval Institute, 1990; Brittany that expelled the pro-English duke Perroy, Edouard. The Hundred Years War. Trans. in 1373. An effective commander and fierce W. B. Wells. New York: Capricorn Books, 1965. warrior who strongly promoted the policy of refusing pitched battle, Clisson became one COCHEREL, BATTLE OF (1364) of the most renowned of Charles V’s com- Fought on 16 May 1364 near the village of manders. In 1380, the king named Clisson Cocherel in NORMANDY, the Battle of Co- constable in succession to du Guesclin. cherel pitted the forces of the French Crown In the 1380s, the constable became leader against those of CHARLES THE BAD, king of of the Marmousets, a political faction com- Navarre. A crushing Navarrese defeat, prising the leading financial and military Cocherel destroyed Navarre’s military ca- advisors of Charles V. The Marmousets op- pability and significantly diminished his posed the minority government of Charles ability to dominate the French government. VI’s uncles, JOHN, DUKE OF BERRY, and PHILIP In late 1363, Navarre, who had been at THE BOLD, duke of BURGUNDY. In 1388, the odds with the Crown since 1354, used JOHN Marmousets, acting with the support of the II’s captivity in LONDON and the political king’s brother, LOUIS, DUKE OF ORLE´ ANS, de- weakness of the dauphin to try again to clared the king of full age and took control seize power. Angered by the denial of his of the government in his name. In August claim to the duchy of BURGUNDY, which John 1392, the king, while on campaign to punish gave to his youngest son, PHILIP THE BOLD, the duke of Brittany for an attempt on Clis- Navarre raised two armies—one to invade son’s life, experienced a psychotic episode, Burgundy and the other to menace PARIS which allowed the uncles to resume power. from the Navarrese strongholds in Nor- Made the scapegoat for the discredited re- mandy. Swayed perhaps by old friends and gime, Clisson fled to Brittany, but was comrades-in-arms, such as the Gascon lord, eventually captured and brought to trial. Jean de GRAILLY, Captal de Buch, who was Stripped of the constableship, Clisson was now one of Navarre’s chief advisors, and Sir also fined and banished from court. John CHANDOS, who held land of Navarre Returning to Brittany, Clisson reactivated in Normandy, EDWARD, THE BLACK PRINCE, his long and bitter feud with John IV, who agreed in January 1364 to allow Navarre’s had briefly held Clisson for RANSOM in 1387 forces free passage from Navarre through and who may have instigated Pierre Craon’s AQUITAINE. In March, the captal de Buch led murderous attack on Clisson in 1392. Al- advance contingents of his army through the though married to the duke’s cousin, Be´atrix duchy toward Normandy. de Laval, Clisson was also father-in-law to Unfortunately for Navarre, the dauphin John of Blois, count of Penthie`vre, heir to the had a force of a thousand men already in rival Penthie`vre claim to the Breton ducal Normandy preparing to besiege the fortress title. In consort with his son-in-law, Clisson of Rolleboise, which had been captured by a waged open war against the duke until 1395, company of English ROUTIERS in the previous when Burgundy arranged a settlement that autumn. Upon learning of the captal’s brought Clisson back into ducal favor. When movements, the dauphin ordered this army,

102 COMBAT OF THE THIRTY which was nominally commanded by the COEUR, JACQUES. See CHARLES VII son of the count of Auxerre but actually led by the Breton captain Bertrand du GUESCLIN, to strike Navarre’s forces in Normandy. By COMBAT OF THE THIRTY (1351) the time the captal arrived in the duchy in Fought on 26 March 1351 at a site midway late April, most of Navarre’s strongholds, between the Breton castles of and apart from E´ vreux and a few isolated hold- Ploermel, the Combat (or Battle) of the outs, had capitulated. Basing himself at E´ v- Thirty was an armed melee arranged by the reux, the captal raised an army of almost garrison commanders of the two fortresses two thousand by mid-May, mainly by col- between two thirty-man groups of knights. lecting the scattered remnants of Navarrese Although of little military significance for garrisons and by pulling together companies either party in the BRETON CIVIL WAR, the of English and Gascon routiers operating in Combat is important because it became one BRITTANY and western France. of the most celebrated episodes of the HUN- Leaving E´ vreux on 14 May, the captal DRED YEARS WAR and because it illustrates marched east until his path was blocked by the increasingly chaotic nature of the war in du Guesclin, who had twelve hundred men the mid-fourteenth century. on foot in a defensive line before the River Accounts of why and how the Combat Eure—his numbers augmented by compa- was initiated differ. What is known is that nies of Breton and Gascon routiers. For two Jean de Beaumanoir, the pro-French Breton days, the armies faced each other, neither commander of Josselin, and Robert (or Ri- commander wishing to take the offensive. chard) of Bamborough, the English com- On 16 May, with his food running out, de mander of Ploermel, each agreed to select Guesclin mounted his troops and began to teams of thirty knights to fight against each withdraw. Unwilling to see his enemy es- other according to a set of agreed-upon rules. cape, the captal sent a band of cavalry to The combatants fought with any weapons flank the French and block their access to the they chose, including swords, maces, and Eure bridge. The rest of the Navarrese cav- battle-axes, but the battle was supervised by alry then charged into du Guesclin’s men, referees who signaled the start of combat initiating one of the bloodiest battles of the and oversaw truces for the provision of re- fourteenth century. Being the larger force, the freshments and medical care. The English Navarrese prevailed until they were out- force, which included Sir Hugh CALVELEY flanked and forced to retreat by du Gue- and Sir Robert KNOLLES, also contained sclin’s Breton reserves. The retreat quickly Breton and German knights. became a rout, with the French surrounding The teams fought on foot for several hours the captal and about fifty companions. The and were apparently watched by local former was wounded and captured, and peasants. Although tradition states that one most of the latter were slain. or more of Beaumanoir’s men mounted a The battle, which occurred three days cavalry charge at some point, this is uncer- before the dauphin’s coronation as CHARLES tain. The Combat ended with Bamborough V, broke Navarre’s military dominance in and eight of his men slain and the surviving Normandy and northern France and over- English combatants, who eschewed flight as threw his political influence throughout the dishonorable, taken captive. Beaumanoir’s kingdom. Although he continued to intrigue team lost four (or perhaps six) knights, and until his death in 1387, Navarre never again all participants on both sides suffered seriously threatened the authority of the wounds of varying severity. French Crown. The Combat inspired a long and famous Further Reading: Sumption, Jonathan. The Breton ballad that was translated into sev- Hundred Years War. Vol. 2, Trial by Fire. Philadel- eral dialects and made heroes of the victors. phia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2001. In 1373, the chronicler Jean FROISSART wit-

103 COMPAGNIES D’ORDONNANCE nessed firsthand the honor accorded to a Since the death of HENRY V in 1422, the survivor of Beaumanoir’s thirty when he English war effort had been directed by displayed his scars at a feast given by JOHN, DUKE OF BEDFORD, eldest uncle of CHARLES V. Although some contemporaries HENRY VI. In preparation for further ad- criticized such melees as foolish, the Combat vances, the duke attempted to consolidate of the Thirty, and similar battles arranged at the English position by eliminating enemy various times during the war, reflected the enclaves within Anglo-Burgundian territory. joy of combat and the desire for fame and To this end, Bedford ordered Salisbury to profit that characterized much fourteenth- capture Montaiguillon, a dauphinist strong- century fighting. Also, the Combat, which hold about fifty miles southeast of Paris. At was clearly in breach of the Truce of CALAIS Montaiguillon, the earl was well placed to of 1347, indicates how little centralized meet a new French offensive in the summer control either government exercised over the of 1423. The dauphin (see CHARLES VII) sent a fighting, especially after 1350, when local large army into the duchy of Burgundy to captains often conducted local operations as disrupt the domains of Duke PHILIP THE they saw fit. See also BRITTANY;CHIVALRY. GOOD, to relieve pressure on Montaiguillon Further Reading: Burne, Alfred H. The Cre´cy and other besieged dauphinist strongholds, War. Ware, England: Wordsworth Editions Ltd., and to threaten Paris. Marching with about 1999; Seward, Desmond. The Hundred Years War. four thousand men, Salisbury reached New York: Penguin, 1999; Sumption, Jonathan. Auxerre on 29 July. Auxerre was nine miles The Hundred Years War. Vol. 2, Trial by Fire. from Cravant, the capture of which was the Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, first goal of the French commanders, Sir 2001. John Stewart of Darnley, constable of SCOT- LAND, and Louis, count of Vendoˆme. Al- though Salisbury was met at Auxerre by a COMPAGNIES D’ORDONNANCE. See hastily raised Burgundian force, his army CHARLES VII, MILITARY REFORMS OF was still half or less the size of the dauphi- nist army, which probably numbered eight CONSTABLE OF FRANCE. See ARMIES, to ten thousand men, including a large COMMAND OF;CLISSON,OLIVIER,CONSTABLE contingent of Scots and even some Span- OF FRANCE;GUESCLIN,BERTRAND DU,CON- iards and Italians. STABLE OF FRANCE;APPENDIX 6: ‘‘CONSTABLES Maneuvering to circumvent an impreg- AND MARSHALS OF FRANCE AND ENGLAND’’ nable French position on the heights northwest of the town, Salisbury crossed to COUNTER-JACQUERIE. See JACQUERIE the west bank of the Yonne and marched south to Cravant, arriving opposite the town and its French besiegers on 31 July. COURTRAI, BATTLE OF. See LANDERS F The river in front of Cravant was swift and shallow, 40–60 yards wide and knee-to- CRAVANT, BATTLE OF (1423) waist deep. For several hours, the English The Battle of Cravant was fought on 31 July held their position, waiting in extreme 1423 outside the besieged Burgundian town summer heat for the French to make a of Cravant, which lay on the River Yonne, move. Finally, Salisbury led the left wing of some ninety miles southeast of PARIS.Won the army across the river, precipitating a by an Anglo-Burgundian force commanded fierce fight along the narrow strip of land by Thomas MONTAGU, earl of Salisbury, the between the water and the town. On the battle resulted in the destruction of a French right, Robert Willoughby, Lord Willoughby, army, the strengthening of Anglo-Burgun- led his men against the town’s main bridge, dian cooperation, and the thwarting of which was stoutly defended by a large French efforts to menace Paris. contingent of Scots.

104 CRE´ CY, BATTLE OF

As the French on the bridge slowly gave way, the Burgundian garrison of Cravant, although weak from hunger, attacked the French from behind, thereby causing suffi- cient panic to throw the dauphinists into disordered flight. Escape proved difficult, with the only line of retreat running southward between Salisbury’s men and the garrison of the town. The French lost perhaps two thousand dead, with CASUALTIES being particularly high among the Scots, and another two thousand captured, with both Stewart and Vendoˆme among the prisoners. The rest of the dauphinist army disin- tegrated, allowing the allies to drive the French from Burgundy in the following months. Further Reading: Burne, Alfred H. The Agincourt War. Ware, England: Wordsworth Editions Ltd., 1999; This illustration from Les Grandes Chroniques de France depicts Waurin, Jean. Recueil des croniques et the English victory at the Battle of Cre´cy, 1346. Erich Lessing/ anchiennes istories de la Grant Bretaigne, a Art Resource, New York. present nomme Engleterre (A Collection of the Chronicles and Ancient Histories of Great Britain, Now Called England). 5 vols. London: Longman, Green, Longman, men. Although both BRITTANY and GASCONY Roberts, and Green, 1864–91. were considered as landing sites, the king finally brought his army ashore near Saint- Vaast-la-Hogue in NORMANDY on 12 July. CRE´ CY, BATTLE OF (1346) During the next month, Edward led a de- The Battle of Cre´cy was fought on 26 August structive CHEVAUCHE´ E across Normandy and 1346 near the village of Cre´cy in Ponthieu, a then southeastward toward PARIS, which PLANTAGENET possession in northern France. was thrown into an uproar by the sight of The first great land battle of the HUNDRED nearby villages in flames. After spending YEARS WAR, Cre´cy was also the only time three days at Poissy, Edward turned north during the conflict when a king of England on 16 August, hoping to cross the Somme and a king of France faced each other across and reach FLANDERS before the French con- the battlefield. Like POITIERS and AGINCOURT, centrated their forces. As Edward withdrew, Cre´cy was a major English victory, and the PHILIP VI, who had so far done little more battle that introduced the French to a new than shadow the English, suddenly gathered and devastatingly effective defensive tac- his troops and marched for the Somme. tic—coordinated formations of longbowmen Finding all bridges broken and the line of and dismounted knights protected by pit- the river strongly defended, Edward finally traps and baggage lines. got his men across the Somme at the ford of During the first months of 1346, EDWARD Blanchetaque, which he reached after mid- III collected a fleet of over seven hundred night on 24 August. Although the French ships and an army of almost ten thousand held the opposite bank in force, English

105 CRISIS OF 1340–1341

ARCHERS drove them back, thereby allowing reached the English line, where Prince Ed- a small body of infantry to establish a ward, only sixteen and experiencing his first bridgehead and permit the rest of the army combat, was hard-pressed. However, the to cross and eventually disperse the enemy. prince fought manfully and the line held. With the French closing rapidly, Edward The French continued to reform and charge, marched into Ponthieu, where, on 26 Au- perhaps as many as fifteen times, but each gust, he deployed his army along a low assault was broken up by the archers. ridge between the villages of Cre´cy and Nightfall ended the fighting as remounted Wadicourt. Although there is much debate English knights began attacking surviving over the exact nature of Edward’s disposi- clusters of French horsemen. tions, it appears that EDWARD, THE BLACK English CASUALTIES were slight, but the PRINCE; William de BOHUN, earl of North- French had lost more than fifteen hundred ampton; Thomas BEAUCHAMP, earl of War- knights, including John, the blind king of wick; and the rest of the nobility formed the Bohemia; LOUIS DE NEVERS, count of Flan- front line while the king commanded the ders; and the brother of CHARLES OF BLOIS, reserve to the rear. The archers, numbering the French-backed claimant in the BRETON half the army, deployed on each flank and CIVIL WAR. Although the English army was slightly forward, with lines of baggage carts smaller, it had won because it fought on the and shallow pit-traps protecting their flanks defensive and because the longbow was far and front. ARTILLERY pieces, being deployed superior in range and rate of fire to the on a battlefield for the first time, were placed crossbow. English archers had proven that if along the baggage lines. The entire army properly protected they could decimate was dismounted. charging cavalry, a lesson that the French At noon, French scouts discovered the nobles, who initially blamed their defeat on English. Philip hurried his men forward, the cowardice of the crossbowmen, took arranging them in three divisions, with some time to learn. Genoese crossbowmen in the front, the elite Further Reading: Burne, Alfred H. The Cre´cy French cavalry in the second line, and a War. Ware, England: Wordsworth Editions Ltd., cavalry reserve under royal command in the 1999; DeVries, Kelly. Infantry Warfare in the Early third battalion. At about five o’clock, as rain Fourteenth Century: Discipline, Tactics, and Technol- began to fall, the crossbowmen advanced. ogy. Rochester, NY: Boydell Press, 1996; Sump- Since the longbow had a greater range, En- tion, Jonathan. The Hundred Years War. Vol. 1, glish arrows began doing great execution Trial by Battle. Philadelphia: University of Penn- among the Italians well before they came sylvania Press, 1991. within crossbow range of the English. When English artillery also opened fire, the Italians CRISIS OF 1340–1341 broke and ran for their own lines. Having no Caused primarily by the financial strains experience of the longbow, Philip and his and military failures that characterized the commanders misinterpreted the flight of the first English campaigns of the HUNDRED crossbowmen as cowardice, an assumption YEARS WAR, the crisis of 1340–41 was the that caused Charles, count of Alenc¸on, most serious political confrontation to occur commander of the French cavalry, to charge in England during the reign of EDWARD III. forward without orders. The French knights Although the crisis resulted in few perma- rode down their own crossbowmen and nent reforms, it raised important constitu- then drove for the English center. As the tional issues and demonstrated the ability of horsemen came within range of the archers, clergy, lords, and commons to cooperate in a storm of arrows disrupted their advance— curbing arbitrary royal action. downed men obstructed the path of those Forced by bankruptcy and military stale- behind and horses bolted in terror to escape mate to conclude the ignominious Truce of arrows and artillery. Some French knights ESPLECHIN in September 1340, Edward III

106 CROSSBOW precipitated the crisis in November by pub- detailed and reasoned rebuttal of all the licly blaming his ministers for his financial king’s charges and a firm refusal to answer problems. Edward’s increasingly unreason- those charges anywhere but in Parliament. able demands for money had strained rela- By standing on the constitutional principle of tions with his regency council in England a peer’s right to trial in Parliament and and with PARLIAMENT, which in the spring of by tapping into the commons’ frustration 1340 granted new TAXATION only on condi- over exorbitant taxation for an unsuccessful tion that royal tax collectors be made re- war, Stratford fostered development of a sponsible to Parliament and that all money dangerous coalition of domestic opposition collected be used only for war costs. Believ- that included not only the nobility and bish- ing that Archbishop John STRATFORD, the ops, but also the commons and lower clergy. president of his council, covertly opposed his When the king’s household knights denied policies and was convincing other ministers the archbishop admittance to the Parliament to do the same, Edward landed unan- summoned to Westminster in April 1341, the nounced at the Tower of London on 30 No- outraged assembly named a delegation of vember and issued orders for the dismissal bishops and lords to intercede for Stratford, or arrest of various officials, including the who, although never again appointed to high chancellor, treasurer, and several judges and office, was formally readmitted to royal favor financiers. Carried out in secret by a small on 3 May. group of followers, these actions frightened Politically isolated and desperately in Stratford, who retired to Canterbury and need of supply, Edward, in return for a new refused all summonses to appear before the grant of taxation, reluctantly assented to a king. On 29 December, the feast of St. Tho- series of parliamentary petitions. The lords mas Becket, Stratford delivered an emotional declared that no peer could be arrested, address in Canterbury Cathedral, the site of tried, or imprisoned except in full Parlia- Becket’s murder. Declaring that the king’s ment, and both houses demanded a public supporters had arrested men in contraven- audit of the king’s finances and the ap- tion of the Magna Carta, had falsely accused pointment of all high officers of state in him of treason, and might do even worse in Parliament. Although Edward annulled the future, the archbishop solemnly pro- these statutes in October, declaring that they nounced their excommunication. had been forced upon him against his will, A bitter pamphlet war now ensued. On 31 he never again acted so arbitrarily, and an December, Stratford circulated a letter, Sa- improvement in English military fortunes, crosancta ecclesia, which stoutly defended the highlighted by the victory at CRE´ CY in 1346, liberty of the church. The archbishop also rekindled public enthusiasm for the war and wrote to the king, declaring him the victim of strengthened cooperation between the ill counsel and reminding him of his coro- Crown and its subjects. nation oath. A new royal demand that the Further Reading: McKisack, May. The Four- archbishop appear at court elicited only a teenth Century, 1307–1399. Oxford: Clarendon series of letters denouncing the clerical ex- Press, 1976; Ormrod, W. M. The Reign of Edward actions of 1340 and lamenting the king’s III: Crown and Political Society in England, 1327– disregard of the law. In February 1341, Ed- 1377. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, ward published his accusations against the 1990; Waugh, Scott L. England in the Reign of archbishop, angrily declaring him guilty of Edward III. Cambridge: Cambridge University insubordination, treason, and misappropri- Press, 1991. ation of royal funds. Calling the document a libellus famosus (infamous libel), Stratford re- sponded in March with his Excusaciones,a CROSSBOW. See ARCHERS

107 D

DAGWORTH, SIR THOMAS conduct of the war in Brittany to indepen- (c. 1310–1350) dent captains who were nominally subject to The Suffolk knight Sir Thomas Dagworth the royal government, but who, in fact, was one of EDWARD III’s chief lieutenants in fought the war with their own retainers, at BRITTANY during the 1340s. Although a sol- their own expense, and in their own way. dier of fortune contracted to serve the En- Although able, in an emergency, to summon glish cause in the BRETON CIVIL WAR, Dag- troops from the local English garrisons and worth was a capable administrator and a from pro-English Breton nobles, Dagworth brave and resourceful soldier who main- relied mainly on his army of about five hun- tained a fundamental loyalty to the PLAN- dred personal retainers and such Flemish TAGENET Crown. Dagworth is a prime and German mercenaries as he could hire. example of a nonnoble English commander On 20 June 1347, Dagworth, after quickly of obscure origins who won wealth, posi- gathering a force of about seven hundred tion, and a high military reputation through men from the dispersed garrisons under his service in the HUNDRED YEARS WAR. command, won a major victory at LA ROCHE- Dagworth began his rise to prominence by DERRIEN, where he defeated and captured marrying Eleanor de Bohun, the sister of Charles of Blois and slew many of his noble William de BOHUN, earl of Northampton, in Breton supporters. In 1348, Dagworth sent whose retinue Dagworth sailed to Brittany his prisoner to LONDON, selling Blois’s RAN- in June 1345. Dagworth immediately dem- SOM to the king for £3,500. While lack of men onstrated his military prowess by leading a and resources prevented Dagworth from detachment of ’s troops on extending English authority throughout the a raid into central Brittany, where he caught duchy, La Roche-Derrien forced the French and defeated CHARLES OF BLOIS, the French- to divert vital supplies and manpower to the backed duke of Brittany, in a sharp encoun- Breton war to shore up the cause of Blois. ter at Cadoret. On 9 June 1346, Dagworth Besides lack of men, Dagworth’s main won a second victory over Blois at Saint-Pol problem, which was later succinctly de- de Le´on, where Dagworth’s force of less scribed in a memo to the English govern- than two hundred men was surprised by ment by his successor as lieutenant, Sir Blois’s much larger army. Deploying his Walter BENTLEY, was the nominal nature of ARCHERS and men-at-arms in the traditional his control over the English-contracted cap- English manner in a hastily fortified hilltop tains. In the La Roche-Derrien campaign, for position, Dagworth fought off successive example, the de Spinefort brothers, com- attacks until nightfall, when Blois, appalled manders of the Hennebont garrison, refused at his losses, withdrew. Dagworth’s summons to join his army. After On 10 January 1347, Dagworth replaced his the battle, Dagworth, to reinforce his au- brother-in-law as king’s lieutenant in Brit- thority, stormed Hennebont and hanged the tany. Focused on the war in northern France brothers. Dagworth died on 20 July 1350, and always short of money, Edward III left when he was ambushed by Raoul de

108 DAVID II, KING OF SCOTLAND

Caours, a former English captain who had might have prevented or at least delayed the switched sides. Hundred Years War. Realizing that he could Further Reading: Sumption, Jonathan. The not diplomatically abandon a king to whom Hundred Years War. Vol. 1, Trial by Battle. he had granted physical asylum, PHILIP VI Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, stunned the English ambassadors by telling 1999; Sumption, Jonathan. The Hundred Years War. them that the proposed treaty had to include Vol. 2, Trial by Fire. Philadelphia: University of David. Since Edward considered Balliol the Pennsylvania Press, 2001. Scottish king and could in no way counte- nance an independent, pro-French Scotland, DAUPHIN. See CHARLES V; CHARLES VI; the talks collapsed. David remained in CHARLES VII; LOUIS,DUKE OF GUIENNE France until June 1341, by which time the Bruce forces, helped after 1337 by the En- DAVID II, KING OF SCOTLAND glish preoccupation with France, had re- (1324–1371) captured most of the strongpoints held by David II, the son of Robert I and second king Balliol and the English, with Edinburgh of the House of Bruce, maintained the falling in 1341. FRANCO-SCOTTISH ALLIANCE that had existed During the 1340s, as Edward became since the 1290s, making Anglo-Scottish re- more heavily committed in France, David lations an important factor in the coming secured his throne and drove the English and course of the HUNDRED YEARS WAR. across the border. In October 1346, only David was only five when he succeeded weeks after the English victory at CRE´ CY, his father on 7 June 1329, and only seven David invaded England on behalf of his when he was crowned at Scone on 24 March French ally, but suffered a devastating de- 1331. Although England had recognized feat at NEVILLE’S CROSS, where the king was Scottish independence in the 1328 Treaty of captured and the Scots nobility decimated. Northampton, EDWARD III, seeking to over- Imprisoned in the Tower of London, David turn the agreement, backed an invasion became friends with Edward and was at- launched in August 1332 by the Bruces’ tracted by the chivalrous aura of the English rival, John Balliol, who was supported by court, an atmosphere that he tried to recreate nobles who had been dispossessed for sup- at his own court after his release in October porting the English against Robert I. On 11 1357. Negotiations for David’s RANSOM were August, the invaders defeated a Scottish long and complicated. Although the king army at Dupplin Muir, killing the king’s was willing to compromise with his captor, guardian, Donald, earl of Mar, and enabling the Scottish government, led by Stewart as Balliol to be crowned on 24 September. guardian, rejected Edward’s exorbitant ran- When Sir Andrew Moray, David’s new som demands and his insistence that an guardian, drove him into England, Balliol English prince be recognized as David’s paid homage for SCOTLAND to Edward III, heir. No settlement was possible until 1356, thereby allowing the English king to invade when the English capture of JOHN II at POI- Scotland on the pretext of defending his TIERS robbed the Scots of all hope of French vassal. On 19 July 1333, the English won a assistance. Under the Treaty of Berwick, the major victory at HALIDON HILL, which al- Scots agreed to a ransom of 100,000 marks, lowed Balliol and his allies to secure much the surrender of twenty-three noble hos- of the kingdom under English overlordship. tages, and a promise to remain at peace with In May 1334, David fled to France, leaving England until the ransom was paid in full. defense of the Bruce cause in the hands of Because the ransom was so large, the last Moray and Robert Stewart, David’s cousin clause in effect created an indefinite truce and heir apparent. The king’s arrival in that removed Scotland from active partici- France derailed a nearly completed Anglo- pation in the Anglo-French war for the rest French agreement over AQUITAINE, which of the century.

109 DIPLOMACY

Because peace revived trade, the economy no longer being chosen solely for their social improved after 1360. Accused of spending status, but also for their diplomatic experi- some of the money raised for the ransom on ence, geographic knowledge, and linguistic luxuries required to maintain his English and oratorical skills. lifestyle, David had to suppress a rebellion The sending of permanent representatives led by Stewart in 1363. Thereafter, David’s to the court of another ruler began in the late throne was secure, although his failure to fifteenth century in Italy and only became secure a final peace with England led him to common practice in Western Europe in the delay ransom payments. Although the sixteenth century. During the Hundred childless king seemed amenable to English Years War, neither kingdom had a separate proposals that he be succeeded by a PLAN- department of state responsible for foreign TAGENET prince, the Scottish PARLIAMENT re- affairs, and diplomacy was still conducted jected the notion and reaffirmed Stewart as on an ad hoc basis, with embassies returning heir. In 1362, David’s queen, Joan, the sister home on the conclusion of their particular of Edward III, died, thus ending their love- mission. Diplomacy was also viewed to some less and barren marriage and allowing degree as an extension of military activity. In David to marry his mistress in hopes of an 1337 and 1415, respectively, EDWARD III and heir. David was in the process of annulling HENRY V put forward diplomatic proposals this equally barren match when he died that they knew would not be accepted, and unexpectedly on 22 February 1371 at the age then used the subsequent French rejections of forty-six. His death ended the Bruce line as justifications for war (see PROPAGANDA and passed the Scottish Crown to the House AND WAR PUBLICITY). Truces that were os- of Stewart. See also CHIVALRY. tensibly arranged to facilitate peace negoti- Further Reading: Nicholson, Ranald. Scotland: ations, such as the 1343 Truce of MALESTROIT The Later Middle Ages. New York: Barnes and that allowed CLEMENT VI to convene the Noble, 1974; Penman, Michael A. David II, 1329– AVIGNON PEACE CONFERENCE, were in fact 71. East Linton, Scotland: Tuckwell Press, 2004. used by both parties as respites to prepare for the renewal of war. The Truce of TOURS, DIPLOMACY concluded in 1444, gave CHARLES VII time to The HUNDRED YEARS WAR generated much implement the administrative and military diplomatic activity, not only between France reforms that allowed his armies to expel the and England, but also among the courts of English from NORMANDY and GASCONY in the Western Europe, including SCOTLAND,BRIT- 1450s and thus effectively end the war (see TANY,BURGUNDY, and the states of Spain, CHARLES VII, MILITARY REFORMS OF). Gov- Italy, Germany, and the Low Countries. ernments also used manufactured disputes Also involved, usually in terms of media- over documents or procedures to buy time tion, were the two supranational rulers of or gain tactical advantages during negotia- Europe, the pope and the Holy Roman em- tions. At the BRUGES PEACE CONFERENCE in peror (see PAPACY AND THE HUNDRED YEARS the 1370s, the parties jockeyed for position WAR). This expansion of diplomatic business by quarrelling over the seating order for encouraged the development of interna- PHILIP THE BOLD, duke of Burgundy, and tionally accepted conventions of diplomatic JOHN OF GAUNT, duke of Lancaster. In 1418, practice; of better training in the law for men during preliminary talks for the Treaty of who specialized in the conduct of diploma- TROYES, the English ambassadors suddenly cy; and of archives for the collection, pres- objected to discussions in French, claiming ervation, and organization of diplomatic that they could not understand the lan- documents. The war also promoted a trend guage. During the course of the war, such toward greater royal participation in the aggressive diplomacy clearly fostered the conduct of diplomacy and a change in the growth of NATIONAL CONSCIOUSNESS in both selection criteria for ambassadors, with men realms.

110 DIPLOMACY

In England, the long dispute over AQUI- complained that these were frequently TAINE and the many issues arising from the abused and that ambassadors were often Treaty of PARIS, led in the late thirteenth little more than spies. In most cases, how- century to creation of a diplomatic archive ever, safe-conducts were respected and am- and to development of personnel who spe- bassadors were allowed to come and go cialized in diplomacy. This process of dip- without harm or hindrance, even when lomatic specialization and record-keeping traveling across enemy territory. Envoys to was far advanced in England by the mid- foreign courts were often well treated and fifteenth century, when Bishop Jean Juve´nal many were given gifts in hopes that it would des Ursins recommended that Charles VII induce them to give favorable reports of institute a similar system for the French their host to their own and other rulers. In- Crown. About the time of the ANGLO- ternational agreements were also couched in FRENCH WAR OF 1294–1303, EDWARD I ap- more ritualistic terms to give them a more pointed a keeper of the PROCESSES, who not sacred and binding character. The Treaty of only archived the records of those Anglo- Troyes, for instance, was proclaimed in an French commissions, but also organized all elaborate ceremony before the high altar of records pertaining to the duchy of Aqui- St. Peter’s Cathedral, with Henry V using taine. In the 1320s, prior to the War of SAINT- the same seal with which Edward III had SARDOS, these documents were calendared sealed the Bre´tigny agreement in 1360. At ‘‘thus providing a fuller memory thereof in the Congress of ARRAS in 1435, PHILIP THE the future’’ (Allmand, 117) to all English GOOD could only withdraw from the ANGLO- embassies handling matters relating to BURGUNDIAN ALLIANCE created at Troyes by Aquitaine. As war continued, the personnel obtaining a papal dispensation. of both English and French embassies be- The need for alliances, military and politi- came more professional, although speciali- cal, also fostered the professionalization of zation in the affairs of a particular country or diplomacy during the war. The French, the history of a particular issue was more at various times, concluded agreements with common among the English. A new em- Castile (especially during the CASTILIAN WAR phasis was also placed upon legal training OF SUCCESSION), FLANDERS, and Brittany, and for diplomats, and most English embassies frequently renewed the longstanding FRANCO- contained at least one legal expert who had SCOTTISH ALLIANCE, while the English forged trained at EDWARD II’s foundation of King’s various agreements with Flanders, Brittany, Hall, Cambridge, which became known for and rulers in the Low Countries and Ger- preparing men for royal service. Other spe- many, including the Treaty of CANTERBURY cialized knowledge and skills were also in- with the emperor. To make the closest con- creasingly valued, such as familiarity with nection between those who formulated for- past agreements or the ability to speak well. eign policy and those who implemented it, Thomas Bekynton, one of HENRY VI’s am- royal direction and oversight increased dur- bassadors, was well known for his ability to ing the war, with more diplomatic documents speak Latin (the English distrusted the use being stored in the royal household and more of French), while Henry V’s envoys com- diplomats being selected from among trained plained during the Troyes discussions of the royal servants with access to the king. Thus, French ignorance of geography and the CHARLES V was closely involved in the dip- terms of the 1360 Treaty of BRE´ TIGNY. lomatic efforts that preceded acceptance of In both kingdoms, the importance of the the APPEAL OF THE GASCON LORDS and the re- war increased the importance of diplomacy sumption of war in 1369, and Henry V kept and fostered a growing respect for diplo- close direction of English diplomacy prior to mats and their work. Envoys were accord- the AGINCOURT campaign of 1415 and during ed a growing number of immunities and negotiations for the Troyes agreement. In this privileges, although some commentators manner was military and diplomatic effort

111 DORDRECHT BONDS more effectively coordinated in both king- However, cooperation between the syn- doms. dicate and royal officials quickly broke Further Reading: Allmand, Christopher. The down when Henry BURGHERSH, bishop of Hundred Years War. Cambridge: Cambridge Uni- Lincoln, demanded even greater sums from versity Press, 1988; Curry, Anne. The Hundred the merchants to meet the subsidies he had Years War. 2nd ed. Houndmills, England: Pal- promised to Edward’s allies. When Pole and grave Macmillan, 2003. his associates balked at the amount, the king seized all the wool gathered at Dordrecht by DORDRECHT BONDS (1337–1338) giving the owners bonds that could be used In February 1338, EDWARD III, as part of a to pay future customs duties. Upon issuance plan to fund the war by exploiting the sale of of these Dordrecht bonds, the monopoly wool, bought up ten thousand sacks of wool initiative collapsed, and the syndicate agreed awaiting sale to continental purchasers at that the government should dispose of the the Dutch city of Dordrecht. The king paid wool in its possession as it saw fit. To facil- the English owners of this wool with notes itate this sale and to assist the collection of acknowledgment that entitled the holders of wool in England, Edward temporarily to remission of customs duties owed to the banned wool exports, thereby reducing the Crown on future wool exports. Known as usefulness of the bonds to their holders. ‘‘Dordrecht bonds,’’ these notes and other Many smaller merchants lost heavily and dubious financing schemes were made nec- were soon forced to sell their Dordrecht essary by the severe financial strain placed bonds at steep discounts. The Crown even- on the English economy by the enormous tually authorized various domestic and for- cost of the HUNDRED YEARS WAR. eign merchants—including a new syndicate By 1337, Edward, having promised more organized by Pole—to buy the bonds, which that £120,000 in payments to his allies in the they obtained for shillings on the pound but Low Countries, found himself increasingly redeemed at the Exchequer for full value in unable to meet his war-related obligations. remission of customs duties. Despite resorting more frequently to loans Edward, meanwhile, tried other ways to and direct TAXATION authorized by PARLIA- raise ready cash. In 1338, he persuaded MENT, Edward needed large additional sums Parliament to authorize Crown preemption to fund his aggressive military plans and of half the kingdom’s wool production in maintain his ANTI-FRENCH COALITION (see also return for assurances that private traders ANGLO-FLEMISH ALLIANCE). Because wool could dispose of the other half without royal was England’s chief export, Edward hoped interference. On the strength of this grant, to raise significant new revenue by splitting Edward raised new loans from his Italian the profits derived from the sale of wool bankers. In 1343, the king permitted a group with a syndicate of merchants led by Wil- of financiers headed by Pole to collect the liam de la POLE. The merchants agreed to wool customs in return for cash. However, purchase thirty thousand sacks of wool for despite these efforts, the collapse of the the king’s use. Recent government embargos original monopoly scheme was a financial on wool exports ensured a plentiful supply disaster for Edward, who was forced into in England and an eager demand on the bankruptcy in the early 1340s largely as a Continent. The king set the domestic price of result of it. wool at the minimum fair market value, Further Reading: Fryde, E. B. William de la Pole: which allowed the syndicate to buy on fa- Merchant and King’s Banker. London: Hambledon vorable terms, while wool hunger on the and London, 2003; Lloyd, T. H. The English Wool Continent allowed them to sell high. Se- Trade in the Middle Ages. Cambridge: Cambridge cured by assignments on the wool customs, University Press, 1977; McKisack, May. The Four- the king’s half of the expected profits was teenth Century, 1307–1399. Oxford: Clarendon estimated at £200,000. Press, 1976.

112 DOUGLAS, ARCHIBALD, EARL OF DOUGLAS

DOUGLAS, ARCHIBALD, EARL OF Albany was regent after 1406, Douglas DOUGLAS (c. 1369–1424) pledged allegiance to Henry IV before break- Archibald Douglas, fourth earl of Douglas, ing parole and returning to Scotland for good was the most famous Scottish noble to enter in about 1408. Douglas thereafter concluded French service during the HUNDRED YEARS an agreement—subsequently sealed by the WAR. As commander of the Scottish contin- marriage of the earl’s daughter to Albany’s gent in the dauphinist army, Douglas was son, John STEWART, earl of Buchan—that left richly rewarded for his support, receiving Douglas in effective control of southern grants of lands, titles, and money that were Scotland. Based on Douglas’s extensive po- unprecedented for a nonroyal foreigner. litical connections, his monopoly of local The son and heir of Archibald Douglas, offices, and his appropriation of royal reve- third earl of Douglas, the younger Archi- nues, the earl’s power was widely recog- bald married Margaret, the daughter of the nized outside the kingdom, where he was future Robert III, in about 1387. Archibald considered the real ruler of much of Scot- first entered politics in the late 1390s, when, land. Thanks to French attempts to secure as master of Douglas, he supported his fa- his release, Douglas was well known in ther’s efforts to improve the family’s for- France, when he traveled in 1412 to negoti- tunes by intervening in the power struggle ate an agreement with JOHN THE FEARLESS, between the son and brother of Robert III, duke of BURGUNDY and regent for CHARLES respectively, David, duke of Rothesay, and VI. Anxious for assistance against the AR- Robert, duke of Albany. Allied with Rothe- MAGNACS in the FRENCH CIVIL WAR, Burgundy say, the master launched a series of raids promised to support Douglas in Scotland in into England that provoked an invasion by return for a Scottish force of four thousand HENRY IV in the summer of 1400. Succeed- men. Although the agreement was never ing his father as earl in the following De- implemented, it set a precedent for the cember, Douglas routed an English force in dauphin (see CHARLES VII), who in 1419 ap- eastern Lothian in 1401, and thereafter be- pealed directly to Douglas, Albany, and came the most powerful magnate in south- other Scottish magnates for military assis- ern SCOTLAND and the leading exponent of tance. war with England. After Albany arrested The Scottish lords responded by sending Rothesay, Douglas agreed to the latter’s an army of six thousand to France under the death in return for the former’s commitment command of Buchan and Douglas’s son. In to the English war. Douglas thereupon led a 1421, Douglas, continuing to play one side large army into England, but was defeated against the other, received an annuity of and captured at Homildon Hill in Septem- £200 in return for agreeing to serve HENRY V ber 1402. for life. The move forged links with the En- Seeking to profit from a growing conflict glish court, pressured the dauphin to between his captor, (known as sweeten his bid for Douglas support, and ‘‘Hotspur’’), son of the earl of Northumber- improved relations with Douglas’s brother- land, and Henry IV, Douglas sided with in-law, James I, who was still a captive in Hotspur and, in July 1403, fought against the England. However, English rewards soon king at Shrewsbury, where he was again paled compared to those showered by the captured. Now taken to LONDON, the earl dauphin on Buchan following the earl’s eventually shared his confinement with such victory at BAUGE´ . In October 1423, Douglas, other important Scottish captives as Al- at Buchan’s urging, entered dauphinist ser- bany’s son, Murdoch, earl of Fife, who was vice. Landing at La Rochelle in March 1424 also taken at Homildon Hill, and Robert III’s with an army of sixty-five hundred, Douglas son, James, who was seized on his way to was created duke of Touraine. A former France in 1406. Paroled several times to serve APPANAGE of VALOIS princes, Touraine was as a destabilizing force in Scotland, where an extensive and wealthy lordship, which

113 DOUGLAS, EARL OF

Douglas quickly took into his possession. Brown, Michael. The Black Douglases: War and For three months, Douglas and his men Lordship in Late Medieval Scotland, 1300–1455. East lived off his new lands, where they quickly Linton, Scotland: Tuckwell Press, 1998. became highly unpopular. In August, Doug- las marched to NORMANDY and captured the DOUGLAS, EARL OF. See DOUGLAS,AR- town of VERNEUIL, which provoked JOHN, CHIBALD,EARL OF DOUGLAS DUKE OF BEDFORD, to offer battle. Against the advice of the French nobles, Douglas and DUAL MONARCHY. See TROYES,TREATY OF Buchan accepted the challenge, and both men died in the subsequent battle, which also resulted in the virtual destruction of the DUNKIRK, TREATIES OF. See FLANDERS; Scottish army in France. LOUIS DE MALE,COUNT OF FLANDERS Further Reading: Boardman, Stephen I. The Early Stewart Kings: Robert II and Robert III, 1371– DUNOIS, COUNT OF. See JOHN,COUNT OF 1406. East Linton, Scotland: Tuckwell Press, 1996; DUNOIS AND LONGUEVILLE

114 E

E´ CORCHEURS. See ROUTIERS With the resumption of the HUNDRED YEARS WAR in 1369, Edmund joined his EDMUND OF LANGLEY, DUKE OF brother, EDWARD, THE BLACK PRINCE, at the YORK (1341–1402) sack of LIMOGES in 1370, and his father on the The fifth surviving son of EDWARD III and abortive attempt to relieve La Rochelle in PHILIPPA OF HAINAULT, Edmund of Langley, 1372. He was king’s lieutenant in BRITTANY first duke of York, participated in the last in 1374 and commanded a CHEVAUCHE´ E military campaigns of his father’s reign and through the duchy in 1375. In 1372, Cam- exercised significant political influence dur- bridge, like his brother, JOHN OF GAUNT, ing the reign of his nephew, RICHARD II. duke of Lancaster, married a daughter of the Although a supporter of HENRY IV and the late Pedro I of Castile, and thereby became House of LANCASTER, the duke was founder associated with his brother’s ambition to of the , which eventually win the Castilian Crown. In 1381, the earl overthrew the Lancastrian dynasty. led an English expedition to Portugal, In 1347, the king granted Edmund nu- where, with the help of the Portuguese merous manors in northern England that Crown, he planned to join Lancaster’s in- came in the fifteenth century to comprise the vasion of Castile. However, neither Lan- core of the Yorkist dynasty’s landed wealth. caster nor the Portuguese arrived, and In 1359, Edmund accompanied his father on Cambridge, having lost control of his men, the RHEIMS CAMPAIGN. Elected to the Order was forced to return to England in 1382. of the GARTER in 1361 and created earl of After the accession of Richard II in 1377, Cambridge in 1362, Edmund in the mid- Cambridge, who is traditionally portrayed 1360s became the focus of his father’s efforts as retiring and unambitious, supported the to create an English APPANAGE in the Low policies and bolstered the influence of Lan- Countries by marrying the earl to MAR- caster. Created duke of York in 1385, Cam- GUERITE, the daughter and heir of LOUIS DE bridge served on the governing council MALE, count of FLANDERS. In combination established by the Wonderful PARLIAMENT in with CALAIS and other PLANTAGENET hold- 1386, but otherwise opposed his brother, ings in northern France, the possession of THOMAS, DUKE OF BUCKINGHAM, and the Flanders would have made Edmund a Lords Appellant in their attempt to control powerful prince in northwestern Europe the royal government during the political and a serious check on VALOIS ambitions. upheavals of 1387–89. With Lancaster, York However, in 1364, the French pope Urban V exercised a moderating influence in gov- forbade the match on grounds of consan- ernment in the 1390s, and participated in the guinity. The pope’s true motives were re- Anglo-French peace negotiations that fol- vealed in 1367 when he readily dispensed lowed conclusion of the Truce of LEULIN- with the same impediment for Marguerite’s GHEN in 1389. proposed marriage to PHILIP THE BOLD, duke After his destruction of Buckingham and of BURGUNDY, the brother of CHARLES V. the other Lords Appellant in 1397, the king

115 EDWARD, THE BLACK PRINCE, PRINCE OF WALES granted many of their lands to York, who Vaast-la-Hogue in NORMANDY on 12 July was appointed custodian of the realm dur- 1346, the prince, acting with the advice of ing Richard’s Irish campaign in 1399. When such veteran captains as William de BOHUN, Henry of Bolingbroke, Lancaster’s son, re- earl of Northampton, and Thomas BEAU- turned from exile during the king’s absence CHAMP, earl of Warwick, held nominal to reclaim the estates Richard seized from command of the English center at the sub- him, York abandoned the king and joined sequent Battle of CRE´ CY, where he distin- the men he raised in Richard’s name with guished himself in combat and established Bolingbroke’s forces. York’s approval of Ri- his reputation as a warrior. In honor of King chard’s subsequent deposition placed him in , who was slain fighting the high favor with Bolingbroke, who took the English at Cre´cy, the prince adopted John’s Crown as Henry IV. On the night of 3 Jan- badge of ostrich feathers as his own, and uary 1400, York, having learned from his may likewise have acquired his motto, Ich son Edward—who was one of the plotters— dene (I serve). of a plan to murder Henry and reinstate In 1347, the prince participated in the Richard, rode to Windsor to warn the king, successful siege of CALAIS, and in about 1348 thereby saving his life. York died shortly became a founding member of the Order of thereafter on 1 August 1402. the GARTER. In 1350, he helped his father Further Reading: Biggs, Douglas. ‘‘ ‘A Wrong defeat a Castilian fleet at the naval Battle of Whom Conscience and Kindred Bid Me to Right’: WINCHELSEA. Following expiration of the A Reassessment of Edmund of Langley, Duke of Truce of CALAIS, the prince received his first York, and the Usurpation of Henry IV.’’ Albion 26, independent command, being named king’s no. 2 (1994): 253–72; Russell, Peter E. The English lieutenant in GASCONY, from which he Intervention in Spain and Portugal in the Time of launched the highly destructive CHEVAUCHE´ E Edward III and Richard II. Oxford: Clarendon of 1355, during which the prince’s army Press, 1955; Saul, Nigel. Richard II. New Haven, pillaged more than five hundred towns and CT: Yale University Press, 1997. villages in southern France. A second CHE- VAUCHE´ E in 1356 culminated in the Battle of EDWARD, THE BLACK PRINCE, PRINCE POITIERS, where the English captured JOHN II OF WALES (1330–1376) and many members of the French nobility. Edward of Woodstock, prince of Wales and After concluding the Truce of BORDEAUX AQUITAINE, was the eldest son of EDWARD III with his captive, the prince conveyed John and PHILIPPA of Hainault, and thus heir to to LONDON, where both were rapturously the PLANTAGENET throne. Because he was received. In 1359, after the collapse of the one of the most successful commanders of First and Second Treaties of LONDON, the the HUNDRED YEARS WAR, the prince was prince accompanied his father on the RHEIMS regarded by contemporaries as a model of CAMPAIGN, which failed to achieve Edward CHIVALRY and the greatest knight of his age. III’s coronation as king of France but did For reasons that are now lost, Edward has make possible conclusion of the Treaty of been known since the sixteenth century as BRE´ TIGNY. Under the treaty, which the prince ‘‘the Black Prince,’’ a sobriquet that is often negotiated for the English with HENRY OF tied to his alleged use of black ARMOR, but GROSMONT, duke of Lancaster, the Plantage- that may actually stem from attempts to nets acquired a much enlarged Aquitaine in distinguish the prince, who was frequently full sovereignty. called Edward IV in anticipation of his ac- On 19 July 1362, Edward III granted his cession, from the fifteenth-century Yorkist son the principality of Aquitaine. Before king Edward IV. Born at Woodstock on 15 sailing for Bordeaux, the prince married June 1330, the prince was sixteen when he Joan, known as the ‘‘Fair Maid of Kent,’’ the first accompanied his father to France. widow of Thomas HOLLAND, earl of Kent. Knighted by the king upon landing at Saint- They kept a brilliant court at Bordeaux,

116 EDWARD I, KING OF ENGLAND where their two sons—Edward, who died in class, the prince was a popular figure 1371, and the future RICHARD II—were born. around whom legends gathered both during In 1366, the prince intervened in the CASTI- and after his life. Much was written about LIAN WAR OF SUCCESSION, concluding the him, including the French verse biography Treaty of Libourne with Pedro I of Castile, later titled La Vie du Prince Noir (Life of the who had been deposed in favor of his half Black Prince), which was completed in about brother by a French-backed army of ROU- 1385 by Chandos Herald, an unknown na- TIERS led by Bertrand du GUESCLIN. Leading tive of Hainault who served as Sir John his own routier force into Castile in 1367, the Chandos’s officer of arms. prince defeated and captured du Guesclin at Further Reading: Barber, Richard. Edward, the Battle of NA´ JERA, thereby restoring Pedro. Prince of Wales and Aquitaine. New York: Charles However, when the Castilian king reneged Scribner’s Sons, 1978; Chandos Herald. Life of the on his promises to pay for the campaign, the Black Prince by the Herald of Sir John Chandos. Ed. prince, who had contracted what was likely and trans. Mildred K. Pope and Eleanor C. Lodge. chronic dysentery, was forced to return to Oxford: Clarendon, 1910; Harvey, John. The Black Aquitaine empty-handed. The resulting Prince and His Age. London: Rowman and Little- need for funds compelled the prince to de- field, 1976; Hewitt, Herbert J. The Black Prince’s mand a fouage (hearth tax), the collection of Expeditions of 1355–1357. Manchester: Manchester which caused leading members of the Gas- University Press, 1958; Sedgwick, Theodore con nobility to appeal to CHARLES V. When Dwight. The Life of Edward, the Black Prince. New the French king accepted this APPEAL OF THE York: Barnes and Noble, 1993. GASCON LORDS by summoning him to PARIS, the prince declared himself willing to come EDWARD I, KING OF ENGLAND only at the head of an army. Charles there- (1239–1307) upon confiscated the principality and the The son of Henry III and grandfather of war resumed in 1369. EDWARD III, Edward I was an able and en- Increasingly ill, the prince left defense of ergetic monarch who conquered Wales, re- the principality in the hands of his most structured royal government, revised the loyal lieutenants—Sir John CHANDOS, Sir common law, fostered the development of James AUDLEY, and Jean de GRAILLY, captal PARLIAMENT, and initiated almost three cen- de Buch. In 1370, stung by the capitulation turies of Anglo-Scottish hostility. By vigor- of LIMOGES, the prince, although forced to ously resisting French encroachment on his travel by litter, personally led an expedition exercise of ducal authority in AQUITAINE, to effect its recapture. The city was retaken Edward commenced the long quarrel over and sacked, although the massacre of civil- the duchy that eventually culminated in the ians described by Jean FROISSART and long outbreak of the HUNDRED YEARS WAR. Ed- considered a stain on the prince’s chivalrous ward also inadvertently created one of the record seems unlikely to have occurred. In prime components of that later war by ar- 1371, the prince sailed to England and re- ranging a dynastic union with the House of turned the government of Aquitaine to his CAPET that eventually gave the PLANTAGE- father. The prince’s illness thereafter grew NETS a claim to the French throne. so debilitating that little is known of his ac- Edward first came to political prominence tivities until the meeting of the Good PAR- in the 1250s during the ongoing struggle LIAMENT in 1376, when it is claimed that he between his father and the barons of En- influenced the actions of the Commons. gland, who had been alienated by Henry’s However, his role, if any, in this assembly reckless and spendthrift policies. In May has probably been exaggerated, and Parlia- 1264, the baronial opposition, led by Simon ment was still in session when the prince de Montfort, earl of Leicester, defeated the died on 8 June. An orthodox man who fully king at Lewes, where Edward’s impetuous shared the martial interests of his time and charge routed Montfort’s Londoners but left

117 EDWARD I, KING OF ENGLAND the rest of the royalist army unsupported. invitation from the Scottish nobility to act as Surrendering himself as a hostage to ensure arbitrator in a succession dispute between the king’s compliance with the settlement John Balliol and Robert Bruce. Edward’s subsequently imposed by Montfort, Edward decision for Balliol was largely unopposed, escaped a year later and raised an army that but his claim to be Balliol’s feudal overlord slew the earl at Evesham in August 1265. and his demand that Balliol perform mili- Having led the royalist recovery, Edward tary service and allow Scottish appeals to now assumed the leading role in his father’s English courts convinced the Scottish nobil- government. Taking the crusader’s cross in ity to ally with PHILIP IV, thus initiating a June 1268, Edward arrived in North Africa FRANCO-SCOTTISH ALLIANCE that lasted into in November 1270. In June 1272, a Muslim the sixteenth century. assassin wounded Edward with a poisoned Already at war in Scotland, where he dagger. Narrowly escaping death, he re- sought to impose his overlordship, Edward turned to Sicily, where he learned of his fa- in the 1290s also found himself at war with ther’s death on 16 November. Although now France, where he sought to deny Capetian king, Edward did not return to England overlordship. In 1286, Edward did homage until August 1274, having spent the previ- to Philip IV in Paris. From the autumn of ous year in Aquitaine, where Anglo-French 1286 to June 1289, Edward was resident in relations were generally friendly until the GASCONY where he tried to limit appeals to 1290s. In PARIS in August 1273, Edward did the PARLEMENT by making the ducal ad- homage for the duchy to Philip III, and ministration more efficient. However, after thereafter the two kings conducted a per- 1292, Philip, pressed by a court faction led sonal DIPLOMACY that resolved most disputes by his brother, Charles, count of VALOIS, arising from the Treaty of PARIS. In 1279, the sought means to more strictly enforce his Anglo-French Treaty of Amiens gave Ed- Gascon overlordship, and French policy in ward the Agenais, in which the king Aquitaine shifted from dealing with Edward authorized the foundation of numerous as a sovereign monarch to dealing with him BASTIDES over the next decade. In 1285, when as a feudal vassal. Following a series of vi- the French invaded Aragon, the potential olent encounters between French and Gas- conflict between Edward’s obligation as con seamen, Philip had Edward summoned duke to support his feudal overlord and his before the Parlement in 1294. When the En- policy as king to avoid continental war was glish king failed to appear, Philip suggested resolved by Philip’s death. a secret compromise involving a temporary During the first two decades of his reign, surrender of Aquitaine, but once French of- Edward undertook a sweeping systemiza- ficials had possession, Philip reneged on tion of English government, devising and the agreement and confiscated the duchy, implementing a series of parliamentary stat- thereby initiating the ANGLO-FRENCH WAR OF utes dealing with the royal confirmation of 1294–1303. liberties and franchises, the limitation of land Heavily committed in Scotland, Edward grants to the Church, and the prohibition of had few resources for war in Gascony, and new feudal tenures. These acts and Edward’s sought to relieve pressure on the duchy by later need for funds to wage war in SCOT- forging alliances in the Low Countries, par- LAND and Aquitaine greatly accelerated the ticularly with the count of FLANDERS. How- institutional development of Parliament. In ever, this policy foundered on Edward’s 1277, Edward invaded Wales, which he fi- inability to support his allies militarily. De- nally subdued in 1284, when the Statute of spite marrying his sister MARGARET to the Wales attached the principality to the En- English king in 1299, Philip did not restore glish Crown. In 1290, following the deaths of Aquitaine to Edward until 1303, when re- Alexander III and his young granddaughter, bellion in Flanders and BORDEAUX compelled Margaret of Norway, Edward accepted an him to do so. As part of the peace settlement,

118 EDWARD II, KING OF ENGLAND the two kings agreed to a marriage between homosexual liaison or, as one writer has Edward’s son, Prince Edward, and Philip’s suggested, on an oath of adoptive brother- daughter, Isabella (see ISABELLA,QUEEN OF hood. On his accession in July 1307, Edward ENGLAND [c. 1292–1358]), a match that II immediately recalled Gaveston, whom he eventually gave Edward’s grandson a claim also created earl of Cornwall and betrothed to the French Crown. In 1306, Edward to his niece. In 1308, when Edward traveled granted Aquitaine to his son. Edward died to France to marry Isabella, the daughter of on 7 July 1307 and was succeeded by his son PHILIP IV (see ISABELLA,QUEEN OF ENGLAND EDWARD II. [c. 1292–1358]), he named Gaveston regent Further Reading: Prestwich, Michael. Edward I. during his absence. A haughty man with a Berkeley: University of California Press, 1988. sarcastic wit, Gaveston antagonized both the nobility, who considered him an arrogant EDWARD II, KING OF ENGLAND upstart wielding inappropriate influence, (1284–1327) and the new queen, who complained that The sixth king of the House of PLANTAGENET, the king preferred Gaveston’s company to Edward II was ill suited to rule a kingdom her own. Banished several times at the in- and much of his reign, which ended with his sistence of the barons, Gaveston was seized deposition, was spent in open conflict with and executed in 1312 by a coalition of op- his barons. Edward’s relations with the position magnates led by Thomas, earl of French Crown, particularly in regard to Lancaster. AQUITAINE, were bedeviled by the king’s In 1311, Lancaster and his allies forced the indecisive personality, by his reliance on king to accept the Ordinances, a reform royal favorites, by ongoing baronial oppo- program that limited royal authority. A se- sition, and by the rapid turnover of French ries of military reverses in SCOTLAND, par- monarchs during the last years of the House ticularly the defeat at Bannockburn in 1314, of CAPET. By the 1320s, these factors led to weakened Edward’s position and allowed another confiscation of the duchy of Aqui- Lancaster to dominate the government dur- taine and to another ANGLO-FRENCH WAR. ing the late . The king, however, turned Born at Caernarvon, the fourth but only to a new favorite, his chamberlain, Hugh surviving son of EDWARD I, Edward was the Despenser the Younger. Although there is first heir to the English throne to be called no evidence of a sexual relationship between prince of Wales. Although he was named Edward and Despenser, the latter used his titular regent of England during his father’s influence with the king to enrich himself and absence in GASCONY in 1297, and made duke his family. In 1321, the barons forced De- of Aquitaine at his knighting in May 1306, spenser’s banishment, but the king, in an the prince’s relations with his father were uncharacteristic burst of energy, routed his strained during the king’s last years. In June opponents at Boroughbridge in March 1322. 1305, the king banished his son from court Following Lancaster’s execution, Edward and ordered the Exchequer to refuse him and Despenser began four years of unchal- any financial support. The prince was re- lenged rule. stored to favor in October, following inter- While Edward struggled with his baronial ventions on his behalf by his sisters and opponents, the English position in France stepmother, MARGARET OF FRANCE. The exact deteriorated. Having been invested with cause of the quarrel is unknown, but likely Aquitaine prior to his accession, Edward paid involved the prince’s friend Piers Gaveston, homage for the duchy to Philip IV on the day a young Gascon knight, whom the king fi- before marrying Philip’s daughter in January nally banished from England in February 1308. Although the Anglo-French commis- 1307. Historians have long speculated on the sions known as the PROCESS of Montreuil nature of the prince’s relationship with Ga- (1306) and the Process of Pe´rigueux (1311) veston, debating whether it was based on a attempted to settle issues remaining from the

119 EDWARD III, KING OF ENGLAND war of the 1290s as well as new issues arising woode, 1971; Maddicott, J. R. Thomas of Lancaster, thereafter, little was accomplished, and the 1307–1322: A Study in the Reign of Edward II. question of Gascon appeals to the PARLEMENT London: Oxford University Press, 1970; Phillips, in PARIS continued to sour relations between J.R.S. Aymer de Valence, Earl of Pembroke, 1307– the Crowns. In 1313, Edward stabilized the 1324: Baronial Politics in the Reign of Edward II. situation by again doing homage for the Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1972. duchy in Paris. After Philip’s death in 1314, his sons followed one another on the throne EDWARD III, KING OF ENGLAND in rapid succession, leaving Edward obli- (1312–1377) gated to perform homage anew to each one. The seventh king of the House of PLANTAG- LOUIS X died in 1316 without ever receiving ENET, and the grandson of PHILIP IV of the Edward’s homage, but the English king did House of CAPET, Edward III was an energetic perform homage to PHILIP V at Amiens in and opportunistic monarch whose claim to June 1320. Failure to do the same for Philip’s the French Crown and ambition for French brother, CHARLES IV, who became king in territory initiated the HUNDRED YEARS WAR. 1322, was a factor in the French confiscation Although his last years were marked by of Aquitaine in 1324. However, the immedi- failure and decline, Edward enjoyed popu- ate cause of the Anglo-French War of SAINT- lar support at home and military success SARDOS, which began in 1323, was the violent abroad for most of his fifty-year reign. resistance offered to the foundation of a The eldest son of EDWARD II and Isabella French royal BASTIDE in Aquitaine by one of of France (see ISABELLA,QUEEN OF ENGLAND Edward’s Gascon vassals. [c. 1292–1358]), Edward became a pawn in When the subsequent French campaign his parents’ power struggle during the reduced Plantagenet Aquitaine to a coastal 1320s. To avoid paying homage in person to strip running south of BORDEAUX, Edward his brother-in-law, CHARLES IV, the king sent his queen to France in March 1325 to made Edward duke of AQUITAINE in 1325. negotiate with her brother. The resulting Sent to France, where his mother was al- settlement was sealed in September, when ready negotiating an end to the War of thirteen-year-old Prince Edward, the future SAINT-SARDOS, Edward performed homage EDWARD III, did homage for the duchy on his for his new fief on 24 September. Resentful father’s behalf. With the prince in her cus- of the influence exercised over her husband tody, Isabella, who despised Despenser, re- by the royal favorite, Hugh Despenser the fused to return, and, in concert with her Younger, Isabella refused the king’s de- lover, Roger Mortimer, a royal opponent in mands to return to England with Edward. In exile in Paris, raised an army and invaded 1326, accompanied by her lover, Roger England in September 1326. Welcomed Mortimer, a royal opponent in exile at the by the nobility, who almost universally French court, the queen traveled to Hai- hated the Despenser regime, Isabella en- nault, where, in return for military assis- gineered the parliamentary deposition of her tance, she negotiated a match with the husband in favor of her son in January 1327. count’s daughter, PHILIPPA, whom Edward The deposed king was imprisoned at Ber- married in January 1328. Landing in En- keley Castle, where he supposedly died on gland in September 1326, the queen, aided 21 September, the victim of a murder alleg- by widespread dissatisfaction with the De- edly committed by means of a red-hot poker spenser regime, overthrew her husband. In inserted into his rectum to avoid any out- January 1327, PARLIAMENT deposed Edward ward marks of violence. II and proclaimed the prince king as Edward Further Reading: Fryde, Natalie B. The Tyranny III. Crowned on 1 February, Edward, at and Fall of Edward II, 1321–1326. Cambridge: fourteen, was too young to rule, and real Cambridge University Press, 1979; Hutchison, power rested with Isabella and Mortimer, Harold F. Edward II. London: Eyre and Spottis- who likely ordered Edward II’s murder

120 EDWARD III, KING OF ENGLAND in September. The regency government This alliance was fortified in 1339 by con- was quickly discredited by Mortimer’s ra- clusion of an ANGLO-FLEMISH ALLIANCE with pacity and the conclusion of two humiliating the revolutionary regime of James van AR- treaties—a 1327 agreement that allowed TEVELDE. In February 1340, Edward made Charles to retain much of Aquitaine, and the formal claim to the French throne, a move 1328 Treaty of Northampton which, after a designed to transform the Gascon quarrel disastrous military campaign, recognized from a dispute between lord and vassal to Scottish independence. Increasingly dis- one between equals, and to allow Edward’s trustful of Mortimer, Edward plotted with allies in FLANDERS and elsewhere to support young courtiers such as William MONTAGU his cause without rebelling against the to seize personal control of the government. French Crown. However, this network of On 19 October 1330, a month before his alliances collapsed after the failed THIE´ RACHE eighteenth birthday, Edward struck, arrest- and TOURNAI campaigns of 1339 and 1340. ing and executing Mortimer and sending his Despite a major navel victory at SLUYS in mother into retirement. June, Edward was bankrupt by late 1340. On the death of Charles IV without male The king’s frustrations caused the one major heirs in February 1328, Edward was the domestic upheaval of the reign, the CRISIS OF closest male relative to the last Capetian 1340–1341, during which Edward charged kings. However, because Edward’s claim Archbishop John STRATFORD and other min- came through a woman, the French nobility, isters with failing to financially support his unwilling to accept a minor English king armies. When the confrontation with Strat- dominated by his mother, offered the throne ford threatened to escalate, Edward backed to the count of VALOIS, the late king’s adult down and in the process confirmed the right cousin, who became PHILIP VI. On 6 June of peers to be tried in Parliament and of 1329, Edward performed simple homage for Parliament to consent to TAXATION. Aquitaine, thereby implicitly accepting the Abandoning the alliance strategy, Edward Valois claim. In April 1331, Edward, dis- turned to CHEVAUCHE´ ES, highly mobile cam- guised as a merchant, returned to France at paigns of largely English armies that lived Philip’s insistence to confirm that his earlier partly off the land. To open a new front homage should be construed as liege hom- against France, he intervened in the BRETON age. In the early 1330s, Edward resumed the CIVIL WAR in the mid-1340s and sent HENRY war in SCOTLAND, seeking, like his grandfa- OF GROSMONT, duke of Lancaster, to conduct ther, EDWARD I, to establish English over- a series of successful campaigns in GASCONY. lordship over the northern kingdom. An Between 1342 and 1347, victories at BER- English victory at HALIDON HILL in July 1333 GERAC and AUBEROCHE in Aquitaine and at forced the young Scottish king, DAVID II, to LA ROCHE-DERRIEN in BRITTANY established flee to France, where his cause was taken up English ascendancies in those provinces, by Philip, who refused any settlement in while an innovative combining of ARCHERS Aquitaine that did not encompass Scotland. and dismounted cavalry won major victories Angered by what he considered interference over the French at CRE´ CY and the Scots at in his internal affairs, and by continuing ju- NEVILLE’S CROSS, where David II was cap- risdictional disputes in Aquitaine, Edward tured. In 1347, the capture of CALAIS, the received the French rebel ROBERT OF ARTOIS, conclusion of the TRUCE OF CALAIS, and the whose welcome in LONDON was used by founding of the Order of the GARTER ended Philip as grounds for confiscating Aquitaine this period of success. The BLACK DEATH, on 24 May 1337. which devastated both countries between Edward began the resulting Anglo-French 1347 and 1350, temporarily ended the war war by constructing, at great expense, a until the mid-1350s, when Edward’s son, grand ANTI-FRENCH COALITION among the EDWARD, THE BLACK PRINCE, desolated princes of the Low Countries and Germany. southern France during the CHEVAUCHE´ E OF

121 ESPLECHIN, TRUCE OF

1355 and captured JOHN II at POITIERS in ESPLECHIN, TRUCE OF (1340) 1356. When his exorbitant demands for Concluded on 25 September 1340, the nine- RANSOM and territory overthrew two at- month Truce of Esplechin was the first ne- tempts at a settlement—the First (1358) and gotiated cessation of combat during the Second (1359) Treaties of LONDON—Edward HUNDRED YEARS WAR. The truce acknowl- launched the RHEIMS CAMPAIGN in 1359, edged EDWARD III’s financial inability to hoping thereby to have himself crowned continue the campaign of 1340 and signaled king and thus force the French to capitulate. the failure of the ANGLO-FLEMISH ALLIANCE as However, in 1360, bad weather and the an instrument for the rapid overthrow of the French refusal to give battle defeated the VALOIS monarchy. English and forced Edward to conclude By the spring of 1340, Edward, through the Treaty of BRE´ TIGNY, whereby he re- the dispersal of large sums of money, had nounced the French throne in return for an constructed a grand anti-French alliance that enlarged Aquitaine in full sovereignty. included FLANDERS, Brabant, Hainault, Having achieved his objectives, Edward Guelders, and Juliers. Following the tri- granted Aquitaine to the prince, who, hav- umph of his navy at the Battle of SLUYS in ing contracted chronic dysentery during the June, Edward and his allies agreed to send 1367 NA´ JERA campaign, resigned the duchy two armies into northern France. The first, in 1371. By accepting the APPEAL OF THE commanded by ROBERT OF ARTOIS, was to GASCON LORDS,CHARLES V reopened the war capture the town of SAINT-OMER in Artois in 1369 and during the 1370s retook most of and then march against CALAIS. The second, Aquitaine. Although Edward prepared to commanded by the king, was to besiege the resume the field, the death of the queen town of TOURNAI. Commencing on 31 July, prevented him from leading a planned ex- the siege of Tournai quickly foundered for pedition to NORMANDY in 1369, and his last want of proper siege equipment and effec- campaign, a 1372 naval expedition intended tive cooperation among the allies. As the to reverse a recent defeat at LA ROCHELLE, siege continued, it became increasingly clear was aborted due to contrary winds. Now in that Edward could not make the payments his sixties, and increasingly under the in- he had promised. This realization, cou- fluence of his mistress, Alice Perrers, Ed- pled with the defeat of Robert’s army at ward grew infirm and lost interest in gov- the Battle of Saint-Omer, which opened erning. With the prince incapacitated by Flanders to French invasion, quickly de- illness, and the king slipping into senility, stroyed allied enthusiasm for the campaign. Edward’s son, JOHN OF GAUNT, duke of When a French army led by PHILIP VI ap- Lancaster, dominated the government. In proached Tournai in early September, Ed- 1376, the Good Parliament, backed by the ward, knowing his allies would not fight, prince, who died in June, reacted to defeat had no choice but to seek a negotiated set- and corruption by impeaching royal minis- tlement. ters and dismissing Perrers. Abandoned by Eager to exploit the divisions among his most of his court, Edward died at Sheen on enemies, and happy to disrupt the English 21 June 1377. He was succeeded by his alliance without giving battle, Philip ap- grandson, RICHARD II. pointed a commission to meet allied repre- Further Reading: Ormrod, W. M. The Reign of sentatives in a chapel outside the village of Edward III: Crown and Political Society in England, Esplechin, which stood halfway between the 1327–1377. New Haven, CT: Yale University two armies. An agreement was quickly Press, 1990; Packe, Michael. King Edward III. Ed. concluded; it called for a truce to run until L. C. B. Seaman. London: Routledge and Kegan 24 June 1341 and to include not just northern Paul, 1983; Waugh, Scott L. England in the Reign of France, but also GASCONY,SCOTLAND, and the Edward III. Cambridge: Cambridge University war at sea. All parties would maintain their Press, 1991. current territorial holdings, no matter how

122 ESTATES, GENERAL AND PROVINCIAL they had been obtained, and all prisoners summoned by the king to render advice and were to be paroled with the understanding give consent, primarily in regard to the that they must return to captivity should raising of taxes for war. Although the no- hostilities resume. By promising to prevent bility and higher clergy had long attended the return of all Flemings who had fled to royal and local assemblies of various kinds, France, and to seek the lifting of all ecclesi- the term ‘‘estates’’ applies only to those astical sanctions imposed on Flanders, Phil- bodies that included representatives of ip reassured the pro-English regime of towns among their membership. During the James van ARTEVELDE, who had opposed the HUNDRED YEARS WAR, when the royal need negotiations. for funds was especially acute, the Crown The truce benefited Philip by achieving consulted both local and national estates the break-up of the allied army and the more regularly in an effort to fully engage withdrawal of the English king; it benefited local elites in the war effort. Edward’s noble allies by buying them time Many provincial assemblies developed to repair their relationship with Philip; and out of the right of a feudal lord to summon it benefited Edward by canceling a planned his vassals to his court to provide aid and Scottish attack on Sterling and a developing counsel. By the thirteenth century, two new French campaign against the English garri- concepts encouraged the development of sons in Gascony. However, believing him- tripartite assemblies of clergy, townsmen, self cheated of victory, Edward was bitter and feudal nobility. The first was the notion and accused his ministers, particularly that society was broadly divided into three Archbishop John STRATFORD, of failing to groups—warriors, priests, and workers. The support him, a charge that provoked the third group, essentially nonnoble laymen English political CRISIS OF 1340–1341. Al- in the towns, was large, diverse, and, by the though the truce raised expectations of talks thirteenth century, growing in wealth, edu- for a permanent settlement, Edward was cation, and influence. The second concept uninterested and eager to resume the war. was the principle of representation, which He accepted extension of the truce to 29 allowed groups to appoint one or more of August 1341 and then to 24 June 1342, but their number to represent their corporate the eruption of the BRETON CIVIL WAR in the interests at the court of the king or local lord. autumn of 1341 and the subsequent Anglo- Thus, the clergy and laity developed the French intervention in the duchy essentially practice of electing representatives to act in ended the truce. See also ANTI-FRENCH COA- their name just as it became politically use- LITION;NAVAL WARFARE. ful to include such groups in local assem- Further Reading: Perroy, Edouard. The Hun- blies. dred Years War. Trans. W. B. Wells. New York: The Crown found provincial estates use- Capricorn Books, 1965; Sumption, Jonathan. The ful as instruments for obtaining the consent Hundred Years War. Vol. 1, Trial by Battle. of local communities to the collection of war Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, taxes. Provincial elites used the estates to 1999. present grievances to the Crown, to defend local interests at court, and to administer ESTATES, GENERAL AND PROVINCIAL funds collected locally for defense and the The provincial estates of VALOIS France were maintenance of transportation systems. Es- assemblies of nobles, clergy, and townsmen— tates functioned in more than half the the three ‘‘estates’’ or classes of medieval provinces of the realm, including NORMANDY society—that met in various provinces or in the north and Languedoc in the south. feudal jurisdictions to consider local issues Although some provincial estates met and provide financial support to local lords. rarely, others developed permanent bu- The Estates-General was a national or re- reaucracies, devised clear procedures, kept gional assembly of the three estates that was careful records, and levied taxes for their

123 EUGENIUS IV own maintenance. Because the provincial During the troubled reign of CHARLES VI, estates never presented a direct challenge to meetings of the Estates-General were fewer royal authority, French kings viewed such and more turbulent. In 1381, when the Es- assemblies as useful means for communi- tates of Languedoil granted a hearth tax in cating the royal will to local communities return for the right to control its collection and for transmitting local concerns to the and employment, irate taxpayers revolted in royal court. ROUEN and PARIS. In 1413, in the midst of the On the other hand, national and regional FRENCH CIVIL WAR, the Estates-General re- assemblies, the Estates-General or the Es- fused taxes until the Burgundian regime tates of Languedoil, proved more threaten- undertook reform, thereby convincing JOHN ing to royal interests, especially during THE FEARLESS, duke of BURGUNDY, to foment periods of political or military turmoil. The the CABOCHIEN insurrection. Between 1422 Estates-General first appeared in the reign of and 1439, CHARLES VII, in need of money PHILIP IV, when the king, in the midst of his and national support, frequently summoned long dispute with the pope regarding secu- the Estates of Languedoil to approve taxa- lar jurisdiction over the national clergy, tion. However, as royal authority revived sought support for his controversial policies. after 1440, the king continued to levy taxes Beginning in the 1330s, PHILIP VI several but ceased to call the national assembly. The times summoned the Estates-General to ap- Estates-General thus did not become a reg- prove taxes or deal with war-related crises. ular part of royal government and the last From the Crown’s point of view, the na- meetings of the medieval Estates-General tional assembly was of only limited useful- occurred in 1468 and 1484. See also PARLE- ness, since any grant of TAXATION had to be MENT;PARLIAMENT. confirmed by the various provincial estates. Further Reading: Bisson, Thomas. Assemblies After the defeat at CRE´CY in 1346, the Estates- and Representation in Languedoc in the Thirteenth General pressed for governmental reforms Century. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University until the BLACK DEATH interrupted both the Press, 1964; Henneman, John Bell. Royal Taxation war and the reform movement. Between in Fourteenth-Century France: The Development of 1356 and 1360, the years following JOHN II’s War Financing, 1322–1356. Princeton, NJ: Prince- capture at POITIERS, the Estates-General met ton University Press, 1971; Major, J. Russell. frequently and demanded reform of the Representative Institutions in Renaissance France, royal administration in return for large tax 1421–1559. Madison: University of Wisconsin grants to fund the war. However, due to the Press, 1960; Tyrrell, Joseph M. A History of the disordered state of the realm and the con- Estates of Poitou. The Hague: Mouton, 1968. tinuing need for provincial assemblies to ratify tax grants, the Estates-General could EUGENIUS IV. See PAPACY AND THE HUN- not provide the taxes promised, leading DRED YEARS WAR CHARLES V to conclude that it was more trouble than it was worth. Although Charles EXETER, DUKE OF. See BEAUFORT,THOMAS, continued to summon the Estates-General in DUKE OF EXETER the 1360s, the revival of royal authority made these assemblies more amenable to the EYMET, BATTLE OF. See GUESCLIN,BER- royal will. TRAND DU

124 F

FASTOLF, SIR JOHN (c. 1378–1459) gious Order of the GARTER. Although he was One of the chief English military leaders of later restored to favor and continued to the fifteenth century, Sir John Fastolf over- serve on the French council and in various came low birth to achieve high-ranking military posts, the incident at Patay left a commands in the armies and administration lasting mark on Fastolf’s reputation and of English-occupied France. Fastolf’s mili- may account for his later transformation by tary career illustrates the opportunities for into the comedic Sir economic and social advancement that were John , one of the most striking char- available to ambitious and enterprising sol- acters in English literature. diers during the HUNDRED YEARS WAR. Fastolf was present at the Congress of Born into a gentry family in Norfolk, ARRAS in 1435 and drafted a report on the Fastolf entered the service of HENRY IV’s future conduct of the war in France. He re- second son, THOMAS, DUKE OF CLARENCE, tired from active campaigning in 1440, and whom Fastolf accompanied to Ireland in returned to England, where he devoted 1401 and to France in 1412. Although only himself to increasing his wealth. Having an esquire, Fastolf became deputy constable acquired a considerable fortune through the of BORDEAUX in 1413. He fought with HENRY profits of war—for example, plunder, RAN- VatAGINCOURT in 1415 and was knighted in SOMS, and wages—Fastolf enlarged it through 1416. He served with distinction in the wise business practices. While in France, he campaigns leading to the conquest of NOR- regularly sent his earnings home and in- MANDY and became constable of Fe´camp in vested his funds with care. He bought much 1419 and of the Bastille garrison in PARIS in property in Norfolk, where his fortified 1420. manor house at Caister became his most The deaths of Clarence in 1421 and Henry prized possession. He also invested heavily V in 1422 allowed Fastolf to rise from sub- in such valuables as plate, jewels, tapestries, ordinate positions to high military com- and books, and soon commanded the in- mands. In 1423, JOHN, DUKE OF BEDFORD, now come of an earl. His later years were spent in regent of France for HENRY VI, made Fastolf endless litigation and were marked by a master of his household. Appointments as growing obsession with wealth—he com- councilor of France, governor of Maine and plained constantly of £11,000 owed him by Anjou, and king’s lieutenant in Normandy the Crown and bitterly denounced the gov- followed thereafter. Fastolf captured JOHN, ernment’s failure to protect his French lands. DUKE OF ALENC¸ON,atVERNEUIL in 1424 and He also displayed a growing distrust of his commanded the English forces at the Battle closest advisors, such as John Paston, in of the HERRINGS in February 1429. As the whose family correspondence, the famous only English leader to escape capture at ‘‘Paston Letters,’’ Fastolf frequently appears. PATAY in June 1429, Fastolf was unfairly ac- Having disinherited his stepson, Fastolf cused of cowardice and was temporarily died childless in 1459, leaving most of his stripped of his membership in the presti- war-generated wealth to Paston.

125 FITZALAN, RICHARD, EARL OF ARUNDEL

Further Reading: Bennett, H. S. ‘‘Sir John mands of their subjects, whose economic Fastolf.’’ In Six Medieval Men and Women. Cam- strength gave them political influence. bridge: Cambridge University Press, 1955; McFar- In the 1290s, PHILIP IV, hoping to annex lane, K. B. ‘‘The Investment of Sir John Fastolf’s Flanders to the royal domain, interfered Profits of War.’’ In England in the Fifteenth Century. frequently in the county’s internal affairs, London: Hambledon, 1981; Smith, A. ‘‘Litigation forcing Count Guy de Dampierre to re- and Politics: Sir John Fastolf’s Defence of His nounce his allegiance in 1297 and ally with English Property.’’ In Property and Politics: Essays EDWARD I during the ANGLO-FRENCH WAR OF in Later Medieval History, ed. A. J. Pollard. New 1294–1303. In July 1302, with the count a York: St. Martin’s, 1984. prisoner in Paris and Flanders under royal rule, the Flemings defeated a French army at FITZALAN, RICHARD, EARL OF Courtrai in the famous ‘‘Battle of the Golden ARUNDEL. See CADZAND,BATTLE OF; Spurs.’’ Humiliated, the French continued RICHARD II the war and by 1312 had forced the Flemings to pay a huge indemnity; surrender the three FLANDERS castellanies of Lille, Douai, and Orchies; and Flanders, a county in northwestern Europe restore pro-French oligarchies to power in roughly corresponding to modern Belgium, the towns. LOUIS DE NEVERS, who became was an important focus of Anglo-French count in 1322, was strongly pro-French. His military and diplomatic activity during the interference in municipal affairs precipitated first decades of the HUNDRED YEARS WAR. a revolt in Bruges in 1323, which was only Because Flanders was one of the wealthiest suppressed with the help of Ghent and the fiefs of the French Crown and the most im- new VALOIS king of France, PHILIP VI, who portant market for English wool, as well as defeated the rebels at Cassel in August 1328. ideally located to serve as a base of opera- At the start of the Hundred Years War, tions against PARIS and northern France, one EDWARD III embargoed English wool ship- of the main aspects of the war in the four- ments in an unsuccessful attempt to detach teenth century was the struggle for political Louis from his French allegiance. However, control of the county. the resulting economic distress in the towns Flanders was one of the most highly ur- sparked a revolt that drove Louis from the banized regions of medieval Europe, con- county in 1339. The new Flemish regime, led taining such sizable cities as Bruges, Ghent, by James van ARTEVELDE, captain of Ghent, and Ypres. By the fourteenth century, the allied with Edward (see ANGLO-FLEMISH AL- economy of most Flemish towns was based LIANCE), who was recognized as king of on trade and the manufacture of cloth, the France. English attempts to use Flanders as a raw wool for which came mainly from base for invading France ended with the England. Serfdom had largely disappeared failed siege of TOURNAI in 1340, but the by the thirteenth century and the main social Flemings maintained their rebellion until division in Flanders was between the weal- 1349, when LOUIS DE MALE, who had suc- thy merchants and landowners, who were ceeded his father as count in 1346, was re- generally pro-French, and the rising weav- stored to power with French assistance. ers, artisans, and drapers, who favored Louis installed loyal regimes in the cities Flemish autonomy. Although vassals (for and, while making formal homage to the most of their fief) of the French Crown, the Valois, remained carefully neutral toward counts of Flanders, like their PLANTAGENET the Anglo-French war, thus maintaining the counterparts in AQUITAINE, sought greater flow of English wool. In 1369, after CHARLES independence in dealings with their feudal V convinced the pope to prevent a match overlord. By the fourteenth century, the with EDMUND OF LANGLEY, son of Edward III, counts often found themselves caught be- Louis reluctantly married his daughter and tween their feudal obligations and the de- heir MARGUERITE to Charles’s brother, PHILIP

126 FORMIGNY, BATTLE OF

THE BOLD, duke of BURGUNDY. In 1379, Ghent In June 1449, three months after the En- again rebelled against comital authority. The glish sack of FOUGE` RES,CHARLES VII repudi- rebel regime, which was eventually led by ated the Truce of TOURS and reopened the Philip van ARTEVELDE, son of James, sought a HUNDRED YEARS WAR by invading Nor- new English alliance, but the minority gov- mandy. Since the English had no field army ernment of RICHARD II was in no position to in the duchy, the campaign quickly became assist, and Burgundy, summoned by his fa- a series of sieges; ROUEN capitulated in Oc- ther-in-law, crushed the Flemings at Roose- tober and HARFLEUR followed in December. beke in November 1382. To halt the French advance, the government Upon Louis’s death in January 1384, Bur- of HENRY VI dispatched an army of twenty- gundy became count, making Flanders a five hundred men to Normandy under Sir Valois APPANAGE and ending any English Thomas Kyriell. Landing at Cherbourg on 15 hope of controlling the county. In the fif- March 1450, Kyriell, acting at the request of teenth century, Flanders was part of the local officials, deviated from his orders to Burgundian state constructed by Duke Phi- proceed immediately to the relief of Bayeux. lip’s descendents and, as such, was again Instead, he asked Edmund BEAUFORT, duke allied with England during the ANGLO-BUR- of Somerset, the English governor of Nor- GUNDIAN ALLIANCE of 1420–35. However, the mandy, for reinforcements to recapture county itself ceased to be an important war Valognes, which fell on 10 April. Now theater. commanding an army of four thousand, Further Reading: Lucas, Henry Stephen. The Kyriell marched toward Bayeux, reaching Low Countries and the Hundred Years’ War, 1326– the village of Formigny on 14 April. 1347. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, The French had two forces in western 1929; Nicholas, David. Town and Countryside: Normandy. John, count of Clermont, com- Social, Economic, and Political Tensions in Four- manded three thousand men at Carentan, teenth-Century Flanders. Bruges: De Tempel, 1971; while Arthur de Richemont, constable of Prevenier, Walter, and Willem Blockmans. The France (see ARTHUR III), lay twenty miles to Burgundian . Cambridge: Cambridge the southwest at Coutances with two thou- University Press, 1985. sand Bretons. Unwilling to engage the larger English force alone, Clermont allowed Kyr- iell to proceed unmolested while Richemont FLANDERS, COUNT OF. See JOHN THE marched north to St. Loˆ, which he reached FEARLESS,DUKE OF BURGUNDY;LOUIS DE on 14 April. At Formigny, the English were MALE,COUNT OF FLANDERS;LOUIS DE NEVERS, only ten miles from the safety of Bayeux, but COUNT OF FLANDERS;PHILIP THE BOLD, DUKE instead of resuming his march, Kyriell held OF BURGUNDY;PHILIP THE GOOD,DUKE OF his position, presumably waiting to catch BURGUNDY Clermont, whom he knew to be finally on the move. Unaware of Richemont’s march of FLANDERS, COUNTESS OF. See the previous day, Kyriell probably hoped to MARGUERITE DE FLANDERS,DUCHESS OF engage and defeat Clermont before Riche- BURGUNDY mont arrived. At mid-afternoon, Clermont encountered FLEURS DE LYS, TREATY OF. See the English army drawn up much as HENRY HOSTAGES,TREATY OF V’s had been at AGINCOURT, with a thin line of men-at-arms fortified at intervals by FORMIGNY, BATTLE OF (1450) groups of ARCHERS that projected forward Fought on 15 April 1450, the battle of For- from the English front. After a pause that migny destroyed the last English field force allowed the English to further entrench their in Lancastrian NORMANDY and thereby en- position, Clermont’s dismounted men-at- sured the French reconquest of the duchy. arms assaulted the English line. When their

127 FORTIFICATIONS

first attack collapsed, the French sent cavalry the Lancastrian regime, and precipitated a charges against the English flanks, but were successful French campaign against NOR- again unsuccessful. Clermont now brought MANDY. up his ARTILLERY, two culverins that were Surienne, who was known as ‘‘l’Arrago- quickly captured by English archers, who, nais’’ (the Arrogonese), had fought for the goaded by the galling fire, surged forward English since at least 1437, when he com- to overwhelm the gunners. The French were manded the garrison at MONTARGIS. By 1447, now in disarray; had Kyriell attacked, he he had become a key figure in a plan being might have driven them from the field. developed by Henry’s chief minister, Wil- At this moment, Richemont arrived from liam de la POLE, earl of Suffolk, to strengthen the south, his forces ideally positioned to English influence over Francis I, duke of assault the flanks and rear of the English Brittany. In June 1446, the duke had im- army. Lacking a reserve, Kyriell had to prisoned his younger brother Gilles, who maintain his front against Clermont while was a personal friend of Henry VI, for his shifting part of his army to the left to meet forceful and ambitious advocacy of the En- Richemont’s attack, the sight of which en- glish cause. Suffolk believed that a military couraged Clermont’s men to resume their demonstration along the Breton-Norman assault. The English line quickly disin- border would compel Francis to forego any tegrated under the pressure, with groups of rapprochement with CHARLES VII and to re- men being surrounded and cut down. Al- store Gilles to favor, thus allowing him to though Sir Matthew Gough, commander of continue exerting a pro-English influence. Somerset’s reinforcements, led a small force The plan was given even greater urgency in to safety, most of the English army was killed 1448 when Maine fell to the French (see or captured, with Kyriell among the latter. MAINE,SURRENDER OF), thus making a Having disposed of Kyriell’s army, the friendly Brittany even more important to the French resumed their campaign of sieges, defense of Normandy. which concluded on 12 August with the fall Surienne’s choice as the government’s of Cherbourg, the last English-held fortress agent in this plan was signaled in November in Normandy. See also NORMAN CAMPAIGN 1447 when he was elected to the Order of the (1449–50). GARTER and given possession of Sir John Further Reading: Burne, Alfred H. The Agin- FASTOLF’s castle of Conde´-sur-Noireau, a court War. Ware, England: Wordsworth Editions fortress on the Norman frontier that was Ltd., 1999; Griffiths, Ralph A. The Reign of King ideally situated to serve as a base for oper- Henry VI. Berkeley: University of California Press, ations against Fouge`res. In March 1449, 1981. Surienne led a force of six thousand on a well-executed raid that quickly carried the FORTIFICATIONS. See SIEGE WARFARE surprised town by assault. After thoroughly plundering the wealthy citizens, the routiers FOUGE` RES, SACK OF (1449) withdrew to the citadel, where they were On 24 March 1449, Franc¸ois de Surienne, a soon besieged by the Bretons. When Charles Spanish ROUTIER captain who had long VII protested the attack, the English lieu- served the English Crown, captured and tenant of Normandy, Edmund BEAUFORT, sacked the Breton town of Fouge`res in vio- duke of Somerset, who had been involved in lation of the Truce of TOURS. The attack, planning the venture, replied that the action which was initiated by the English govern- was not a breach of the truce, since the duke ment as part of a plan to prevent BRITTANY of Brittany was a vassal of the English from establishing closer ties with France, Crown. This contention was highly debat- had disastrous consequences for HENRY VI able. Although the English had surrepti- and his ministers. The episode undermined tiously included Brittany among their list of English morale, destroyed the credibility of allies when the truce was renewed in 1448,

128 FRANCO-SCOTTISH ALLIANCE

Francis had done formal homage to Charles hostility toward England. Besides provid- in 1446. ing both countries with important military In June, PARLIAMENT congratulated Suri- and diplomatic assistance throughout the enne on his success, but the English gov- HUNDRED YEARS WAR, the alliance also ernment, finding its military resources strengthened social, economic, and cultural stretched thin and Brittany now firmly in connections between Scotland and the Con- league with the French, refused to ac- tinent. knowledge its role in the attack or to send The Franco-Scottish alliance was created relief to Surienne, who was soon in dire by an agreement concluded in October 1295 straits. Bitterly disillusioned and angry that between PHILIP IV and a twelve-man council he was being denounced as a truce breaker of Scottish nobles. The latter had seized who had acted on his own account, Surienne power from John Balliol, whom EDWARD I held out until 5 November. Shortly thereaf- had placed on the Scottish throne as an En- ter, he returned his Garter, renounced his glish vassal. On the Scottish side, the main English allegiance, and published a lengthy impetus for the alliance was Edward’s un- justification placing responsibility for the precedented demand that Balliol and his attack squarely on the English government. chief nobles perform military service for the The entire episode reflected poorly on the English Crown in France. On the French Lancastrian regime. In Normandy, morale side, the agreement, which called for a joint dropped among troops who had seen a attack on England, provided Philip with colleague abandoned. In England, where valuable assistance in his campaign against Suffolk and Somerset were suspected of PLANTAGENET Aquitaine (see ANGLO-FRENCH concocting the entire scheme for their own WAR OF 1294–1303). Although the envi- benefit, support for the government ebbed. sioned attack never materialized, the alli- In Brittany, Francis and his uncle, Arthur de ance damaged the English war effort by Richemont (see ARTHUR III), acting in con- wasting Edward’s limited resources and by junction with the French, invaded western offering Scottish exiles a continental refuge. Normandy in November in a campaign that From 1309, Robert I, like all his successors concluded with the recapture of Fouge`res. In down to Mary, Queen of Scots, maintained France, Charles, no longer trusting English the French connection. Rather than provid- professions of peace, used Fouge`res as a ing each other with direct military assis- pretext for ending the truce and sending an tance, the allies used diplomatic cooperation army under JOHN, COUNT OF DUNOIS, into and the threat of joint action to hamper En- Normandy, which, by the summer of 1450, glish military activity in either country. In was lost to England. See also NORMAN CAM- 1326, CHARLES IV and Robert I formally re- PAIGN (1449–1450). newed the alliance at Corbeil. Further Reading: Griffiths, Ralph A. The Reign In the 1330s, the alliance made the ongo- of King Henry VI. Berkeley: University of Califor- ing Anglo-Scottish war an important cause nia Press, 1981; Perroy, Edouard. The Hundred and component of the Anglo-French conflict. Years War. Trans. W. B. Wells. New York: Cap- By breaking Scotland’s isolation, the alliance ricorn Books, 1965. ended Scottish fears of unfettered English conquest while giving the French a means of FRANC-ARCHERS. See CHARLES VII, diverting English attention from AQUITAINE. MILITARY REFORMS OF In 1334, a year after EDWARD III’s victory at HALIDON HILL gave him effective control of FRANCO-SCOTTISH ALLIANCE southern Scotland, PHILIP VI granted DAVID Known as the ‘‘Auld Alliance,’’ the military II asylum in France. Philip then destroyed a and political connection forged between prospective Anglo-French settlement in France and SCOTLAND in the 1290s was ini- Aquitaine by suddenly demanding that any tiated and maintained by the parties’ mutual agreement include the Scots. With the start

129 FREE COMPANIES of the Hundred Years War, growing English In 1424, the English sought to break the involvement in France allowed the Scots to alliance by releasing , who expel most English garrisons by 1341, when had been an English prisoner since 1406. David, who had fought with the French army Although James had pledged to halt the flow in 1340, returned to Scotland. Although the of Scottish soldiers to France as a condition Scottish king attempted to repay his ally in of his release, he renewed the alliance in 1428. 1346 by invading England in the weeks fol- By promising to send a new army to France, lowing the English victory at CRE´ CY, David James also obtained the county of Saintonge was captured at NEVILLE’S CROSS and even- and the marriage of his daughter, Margaret, tually forced to accept a truce. to Charles’s son, Louis. However, the mur- In 1371, Robert II sent an embassy to der of James in 1437 effectively ended Scot- France to formally renew the alliance with tish involvement in the war for the next CHARLES V. In the 1380s, plans were laid for a decade. Charles renewed the alliance with joint attack on England. French knights ar- James II in 1448, but internal instability rived in Scotland, but their condescending prevented the Scots from participating in the manner and unconcealed disdain for a final campaigns of the Hundred Years War. country they considered poor and backward The Franco-Scottish alliance continued until bred resentment among their hosts and 1560. See also DIPLOMACY. eventually frustrated the planned invasion. Further Reading: Bonner, E. ‘‘Scotland’s ‘Auld Nonetheless, Robert III and the MARMOUSET Alliance’ with France, 1295–1560.’’ History 84 regime that ruled for CHARLES VI renewed (1999): 5–30; Laidlaw, James, ed. The Auld Alli- the alliance in 1391. In the early fifteenth ance: France and Scotland Over 700 Years. Edin- century, France, divided by the FRENCH CIVIL burgh: University of Edinburgh, 1999; Wood, WAR and hard-pressed by HENRY V, sought Stephen. The Auld Alliance, Scotland and France: Scottish military assistance. Individual Scot- The Military Connection. Edinburgh, Mainstream, tish knights, such as William Douglas, earl of 1989. Douglas, who was at POITIERS in 1356, had fought with French armies since the start of FREE COMPANIES. See ROUTIERS the war, but, in 1419, the dauphin made a direct appeal for Scottish aid, thus initiating FRENCH CIVIL WAR a five-year period during which sizable The French civil war of the 1410s grew out of Scottish armies landed in France. Scottish a struggle between the duke of Orle´ans and troops played a large role in the defeat and his kinsmen the dukes of BURGUNDY to con- death of THOMAS, DUKE OF CLARENCE,at trol the royal government. Erupting in the BAUGE´ in 1421, and Scottish nobles were years following Orle´ans’s murder by Bur- highly rewarded for their services to the gundy’s agents in November 1407, the civil VALOIS, including John STEWART, earl of Bu- war bitterly divided the House of VALOIS chan, who became constable of France, and and the French nobility, thereby depriving Archibald DOUGLAS, earl of Douglas, who the country of strong leadership. Deter- became duke of Touraine. In 1424, Buchan, mined to crush their opponents, both the Douglas, and most of the Scots in the French BURGUNDIANS and the ARMAGNACS sought army were slain at VERNEUIL. Although that English assistance and thus allowed HENRY battle ended the dispatch of whole armies to V to successfully resume the HUNDRED YEARS France, small groups of Scottish knights WAR and overrun much of northern France. continued to serve the dauphin, who, after By taking advantage of the civil war, Henry his coronation as CHARLES VII in 1429, re- was eventually able to impose a peace set- cruited such men for his personal body- tlement that promised the French Crown to guard, the Garde E´ cossaise, a force of a the English House of LANCASTER. hundred Scottish ARCHERS that eventually The younger brother of CHARLES VI, Or- controlled access to the king. le´ans had opposed the political ascendancy

130 FRENCH CIVIL WAR of his uncles, JOHN, DUKE OF BERRY, and PHI- stable Charles d’ALBRET; and Orle´ans’s new LIP THE BOLD, duke of Burgundy, since the father-in-law, BERNARD, COUNT OF ARMA- late 1380s, when Orle´ans had supported GNAC, withdrew from Paris and prepared for the MARMOUSETS, who briefly overthrew the civil war by forming the anti-Burgundian uncles’ control of the royal administration. League of Gien. In 1392, the king’s first psychotic episode When another attempt at reconciliation, allowed Berry and Burgundy to resume the peace of Biceˆtre, failed in 1411, the Or- power. Being the more ambitious uncle, le´anists, who were now known as Arma- Burgundy soon dominated the government. gnacs due to the count’s increasing influence Although Orle´ans resented his exclusion within the party, laid siege to Paris. To win from power, Burgundy’s experience and English support, Burgundy opened talks authority prevented the rivalry with his ne- with HENRY IV, to whom he indicated a phew from degenerating into open violence. willingness to make territorial concessions However, when Burgundy was succeeded in return for military aid. A small English by his son, JOHN THE FEARLESS, in April 1404, force—the first to land in France in twenty- the advantage shifted to Orle´ans, who was eight years—arrived in CALAIS in October more personally attractive and politically 1411. It was enough to persuade the Arma- adept than his cold, imperious cousin. gnacs to lift the siege, but otherwise ac- Winning the support of Queen ISABEAU, Or- complished little and soon returned to le´ans dominated the court and became in- England. Retreating south of the Loire, the creasingly influential in the royal council. Armagnacs now sought English assistance. On 23 November 1407, assassins hired by In the Treaty of BOURGES (May 1412), they Burgundy slew Orle´ans on a PARIS street. promised the restoration of lands and for- After confessing his crime, Burgundy fled tresses in GASCONY captured by CHARLES V the court, but returned to Paris, where he in the 1370s in return for four thousand men was popular, in February 1408. Numbed by to serve for three months. By July, when this his brother’s death and anxious to restore force arrived under THOMAS, DUKE OF CLAR- peace to his family, the king ignored ENCE, Burgundy had successfully invaded the duchess of Orle´ans’s demands for justice the Armagnac territories and compelled and allowed Burgundy to present to the Berry and his allies to make peace. The council a document later known as the JUS- conclusion of the Treaty of Auxerre in Au- TIFICATION OF THE DUKE OF BURGUNDY (March gust 1412 forced the Armagnacs to buy their 1408), which transformed the murder into way out of the Bourges agreement. Signed in an act of lawful tyrannicide by listing in November, the Treaty of BUZANC¸AIS bribed great detail the alleged crimes and treasons Clarence to leave France, which he did by of Orle´ans. Although answered by Orle´anist way of a CHEVAUCHE´ E ending in Gascony. polemics, the Justification was largely ac- To provide financial support for halting cepted by public opinion, and in March 1409 the English threat he had initiated, Bur- the king presided at Chartres over a formal gundy summoned the Estates of Languedoı¨l reconciliation of Burgundy and CHARLES, the (see ESTATES,GENERAL AND PROVINCIAL)to new duke of Orle´ans. However, the struggle Paris in January 1413. This plan backfired for control of king and government intensi- when the Estates criticized the Burgundian fied when Burgundy began posing as leader regime and demanded reform before grant- of a popular movement for administrative ing TAXATION. Under the leadership of the reform. By the end of 1409, Burgundian ap- dauphin, LOUIS, DUKE OF GUIENNE,who pointees filled the royal administration, sought to end the civil war and form a uni- while the duke dominated the king and ted front against the English, Armagnac court. In 1410, Orle´ans and other noblemen partisans in the capital used the Estates to excluded from power by Burgundy, in- begin negotiations with the Armagnac cluding Berry; John, duke of Bourbon; Con- leaders. Burgundy responded by inciting the

131 FRENCH CIVIL WAR pro-Burgundian butchers of Paris, led by slain. With these losses, and with the deaths Simon Caboche and thus called CABOCHIENS, of the dauphin in December, of Berry in June to riot and attack Armagnacs. For three 1416, and of Charles’s next son, John, duke months, the Cabochien reign of terror gripped of Touraine, in April 1417, the regime was the capital, overawing the court, stymieing left under the nominal leadership of the the dauphin’s reconciliation effort, and king’s last surviving son, the Dauphin forcing the proclamation in late May of a Charles, and under the actual dominance of great reform measure known as the Ordon- Armagnac. While the English systemati- nance Cabochienne. However, the Cabochien cally conquered Normandy, and Burgundy violence frightened the Paris burghers, who threatened Paris, the count made ruthless in late July assisted the dauphin in negoti- use of his Gascon bands to suppress disor- ating the peace of Pontoise with the Arma- der and maintain Armagnac authority in the gnac leaders. With his support in the capital capital. After Armagnac and the dauphin eroding, Burgundy, after a failed attempt to quarreled with the queen, who fled to Bur- kidnap the king, fled on 23 August. Enter- gundy in November 1417, their unpopular ing Paris on 1 September, the Armagnacs government was toppled by a Paris uprising quickly restored order, with the Gascon in May 1418. The dauphin fled to safety, but bands of the count of Armagnac ruthlessly Armagnac and many of his supporters were suppressing the Cabochiens. murdered by the mob, allowing Burgundy Both French factions now turned for aid to to reenter the capital on 14 July. Henry V, who had become king of England In September, with the dauphin in control in March 1413. Burgundy asked for two of southern France and Burgundy ruling in thousand English troops to join him in Paris, the latter imposed the Treaty of Saint- overthrowing the Armagnacs, for which the Maur on the former, but the settlement duke offered Henry various Armagnac AP- never took hold, and by January 1419, when PANAGES on the borders of Gascony. When Henry captured ROUEN, both sides sought Henry demanded reactivation of the Treaty some agreement that would allow them to of BRE´ TIGNY and recognition of his right to unite against the English. Hoping to destroy the French Crown, Burgundy, whose ulti- the remaining Armagnacs and rule the mate control of the royal government was country through the dauphin, Burgundy thereby threatened, broke off talks. Faced met his rival in July at Corbeil, where a with similar demands, the Armagnacs of- preliminary settlement was reached. How- fered to pay the balance of JOHN II’s ransom; ever, at a second meeting on the bridge at to provide a handsome dowry upon Henry’s MONTEREAU on 10 September, former ser- marriage to Charles’s daughter, CATHERINE vants of Orle´ans in the dauphin’s entourage OF VALOIS; and to accept Lancastrian sover- murdered Burgundy, an act of vengeance eignty over an enlarged AQUITAINE. But when that wrecked any hope of reconciliation. Henry refused to renounce his claim to the Realizing that he needed English assistance French throne without at least the surrender to destroy his father’s murderer, PHILIP THE of NORMANDY, Anglo-Armagnac negotiations GOOD, the new duke of Burgundy, entered collapsed in February 1415. The dauphin into an ANGLO-BURGUNDIAN ALLIANCE, and in then negotiated the peace of Arras, which 1420 brokered negotiation of the Anglo- lifted Burgundy’s banishment, but did not French Treaty of TROYES, whereby the dau- restore him to power and thus failed to phin was disinherited in favor of Henry V reconcile the factions. In August 1415, Henry and his heirs. The French civil war was now invaded France and in the following October subsumed into the Hundred Years War. won a major victory at AGINCOURT. The bat- After the deaths of Henry V and Charles VI tle, in which Burgundy took no part, deci- in 1422, a largely Burgundian administration mated the Armagnac leadership—Orle´ans in Paris governed Normandy and much of and Bourbon were captured and Albret northern France in the name of HENRY VI,

132 FROISSART, JEAN while the remnants of the Armagnac faction along the Le Mans road about three miles governed France south of the Loire for the south of Fresnay, where he encountered dauphin, who in 1429 was crowned as Rieux’s army on 3 March. CHARLES VII. Always a reluctant English The sizes of the two forces engaged at ally, Burgundy abandoned the House of Fresnay are uncertain, but all indications are Lancaster in 1435 at the Congress of ARRAS, that the French army was considerably lar- where he made peace with Charles on ex- ger, being augmented by a newly arrived tremely favorable terms. Although the rec- contingent of Scotsmen that may have onciliation with Burgundy was humiliating numbered over five thousand. The course of for Charles, it won him Burgundian recog- the battle is also unknown, although the nition of his title to the Crown and thereby outcome may have been in part due to effectively ended the civil war. overconfidence on the part of Rieux’s army, Further Reading: Famiglietti, Richard. Royal for the Scots thought so little of the possi- Intrigue: Crisis at the Court of Charles VI, 1392– bility of defeat that they adopted the un- 1420. New York: AMS Press, 1986; Perroy, usual practice of marching into battle with Edouard. The Hundred Years War. Trans. W. B. their treasury. When the fighting ended, the Wells. New York: Capricorn Books, 1965; French had lost over three thousand men Vaughan, Richard. John the Fearless. London: Long- killed or captured, with Rieux, five hundred man, 1979. men-at-arms, and numerous Scottish knights among the latter. The English also FRENCH SUCCESSION CRISES seized 12,000 crowns from the Scottish (1316–1328). See SALIC LAW OF SUCCESSION treasury and the standard of Sir William Douglas, the Scottish commander. The Vita FRESNAY, BATTLE OF (1420) et Gesta Henrici Quinti, one of the chief En- Fought on 3 March 1420, the Battle of Fresnay glish sources for the period, called the battle resulted in the defeat of a large Franco-Scottish a ‘‘glorious triumph’’ (Burne, 146), while army attempting to break the siege of Fresnay- another source put the English dead at the le-Vicomte and halt the English advance into unlikely number of three. Maine. The English victory secured HENRY Whatever the actual casualty figures, the V’s hold on NORMANDY and extended his au- battle destroyed Rieux’s army, strengthened thority southward to Le Mans. the English position in the talks at Troyes, In the spring of 1420, while Henry V was and ensured the fall of Fresnay. The English negotiating the Treaty of TROYES, William victory also opened Maine to Salisbury, who MONTAGU, fourth earl of Salisbury, one of within the following weeks advanced un- the English king’s leading commanders, opposed to Le Mans, the capital of the completed the conquest of Normandy. After county. See also MAINE,SURRENDER OF;SCOT- reducing the last Norman strongholds, in- LAND. cluding Chaˆteau Gaillard, the famous castle Further Reading: Burne, Alfred H. The Agin- built by England’s Richard I, Salisbury, who court War. Ware, England: Wordsworth Editions was lieutenant of Lower Normandy, led an Ltd., 1999. army into Maine, where the reduction of French-held fortresses continued. By early FROISSART, JEAN (c. 1337–c. 1404) March, Salisbury laid siege to Fresnay. As- Best known for his Chroniques de France, sembling a large army at Le Mans, Jean de d’Angleterre et des pais voisins (Chronicles of Rieux, marshal of France, marched north to France, England and the Adjoining Countries), a relieve the fortress. Learning of Rieux’s in- detailed narrative of the Anglo-French wars tentions, Salisbury, while maintaining the of the fourteenth century, Jean Froissart, a siege, dispatched a force under John Hol- native of Hainault, is the most famous con- land, earl of Huntingdon, to deal with the temporary chronicler of the HUNDRED French marshal. Huntingdon lay in ambush YEARS WAR.

133 FROISSART, JEAN

who provided information and in- sights that eventually enabled him to write his own chronicle of the Anglo-French wars. At the English court in the 1360s, Froissart met the French hostages given to guarantee the Treaty of BRE´ TIGNY, including Guy, count of Blois, a future patron, and JOHN, DUKE OF BERRY, for whom Froissart wrote the poem, Dit dou bleu che- valier. In 1362, he witnessed the departure of EDWARD, THE BLACK PRINCE, for AQUITAINE, and in 1364, he saw JOHN II return voluntarily to captivity in LONDON. He also in- terviewed the newly arrived herald bearing news of the Anglo-Breton victory at AURAY in September 1364, and visited DAVID II at Edin- burgh during a 1365 tour of SCOTLAND that resulted in the poem Meliador, an Arthurian epic of thirty thousand lines. In 1366, while on a diplomatic mission for the queen, he met the duke and Jean Froissart, clad in clerical garb, presents a copy of his duchess of Brabant, who later be- Chronicles to Edward III. Erich Lessing/Art Resource, New came his patrons. After visiting the York. West Country of England and then traveling through BRITTANY, Frois- sart kept Christmas with the Black Born at Valenciennes into what was likely Prince and his family in BORDEAUX and wit- a bourgeois family, Froissart was first rec- nessed the baptism of the future RICHARD II ognized for his talent as a poet and writer by in January 1367. He joined the prince’s ex- John of Hainault, the uncle of EDWARD III’s pedition to Castile (see CASTILIAN WAR OF wife, PHILIPPA. Heavily influenced by his SUCCESSION), but did not see the Battle of fellow Hainaulter, JEAN LE BEL, who had NA´ JERA, having been sent back to England chronicled the chivalrous exploits of John of before it occurred. In 1368, in a party that Hainault at the English court in the 1320s, included Geoffrey Chaucer, Froissart ac- Froissart began gathering material for his companied Lionel, duke of Clarence, to own history in the late 1350s. Interested in Italy, where he made an extensive tour of feats of arms and deeds of CHIVALRY, Frois- the country. Receiving news of the queen’s sart collected information by traveling about death in August 1369, Froissart did not re- and interviewing those who had witnessed turn to England but entered the service of the wars he sought to recount. In 1361, he the duke and duchess of Brabant. traveled to England, where he entered While there in the early 1370s, Froissart, the service of Queen Philippa, to whom he although continuing to write poetry, also presented a now-lost rhyming chronicle of began working on book 1 of a French prose events between 1356 and 1360. The queen’s chronicle of the Anglo-French wars. Over patronage gave Froissart access to people the next thirty years, Foissart expanded and

134 FROISSART, JEAN revised his chronicle until it encompassed 1340s. In 1389, he returned to Bordeaux, four books that recalled the major events where he saw a tournament held by JOHN OF and personalities in Britain, France, Spain, GAUNT, duke of Lancaster, and in 1395, he and the Low Countries between 1327 and returned to England for the first time in al- 1400. Totaling about three million words most thirty years. Disappointed by his and existing today in various overlapping reception at Richard II’s court, which he versions, Froissart’s chronicle is a dramatic believed paled in comparison to the chival- and sophisticated narrative, full of vivid rous court of his grandfather, Froissart characters and descriptions that sometimes nonetheless renewed some old acquain- sacrifice accuracy for dramatic effect. Com- tances and attended the king’s marriage to pleted by 1373 and revised from 1376, book Isabella of VALOIS (see ISABELLA,QUEEN OF 1 covers the period from 1327 to 1376 and is ENGLAND [1388–1409]) at Saint-Omer in the largely plagiarized from the work of Jean le autumn of 1396. Retiring to the abbey of Bel. Completed in about 1387, book 2, cov- Cantimpre´ in about 1400, Froissart, whose ering the years 1377–85, includes Froissart’s name and chronicles were already widely famous account of the PEASANTS’ REVOLT OF known in Western Europe, died at some 1381. Completed in the early 1390s, book 3 unknown date in about 1404. covers the years 1385–89, while book 4, Further Reading: Ainsworth, Peter F. Jean completed around 1400, takes the narrative Froissart and the Fabric of History: Truth, Myth, up to that year. and Fiction in the Chroniques. Oxford: Clarendon Froissart continued to travel into his six- Press, 1990; Diverres, A. ‘‘Froissart’s Travels in ties. He witnessed the coronation of CHARLES England and Wales.’’ Fifteenth-Century Studies 15 VI in 1380, and, after entering the service of (1989): 107–22; Froissart, Jean. The Chronicle of Guy de Blois in 1384, visited SLUYS to see the Froissart. Trans. Sir John Bourchier. 6 vols. fleet being assembled for an invasion of London: D. Nutt, 1901–3; Palmer, J. N. N., ed. England and Angers to speak with men who Froissart: Historian. Totowa, NJ: Rowman and had fought in the BRETON CIVIL WAR in the Littlefield, 1981.

135 G

GABELLE. See TAXATION AND WAR FINANCE order was dedicated to St. George of Cap- padocia and St. Edward the Confessor and GARTER, ORDER OF THE was headquartered at Windsor, where the Founded by EDWARD III in the 1340s and still members met in solemn convention every in existence today, the Order of the Garter is St. George’s Day. For the members’ use, the the most prestigious order of English CHIV- king renovated the Chapel of St. Edward at ALRY. Created at the height of English suc- Windsor, which was rededicated as the cess in the HUNDRED YEARS WAR, the order Chapel of St. Edward and St. George, and imbued the PLANTAGENET cause with the the Great Tower at Windsor became the site ideals of chivalry and justice and linked the of annual Garter Day feasts. greatest military figures in the realm with The exact reasons for the order’s founding the king in a brotherhood of honor and duty. and for selection of the blue garter as its Conferring prestige on its members by its symbol are also uncertain. Legend states exclusiveness and its opportunities for as- that the young countess of Salisbury dropped sociation with a popular and victorious her garter while dancing at a royal ball. The king, the order was soon regarded as the king, who was smitten with the countess, height of chivalric distinction both in En- picked up the garter, fastened it to his own gland and on the Continent. leg, and then, in rebuke of the amused Because the earliest extant records of the company, spoke the words that would be- order date to 1416, the origins of the broth- come the order’s motto: ‘‘Honi soit qui mal y erhood and the exact date of its founding are pense’’ (Shame to him who thinks ill of this). uncertain. Perhaps inspired by a voluntary Declaring that he would make the garter a association of knights recently formed in symbol of honor, the king used it as the Lincoln, Edward, at the conclusion of a great badge for his chivalric society. Other ver- tournament held at Windsor in 1344, swore sions of the story claim that the countess a solemn oath to create his own brotherhood herself spoke the famous words of reproof of knights in the image of King Arthur’s or that the garter belonged to Joan of Kent, Round Table. Although Jean FROISSART future wife of the Black Prince. Although dated the formal inauguration of the order modern research does not totally dismiss to 1344, the most probable date appears to this tale, it appears that the garter also had be 23 April 1348, the first St. George’s Day some earlier military associations. In the late after the king’s victories at CRE´ CY and CA- twelfth century, Richard I, while on crusade, LAIS. It is for that day that royal letters patent used the garter as a symbol to rally his men first order the royal chapel at Windsor to be at the sieges of Cyprus and Acre´, and Ed- made ready for the king’s use, and it is in the ward III had himself employed it to signal following November that the financial ac- across the battlefield at Cre´cy. counts of EDWARD, THE BLACK PRINCE, make Whatever its origins, the garter symbol- note of twenty-four garters given as gifts to ized an unbreakable bond of friendship and members of the Society of the Garter. The honor between the king and the exclusive

136 GASCONY company of twenty-five knights who joined guedoc, and usually comprising such coun- him as members of the order. Given greater ties and viscounties as Armagnac, ALBRET, distinction by Edward’s military fame and Bigorre, Comminges, Fe´zensac, Lomagne, his ongoing quest to secure his just rights in and Marsan. Settled by Basques in the late France, the order tapped into the highest sixth century, Gascony became an indepen- and most cherished ideals of fourteenth- dent duchy in the ninth century. In the century chivalry. Among the founding 1050s, Gascony was acquired through mar- members were the greatest captains of the riage by the dukes of Aquitaine, who, al- Edwardian war, including the Black Prince; though vassals of the French Crown, were HENRY OF GROSMONT, duke of Lancaster; largely independent in their dual principal- Thomas BEAUCHAMP, earl of Warwick; Sir ity, which they ruled from Poitiers in the John CHANDOS; and Jean de GRAILLY, captal north and Bordeaux in the south. Gascony de Buch. Among those who filled the first and the whole of Aquitaine came to the vacancies were Sir Walter MAUNY, William English Crown in the twelfth century, when de BOHUN, earl of Northampton; and the Eleanor, duchess of Aquitaine, married king’s son, JOHN OF GAUNT, duke of Lan- Henry, count of Anjou, who, as Henry II of caster. Because Edward proclaimed his so- England, ruled a conglomeration of states ciety in France, SCOTLAND,BURGUNDY, and comprising most of western France. In the elsewhere, the order was soon well known early thirteenth century, most of these and highly regarded across Western Europe. Plantagenet holdings, including much of Over the next century, various foreign rulers Aquitaine, were conquered by the House founded similar orders, including JOHN II of of CAPET. Only Gascony remained under France, who established his rival Order of Plantagenet rule. With few political, social, the STAR in 1351; JOHN IV, duke of BRITTANY, or economic connections to northern France, who founded his Order of the Ermine in the Gascons, who found the lax rule of a 1381; and PHILIP THE GOOD, duke of Bur- distant king-duke preferable to the more gundy, who created the Order of the Golden invasive authority of the Capetians, devel- Fleece in 1430. oped firm ties to England, which in the Further Reading: Collins, Hugh E. L. The Order thirteenth century became a profitable mar- of the Garter, 1348–1461: Chivalry and Politics in ket for Gascon wine. Late Medieval England. Oxford: Oxford University In 1259, the Treaty of PARIS, by recogniz- Press, 2000; Keen, Maurice. Chivalry. New Haven, ing the English king as duke of Aquitaine, CT: Yale University Press, 1984; Vale, Juliet. clarified Gascony’s political status. How- Edward III and Chivalry: Chivalric Society and Its ever, the Plantagenets found their feudal Context, 1270–1350. Woodbridge, England: Boy- subordination as dukes in Aquitaine-Gas- dell Press, 1982. cony to be incompatible with their role as sovereign kings in England. As overlords of Aquitaine, French monarchs could readily GASCONY interfere in how the king-dukes ruled their A province of southwestern France, Gascony province, thereby provoking frequent dis- comprised the southern part of the duchy of putes and occasional wars. During the AQUITAINE, and for most of the HUNDRED ANGLO-FRENCH WAR of the 1290s and again YEARS WAR constituted that portion of the during the War of SAINT-SARDOS in the 1320s, duchy under effective PLANTAGENET rule. the French Crown confiscated the province. Except for the Pyre´ne´es to the south and Thus, the Hundred Years War largely the Atlantic to the west, Gascony had no evolved out of EDWARD III’s desire to exer- clear geographical boundaries. The province cise in Aquitaine-Gascony the same sover- was a shifting collection of territories eign rule he enjoyed in England. extending southward and eastward from During the fourteenth century, Gascony BORDEAUX, the provincial capital, into Lan- was a main battleground of the war, serving

137 GIEN, LEAGUE OF as a base for English operations and a target GRAILLY, JEAN DE, CAPTAL DE BUCH for French campaigns. In 1360, the Treaty of (d. 1376) BRE´TIGNY recreated the enlarged sovereign A confidant and companion-in-arms of ED- Aquitaine of earlier centuries, which was WARD, THE BLACK PRINCE, Jean de Grailly III, governed from Bordeaux by EDWARD, THE captal de Buch, was the most loyal and BLACK PRINCE. However, the harsher rule consistent supporter of the PLANTAGENET and higher taxes of a resident duke alienated cause among the fourteenth-century Gascon the Gascon nobility, who appealed for aid to nobility. Recognized by the chronicler Jean CHARLES V. By accepting the APPEAL OF THE FROISSART for his CHIVALRY and daring feats GASCON LORDS in 1369, Charles overthrew of arms, the captal de Buch had a distin- the treaty and revived the war. By 1380, guished military career, serving both the French campaigns reduced Plantagenet rule English Crown and CHARLES THE BAD, king to the environs of Bordeaux and coastal of Navarre. Gascony, an area smaller than that held by The title of ‘‘captal,’’ which Jean de Edward III at the start of the war. Grailly inherited in 1343, was used by only a Despite several VALOIS attempts to take few of the most prominent noble families of Bordeaux, this reduced Gascony saw little GASCONY, such as the lords of Buch. Jean’s military activity in the fifteenth century and family had been associated with the House remained under English control until 1451, of Plantagenet since the mid-thirteenth when the armies of CHARLES VII conquered century, when the captal’s great-great- the province. In 1452, John TALBOT, earl of grandfather served Henry III. The lords of Shrewsbury, recaptured Bordeaux with the Buch controlled an extensive territory support of the Gascons and briefly recon- around the city of BORDEAUX, and also ex- stituted Plantagenet Gascony. However, on ercised certain seigniorial rights in the town 17 July 1453, Shrewsbury was defeated and and its suburbs. De Grailly was related to killed at the Battle of CASTILLON, which the highest nobility of southwestern France, marked the end of both English Gascony being first cousin of Gaston Fe´bus, count of and the Hundred Years War. Foix; second cousin of Charles of Navarre; Further Reading: Labarge, Margaret Wade. and son-in-law of Bernard-Aiz V, lord of Gascony, England’s First Colony: 1204–1453. Lon- ALBRET. Although a captal de Buch was one don: Hamish Hamilton, 1980; Vale, Malcolm. of only three foreign knights to become a English Gascony, 1399–1453. London: Oxford Uni- founding member of the Order of the GAR- versity Press, 1970. TER in the 1340s, there is some confusion over the exact identity of this knight. Some sources identify him as Jean III, while others GIEN, LEAGUE OF. See FRENCH CIVIL WAR claim the Garter knight was Piers or Pierre de Grailly, Jean’s grandfather. Despite his age at the time—he was probably only GLOUCESTER, DUKE OF. See HUMPHREY, slightly older than Prince Edward, then in DUKE OF GLOUCESTER;THOMAS OF WOOD- his late teens—Jean seems more likely. De STOCK,DUKE OF GLOUCESTER Grailly’s military prowess first drew atten- tion in 1351, when he and his band of GODFREY OF HARCOURT. See HAR- Gascons surprised the French garrison at COURT,GODFREY OF Saint-Antonin in southern Quercy. After a thorough pillaging, the captal turned the town into a base for further raids into GODONS/GODDAMS. See PROPAGANDA French-held Quercy and Rouergue. AND WAR PUBLICITY In early 1355, the captal and other Gascon lords sailed to England to consult with ED- GOOD PARLIAMENT. See PARLIAMENT WARD III on the war in Gascony. Saying that

138 GREAT COMPANY it would greatly hearten the people, the Barnes and Noble, 1993; Sumption, Jonathan. The captal suggested that Prince Edward be sent Hundred Years War.Vol.2,Trial by Fire.Philadel- to the duchy, which he was later in the year. phia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2001. De Grailly accompanied the prince on the CHEVAUCHE´E OF 1355 and a led a series of GRANDE CHEVAUCHE´ E. See CHEVAUCHE´ E raids into Poitou in early 1356. In September, ´ the captal distinguished himself at the Battle OF 1355; CHEVAUCHEE OF 1373 of POITIERS, where he led a band of sixty knights and a hundred ARCHERS around be- GREAT COMPANY hind the French army. Raising the banner of ‘‘Great Company’’ was the name given by St. George as a signal to the prince that he contemporaries to a succession of large was in position, the captal attacked the rear ROUTIER armies that terrorized southern and of JOHN II’s division as the Prince’s horse- eastern France in the 1360s. Although large- men attacked its front. The ferocity of the ly Gascon at its core (see GASCONY), the captal’s attack disguised his small numbers Great Company comprised many individual and threw the French into confusion, help- companies of various nationalities operating ing the English to eventually win the day. In under the loose overall leadership of one 1358, upon returning from crusade in East- captain or a small group of captains. En- ern Europe, the captal gallantly joined a couraged by the breakdown of royal au- band of French knights in defending the thority that followed the capture of JOHN II dauphin’s family from the JACQUERIE rebels at POITIERS in 1356, the Great Company at Meaux. In 1360, the captal joined Edward formed, dissolved, and reformed in re- III’s RHEIMS CAMPAIGN, during which he was sponse to new opportunities for adventure dispatched by Prince Edward to discuss and profit. Both LOUIS, DUKE OF ANJOU, the with Navarre the possibility of a joint attack French lieutenant in Languedoc, and ED- on PARIS. WARD, THE BLACK PRINCE, duke of AQUITAINE, In 1361, following conclusion of the Treaty worked to rid their domains of the Great of BRE´ TIGNY, de Grailly entered the service of Company and its constituent bands. Navarre. In 1364, the captal commanded Arnaud de CERVOLE, the former cleric Navarre’s forces at COCHEREL, where he was turned mercenary who became known as defeated and captured by Bertrand du the ‘‘Archpriest,’’ formed the first Great GUESCLIN. Released for no RANSOM by the Company in the summer of 1357. Attracted treaty concluded between Navarre and by the Mediterranean trade of Marseille and CHARLES V, the captal swore fealty to the the rich papal court at Avignon, Cervole VALOIS Crown, but returned to his English collected more than two thousand men allegiance by 1367, when he fought with along the Rhoˆne on the Provenc¸al frontier. Prince Edward at NA´ JERA. The captal was In July, he marched unopposed through present at the sack of LIMOGES in 1370 and Provence, burning and looting as he went. was appointed constable of AQUITAINE in By September, Cervole’s bands had infested 1371. On 23 August 1372, the French cap- almost the whole province, forcing people to tured de Grailly in an action near Soubise. flee to the larger TOWNS, which were the only Refusing to abandon his English allegiance, centers of effective resistance. Impressed by the captal spent the remaining years of his the easy success of Cervole’s enterprise, life as a prisoner in Paris, where he died in other routier captains flocked to Provence in 1376, supposedly of sadness at news of the the following months. In February 1358, the Black Prince’s death. Great Company captured and sacked the Further Reading: Barber, Richard. Edward, rich pilgrimage town of Sainte-Maximin, but Prince of Wales and Aquitaine. New York: Charles Marseille, which Cervole invested with al- Scribner’s Sons, 1978; Sedgwick, Theodore Dwight. most three thousand men in March, proved The Life of Edward, the Black Prince. New York: too large and well defended to be taken by

139 GREAT COMPANY assault. As the Great Company began to dis- DEFOL, invaded Languedoc, where they were solve, Cervole led a remnant northward to reinforced by routiers from the north left un- Avignon, where he accepted a papal offer of employed by the Treaty of BRE´ TIGNY. How- 20,000 florins to leave Provence and restore ever, local defenses proved more effective all castles seized by his men. By October, the than in Provence, and, by the end of 1361, first Great Company had largely disin- the Great Company, having been aban- tegrated. doned by Badefol, moved east toward BUR- A new Great Company formed in eastern GUNDY. Motivated by this threat, the royal France in the summer of 1360. Said to government raised an army to defend the number over four thousand men, it was province. On 6 April 1362, five thousand originally led by the Scottish routier Sir men of the Great Company surprised and Walter Leslie, but came eventually under the defeated the royal army at BRIGNAIS. Al- control of a fluctuating body of captains who though news of the battle spread panic directed the army’s movements through an across eastern France, the Great Company administrative staff and command hierarchy had again become too large to maintain itself copied from the national armies of England and by early 1363 the routier army formed in and France. Rather than seize strongpoints 1360 finally dissolved. and live by levying tolls and taxes on the In the summer of 1363, Badefol recon- surrounding areas, the Great Company of stituted the Great Company in Languedoc. 1360 marched through open country, hold- This new incarnation extracted a huge ran- ing towns and entire provinces to RANSOM. som from Toulouse, before seizing the town Lured by the promise of wealth and of Brioude in Auvergne on 13 September. adventure, men from many backgrounds, From Brioude, the Great Company, now including criminals from the towns and swollen to almost ten thousand men, over- displaced monks, flocked to the Great ran the whole of Auvergne. Needing food Company, which by early 1361 numbered and forage, the routiers then seized the abbey over twelve thousand men, less than half of of Savigny, which put them within twelve whom were professional soldiers. In De- miles of Lyon and within striking distance of cember 1360, drawn by an ultimately false Burgundy. In April 1364, Badefol concluded rumor that money collected for King John’s an agreement with the provincial estates of ransom was hidden there, the Great Com- Auvergne (see ESTATES,GENERAL AND PRO- pany seized the Rhoˆne town of Pont-Saint- VINCIAL), promising to surrender Brioude Esprit, which proved an ideal base for and release his prisoners for a royal pardon, raiding Avignon and the Rhoˆne Valley. Al- a papal absolution, and 40,000 florins. Ba- though the pope excommunicated the men defol and his men next took service with of the Great Company and proclaimed a CHARLES THE BAD, king of Navarre, but did crusade against them, and the French king little to advance Navarre’s cause, preferring sent Marshal Arnoul d’AUDREHEM to orga- instead to seize the town of Anse, near Lyon, nize local defenses, the routiers only began to which, like Brioude, became a base to pillage disband in March 1361 when their growing the surrounding countryside until the rou- numbers made the army too unwieldy to tiers were once again paid to withdraw. feed or control. From 1365 to 1367, many routier bands After concluding an agreement with the were employed either by Bertrand du GUE- pope, who promised payment in return for SCLIN or the Black Prince during the Anglo- the army’s withdrawal, many routiers, such French intervention in the CASTILIAN WAR OF as the English captain Sir John HAWKWOOD, SUCCESSION (see NA´ JERA,BATTLE OF). When the crossed the Alps to offer their services to the prince disbanded his army in the autumn of warring Italian states. However, a remnant 1367, many of its elements coalesced into a of the Great Company, now under the lead- new Great Company. This force did much ership of the Gascon captain Se´guin de BA- damage in Auvergne and Burgundy, but

140 GUESCLIN, BERTRAND DU, CONSTABLE OF FRANCE was unable to establish a base and soon backed rival, John de Montfort. Despite his broke up into smaller groups that moved ties to EDWARD III and England, Montfort, north and west into Champagne and NOR- within days of the battle, offered his homage MANDY. The last of these groups, a mainly for the duchy to CHARLES V of France. English force that operated in Normandy Charles, accepting the verdict of Auray and and BRITTANY, where Duke JOHN IV had to seeking to gain advantage out of the formal pay them off, remained in being until early peace that followed a lost war, helped me- 1369, when it was paid to disband by Sir diate a final settlement between Montfort John CHANDOS. Although routier bands re- and Charles of Blois’s widow, Jeanne de mained active in many provinces, the re- Penthie`vre, in whose right Blois had con- vival of royal authority under CHARLES V tested the duchy. and the general improvement in local de- By the terms of the Treaty of Gue´rande, fenses prevented any new force worthy of Jeanne de Penthie`vre surrendered her the name Great Company from forming claims, as niece of the last duke, to the ducal thereafter. title and recognized John de Montfort as Further Reading: Sumption, Jonathan. The Duke JOHN IV. In return, Jeanne was allowed Hundred Years War. Vol. 2, Trial by Fire. Philadel- to keep the title of duchess for the rest of her phia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2001; life and was granted the county of Pen- Wright, Nicholas A. R. ‘‘ ‘Pillagers’ and ‘Bri- thie`vre for herself and her heirs. She could gands’ in the Hundred Years War.’’ Journal of also retain the lands of her father, both in- Medieval History 9 (1983): 15–25. side and outside the duchy, a conglomera- tion of territories that brought her annual GREAT SCHISM. See PAPACY AND THE rents in excess of 10,000 livres. John IV also HUNDRED YEARS WAR agreed that title to the duchy would revert to Jeanne or her heirs should the Montfort line GREGORY XI. See PAPACY AND THE HUN- fail. The Treaty of Gue´rande was thus highly DRED YEARS WAR favorable to France, for, despite his military exertions in the duchy and the victory of his GUE´ RANDE, TREATY OF (1365) candidate, Edward III saw his influence in Ratified on 12 April 1365 in the Church of St. Brittany slowly decline after 1365. Aubin in Gue´rande in southern BRITTANY, Further Reading: Jones, Michael. Ducal Brit- the Treaty of Gue´rande ended the long tany, 1364–1399. London: Oxford University BRETON CIVIL WAR. Since 1341, the two Press, 1970; Sumption, Jonathan. The Hundred claimants to the duchy had served as sur- Years War. Vol. 2, Trial by Fire. Philadelphia: rogates for each side in the Anglo-French University of Pennsylvania Press, 2001. war; the Breton conflict frequently provided the kings of France and England with op- GUESCLIN, BERTRAND DU, portunities to attack each other’s interests CONSTABLE OF FRANCE (c. 1320–1380) even during periods of formal truce. Al- Bertrand du Guesclin was constable of though the treaty ended most fighting France and the most renowned French cap- within the duchy, Brittany’s dukes, at- tain of the HUNDRED YEARS WAR. tempting to maintain their independence by Born into a cadet branch of a noble Breton playing one side against the other, thereafter family, du Guesclin began his military ca- remained important political figures in the reer in the 1340s as a mercenary captain in HUNDRED YEARS WAR. the service of CHARLES OF BLOIS, the French- With the death of CHARLES OF BLOIS at the backed claimant in the BRETON CIVIL WAR.Du Battle of AURAY in September 1364, his Guesclin entered the service of JOHN II in cause, which was supported by France, col- 1351 and succeeded his father as lord of lapsed, and most of the Breton towns and in 1353. Knighted by Arnoul d’AU- nobility submitted to Charles’s English- DREHEM, marshal of France, in April 1354, du

141 GUIENNE

Guesclin took a leading role in defending tactics the king planned to employ against Rennes when it was unsuccessfully besieged the English. Du Guesclin used them suc- by HENRY OF GROSMONT, duke of Lancaster, cessfully against the English CHEVAUCHE´ E of in 1356–57. In December 1357, in recognition 1370, which was led in part by Knolles. Ig- of his service at Rennes, Dauphin Charles noring English attempts to draw him into (see CHARLES V) granted du Guesclin a life battle, du Guesclin waited until disputes pension of 200 livres and named him captain among the expedition’s leaders caused them of Pontorson, a strategic stronghold on the to split up; the constable then fell on the Breton-Norman frontier. In 1359, he was contingent under Sir Thomas Grandison, captured at Pas d’E´ vran in BRITTANY by the which he routed at Pontvallain on 4 De- English captain Sir Robert KNOLLES, and in cember. In 1371–72, du Guesclin led the 1360 fell again into English hands at Juigne´, French reconquest of Poitou and Saintonge where he was captured by Sir Hugh CAL- and in 1373 he overran Brittany, driving out VELEY. To pay his RANSOMs, du Guesclin the pro-English duke, JOHN IV. For the next borrowed money from Philip, duke of Or- five years, the constable led a series of le´ans, the brother of John II and himself a campaigns that retook much of English prisoner in LONDON. Aquitaine. In the highly successful cam- In May 1364, du Guesclin defeated the paign of 1377, which included the defeat forces of CHARLES THE BAD, king of NAVARRE, and capture of Thomas Felton, the English at COCHEREL in NORMANDY, where he had seneschal of Aquitaine, at the Battle of been active in royal service since the Treaty Eymet on 1 September, du Guesclin came of BRE´ TIGNY ended the Anglo-French war in within a day’s march of BORDEAUX. 1360. In September 1364, after returning to An extremely ugly man who was highly Brittany and the service of Blois, du Gue- popular with the people, but much less so sclin was captured again when Blois was with the king’s political advisors, the con- slain at AURAY. Ransomed by Charles V, du stable lost favor in 1378 when he opposed Guesclin resumed royal service, this time in Charles’s decision to confiscate Brittany. the southwest, where he assisted the king’s Dispatched to Auvergne to fight routiers,du brother, LOUIS, duke of Anjou, in ridding the Guesclin died there of fever on 13 July 1380. region of ROUTIERS. In an effort to install a He was interred at Saint-Denis on the king’s pro-French regime in Castile and thereby orders. See also CHIVALRY. undermine the government of EDWARD, THE Further Reading: Vernier, Richard. The Flower BLACK PRINCE,inAQUITAINE, du Guesclin of Chivalry: Bertrand de Guesclin and the Hundred intervened in the CASTILIAN WAR OF SUCCES- Years War. Woodbridge, England: Boydell Press, SION by leading a routier army into Spain, 2003. where it placed Henry of Trasta´mare on the Castilian throne in 1365. The deposed king, GUIENNE. See AQUITAINE;GASCONY Pedro the Cruel, appealed to the Black Prince, who restored Pedro by defeating and GUIENNE, DUKE OF. See LOUIS,DUKE OF capturing du Guesclin at NA´ JERA in April GUIENNE 1367. Ransomed again by the king, de Gue- sclin led a new army into Castile and re- GUINES, TREATY OF (1354) stored Trasta´mare to power for good in Negotiated at the traditional site of Anglo- 1369. French conferences in Guines on the borders In 1370, Charles, having resumed the war of the CALAIS enclave, the 1354 Treaty of by accepting the APPEAL OF THE GASCON Guines gave EDWARD III most of southwest- LORDS, appointed du Guesclin constable, rec- ern France in exchange for his renunciation ognizing in the Breton, who was more skilled of the French Crown. Although growing re- at leading routiers than fighting pitched sistance to the treaty led JOHN II to repudiate battles, the ideal commander for the Fabian it five months later, the agreement, had it

142 GUINES, TREATY OF taken effect, would have given Edward more Without divulging the terms of the than he was to achieve with the Treaty of agreement, Edward had it ratified by an BRE´ TIGNY in 1360, when the French king was enthusiastic PARLIAMENT. In France, all En- his captive. glish military operations were halted and In February 1354, John pardoned his vigorous attempts were made to restrain kinsman, CHARLES THE BAD, king of Navarre, local garrison commanders from committing for his murder of the royal constable Charles breaches of the truce. Although John initially of Spain. John thereupon admitted to his endorsed the treaty, opposition to it soon favor many of Navarre’s friends and advi- developed. John, count of Armagnac, refused sors, who soon formed a council majority in to honor the truce and in May launched a favor of negotiating a permanent peace with campaign against English garrisons in the England. Talks began at Guines in March Agenais. Within the council, opponents of 1354 with the French expressing a willing- Charles of Navarre informed the king that ness to cede territory and Edward a will- many of the treaty’s leading advocates had ingness to abandon his right to the French been complicit with Navarre in the murder Crown in return for such cessions. As sealed of the constable, leading John to conclude on 6 April, the Treaty of Guines gave Ed- that the treaty had been urged upon him by ward the duchy of AQUITAINE, as it had ex- men whose first loyalty was to Navarre. isted on the eve of the War of SAINT-SARDOS John decided to repudiate the treaty in in 1323, and the provinces of Poitou, Maine, September and did not send representatives Anjou, Touraine, and the Limousin, all in to Avignon until January 1355, three months full sovereignty. Edward was also to retain after the agreed-upon date. When the En- the town and enclave of Calais. In return for glish demanded ratification of the agree- almost the whole of western France, Edward ment, the French ambassadors rejected the agreed to make peace and to formally re- idea that Edward could hold any French nounce his claims to the throne of France. territories in full sovereignty, declaring that Accompanying the treaty was an agreement no king of France could authorize the dis- to extend the Truce of CALAIS to 1 April 1355. memberment of his kingdom. The Treaty of The terms of the treaty were to be kept secret Guines was thus a dead letter and war re- until published by the pope in Avignon on sumed in earnest in 1355. 1 October 1354, when both sides were to Further Reading: Sumption, Jonathan. The make public renunciation of the specified Hundred Years War. Vol. 2, Trial by Fire. Philadel- rights and lands. phia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2001.

143 H

HALIDON HILL, BATTLE OF (1333) The exact nature and location of the En- Fought on 19 July 1333 near the town of glish formations are uncertain. Some ac- Berwick on the Anglo-Scottish border, the counts put the English in line of battle along Battle of Halidon Hill, an encounter between the top of Halidon Hill, while others say that the forces of EDWARD III and a Scottish army they stood at the base of the hill. Edward’s under Sir Archibald Douglas, guardian of men deployed either in a single body of SCOTLAND, resulted in a decade-long English men-at-arms supported on each flank by occupation of southern Scotland and the groups of ARCHERS or into three separate eventual flight to France of Scotland’s DAVID formations of men-at-arms with each flanked II. Although not a battle of the HUNDRED by bodies of archers. All that is certain is that YEARS WAR, Halidon Hill is important to the the English stood on the defensive and were subsequent conflict because it made Scot- dismounted, and that the archers and men- land an important factor in the deterioration at-arms worked in concert in some fashion of Anglo-French relations and because it to disrupt the enemy charge. From contem- was among the first battlefield demonstra- porary accounts, it appears that the fire of tions of the new defensive tactics the English the archers severely disordered the Scottish were to employ with such success at CRE´ CY attack, allowing the English knights to re- and other Hundred Years War engagements. mount and do great execution among the On 9 May 1333, Edward III joined Edward fleeing Scots. Balliol, the English-backed claimant to the Berwick surrendered the next day, and Scottish throne, in besieging Berwick-on- Balliol was able to win control of much of Tweed. After suffering continual bombard- Scotland over the next year. In May 1334, ment by both gunpowder ARTILLERY and David II fled to France, and Balliol shortly traditional siege engines, as well as furious thereafter gave Edward eight counties in assaults from both land and sea, the Scottish southern Scotland. In France, PHILIP VI de- garrison negotiated a truce whereby they clared that Scotland had to be included in agreed to surrender the town if not relieved any negotiated settlement of the growing by 11 July. Although some supplies and re- Anglo-French dispute over AQUITAINE,a inforcements entered the town by that date, demand that angered Edward—who con- Edward rejected Scottish claims that Ber- sidered Scottish affairs a purely internal wick was thus relieved and began executing concern—and thus became an important the hostages given him by the defenders. factor in the coming of the Hundred Years The garrison then negotiated a second truce War. Although Edward launched annual that was to run until 20 July. On 19 July, campaigns in Scotland until 1338, the Scots, Edward, warned of the approach of Doug- by David’s return in 1341, had taken ad- las’s army, prepared to meet the enemy near vantage of Edward’s preoccupation with the Halidon Hill, about two miles northwest of French war to regain much of the occupied Berwick. territory.

144 HARCOURT, GODFREY OF

Further Reading: DeVries, Kelly. Infantry War- where he performed liege homage for his fare in the Early Fourteenth Century: Discipline, lands to Edward in May 1345. According to Tactics, and Technology. Rochester, NY: Boydell the chroniclers JEAN LE BEL and Jean FROIS- Press, 1996; Nicholson, Ranald. Edward III and the SART, Harcourt was thereafter instrumental Scots: The Formative Years of a Military Career, in persuading Edward to change the desti- 1327–1335. London: Oxford University Press, nation of his 1346 expedition from GASCONY 1965. to the Cotentin Peninsula of Normandy. Harcourt supposedly told the king that the HARCOURT, GODFREY OF (d. 1356) Normans were unaccustomed to war and A member of one of the oldest noble families their lands were wealthy, full of ‘‘great of NORMANDY, Godfrey of Harcourt, younger towns without walls where your men shall brother of John, first count of Harcourt, was have riches to last them twenty years’’ lord of the important Norman fortress (Sumption, 1:498). Although Normandy had of Saint-Sauveur-le-Vicomte. Chronically in always been a possible landing site—it was rebellion against PHILIP VI and JOHN II, the closest landfall to Edward’s embarkation Harcourt swore allegiance to EDWARD III in point at Portsmouth—Harcourt’s knowl- the 1340s and played an important role edge of conditions in the region and promise during the 1346 CRE´ CY campaign. Harcourt’s of local assistance from his supporters career illustrates how the HUNDRED YEARS probably influenced the king’s thinking. WAR and the rival claims of PLANTAGENET During the resulting campaign, Harcourt and VALOIS allowed disaffected noblemen to was one of Edward’s chief advisors, leading play one side against the other as their own destructive raids into the Norman country- interests and ambitions dictated. side and fighting at Cre´cy as one of the In 1341, a quarrel over the marriage of a captains of EDWARD, THE BLACK PRINCE. local heiress led to the outbreak of a private After the battle, Edward III’s realization war between Harcourt and his rival, Robert that he could not hold Normandy and that Bertrand, lord of Bricquebec. Philip VI in- CALAIS was a better potential base than any tervened and summoned the two men to Norman port convinced Harcourt to leave court, where, in September 1342, their mu- the English army and return to Brabant, tual animosity caused them to draw swords from which he negotiated his return to Phil- in the king’s presence. Ordered, like his ip’s favor. In December 1346, he appeared rival, to appear before the PARLEMENT, Har- before the French king and received his court instead returned to Normandy and led pardon and his lands. However, in the his supporters in a series of destructive raids 1350s, Harcourt became a strong supporter on the property of Bertrand’s family. The king of CHARLES THE BAD, the rebellious king of dispatched an army, which, by March 1343, Navarre. Although Harcourt briefly aban- had captured Saint-Sauveur and crushed the doned Navarre after the Treaty of GUINES in uprising. Having fled to Brabant, Harcourt 1354, he refused to swear homage to Dau- was convicted in absentia of lese-majeste´ (i.e., phin Charles (see CHARLES V) as duke of committing an affront to the royal dignity) Normandy in January 1356 and thereafter, and punished with banishment and forfeiture in defiance of the rest of his family, held of property. Saint-Sauveur against the duke. In No- In 1344, rumors that Harcourt had ac- vember 1356, Harcourt was killed in com- cepted the lordship of Edward III were given bat with ducal troops. The barony of Saint- substance when three of Harcourt’s former Sauveur thereafter passed into the hands supporters were captured fighting for the of Edward III, to whom Harcourt had deed- English in BRITTANY. All three were con- ed it. demned and executed. Although the rumors Further Reading: Sumption, Jonathan. The were probably untrue, Philip’s hostility Hundred Years War. Vol. 1, Trial by Battle. convinced Harcourt to come to England, Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press,

145 HARFLEUR, SIEGE OF

1991; Sumption, Jonathan. The Hundred Years War. ing heavy wooden screens and awkward Vol. 2, Trial by Fire. Philadelphia: University of wheeled platforms, and suffering heavy Pennsylvania Press, 2001. losses in the process, the English inched their big guns forward and began inflicting HARFLEUR, SIEGE OF (1415) damage on the walls. In the late summer of 1415, the six-week However, before further progress could English siege of the Norman town of Har- be made, Henry’s army was swept by dis- fleur initiated HENRY V’s campaign to re- ease, probably dysentery and malaria fos- open the HUNDRED YEARS WAR. Although the tered by summer heat, marshy camps, and town’s eventual capitulation gave the En- contaminated food and water. The conta- glish a valuable base on the Seine, the un- gion slew many of all ranks, although the expected length and difficulty of the siege nobility seemed particularly affected, the weakened the English army and convinced dead including Thomas Fitzalan, earl of Henry to withdraw toward CALAIS, a retreat Arundel; Michael de la Pole, earl of Suffolk; that boosted French confidence of victory and Richard Courtenay, bishop of Norwich. and led to the momentous Battle of AGIN- To conclude the siege quickly, Henry or- COURT. dered an all-night cannonade that led to the On 11 August, an invasion force of about capture of one of the barbicans on 18 Sep- ten thousand men sailed from Portsmouth. tember. Forced to parley, Gaucourt agreed Landing near Le Chef de Caux at the head of to surrender the town if his messages to the the Seine Estuary on 14 August, Henry dauphin, LOUIS, DUKE OF GUIENNE, did not made for the nearby town of Harfleur, bring relief within four days. When no help which promised to be an admirable base arrived, the garrison opened the gates on 22 from which to launch the conquest of NOR- September. Angered by Harfleur’s resis- MANDY. Henry expected the town to fall tance, Henry eventually expelled most of the quickly, but Raoul, Sieur de Gaucourt, and a townspeople, replacing them with English force of three hundred men reinforced the merchants and craftsmen who could turn garrison before the town was surrounded on Harfleur into another Calais. Leaving the 18 August. Although THOMAS, duke of town on 6 October, Henry and his much Clarence, the king’s brother, turned back a reduced force marched northeast, coming convoy carrying weapons and supplies to before the end of the month to the battlefield the garrison, Harfleur’s defenses were for- at Agincourt. Harfleur remained largely midable. The walls had twenty-six towers under English control until 1449. See also and three strong barbicans—fortified gate- SIEGE WARFARE. ways with drawbridges and portcullises—a Further Reading: Allmand, Christopher. Henry moat, and a garrison of several hundred V. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1997; men commanded by Gaucourt and the Burne, Alfred H. The Agincourt War. Ware, tough and experienced Sieur d’Estouteville. England: Wordsworth Editions Ltd., 1999. While English ships blockaded the Estu- ary, the army surrounded Harfleur with a HAWKWOOD, SIR JOHN (c. 1320–1394) ditch and stockade, thus cutting the town off Although most of his career was spent in from any hope of supply or reinforcement. Italy, Sir John Hawkwood is the best-known Because attempts to undermine the walls English ROUTIER captain to emerge from the were foiled by skillful countermining, Henry HUNDRED YEARS WAR. turned to his ARTILLERY, which included John was the second son of Gilbert twelve-foot-long cannon capable of throw- Hawkwood, a minor landowner in Essex. ing stones weighing nearly half a ton. Such Although little is known for certain about artillery could batter down any walls pro- his life before the 1360s, Hawkwood proba- vided it could be brought in close enough, bly began his military career in France in for the French also had artillery. Employ- about 1340, the year of his father’s death. He

146 HENRY IV, KING OF ENGLAND may have served in BRITTANY in the 1340s services in high demand among the warring and is said to have fought at both CRE´ CY in states of Italy. He fought for the duke of 1346 and POITIERS in 1356. However, his first Milan from 1368 to 1372, for the pope from service in France may not have occurred 1372 to 1377, and then largely, but not ex- until the RHEIMS CAMPAIGN of 1359–60, by clusively, for the Republic of Florence after which time he had achieved knighthood. 1380. Besides being led by Hawkwood, The first reliable information on Hawkwood whose military reputation soon spread comes from 1360, when, in the aftermath of throughout Italy, the English companies the Treaty of BRE´ TIGNY, he joined one of the were much prized because they fought dis- companies of freebooters that formed the mounted and could operate at night and routier army known as the Tard-Venus (Late- well into the winter. comers), which threatened Avignon by Hawkwood amassed great wealth from seizing the Rhone town of Pont-Saint-Esprit fees, pensions, and RANSOMS, but, unlike in late December. Bought off by the pope, other condottieri, did not aspire to become an the routier force split up, with Hawkwood Italian lord. In the mid-1370s, he began joining the group that took service in Italy sending money to England, where his agents with the marquis of Montferrat. In 1361, bought property and even made war loans Hawkwood apparently returned to France, to the Crown. In 1378, Hawkwood, like an- where, as a member of one of the brigand other famous routier captain, Sir Robert bands comprising the GREAT COMPANY,he KNOLLES, secured a pardon from PARLIAMENT fought against a French royal army at for all youthful indiscretions. Also in 1378, BRIGNAIS in April 1362. Hawkwood married an illegitimate daugh- By 1363, Hawkwood was back in Italy for ter of the duke of Milan, thereby acquiring a good, serving in a company of Anglo-Ger- large dowry and powerful family connec- man mercenaries (known in Italy as condot- tions. In 1392–93, Hawkwood began pre- tieri) led by a routier named , paring to liquidate his Italian assets for a who was appointed captain-general of Pisa return to England, but he was still in Italy in July. In December, Hawkwood replaced when he died of a stroke on 16 March 1394. Sterz as commander of the Pisan bands, He was given a magnificent funeral by the which were then reorganized as the English Florentine Republic and buried in the Ca- . was thedral of Santa Maria del Fiore in Florence. composed of units known as lances, groups Further Reading: Fowler, Kenneth A. Medieval of four or five men consisting of two Mercenaries. Vol. 1, The Great Companies. Oxford: mounted men-at-arms, a page, and one or Blackwell, 2001; Fowler, Kenneth A. ‘‘Sir John two mounted ARCHERS. Although Hawk- Hawkwood and the English Condottieri in Tre- wood’s personal force was only a small cento, Italy.’’ Renaissance Studies 12 (1998): 131–48; fraction of the troops under his command, it Mallett, Michael. Mercenaries and Their Master: became the stable and seasoned core of most Warfare in Renaissance Italy. Totowa, NJ: Rowman of his armies. Defeated at Bongard in July and Littlefield, 1974. 1365, Hawkwood joined the remnants of the White Company with English mercenaries HENRY IV, KING OF ENGLAND led by the illegitimate son of the duke of (1366–1413) Milan to form the Company of Saint George, Although a grandson of EDWARD III, Henry IV, which he left in 1366. In 1372, upon taking the only son of JOHN OF GAUNT, duke of Lan- service with Pope Gregory XI, Hawkwood caster, by his first wife, Blanche, the daughter became captain-general of the English of HENRY OF GROSMONT, duke of Lancaster, Company, an amalgamation of bands that was not the direct heir to the PLANTAGENET had previously fought under other captains. throne, and his deposition of his cousin RI- An effective leader of men and a bril- CHARD II in 1399 broke the natural line of liant tactician, Hawkwood soon found his succession. Despite this dubious right to the

147 HENRY IV, KING OF ENGLAND

English throne and an even more tenuous chard halted the combat and declared both claim to the French throne, Henry came to men guilty; the king then exiled Norfolk for power by criticizing his predecessor’s peace life and Derby for ten years. In February policy and demanding renewal of the HUN- 1399, Lancaster died. With Derby in PARIS, DRED YEARS WAR.However,yearsofinternal Richard declared the earl banished for life rebellion and physical illness prevented and confiscated all the Lancastrian estates. Henry from taking advantage of the FRENCH Announcing that he came only to regain his CIVIL WAR and the mental illness of CHARLES VI duchy, Derby landed in on 4 July, to invade France and openly challenge the while Richard was on campaign in Ireland. legitimacy of the House of VALOIS. The English nobility, fearful of the prece- Little is known of Henry’s childhood, dent set by the king’s confiscation of a sub- which was probably spent on various Lan- ject’s property, and distrustful of Richard’s castrian estates throughout the kingdom. He increasing taste for arbitrary government, assumed the title earl of Derby in 1377 and rallied to Derby. On 30 September, a month was knighted by his father in 1378. In about after the king surrendered to his cousin in 1381, he married , the Wales, Parliament deposed Richard and daughter and heiress of the earl of Hereford, gave the Crown to Derby, who, as Henry IV, who had extensive land holdings in Wales became the first king of the House of LAN- and the West Country. Derby served with CASTER. Although the new king denounced his father in SCOTLAND in 1384 and remained his predecessor’s peace policy and declared in England to oversee Lancastrian interests his intention of renewing the war, Henry when the duke left the realm to pursue his ratified the Truce of LEULINGHEN in May claim to the Castilian Crown in 1386. In 1400. The suspicious death of Richard in 1387–89, Derby became one of the Lords February 1400 and the outbreak of a series of Appellant, a group of five nobles who were anti-Lancastrian uprisings over the next six so named because they appealed (i.e., ac- years left Henry too insecure to consider cused) the king’s favorites of treason. Led by campaigning in France. However, he sig- Derby’s uncle, THOMAS OF WOODSTOCK, duke naled his fundamental hostility to the Valois of Gloucester, the Lords Appellants used by refusing to allow Richard’s queen, Isa- their control of the so-called Merciless PAR- bella, daughter of Charles VI (see ISABELLA, LIAMENT to secure the execution or banish- QUEEN OF ENGLAND [1388–1409]), to return to ment of most of the king’s supporters. France. When he finally did so in August Although Derby was more moderate than 1400, Henry kept her dowry and jewels, his older colleagues, he commanded the declaring them payment toward the arrears Appellant forces that defeated a royalist of JOHN II’s RANSOM. army at Radcot Bridge in December 1387. In France, PHILIP THE BOLD, duke of BUR- Upon his father’s return in 1389, Derby GUNDY, and LOUIS, DUKE OF ORLE´ ANS, dis- withdrew from politics. In July 1390, he agreed over the best response to Henry’s joined the Teutonic Knights’ crusade in Li- usurpation. The former supported mainte- thuania and in 1392 he went on pilgrimage to nance of the truce while the latter advocated Jerusalem. In 1397, following Richard’s de- driving the English from GASCONY and CA- struction of Gloucester and the other senior LAIS while Henry was distracted by inter- Appellants, Derby informed the king that nal rebellion. Half-hearted campaigns were Thomas Mowbray, duke of Norfolk, who, launched against the English holdings, but, like the earl, had been pardoned for his role following the murder of Orle´ans by agents in the events of 1387–89, had warned him of the new duke of Burgundy, JOHN THE that Richard meant to kill them both. When FEARLESS, in 1407, the French were them- Mowbray denied this, Richard arranged for selves distracted by internal division. After the dispute to be settled by trial of battle at 1406, when uprisings in Wales and among Coventry. However, at the last minute, Ri- the English nobility were at last quelled,

148 HENRY V, KING OF ENGLAND

Henry suffered increasingly from ill health. Between 1409 and 1411, England was ruled by Prince Henry, and only suggestions that he abdi- cate spurred the king to resume control of the government. Henry’s illness prevented him from taking any significant advantage of the French civil war, although in 1412 he made agreements with both the BURGUNDIANS and the ARMAGNACS, promising to help each fight the other in return for territorial con- cessions. The Treaty of BOURGES, concluded with the Armagnacs in May 1412, resulted in the sending to France of an expedition under the king’s son, THOMAS, DUKE OF CLAR- ENCE. Although a temporary settle- ment of the civil war overthrew the agreement, Clarence forced his erstwhile allies to pay him a large ransom in the Treaty of BUZANC¸AIS. With a feeble Anglo-French truce still in effect, Henry IV died on 20 March 1413, leaving renewal of the war to his son, HENRY V. Further Reading: Kirby, John Lavan. Thomas Hoccleve presents a book of poetry to Henry V. HIP/ Henry IV of England. London: Constable, Art Resource, New York. 1970; Wylie, James Hamilton. The under Henry the Fourth. 4 vols. Reprint, New York: AMS Press, 1969. Henry was twelve in 1399 when his father deposed his cousin, RICHARD II. In 1403, Henry was wounded at the Battle of HENRY V, KING OF ENGLAND Shrewsbury, where royal forces crushed the (1387–1422) Percy Rebellion. After campaigning for his Henry V, the eldest son of HENRY IV and father in Wales, the prince took charge of the second king of the House of LANCASTER, government in about 1409 when the king’s exploited the FRENCH CIVIL WAR to success- health began to fail. Although largely fic- fully reopen the HUNDRED YEARS WAR.A tional, the wild, rebellious prince of Shake- brilliant soldier and natural leader, Henry speare’s Henry IV plays may reflect actual conquered NORMANDY and achieved formal disagreements from this period between fa- French recognition as heir to the VALOIS ther and son. In 1411, the king resumed throne. Although he has traditionally been control of the government, reversing his portrayed as the most heroic and chivalrous son’s pro-BURGUNDIAN foreign policy by of English monarchs, particularly by Wil- concluding the Treaty of BOURGES with the liam Shakespeare in the play Henry V, some ARMAGNACS. On the king’s death in March modern historians have questioned this 1413, Henry, acting both on a desire to unite view, seeing Henry as cruel, bigoted, and the country around the new dynasty and on self-righteous. a firm belief that he was rightful king of

149 HENRY V, KING OF ENGLAND

France, began preparing for war. Negotiat- The battle cemented Henry’s reputation as a ing both with the Armagnac regime cur- general and generated great enthusiasm for rently in power in PARIS and with the the war in England. Aiming, unlike his Burgundian leader, JOHN THE FEARLESS, duke great-grandfather, EDWARD III, to secure the of BURGUNDY, Henry purposely made de- whole of France rather than just sovereignty mands he knew neither side could meet, over particular provinces, Henry abandoned including the surrender of Normandy and the CHEVAUCHE´ E for campaigns of siege and AQUITAINE, the payment of 2 million crowns, occupation (see SIEGE WARFARE). After se- and the hand of CHARLES VI’s youngest curing additional funding from PARLIAMENT daughter, CATHERINE OF VALOIS. When both and concluding the Treaty of CANTERBURY sides rejected these terms, Henry used the with the Emperor Sigismund in 1416, Henry French refusal as justification for war. invaded Normandy in 1417. Considering the Before embarking for France, Henry Normans his subjects, Henry severely pun- sought to quell all internal opposition. ished any English soldiers who ill treated Staunchly orthodox, he sparked the Old- the local population. The NORMAN CAMPAIGN castle Rebellion early in 1414 by allowing his concluded with the capture of ROUEN, which former friend, Sir , to be capitulated in January 1419 after a grueling condemned to death for Lollardy, an English six-month siege marked by Henry’s cruel heretical movement. Although the uprising refusal to allow the poor people expelled was crushed, Oldcastle remained at large from the city to pass safely through his lines. until 1417, when he was captured and With the onset of winter, most died huddled burned. In late 1413, the king tried to make in a ditch outside the city walls. peace with his father’s opponents by ex- The fall of Rouen demoralized the French huming the body of Richard II and giving it court, which had been under Burgundian respectful reburial at Westminster Abbey. influence since May 1418. In September However, the gesture did not prevent the 1419, servants of the dauphin (see CHARLES Southampton Plot, a noble conspiracy to VII) murdered Burgundy at MONTEREAU, murder the king and replace him with Ri- convincing PHILIP THE GOOD, the new duke chard’s supplanted heir, , of Burgundy, to ally himself with Henry, earl of March. Led by Henry, Lord of who imposed the Treaty of TROYES on the Masham, the king’s friend, and Richard, earl French in May 1420. Besides creating an of Cambridge, the king’s cousin, the plot ANGLO-BURGUNDIAN ALLIANCE, the treaty was uncovered on the eve of Henry’s de- disinherited the dauphin in favor of Henry, parture in 1415, and the conspirators were who immediately became regent of France, quickly tried and executed. and arranged a marriage between Henry Landing in France on 14 August 1415, and Catherine, which occurred on 2 June. Henry immediately laid siege to HARFLEUR, Henry and his wife returned to England which, thanks to illness among the English, in February 1421, following the successful held out until 22 September. With his army siege of MELUN. In March, Henry’s brother of ten thousand reduced to about six thou- and heir, THOMAS, DUKE OF CLARENCE, was sand, Henry set out on 6 October, intending slain at BAUGE´, the first English defeat since to march northeast through Normandy to Henry restarted the war in 1415. Returning CALAIS. Harassed by the enemy, and weak- to France on 10 June, the king visited Paris, ened and demoralized by bad weather and which was now under Anglo-Burgundian lack of supply, the English army was driven control. Leaving the capital to his uncle, forward by Henry’s energy and example. Thomas BEAUFORT, duke of Exeter, Henry On 25 October, when an encounter with the laid siege to MEAUX in October. The difficult numerically superior French could not be winter operation, which was brightened avoided, Henry fought and won a stun- only by news of the birth of Henry’s son in ningly unexpected victory at AGINCOURT. December, sapped English morale and

150 HENRY VI, KING OF ENGLAND weakened the king’s constitution. In June affecting his Crowns, the minority adminis- 1422, only a month after the surrender of tration, through alliance with PHILIP THE Meaux, Henry contracted what was likely GOOD, duke of BURGUNDY, sought to main- dysentery. He died at Vincennes on 31 Au- tain Henry V’s conquests while extending gust and was succeeded on the English Henry VI’s authority into dauphinist France. throne by his nine-month-old son, HENRY VI, Despite English victories at CRAVANT in 1423 whose reign saw the eventual loss of all and VERNEUIL in 1424, the advent of JOAN OF English territory in France except Calais. ARC in 1429 inspired the French to break the Further Reading: Allmand, Christopher, Henry siege of ORLE´ ANS and allowed the dauphin V. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1992; to be crowned at Rheims as CHARLES VII. Harriss, G. L., ed. Henry V: The Practice of Thus, after 1430, the English were on the Kingship. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1985; defensive, and their efforts focused more on Labarge, Margaret Wade. Henry V: The Cautious maintaining Henry’s French possessions Conqueror. New York: Stein and Day, 1976; than on securing his French Crown. The Seward, Desmond. Henry V: The Scourge of God. death of Bedford and Burgundy’s aban- New York: Viking, 1988. donment of the English cause at the Con- gress of ARRAS in 1435, followed by the loss HENRY VI, KING OF ENGLAND of PARIS in 1436, severely diminished the (1421–1471) ability of the English government to do ei- The only child of HENRY V and CATHERINE OF ther. VALOIS, Henry VI ruled England during the Crowned at Westminster in 1429 and at last decades of the HUNDRED YEARS WAR. Paris in 1431, Henry was declared of full age Although the only English king to be in 1437. He was eager to exercise his office crowned king of France, Henry’s mental and to have his will in matters that inter- instability prevented him from functioning ested him, such as the royal foundations of effectively as monarch in either kingdom Eton College and King’s College, Cam- and contributed to the eventual expulsion of bridge, which the king planned in minute the English from France. detail and to which he diverted funds that Born at Windsor on 6 December 1421, were urgently needed for the French war. Henry was less than a year old when he However, he had little understanding of the succeeded his father as king of England workings of government, and was easily and his maternal grandfather, CHARLES VI, persuaded by self-interested courtiers to as king of France. Having conquered NOR- grant titles, lands, offices, pardons, and MANDY and northwestern France, Henry V monetary rewards without any thought to won official recognition as heir to the French the merits or consequences of the request. throne with the Treaty of TROYES in 1420. An exceptionally pious man, Henry, un- However, Henry VI’s maternal uncle, the like his father, had no interest in military Dauphin Charles, rejected this settlement affairs. In the 1440s, by ineffectively pursu- and maintenance of Henry’s French claims ing a peace policy, Henry allowed England’s and possessions required a continuous mil- military position in France to deteriorate. In itary effort. During the king’s minority, the 1444, following the failure of a CHEVAUCHE´ E longest in English history, Henry’s eldest ineptly led by John BEAUFORT, duke of paternal uncle, JOHN, DUKE OF BEDFORD, Somerset, Henry opened peace talks, which conducted both the war and the English led to conclusion of the Truce of TOURS and administration in France, while the King’s the king’s marriage to Charles VII’s kins- younger uncle, HUMPHREY, DUKE OF GLOUCE- woman, MARGARET OF ANJOU. Pressed by his STER, presided in England over a minority wife, and anxious to achieve a final settle- council. ment in France, Henry, in 1445, secretly Acting in the child king’s name, though agreed to surrender Maine, although the re- unable to make any permanent decisions sistance of his officers in the province

151 HENRY VI, KING OF ENGLAND delayed the actual handover until 1448. The walk, and required round-the-clock care surrender of Maine and the French re- from his servants. When he finally recovered sumption of the war bought much ill will in around Christmas 1454, Henry remembered England for the king’s chief minister, Wil- nothing of the previous seventeen months, liam de la POLE, duke of Suffolk. When the including the birth of his son, Prince Ed- French overwhelmed a poorly defended ward. Henry was again unwell in 1455, Normandy, public outrage drove Suffolk when his presence at the Battle of St. Albans, from office in early 1450. The duke’s fall was the first battle of the Wars of the Roses, may followed by JACK CADE’S REBELLION, which have triggered another episode. protested military failure in France and the From 1456, surviving accounts of Henry’s breakdown of royal justice in England, and condition depict him as weak-minded, re- which gave voice to the frustration of En- quiring inordinate amounts of sleep, and glish noblemen who felt themselves ex- given almost entirely to a routine of reli- cluded from royal patronage by a clique of gious devotions. After 1457, the king found favored courtiers. seclusion attractive, and the queen, who was Chief among these disaffected magnates then engaged in a power struggle with York, was RICHARD, DUKE OF YORK, who was heir often housed him in monasteries, away from presumptive to the childless king. Especially any but loyal courtiers. Although the king angered by Henry’s support of Edmund had periods of lucid activity, he was largely BEAUFORT, duke of Somerset, who had his a cipher during the last fifteen years of his own claim to the throne and whom public life, a symbol of monarchy rather than a opinion blamed for the loss of Normandy, functioning monarch. The political factions York made several abortive attempts to force that coalesced around the queen and York his way into the royal circle. He did not after 1454, when Parliament appointed the succeed until 1453, when Henry suffered a duke to the first of two royal protectorates, serious mental breakdown that left him became the basis of the Lancastrian and completely incapacitated. In early August, Yorkist parties, branches of the House of Henry fell suddenly into a stupor that ren- PLANTAGENET that fought for control of the dered him incommunicative. The exact English government during the Wars of the cause and nature of Henry’s ailment remain Roses, a civil war that was largely a result of mysterious. One contemporary chronicler Henry’s incapacity. claimed that it commenced when the king In 1461, Henry was deposed by York’s son, suffered a sudden shock, a suggestion that who took the Crown as Edward IV. Henry has led modern historians to speculate that spent the next four years in exile in SCOT- Henry fell ill when he received the devas- LAND, or, after his family left for France, in tating news of the Battle of CASTILLON, the hiding in northern England, where he was defeat that ended the Hundred Years War. captured in 1465. Imprisoned in the Tower of Although rumors that Henry was childish or London until a Lancastrian revival restored simple had been whispered about the king- him to the throne in October 1470, Henry dom before 1453, he showed no signs of was a mere figurehead for the new regime. mental illness until that date. He may have In April 1471, Edward reentered LONDON inherited a genetic predisposition to such and returned Henry to the Tower. When the illness from his grandfather, Charles VI, battle death of Henry’s son ended any need whose recurring bouts of violent madness to keep the ex-king alive, he was murdered were an important cause of the FRENCH CIVIL in the Tower on 21 May 1471. See also FOR- WAR and the reopening of the Hundred MIGNY,BATTLE OF;MAINE,SURRENDER OF. Years War. Henry displayed none of the Further Reading: Griffiths, Ralph A. The Reign frenzy that had characterized his grandfa- of King Henry VI. Berkeley: University of Califor- ther’s illness, but he neither recognized nor nia Press, 1981; Watts, John. Henry VI and the understood anyone, could not stand or Politics of Kingship. Cambridge: Cambridge Uni-

152 HENRY OF GROSMONT, DUKE OF LANCASTER versity Press, 1996; Wolffe, Bertram. Henry VI. itors. Beginning in 1343, Derby served as the London: Eyre Methuen, 1981. king’s representative in a series of conti- nental negotiations that concluded in 1345 HENRY OF GROSMONT, DUKE OF with the failed Anglo-French peace talks LANCASTER (c. 1310–1361) held at Avignon under the auspices of Pope A kinsman of EDWARD III and revered an- CLEMENT VI (see AVIGNON PEACE CONFER- cestor of the House of LANCASTER, Henry of ENCE). Grosmont, first duke of Lancaster, was Made lieutenant of AQUITAINE on 13 among the most important of England’s March 1345, Derby launched a highly suc- military and diplomatic leaders during the cessful campaign that culminated in October first decades of the HUNDRED YEARS WAR. with the battle of AUBEROCHE, a victory that Called Henry of Grosmont to distinguish brought the Agenais and most of Pe´rigord him from his father, Henry, earl of Lan- and Quercy under PLANTAGENET control. caster, Grosmont was knighted in 1330 Auberoche increased both the earl’s reputa- when he was called to PARLIAMENT in place tion and his wealth; his great London palace, of his blind father. Descendents of Henry III, the Savoy, was built with the RANSOMS taken his family led the baronial opposition to in this campaign. In 1346, Lancaster—he had EDWARD II, who executed Grosmont’s uncle, succeeded his father in 1345—conducted a Thomas, earl of Lancaster, in 1322. Although successful CHEVAUCHE´ E that captured Poitiers Grosmont’s father supported the deposition and extended English authority into Sain- of Edward II in 1327, his relations with the tonge. In 1347, he laid down his lieutenancy king’s supplanters, Queen Isabella (see ISA- in Aquitaine to participate in the siege of BELLA,QUEEN OF ENGLAND [c. 1292–1358]) CALAIS and then helped negotiate the Truce and her lover, Roger Mortimer, earl of of CALAIS on the town’s fall. He became a March, were equivocal and may have kept founding member of the Order of the GAR- Grosmont from court until Edward III TER in 1348 and, in 1351, became, as reward overthrew his mother and March in 1330. for his services, only the second duke in Being of similar age, Grosmont quickly won English history (after EDWARD, THE BLACK the king’s confidence. In April 1331, he ac- PRINCE). In an unprecedented show of favor, companied the king to France, where, dis- Edward III also gave the duke a lifetime guised as a merchant, Edward had a secret grant of palatine powers in the county of meeting with PHILIP VI. Grosmont also Lancaster, thereby making Lancaster virtual served in the Scottish campaigns of the ruler of his own APPANAGE. 1330s and in April 1336 was appointed Lancaster led another chevauche´e in Aqui- king’s lieutenant in SCOTLAND. taine in 1349, fought at the Battle of In March 1337, Edward ennobled Gros- WINCHELSEA in 1350, and was involved in mont as earl of Derby, one of six young negotiation of the abortive Treaty of GUINES noblemen given earldoms to enlarge the in 1354. Appointed royal lieutenant in BRIT- English military command in preparation TANY in September 1355, he oversaw the for war with France. In August 1337, Derby English war effort in that duchy until 1358 led a raid on Cadzand. In 1338, while in the and also conducted a successful chevauche´e Low Countries with the king, he partici- in NORMANDY in 1356. Lancaster also par- pated in negotiations that created Edward’s ticipated in the RHEIMS CAMPAIGN of 1359–60 ANTI-FRENCH COALITION, and he took part in and was chief English negotiator at the talks the brief THIE´ RACHE CAMPAIGN. In June 1340, that resulted in the Treaty of BRE´ TIGNY in Derby fought at SLUYS and in September was 1360. However, he did not live to see the present at the siege of TOURNAI and helped treaty implemented, dying at Leicester Cas- negotiate the Truce of ESPLECHIN. He spent tle on 23 March 1361. Because of the Livre de most of the following winter in the Low seyntz medicines, a French memoir written by Countries in the custody of the king’s cred- Lancaster in 1354, we know a great deal

153 HERRINGS, BATTLE OF THE more about his personality than is common the battle with a highly effective ARTILLERY for nonroyal figures of the fourteenth cen- bombardment. However, rather than wait tury. for the guns to decimate the English, who Further Reading: Fowler, Kenneth. The King’s could do nothing but hold their ground or Lieutenant: Henry of Grosmont, First Duke of Lan- retreat, a contingent of Scotsmen led by Sir caster, 1310–1361. London: Elek, 1969. John Stewart of Darnley, constable of SCOT- LAND, attacked the English laager, thereby HERRINGS, BATTLE OF THE (1429) silencing the French guns and drawing En- Known also as the Battle of Rouvray, for the glish longbow fire. The archers killed Stew- village near which it was fought, the Battle of art and drove back the Scots in disorder. the Herrings began with a French attack on Clermont, perhaps believing that the artil- an English supply train carrying herrings lery and the Scots had weakened the enemy, and other Lenten commodities to the be- ordered a cavalry charge. When the archers siegers of Orle´ans. Deriving its popular name and stakes disrupted the assault, the English from this circumstance, the English victory slipped out from the wagons and attacked greatly heartened the city’s attackers and the French knights from the flanks and rear. severely discouraged its defenders. The bat- With Clermont wounded, the French attack tle initiated talks for the surrender of Orle´ans collapsed and the dauphinist forces with- and prepared the way for the advent of JOAN drew, thus allowing the siege to continue OF ARC by intensifying the atmosphere of and causing morale at the dauphin’s court, defeatism that surrounded the dauphin (see and especially in Orle´ans, to plummet. See CHARLES VII) and his supporters. also ORLE´ ANS,SIEGE OF In October 1428, English forces under Further Reading: Burne, Alfred H. The Agin- Thomas MONTAGU, earl of Salisbury, laid court War. Ware, England: Wordsworth Editions siege to Orle´ans, an important dauphinist Ltd., 1999; DeVries, Kelly. Joan of Arc: A Military town on the Loire about seventy miles Leader. Stroud, England: Sutton Publishing, 2003. southwest of PARIS. Because Salisbury de- pended on provisions brought from Paris, HOLLAND, THOMAS, EARL OF KENT the French commander at Orle´ans, John, the (c. 1315–1360) Bastard of Orleans (see JOHN, COUNT OF DU- Named king’s lieutenant in BRITTANY in 1354 NOIS AND LONGUEVILLE), persuaded the dau- and royal lieutenant in France in 1360, phin to send an army to disrupt English Thomas Holland, earl of Kent, was one of supply lines. If successful, such an action EDWARD III’s most prominent noble captains promised to divert much needed provisions during the first decades of the Hundred from the besiegers to the besieged and to Years War. stem growing criticism within the town of The second son of Robert Holland, Lord the Bastard’s seeming inaction. On 12 Feb- Holland, a Lancashire nobleman who died ruary, the French army, commanded by in 1328, Thomas began his military career in Charles of Bourbon, Count of Clermont, in- SCOTLAND in the early 1330s. As a knight of tercepted a large English convoy of three the royal household, he served in the cam- hundred wagons, commanded by Sir John paigns in FLANDERS and northern France in FASTOLF, about twenty-five miles north of 1338–39, and fought at the naval battle of Orle´ans. Clermont’s army numbered be- SLUYS in June 1340. Around this time, he tween three and four thousand men, while contracted marriage with the king’s cousin, Fastolf led a force of five hundred to a JOAN of Kent, a me´salliance that may have thousand archers and a similarly sized body been approved by the king, but that was of Parisian militia. overridden by Joan’s mother, Margaret, Fastolf formed his wagons into a circle countess of Kent, who arranged a more and ordered his archers to ring the laager prestigious and lucrative match in 1341 with with sharpened stakes. The French opened the son of William MONTAGU, earl of Salis-

154 HOSTAGES, TREATY OF THE bury. Not until 1349 was Holland able to vate agreement between EDWARD III and the obtain a papal decree confirming his mar- French hostages being held to guarantee full riage and invalidating the Montagu union. payment of JOHN II’s RANSOM. Essentially an Holland fought in the BRETON CIVIL WAR in undertaking of men willing to surrender the mid-1340s and, in 1346, made a name for money and territory to secure their release, himself by capturing the count of Eu, con- the agreement was reluctantly accepted by stable of France, at the siege of Caen in King John but rejected by the French Estates- NORMANDY. Although he sold the count’s General. RANSOM to the king for 80,000 florins, it is In July 1360, John II, a prisoner since his unclear how much of this sum he actually capture at the Battle of POITIERS in 1356, left received. Holland also fought in the CRE´ CY London for CALAIS, where he remained in campaign in 1346 and, in 1348, became English custody until November, when a a founding member of the Order of the sufficient amount of ransom had been paid GARTER. to permit his release. Since the greater por- Upon the death of his childless brother-in- tion of the ransom was still to be paid and law in 1352, Holland inherited, through his various of the territories ceded to England wife, an extensive landed estate, and in 1354 by the Treaty of BRE´ TIGNY had still to be was summoned to PARLIAMENT as Lord surrendered, a group of princely hostages Holland. He became captain of CALAIS Cas- remained in London to ensure that the tle in August 1352, royal lieutenant in Brit- French Crown fulfilled its undertakings. The tany from March 1354 to September 1355, hostages included John’s brother, Philip of and keeper of the in June Orle´ans; John’s two sons, LOUIS, DUKE OF 1356. In the late 1350s, he received numer- ANJOU, and JOHN, DUKE OF BERRY; Pierre, ous important military posts in Normandy, count of Alenc¸on; and Louis, duke of Bour- including the captaincy of Crocy Castle, the bon. In April 1362, the French government, governorship of the lands of Godfrey of stretched to its financial limits, dispatched HARCOURT, the keepership of Barfleur, and an embassy to Edward, asking him to extend the colieutenancy, with Philip of Navarre, of the schedule of ransom payments and to the duchy itself. release the hostages. The English king In September 1360, Holland was ap- would accede to these requests only if the pointed king’s lieutenant in Normandy and French surrendered more territory as secu- France with responsibility for overseeing rity and agreed that these lands should be implementation of the provisions of the forfeited if the new payment schedule was Treaty of BRE´TIGNY, an important and diffi- not strictly met. Although John protested cult task that necessitated Holland’s eleva- that he could not meet the timetable de- tion to the earldom of Kent to enhance his manded because of the devastation wrought prestige and authority. Kent had just begun upon his kingdom by English ROUTIERS, Ed- his new duties when he died at ROUEN on 28 ward was adamant. December 1360. As payment of the ransom fell further into Further Reading: Perroy, Edouard. The Hun- arrears, the captive princes, growing weary dred Years War. Trans. W. B. Wells. New York: of their prolonged confinement, opened Capricorn Books, 1965; Stansfield, M. M. N. ‘‘The their own negotiations. Acting without the Holland Family, Dukes of Exeter, Earls of Kent knowledge of their king, the hostages agreed and Huntingdon, 1352–1475.’’ D.Phil. diss., Uni- to obtain immediate payment of 200,000 versity of Oxford, 1987. e´cus of John’s ransom and to surrender to Edward all territories currently in dispute. HOSTAGES, TREATY OF THE (1362) Edward was also not required to do any- Concluded in LONDON in November 1362, thing further to rid France of routiers, and all the Treaty of the Hostages (also known as renunciations of territory would be mutually the Treaty of the Fleurs de Lys) was a pri- made upon fulfillment of these terms. In

155 HUMPHREY, DUKE OF GLOUCESTER return, Edward would parole the hostages, the first English proponent of Italian hu- who agreed to give as security various im- manism. portant castles and fortresses in their pos- Humphrey was only nine when his father session. deposed RICHARD II in September 1399. Al- Although dismayed by the terms of the though knighted two weeks later and elect- agreement, John, who was eager to settle ed to the Order of the GARTER in 1400, with the English and go on crusade, con- Humphrey received no office or title until firmed the treaty on 13 March 1363. The after his brother’s accession in March 1413, hostages were duly transferred to Calais, but becoming chamberlain of England in the French reluctance to hand over the required following May and duke of Gloucester a security delayed their release. In September, year later. Upon Henry V’s resumption of Anjou, who found captivity particularly the HUNDRED YEARS WAR in 1415, Gloucester galling, broke parole and refused to return served at the siege of HARFLEUR and was to Calais after a three-day visit with his wife, wounded at the Battle of AGINCOURT.He whom he had not seen in over two years. received his first independent command in When John demanded that his son surren- February 1418, when, as royal lieutenant in der himself, the duke refused. The duke’s the marches of NORMANDY, he completed the flight and the failure of the Estates-General conquest of the Cotentin Peninsula by suc- of Languedoil to ratify the agreement at its cessfully besieging Cherbourg. After joining meeting at Amiens in November killed the the king at the siege of ROUEN, he partici- Treaty of the Hostages. In early 1364, John pated in the advance on PARIS before returned voluntarily to England, where he returning to LONDON at the end of 1419. died in April. Whether John’s decision to Replacing his brother JOHN, DUKE OF BED- return was a matter of honor, or an attempt FORD, as keeper of the realm, Gloucester to conclude his own personal agreement presided over the PARLIAMENT that ratified with Edward, the remaining hostages were the Treaty of TROYES in 1420. not released until 1367 when CHARLES V Before his death in August 1422, Henry V paid a further 400,000 e´cus and promised named Gloucester tutor and protector of the the rest of the ransom in regular install- infant Henry VI. Gloucester interpreted this ments. See also ESTATES,GENERAL AND PRO- as conferring upon him the regency, but the VINCIAL. opposition of Bedford and the council forced Further Reading: Perroy, Edouard. The Hun- the duke to accept the title of protector and dred Years War. Trans. W. B. Wells. New York: the titular leadership of a council that as- Capricorn Books, 1965; Sumption, Jonathan. The sumed corporate responsibility for govern- Hundred Years War. Vol. 2, Trial by Fire. Philadel- ing. In 1423, Gloucester married Jacqueline phia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2001. of Hainault, who required a champion to help her recover Holland, Zeeland, and HUMPHREY, DUKE OF GLOUCESTER Hainault from her uncle and estranged (1390–1447) husband. Because PHILIP THE GOOD, duke of The youngest son of HENRY IV, Humphrey, BURGUNDY, sought the eventual incorpora- duke of Gloucester, played a leading role in tion of these provinces into his territory, the the military campaigns of his brother, HENRY marriage seriously jeopardized the ANGLO- V, and in the minority government of his BURGUNDIAN ALLIANCE, upon which de- nephew, HENRY VI. A consistent advocate of pended the continuance of Lancastrian rule offensive war, Gloucester won the posthu- in France. Despite the opposition of Bedford, mous sobriquet of ‘‘the Good Duke’’ for his Gloucester and his wife landed an army in opposition to the ultimately ill-fated peace CALAIS in October 1424. They quickly seized initiatives of the 1440s. A patron of poets Hainault, but Burgundy’s active interven- and writers and an avid collector of manu- tion led Gloucester to abandon his wife’s scripts, Gloucester is also recognized as cause in March 1425, when he returned to

156 HUNDRED YEARS WAR, CAUSES OF

England, ostensibly to prepare for meeting opponents of Suffolk, especially after ru- Burgundy’s challenge to single combat. mors of the possible surrender of Maine be- When Gloucester did not return, Jacqueline gan to spread in 1446. To silence Gloucester, was eventually forced to admit defeat and the government ordered his arrest, which accept papal invalidation of her English occurred five days before his death on 23 marriage. February 1447. Because he died in custody, From the mid-1420s, Gloucester pursued a foul play was rumored, although the likely long and bitter feud with his uncle, Henry cause was stroke. Besides being a patron BEAUFORT, bishop of Winchester. In 1425, of men of learning and letters, such as the this rivalry erupted into open violence as writers John Lydgate and John Capgrave, Beaufort’s retainers clashed with the duke’s Gloucester earned his humanist reputation men. The disorder forced Bedford to re- through a benefaction of more than 260 turn from France and impose a settlement volumes that became the basis of the oldest whereby Beaufort resigned as chancellor part of Oxford’s Bodleian Library, which and Gloucester declared himself reconciled is still known as Duke Humfrey’s Library. with Beaufort. In 1429, when Henry’s coro- See also LANCASTER,HOUSE OF;MAINE,SUR- nation formally ended Gloucester’s protec- RENDER OF. torship, the duke attempted to prosecute Further Reading: Griffiths, Ralph A. The Reign Beaufort, who was now a cardinal, for of King Henry VI. Berkeley: University of Califor- praemunire, that is, exercising an illegal nia Press, 1981; Harriss, G. L. Cardinal Beaufort: A foreign jurisdiction. In 1431, Gloucester won Study of Lancastrian Ascendancy and Decline. Ox- control of the government by impounding ford: Clarendon Press, 1988; Williams, E. Carle- Beaufort’s treasure and removing his sup- ton. My Lord of Bedford, 1389–1435. London: porters from the council. However, because Longmans, 1963. the war could not be financed without the cardinal’s loans, Bedford restored the car- dinal to favor when he returned to England HUNDRED YEARS WAR, CAUSES OF in 1433. In 1435, Bedford died and Burgundy Historians have traditionally found the ori- abandoned the English alliance at the Con- gins of the HUNDRED YEARS WAR in two key gress of ARRAS, leading Beaufort to advocate issues. The feudal issue arose from the a negotiated settlement of the war, a policy many frictions generated by the fact that the adopted by the king after he began his per- king of England was duke of AQUITAINE and sonal rule in 1437. After another unsuccess- thus owed liege homage to the king of ful attack on Beaufort in 1440, and his France. The dynastic issue arose from the second wife’s conviction on a charge of claim of English kings to be rightful rulers treasonable necromancy in 1441 for consult- of France. Intertwined with these main is- ing with astrologers concerning the king’s sues were such other factors as French death, Gloucester, who was Henry’s heir support of Scottish resistance to PLANTAG- apparent, found himself increasingly out of ENET ambitions in SCOTLAND, the extension favor at court. By 1445, when the duke was of Capetian authority throughout all the dismissed from the council, the government great feudatories of France; and English was dominated by Beaufort’s prote´ge´, Wil- support for such French rebels as ROBERT OF liam de la POLE, earl of Suffolk, and the new ARTOIS. French queen, MARGARET OF ANJOU, both of The immediate cause of the war is gener- whom favored the king’s peace policy. ally taken to be PHILIP VI’s confiscation of Opposed to negotiations with CHARLES Aquitaine in May 1337, but the roots of the VII; the release of CHARLES, DUKE OF ORLE´ANS; dispute over the duchy, which is considered and the Truce of TOURS, Gloucester be- by some historians to be the key to the entire came increasingly popular among the mili- war, extend back to the eleventh century tary establishment in France and with when William, duke of NORMANDY, became

157 HUNDRED YEARS WAR, CAUSES OF king of England. By the mid-twelfth century, duke’s vassals to the Paris PARLEMENT. Such William’s great-grandson, Henry II, the first appeals lay at the root of the ANGLO-FRENCH Plantagenet king, controlled western France, WAR OF 1294–1303 and the War of SAINT- including Normandy, Anjou, Maine, BRIT- SARDOS in the 1320s. And it was the basic TANY, and, though his marriage to Eleanor, insolubility of this jurisdictional problem, as daughter and heiress of the last duke, demonstrated by the failure of several Aquitaine. Stimulated in part by the threat Anglo-French commissions (see PROCESS)in from this great Anglo-Norman empire, the the early fourteenth century, that led to the French House of CAPET, beginning in the 1337 confiscation. reign of Philip II in the late twelfth century, By the 1330s, the dispute had also ac- sought to extend royal authority into the quired a dynastic dimension. The death of great feudatories by demanding liege hom- CHARLES IV without male heirs in 1328 age from their lords. In 1200, Philip refused ended the Capetian line and left the French to allow Henry’s son, John, to take posses- nobility to decide between two main sion of his French holdings until he recog- claimants to the throne: Philip, count of nized them as fiefs of the French Crown. By VALOIS, Charles’s cousin through the male doing this, John opened the door to in- line, and EDWARD III of England, Charles’s creased Capetian interference in his do- nephew through the female line. Having mains. The French conquered Normandy already decided in 1317 to exclude women and Anjou in 1204 and the remaining Plan- from the throne, the French magnates in tagenet provinces, except for GASCONY in 1328 extended that prohibition to a wom- Aquitaine, by the 1220s. In 1259, the uncer- an’s male heirs, selecting Valois, a French tain feudal status of the duchy was clarified noble in his thirties who was already acting by the Treaty of PARIS, whereby Louis IX as regent, over Edward, a fifteen-year-old recognized Henry III as his vassal and a peer foreign ruler who was dominated by his of France in return for Henry’s renunciation mother, Isabella (see ISABELLA,QUEEN OF of his claims to other former Plantagenet ENGLAND [c. 1292–1358]). In no position to lands. force the issue, Edward performed homage Although the treaty stabilized Anglo- in 1329, and later agreed that it should French relations for several decades, it led be construed as liege homage. However, eventually to conflict because the Plantage- Edward’s unpursued claim remained a nets could not reconcile their sovereign au- magnet for French rebels who sought to thority as kings of England with their feudal discomfit Philip, such as Robert of Artois. subordination as dukes of Aquitaine. Strict One of the main reasons given by Philip for observance of a vassal’s duty to support his his confiscation of Aquitaine was the re- lord, which PHILIP IV and his successors ception Robert received at the English court demanded of their Plantagenet vassals from in 1334. the 1290s, could undermine the ability of The question of how seriously Edward English kings to pursue an independent viewed his claim is much debated. He did foreign policy. If, as almost happened in the not formally proclaim himself king of France 1280s when Philip III invaded Aragon, the until 1340, when it became necessary to give king of France went to war with a kingdom cover to the Flemings and other allies, who with which the king of England was allied, could then technically avoid breaking their the former as lord could insist that the latter feudal oaths by recognizing Edward as their as vassal ignore his alliance and support the rightful lord. While he would no doubt have war. But the real source of friction was the eagerly assumed the French throne if it had ability of the king of France, as feudal become politically or militarily possible, overlord, to interfere in the government of Edward showed himself willing at BRE´ TIGNY Aquitaine, particularly his right to hear ap- in 1360 to renounce his claim for sovereignty peals of the duke’s decisions made by the over Aquitaine. Ironically, in the fifteenth

158 HUNDRED YEARS WAR, NAMING OF century, HENRY V, second king of the House HUNDRED YEARS WAR, NAMING OF of LANCASTER, whose claim to the French Use of the term ‘‘Hundred Years War’’ to Crown was far more tenuous than that of his describe the extended period of Anglo- great-grandfather, nonetheless made that French conflict in the fourteenth and fif- claim his main reason for resuming the war, teenth centuries did not occur until the and, with the Treaty of TROYES in 1420, came middle of the nineteenth century, although closer than Edward ever had to attaining the notion that this ongoing Anglo-French that Crown. Although the dynastic struggle rivalry was characterized by a certain unity is today the popularly accepted cause of the and coherence may be much older. war, it was, until Henry V, subordinate to The term La guerre de cent ans (the Hun- the dispute over Aquitaine. dred Years War) was coined in France in the Another contributing cause that has re- late 1850s, following the 1855 publication of ceived increased attention from modern historian Henri Martin’s influential Histoire historians is Philip VI’s intervention in de France. Martin divided his discussion of Scotland, an action that Edward III viewed the period into separate chapters that he ti- as unwarranted interference in his domestic tled ‘‘Guerres des Anglais’’ (Wars of the En- affairs. Initiated in the 1290s, the FRANCO- glish), to reflect his view of the distinctive SCOTTISH ALLIANCE was a source of friction nature of each episode of Anglo-French hos- throughout the war, serving as a means tility. However, in 1861, Edgar Boutaric re- whereby the Valois could forestall English ferred to the whole period as ‘‘la guerre de cent invasions of France by threatening Scottish ans’’ in an article that appeared in the Bib- invasions of England. Because Scottish in- liothe`que de l’E´ cole des Chartes, and Henri volvement in the war also threatened the Wallon also used it in 1864 in his volume possibility of French attacks on England, the on RICHARD II. In 1869, the term was suffi- Hundred Years War was different from any ciently accepted in French historiography earlier Anglo-French conflict, and thus for Edward Freeman to suggest in a Fort- served as a further spur to English efforts to nightly Review article that it also be adopted neutralize France. In 1334, Philip VI scuttled by English historians. When two widely a proposed settlement over Gascony by in- read histories of the 1870s, Franc¸ois Guizot’s sisting that DAVID II, who had recently fled Histoire de France (1873) and John Richard to France, be included in any agreement. In Green’s Short History of the English People 1337, Edward III used French intervention in (1874) employed the term, it quickly became Scotland as a justification for war. In 1346, established in the popular consciousness. David, now returned to Scotland, invaded Over the next two decades, the term ap- England in support of his French ally, peared in numerous French and English thereby suffering defeat and capture at NE- monographs, and it was first used in the VILLE’S CROSS only weeks after the French Encyclopaedia Britannica in 1879. By the early disaster at CRE´CY. In the fifteenth century, twentieth century, the term was in such large Scottish contingents fought with dau- common usage that historians of the late phinist forces at BAUGE´ , CRAVANT,VERNEUIL, medieval period could not avoid employing and elsewhere. Thus, Scotland was also an it in some fashion. important factor in the coming and course of By the late twentieth century, historians, the war. while still obliged to use the term, began Further Reading: Allmand, Christopher. The to caution that it was misleading, putting too Hundred Years War. Cambridge: Cambridge Uni- much focus on the dynastic issue and too versity Press, 1988; Curry, Anne. The Hundred little on the wartime process of national Years War. 2nd ed. Houndmills, England: Pal- development that turned an Anglo-French grave Macmillan, 2003; Vale, M. G. A. The Origins polity into two nation-states. Historians also of the Hundred Years War: The Angevin Legacy, 1250– argued that the period from 1337 to 1453, to 1340. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 2000. which the term had given a certain unity,

159 HUNDRED YEARS WAR, PHASES OF was really part of a much longer period that WAR,PHASES OF;NATIONAL CONSCIOUSNESS, ran from the of England GROWTH OF. in the eleventh century to the French wars of Further Reading: Curry, Anne. The Hundred Henry VIII and the loss of CALAIS in the Years War. 2nd ed. Houndmills, England: Pal- sixteenth century, and perhaps even later. grave Macmillan, 2003; Fowler, Kenneth. The Age Anglo-French rivalry extended beyond of Plantagenet and Valois: The Struggle for Suprem- Europe to America and Asia in the seven- acy, 1328–1498. New York: G. P. Putnam’s Sons, teenth and eighteenth centuries and English 1967. monarchs did not formally abandon their title to the French Crown until 1802. Other HUNDRED YEARS WAR, PHASES OF historians pointed out that the Edwardian The ‘‘Hundred Years War,’’ a term that first war of the fourteenth century was in many came into use in the nineteenth century, is ways different from the Henrician or Lan- the name applied by historians to a series of castrian war of the fifteenth century, during intermittent Anglo-French conflicts that in which HENRY VI’s claim to the French total spanned a period of almost twelve de- Crown came to be based not on his descent cades in the fourteenth and fifteenth centu- from EDWARD III, but on the Treaty of ries. Modern historians divide the Hundred TROYES. Years War into three periods of military ac- While many historians disagree, arguing tivity separated by years of relative peace that the idea is a modern innovation, it ap- made possible by various truces and treaties. pears likely that some notion of a ‘‘hundred These wars were also preceded and fol- years war’’ did predate the nineteenth cen- lowed by lesser conflicts and campaigns of tury. In the early fifteenth century, French varying intensity. Although the fundamen- writers seeking to counter the claims of tal issues in dispute remained largely the HENRY V began developing a theory of the same across the period, each of the separate SALIC LAW OF SUCCESSION by tracing the cur- wars was dominated by a different royal rent Anglo-French war back to the demise of personality whose goals and plans dictated the House of CAPET in 1328. In the 1410s, the nature of the conflict. John of Montreuil, a secretary to CHARLES VI, wrote that hostilities had then been going on Early Anglo-French Wars for a century, even though by traditional The conflicts comprising the Hundred Years dating he was about twenty years too early. War, which is traditionally dated as running In 1513, the historian Polydore Vergil noted from 1337 to 1453, were preceded by two in his Anglia Historia that Anglo-French wars smaller wars. The ANGLO-FRENCH WAR OF had been occurring on and off for what 1294–1303 arose from a series of disputes he termed ‘‘an eternity.’’ In his Histoire de generated by the English king’s dual status France, published in 1643, Franc¸ois de Me´- as a sovereign monarch in England and a zeray wrote for the first time of an Anglo- subordinate French vassal in AQUITAINE. The French war beginning in 1337 and running PLANTAGENET kings, beginning with EDWARD for 160 years. In his History of England (1762), I in the 1290s, found the French Crown’s David Hume found a unity in the Anglo- ability to interfere in the governance of French wars occurring between 1337 and Aquitaine to be intolerable. When PHILIP IV 1453, as did Henry Hallam in his View of confiscated the duchy in 1294, he initiated a the State of Europe during the Middle Ages war that ended with a return to the status (1818) and Guizot in his Sorbonne lectures of quo and the arrangement of a marriage that 1828. It was from this tradition of viewing later gave the Plantagenets a claim to the the late medieval Anglo-French wars as a French Crown. This claim offered a potential unified whole that the term La guerre de cent solution to the problem of Aquitaine, where ans arose in the 1850s. See also HUNDRED a Plantagenet king of France would be his YEARS WAR,CAUSES OF;HUNDRED YEARS own overlord.

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The War of SAINT-SARDOS in the mid-1320s the English won a rapid succession of major essentially replayed the causes and course of victories—AUBEROCHE (1345) in Aquitaine, the earlier conflict. The continuing irritation CRE´ CY (1346) and CALAIS (1347) in northern over Aquitaine led to a second confiscation, France, and LA ROCHE-DERRIEN (1347) in which was settled by an agreement brokered BRITTANY. The war was then halted by the by Queen Isabella (see ISABELLA,QUEEN OF Truce of CALAIS, which was effectively ex- ENGLAND [c. 1292–1358]), who arranged that tended into the mid-1350s by the interven- her husband, EDWARD II, should send their tion of the BLACK DEATH. Another period of son, Prince Edward, to France to do homage English triumph was opened by the CHE- for Aquitaine to her brother, CHARLES IV. VAUCHE´ E OF 1355 and the Battle of POITIERS This agreement ended the war, but Isabella’s (1356), which resulted in the capture of JOHN deposition of her husband in 1327 and the II. The 1357 Truce of BORDEAUX created an- failure of the House of CAPET with Charles’s other respite during which Edward tried to death in 1328 made EDWARD III, the new impose a treaty on the French, who were king of England, a legitimate claimant to the thrown into political turmoil and social French Crown and helped set the stage for chaos by the king’s captivity; the intrigues of the Hundred Years War. CHARLES THE BAD, king of Navarre; and the widespread discontent caused by high TAX- Edwardian War, 1337–1360 ATION and military defeat (see JACQUERIE; The first phase of the Hundred Years War, MARCEL,E´ TIENNE). running from 1337 to 1360, is termed the The failure of the First (1358) and Second Edwardian War because it was driven by the (1359) Treaties of LONDON led Edward to aims and ambitions of Edward III, who launch the RHEIMS CAMPAIGN of 1359, sought sovereign authority in Aquitaine and whereby he sought coronation as king of removal of the House of VALOIS from the France as a means to force the French to come French throne. The war began with a third to terms. Although militarily unsuccessful, confiscation of Aquitaine in 1337, but ac- the campaign resulted in the Treaty of BRE´ - quired a new dimension in 1340 when Ed- TIGNY, which ended the war by arranging for ward formally declared himself rightful Edward to renounce his claim to the French king of France, a step that was taken mainly Crown in exchange for a greatly enlarged to give cover to Edward’s allies in the Low Aquitaine held in full sovereignty. The Ed- Countries, many of whom were vassals of wardian war thus ended in English victory. the French Crown. Even though Edward spent huge sums of money constructing his Caroline War, 1369–1389 web of alliances (see ANGLO-FLEMISH ALLI- The Caroline War, which ran from 1369 to ANCE;ANTI-FRENCH COALITION), and both he 1389, is named for CHARLES V, who, through and PHILIP VI collected taxes and raised good fortune, more regular taxation, and loans to fund large armies, no major land careful DIPLOMACY, largely reversed the out- engagement occurred during the war’s first come of the Edwardian conflict. After a de- campaigns (see THIE´ RACHE CAMPAIGN;TOUR- cade of relative peace (except for the Breton NAI,SIEGE OF). war which ended in 1365 and the Castilian In 1340, mutual financial exhaustion led to campaign that concluded at NA´ JERA in 1367), the Truce of ESPLECHIN and a temporary end Charles reignited the Anglo-French struggle to hostilities. In 1341, the outbreak of the by accepting the APPEAL OF THE GASCON BRETON CIVIL WAR revived the Anglo-French LORDS, a series of petitions addressed to conflict as each side backed a different Charles as feudal overlord of Aquitaine by claimant to the Breton ducal title. In the late the Gascon vassals of EDWARD, THE BLACK 1340s, following the Truce of MALESTROIT PRINCE, who had ruled Aquitaine since 1355. and a failed papal attempt to mediate a By accepting these petitions, Charles over- settlement (see AVIGNON PEACE CONFERENCE), threw the Bre´tigny agreement and reasserted

161 HUNDRED YEARS WAR, PHASES OF his claim to sovereignty over the duchy. terested in reconstituting a sovereign Aqui- Hampered by Edward III’s senility and the taine, invaded France with the intention of prince’s chronic ill health, the English seizing the French Crown. With the French proved unable to defend Aquitaine against a divided against themselves, Henry won a series of highly successful campaigns led by major victory at AGINCOURT in 1415 and LOUIS, DUKE OF ANJOU, and Bertrand du conquered NORMANDY by 1419 (see NORMAN GUESLIN, constable of France. By 1380, Plan- CAMPAIGN [1417–1419]). In September 1419, tagenet Aquitaine had been reduced to French attempts to resolve their differences BORDEAUX and coastal Gascony, an area and unite against the English ended in di- smaller than that held by the English in saster at MONTEREAU, where servants of 1337. The only English response was a series Dauphin Charles murdered JOHN THE FEAR- of large CHEVAUCHE´ ES made ineffective by LESS, duke of BURGUNDY. This act drove Charles’s refusal to allow his armies to en- John’s son, PHILIP THE GOOD, into alliance gage in pitched battle. with England and, in 1420, facilitated con- In the 1380s, both countries were ruled by clusion of the Treaty of TROYES, whereby the minors—CHARLES VI in France and RICHARD dauphin was disinherited by his parents and II in England. Minority regimes dominated Henry was declared heir to the French by royal uncles and distracted by domestic throne. Although the treaty technically concerns allowed the war to peter out with ended the war between England and France, the Truce of LEULINGHEN in 1389. Attempts hostilities continued between the forces of by Richard II to conclude a final peace set- the Anglo-Burgundian government that tlement failed, but in 1396 he sealed a 28- ruled in PARIS, and those of the dauphin, year extension of the truce by marrying whose area of control in southern France Charles’s daughter Isabella (see ISABELLA, was contemptuously referred to as the QUEEN OF ENGLAND [1388–1409]). Although ‘‘Kingdom of Bourges.’’ neither side was satisfied with the status The unexpected death of Henry V in 1422, quo, the deposition of Richard in 1399 and two months before that of Charles VI, gave the outbreak of the FRENCH CIVIL WAR after new hope to the dauphinists. However, the 1407 prevented the resumption of open English war effort was ably directed by hostilities. HENRY IV, first king of the House Henry’s brother, JOHN, DUKE OF BEDFORD, of LANCASTER, was too insecure to contem- who was regent in France for his infant ne- plate renewal of the war, and Charles VI, a phew HENRY VI. Victories at CRAVANT in victim of chronic mental illness, was pow- 1423 and VERNEUIL in 1424 continued the erless to stop the escalating struggle be- English advance, which was halted only in tween the ARMAGNAC and BURGUNDIAN fac- May 1429, when the advent of JOAN OF ARC tions. Thus, the Caroline War, itself a French inspired French campaigns that lifted the victory, ended not in an Anglo-French peace siege of ORLE´ ANS and cleared the Loire of but in a period of feeble truce sustained English garrisons (see LOIRE CAMPAIGN). In only by the political instability of both July, the dauphin was crowned king of realms. France as CHARLES VII. Although Joan was captured by the Burgundians in 1430 and Henrician or Lancastrian War, 1415–1453 executed by the English in 1431, the tide had The Henrician or Lancastrian War, named turned. In 1435, Bedford died and Duke for HENRY V of the House of Lancaster, had Philip abandoned the ANGLO-BURGUNDIAN three main phases—the period of English ALLIANCE at the Congress of ARRAS. Deprived success running from 1415 to 1429, the pe- of Bedford’s leadership and Burgundy’s riod of gradual French recovery running support, the English lost Paris in 1436, and a from 1429 to 1444, and the final expulsion of series of other English strongholds fell be- the English from France between 1449 and fore the Truce of TOURS ended hostilities in 1453. In 1415, Henry V, who was unin- 1444.

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Charles VII used the truce to reform his revival that restored Henry VI to the army and strengthen the system of taxation Crown in 1470. Nonetheless, by 1475, Henry that funded it (see CHARLES VII, MILITARY was dead and his Yorkist cousin, Edward REFORMS OF). In England, Henry VI, weak- IV, was securely seated on the English minded and pacific, became the tool of noble throne. factions whose attempts to rule through the Although a renewal of the war with mentally unstable monarch led in the 1450s France was highly popular in England, the to the civil conflict known as the Wars of the French Crown was stronger in 1475 than it Roses. In the 1440s, Henry, urged on by his had been earlier in the century when it had French wife, MARGARET OF ANJOU, sought to been significantly weakened by civil war make peace on any terms, even agreeing to and economic and military exhaustion. Ed- the voluntary surrender of Maine, which ward IV was thus willing to avoid combat was vital to the defense of Lancastrian Nor- and accept an economic victory in place of a mandy (see MAINE,SURRENDER OF). By 1449, military one. On 29 August 1475, the two Charles VII was ready to resume the war. kings, meeting on a hastily erected bridge His professional, salaried army, accompa- over the Somme River at Amiens, agreed to nied by John BUREAU’s outstanding ARTIL- a treaty negotiated by their representatives at LERY, which gave the French the kind of the nearby town of Picquigny. The agree- military advantage the longbow (see AR- ment established an Anglo-French truce that CHERS) had earlier given the English, retook was to run for seven years and created free Normandy in twelve months (see NORMAN trade between the two kingdoms. Edward CAMPAIGN [1449–1450]). In 1451, JOHN, COUNT agreed to withdraw his army in return for OF DUNOIS, captured Bordeaux, although an initial payment of 75,000 crowns and an John TALBOT, earl of Shrewsbury, retook the annual pension of 50,000 crowns to be paid town with Gascon assistance in 1452. How- in two installments at Easter and Michael- ever, the Henrician and Hundred Years mas (29 September). The treaty also called Wars ended in July 1453 when Bureau’s for all disputes between the realms to be guns killed Shrewsbury and destroyed his settled by an Anglo-French commission, for army at CASTILLON. Although no formal neither king to make a foreign alliance treaty ended the war, the English had finally without the other’s knowledge, and for Ed- been expelled from GASCONY and their re- ward’s daughter, , to be maining French holdings comprised only the betrothed to Louis’s son, the Dauphin port of Calais. Charles. Engaged in an effort to reduce the power Campaign of 1475 and influence of Charles, duke of Burgundy, Although the Battle of Castillon in 1453 is Louis was anxious to secure peace with traditionally taken as the end of the Hun- England. He therefore offered lavish gifts dred Years War, no treaty formally ended and generous pensions to the English no- the conflict and English ambitions in France bility to support the Treaty of Picquigny, did not disappear. However, because the which was initially unpopular in England. English were soon distracted by their own However, Edward quickly suppressed any series of civil wars, known as the Wars of anti-treaty disorders and the economic ben- the Roses, which eventually pitted the efits that flowed from the treaty—fewer Lancastrian and Yorkist branches of the taxes and lower tariffs—led to widespread House of Plantagenet against one another, acceptance of the agreement and fewer calls they did not launch a new French campaign for war with France. Although Louis abro- until the summer of 1475. Louis XI, who gated the treaty in 1483, only three months had succeeded Charles VII as king of France before Edward’s death and eight before his in 1461, had promoted continuance of the own, the 1475 campaign and the Treaty of English civil wars by backing a Lancastrian Picquigny demonstrated that France, when

163 HUNDRED YEARS WAR, PHASES OF stable and united, was too large and wealthy mills, England: Palgrave Macmillan, 2003; Perroy, for England to successfully renew the Hun- Edouard. The Hundred Years War. Trans. W. B. dred Years War. Wells. New York: Capricorn Books, 1965; Seward, Further Reading: Allmand, Christopher. The Desmond. The Hundred Years War. New York: Hundred Years War. Cambridge: Cambridge Uni- Penguin, 1999; Sumption, Jonathan. The Hundred versity Press, 1988; Burne, Alfred H. The Agin- Years War. Vol. 1, Trial by Battle. Philadelphia: court War. Ware, England: Wordsworth Editions University of Pennsylvania Press, 1991; Sump- Ltd., 1999; Burne, Alfred H. The Cre´cy War. Ware, tion, Jonathan. The Hundred Years War. Vol. 2, England: Wordsworth Editions Ltd., 1999; Curry, Trial by Fire. Philadelphia: University of Pennsyl- Anne. The Hundred Years War. 2nd ed. Hound- vania Press, 2001.

164 I

INDENTURES agreement were written out twice. The in- The military indenture was a binding writ- denture derived its name from the practice ten contract that spelled out the terms of of cutting the document in half along an service and compensation offered by the indented or jagged line, with each party re- English Crown to those captains—usually ceiving one copy of the contract. In case of noblemen—who provided troops for royal disagreements, the two halves were fitted armies. Although it first appeared in the back together; if the indentations matched, thirteenth century, the indenture came into the agreement was held valid, accusations common use and assumed a standard form could be brought, and disputes settled. The in the fourteenth century during the HUN- first indentures were often vague and im- DRED YEARS WAR. The indenture was the precise, but in the fourteenth century, as the most important administrative innovation to Crown developed standard rates of pay for occur in the recruitment of medieval English various types of soldiers and service, the armies. contracts became more elaborate and spe- Although the earliest surviving indentures cific. Most Hundred Years War agreements date from 1270, when Prince Edward con- specified the size and composition of the tracted with several knights for a year’s ser- force to be supplied (e.g., how many men vice on crusade in the Holy Land, such were to be ARCHERS or men-at-arms), the agreements may have been used earlier. The length and place of service, the wages to be Crown did not enter into military contracts paid, whether a regard (or bonus) was to be with the English nobility until the 1290s, offered, the division of spoils and RANSOMS, when EDWARD I indented with Edmund, earl and details involving provision of transport of Lancaster, and with the earls of Lincoln and horses. and Cornwall, to supply a specified number Just as the Crown contracted with them, of men at a specified wage for service in so did the leading English captains contract GASCONY during the ANGLO-FRENCH WAR OF with their subordinates. JOHN OF GAUNT, 1294–1303. The king also contracted with duke of Lancaster, who offered the same fi- garrison commanders, who undertook to re- nancial terms as the Crown, developed an cruit a certain number of men to hold a cer- extensive military affinity in the late four- tain stronghold for a certain time. In 1301, for teenth century. A fairly typical indenture is instance, John Kingston agreed to keep the 1371 contract between Roger Maltravers Edinburgh Castle in SCOTLAND for six months and William Montagu, earl of Salisbury. with eighty-four men in return for the sum of Maltravers agreed to serve for one year with £220 to be paid in four installments. Not until two archers, to provide his own horses and 1337 did the English government, in need of equipment, and to give one-third of any men for a Scottish expedition, raise an entire booty or ransoms to the earl. Salisbury army by military indenture. agreed to provide shipping, wages, and a A typical indenture consisted of a piece regard, as well as a fee of £20. Because the of parchment on which the terms of the indenture system was open to fraud and

165 INFANTRY abuse, the practice of mustering troops to tween her brother-in-law, LOUIS, DUKE OF make sure the Crown or contracting noble ORLE´ ANS, and his cousin, JOHN THE FEARLESS, was getting all the men promised became duke of Burgundy. In 1405, Burgundy’s common in the fifteenth century. See also ambition drove the queen closer to Orle´ans, ARMIES,RECRUITMENT OF. with whom she plotted to kidnap the dau- Further Reading: Allmand, Christopher. The phin, LOUIS, DUKE OF GUIENNE, to keep him Hundred Years War. Cambridge: Cambridge Uni- from Burgundy’s influence. The plan failed, versity Press, 1988; Prestwich, Michael. Armies and the queen’s association with Orle´ans led and Warfare in the Middle Ages: The English to rumors that she and the duke were lovers. Experience. New Haven, CT: Yale University In November 1407, Burgundy’s agents Press, 1996. assassinated Orle´ans, initiating a period of civil war that allowed Burgundy to domi- INFANTRY. See ARMIES,COMPOSITION OF nate both king and court. Secretly opposed to the duke and anxious to shift power to INNOCENT VI. See PAPACY AND THE HUN- Dauphin Louis, Isabeau supported her son’s DRED YEARS WAR efforts to negotiate a settlement with leaders of the ARMAGNAC (Orle´anist) party. In 1413, ISABEAU OF BAVARIA, QUEEN OF with PARIS turning against him, Burgundy FRANCE (c. 1370–1435) fled the capital, and the Armagnacs took Isabeau (Isabelle) of Bavaria, the wife of power; because the new government was CHARLES VI and mother of CHARLES VII, was nominally led, until their deaths, by the a major political figure in France during the dauphin (d. 1415) and then his brother, John, first decades of the fifteenth century, and duke of Touraine (d. 1417), Isabeau sup- particularly during negotiation of the Treaty ported the Armagnacs until 1417, when she of TROYES in 1420. quarreled with her third son, Charles. A The daughter of Stephen, duke of Bavaria, weak and sickly youth who served as fig- Isabeau wed Charles VI on 17 July 1385, the urehead for an increasingly repressive marriage being promoted by Charles’s uncle, regime dominated by BERNARD, COUNT OF PHILIP THE BOLD, duke of BURGUNDY. The ARMAGNAC, the new dauphin, responding to sixteen-year-old groom, who first met Isa- his mother’s growing reputation for un- beau only days earlier, was so smitten with seemly extravagance and sexual license, cut his bride that he married her without a off her allowance and banished her from dowry or formal marriage contract. How- Paris. On 8 November 1417, Isabeau escaped ever, after 1392, the king’s intermittent bouts from confinement at Tours and, with the of schizophrenia caused his feelings toward support of Burgundy, put herself at the head his wife to veer between affection and sus- of a rival government. picion. Although traditionally depicted as Isabeau reconciled with her husband after dissolute, promiscuous, and devoted only to the Burgundians retook Paris in May 1418, her own interests, Isabeau was politically but she remained estranged from her son, adept and, after the FRENCH CIVIL WAR especially after his supporters murdered erupted in 1409, strove to protect the au- Burgundy at MONTEREAU in 1419. In 1420, thority of the VALOIS Crown from the con- Isabeau promoted the marriage of her sequences of her husband’s illness. On 1 July daughter, CATHERINE OF VALOIS,toHENRY V 1402, Charles gave his wife leadership of the as part of the Treaty of Troyes, which, council during his periods of illness, al- through Isabeau’s apparent admission of though her freedom of action was curtailed infidelity, disinherited the dauphin by in 1403 by a series of royal ordinances de- branding him a bastard. Although French signed to create a balance of power among historians have condemned her support of members of the royal family. Isabeau re- the agreement, Isabeau, who viewed the mained initially neutral in the rivalry be- dauphin as a tool of the Armagnacs, probably

166 ISABELLA, QUEEN OF ENGLAND saw the treaty as the best way to preserve with the deaths of six men. This insult to his the independence of the monarchy. After wife allowed Edward to rally most of the Charles VI’s death in 1422, Isabeau, unpop- nobility to his side and to reopen the civil ular and increasingly corpulent, lived quietly war, which the king successfully concluded in Paris, where she died at the Hoˆtel Saint-Pol by executing Lancaster in March 1322. Now in September 1435. dominated by his new favorites, Hugh Further Reading: Famiglietti, Richard. Royal Despenser and his father, Hugh the Elder, Intrigue: Crisis at the Court of Charles VI, 1392– Edward allowed them to systematically 1420. New York: AMS Press, 1986. humiliate the queen, whom he reputedly declared to have married against his will. ISABELLA, QUEEN OF ENGLAND Isabella’s lands were seized, her household (c. 1292–1358) and income were reduced, and her children The daughter of PHILIP IV of France and the were taken from her custody; Despenser wife of EDWARD II of England, Isabella apparently even approached the pope about transmitted to her son, EDWARD III, the claim annulling Isabella’s marriage. to the Crown of France that he raised during In March 1325, in an attempt to use Isa- the HUNDRED YEARS WAR. In 1326, Isabella bella’s influence with her brother, CHARLES instigated the uprising that led to the de- IV, to end the War of SAINT-SARDOS, Edward position and death of her husband, the early sent his wife to the French court. When enthronement of her son, and her own rule Charles agreed to accept his nephew’s of the kingdom in concert with her lover. homage for AQUITAINE, Prince Edward was Although discussions concerning Isa- allowed to join his mother in PARIS. Anxious bella’s marriage to Prince Edward had for revenge on the Despensers, Isabella re- begun in 1298 as part of a proposed settle- fused to return with the prince until the fa- ment of the recent ANGLO-FRENCH WAR, the vorites had been removed. By early 1326, ceremony did not occur until 25 January she had become the lover of Roger Morti- 1308 after Edward had become king. Isa- mer, a royal opponent in exile at the French bella’s early years in England were troubled court. The couple then moved to Hainault, by Edward’s relationship with his favorite, where they betrothed the prince to the Piers Gaveston, who, the queen complained count’s daughter, PHILIPPA, and used the to her father, had usurped her position. dowry to hire a mercenary force with which Marital relations improved after rebellious they invaded England in September. With barons executed Gaveston in July 1312, four the nobility rallying to her cause, Isabella months before Isabella gave birth to her son, declared her son guardian of the realm, and, Prince Edward. Three other children fol- after Edward’s capture and Despenser’s ex- lowed by 1321. In the intervening years, ecution, worked though PARLIAMENT to en- Isabella supported her husband in his on- gineer her husband’s deposition in January going disputes with the baronial opposition 1327. led by Thomas, earl of Lancaster, and me- For the next three years, Isabella and diated between the parties in 1313 and 1316. Mortimer, now earl of March, ruled the The queen exercised influence with her kingdom. In September 1327, Edward II was husband in the issuance of grants and par- murdered at Berkeley Castle, likely on the dons, accompanied him on campaign to couple’s orders. The new regime soon SCOTLAND, and received several augmenta- showed itself to be as rapacious and tyran- tions to her income, including the revenues nical as that of the Despensers, and as un- of the French county of Ponthieu. popular, as the queen and March followed In October 1321, Isabella was refused ad- no clear policy beyond their own self- mittance to Leeds Castle, which was held by aggrandizement. Their foreign policy, re- a royal opponent. Furious, the queen or- sulting in an unfavorable treaty with France dered an assault on the gates that ended in 1327 and the recognition of Scottish

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August 1358. A strong, beautiful woman whom contemporaries con- sidered tragically misguided, Isa- bella much later acquired the fero- cious epithet ‘‘she-wolf of France.’’ Further Reading: Doherty, Paul. Isa- bella and the Strange Death of Edward II. New York: Carroll & Graf Publishers, 2003; Fryde, Natalie B. The Tyranny and Fall of Edward II, 1321–1326. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1979; Mor- timer, Ian. The Greatest Traitor: The Life of Sir Roger Mortimer, Ruler of England, 1327–1330. London: Pimico, 2004; Weir, Alison. Queen Isabella: Treachery, Adul- tery, and Murder in Medieval England. New York: Ballantine Books, 2005.

ISABELLA, QUEEN OF ENGLAND (1388–1409) Through her marriage to RICHARD II, , the eldest daughter of CHARLES VI and ISABEAU of Bavaria, sealed an Anglo-French truce that was to have ended the HUNDRED YEARS WAR for almost three decades. Richard’s wife, Anne of Bohemia, died on 7 June 1394. Although dev- astated by the loss, the childless king In this illustration from the Chronicles of Jean Froissart, Charles began looking almost immediately VI of France gives his daughter in marriage to Richard II of for a new wife. Since conclusion England, 1396. Erich Lessing/Art Resource, New York. of the Truce of LEULINGHEN in 1389, Anglo-French diplomacy had independence in the Treaty of Northampton ground to a halt, and Richard sought in 1328, was seen as a national humiliation. with his new marriage to forge an alliance In 1330, the execution of Edmund, earl of that would check rising French ambitions. Kent, the late king’s brother, whom Isabella To this end, the English proposed a mar- and March entangled in a plot against the riage with Yolande, the daughter of France’s government, turned many of the nobility southern neighbor, King John of Aragon. against them. On 19 October 1330, Edward The French opposed this match because it III, finding his own loyalty to the regime threatened Yolande’s existing engagement questioned, arrested March, who was exe- to Louis, duke of Anjou, who needed the cuted shortly thereafter. Although she ap- Aragonese connection to further his Italian peared at court on important occasions, ambitions, and it raised the possibility of a Isabella took no further part in politics, future PLANTAGENET claim to the Crown of being sent into retirement in Norfolk. In Aragon. To persuade Richard to abandon 1348, when PHILIP VI requested that she act this plan, Charles VI offered his six-year-old as mediator between them, Edward III ig- daughter Isabella as an alternative. Because nored the suggestion. Isabella died on 23 this proposal reopened the possibility of

168 ISABELLA, QUEEN OF ENGLAND concluding an actual peace between the two queen’s relationship with her husband re- Crowns, Richard accepted it. mained warm and affectionate. Their tearful Anxious to end the war, Richard directed parting when Richard left for Ireland in 1399 his representatives to work for a final peace led one chronicler to remark that he had treaty with the marriage, but the French re- never seen ‘‘so great a lord make so much of, fused and the best that could be obtained nor show such great affection to, a lady as was a 28-year extension of the truce. Richard did King Richard to his Queen’’ (Hutchison, agreed to surrender Cherbourg and Brest, 209). but was confirmed in his possession of The couple never saw one another again, AQUITAINE, while Charles agreed to a dowry and the peace policy their bond represented of 800,000 francs. The preliminary agree- lingered weakly until shattered by the re- ment was signed on 9 March 1396 and newal of war in 1415. After Richard’s de- Charles personally handed his eight-year- position in September 1399, the new king, old daughter over to Richard at a splendidly HENRY IV, sought Isabella’s hand for his son, staged meeting near Ardres on the following the future HENRY V, even though Richard 30 October. On 4 November, Richard mar- was still alive. When these talks failed, Isa- ried Isabella in the Church of St. Nicholas in bella was transferred to various royal resi- CALAIS. dences before being returned to France in According to the chronicler Jean FROIS- 1400. Never accepting reports of Richard’s SART, Isabella, who was twenty-one years death, Isabella made several unsuccessful younger than Richard, fully understood the attempts to return to England. In June 1406, importance of her marriage. Although she she married her cousin, CHARLES, the son of was too young for carnal relations, Richard LOUIS, DUKE OF ORLE´ ANS, a match to which grew fond of Isabella, treating her as a be- she consented most unwillingly. Her new loved daughter, while she became devoted husband, however, also grew fond of her to him. Because Isabella was the embodi- and was much affected by her death in ment of Anglo-French entente, her standing childbirth on 13 September 1409. at the English court fluctuated with the state Further Reading: Hutchison, Harold F. The of diplomatic relations; in 1398, for example, Hollow Crown: The Life of Richard II. London: Eyre complaints were heard about the size and and Spottiswoode, 1961; Saul, Nigel. Richard II. cost of her French entourage. However, the New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1997.

169 J

JACK CADE’S REBELLION (1450) the blood like York, only heightened the In the early summer of 1450, only weeks government’s suspicions. after the English defeat at FORMIGNY signaled Thanks to the obscurity of Cade’s back- the imminent collapse of Lancastrian rule in ground, and perhaps to government NORMANDY, the commons of Kent, led by a attempts to discredit Cade, rumors soon man named Jack (or John) Cade, rose in re- circulated that the rebel leader was an bellion. Because the uprising reflected pop- Irishman related to York, that he was a black ular anger over the government’s conduct of magician, and that he had once fled the the war, and because HENRY VI and his ad- realm after murdering a pregnant woman. visors suspected that RICHARD, DUKE OF Whatever Cade’s history, his manner im- YORK, had instigated it, Jack Cade’s Rebel- pressed the royal councilors who met him, lion is often viewed both as a consequence of and the rebel manifesto crafted under his the HUNDRED YEARS WAR and as a prelude to leadership—the ‘‘Complaint of the Com- the Wars of the Roses. mons of Kent’’—displayed his skill as a In late May, only three weeks after the propagandist. Comprising fifteen articles, murder of Henry’s unpopular chief minister, the ‘‘Complaint’’ focused on the corrupt William de la POLE, duke of Suffolk, a large practices of royal officials in Kent, who body of men from the towns and villages of were charged with extortion, perversion of Kent gathered at Blackheath across the justice, and election fraud. The commons Thames from LONDON to demand redress of also demanded an inquiry into the failure by various grievances. Composed of rural Edmund BEAUFORT, duke of Somerset, to peasants, artisans and tradesmen from the defend Normandy and into the misappro- towns, and a small group of clergy and priation of royal funds by the king’s house- landowning gentry, the Kentish rebels were, hold servants. Much of the rebels’ discontent at least initially, well organized and disci- was also fueled by high war TAXATION and plined. Their elected leader was the myste- by economic hardship caused by wartime rious Jack Cade, who also went by the disruption of the cloth trade. names John Mortimer and John Amendalle. In early June, after submitting their Although he was probably seeking only to ‘‘Complaint’’ to the council, the rebels attract the duke’s supporters to his cause, obeyed an order to withdraw from Black- Cade’s use of the name Mortimer—the heath. However, when a contingent of royal family name of York’s mother—led the troops followed them into Kent, the rebels government to seriously consider the possi- ambushed and destroyed their pursuers. At bility that York was somehow involved in news of this repulse, a nervous council the rebellion. The rebels denied any con- committed Lord Say, the hated former nection with York, but their demand that the sheriff of Kent, and William Cromer, the king rid himself of all advisors linked to the equally unpopular current sheriff, to the late Suffolk and turn instead to princes of Tower of London. The king then withdrew

170 JACQUERIE from the capital. On 4 July, the Londoners, rebellion, with bands of rioters attacking who were sympathetic to many of the rebels’ and destroying noble castles and manors. grievances, allowed Cade and his followers Because the region was at the center of a to enter the city, where they immediately political struggle between the dauphin and seized and executed Say and Cromer. On the CHARLES THE BAD, king of Navarre, both of night of 5 July, as the rebels grew more whom were garrisoning local strongholds, disorderly, the citizens, assisted by the the initial cause of the Jacquerie was anger Tower garrison under Thomas SCALES, Lord over the growing demands of both sides for Scales, drove the insurgents from the city labor services to repair and strengthen cas- and recaptured London Bridge. This action tles and fortifications. Also, Navarre’s allowed the council to issue a free pardon on introduction into the region of English ROU- 8 July, and most of the rebels returned TIERS may have aroused fears of the pillage home. After invalidating his pardon by at- and destruction that such troops had been tempting to seize Queenborough Castle, causing elsewhere in France since JOHN II’s Cade was killed on 12 July while resisting capture at POITIERS in 1356. arrest. A month later, on 12 August, Cher- Leadership of the rebellion was quickly bourg, the last English-held town in Nor- assumed by a wealthy peasant named mandy, surrendered to CHARLES VII, thereby . Calling himself ‘‘Captain of further discrediting an already weakened the men of Beauvaisis,’’ and aided by self- royal government. appointed lieutenants who included edu- Further Reading: Griffiths, Ralph A. The Reign cated townsmen and a few minor noblemen, of King Henry VI. Berkeley: University of Califor- Cale formed the rebels into organized units nia Press, 1981; Harvey, I. M. W. Jack Cade’s under their own banners. By early June, he Rebellion of 1450. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1991; led an army of almost five thousand men. Wolffe, Bertram. Henry VI. London: Eyre Although most towns closed their gates to Methuen, 1981. the rebels, many townsmen were sympa- thetic and provided the Jacques with food, JACQUERIE (1358) weapons, and recruits. In Paris, E´ tienne The Jacquerie was the largest and bloodiest MARCEL, leader of the urban revolution that peasant rebellion of late medieval France. had driven the dauphin from the capital, Involving violent attacks on the persons, received a deputation from Cale and urged property, and families of nobles, the upris- the Jacques to destroy all fortresses and noble ing swept the region north of PARIS in May residences surrounding the city. Hoping to and June 1358. Although traditionally char- frustrate the dauphin’s attempt to ring the acterized as class warfare between nobles capital with troops, the Paris revolutionaries and nonnobles, the Jacquerie arose mainly tried to foment further rebellion in regions from the political instability and economic west and south of the city. To the north, the distress unleashed by the HUNDRED YEARS Jacquerie spread into Picardy, Brie, Cham- WAR. pagne, and parts of NORMANDY, as castles The Jacquerie derived its name from the and manors were burned and nobles and term Jacques, which was popularly used to their retainers murdered. describe French peasants. The origins of the In early June, Navarre, sensing political uprising are obscure, but it seems to have possibilities, assumed leadership of the begun in the Oise Valley north of Paris in the noble reaction, the so-called counter-Jacque- village of Saint-Leu d’Esserent, where, on 28 rie. Assembling a force of over fifteen hun- May, a mob of armed peasants attacked a dred that included his own men, a body of company of soldiers stationed there by the English routiers, and the nobility of north- dauphin (see CHARLES V). Within hours of western France, Navarre crushed the main this event, much of the Beauvaisis rose in rebel army on 10 June. Cale, who was lured

171 JAMES I into Navarre’s camp under flag of truce, was wealthy nobles with whom he consorted. seized and beheaded. On 9 June at Meaux, a His patron, John of Hainault, the uncle of small company of men that included the Queen PHILIPPA, wife of EDWARD III, ac- PLANTAGENET captain, Jean de GRAILLY, cap- companied Queen Isabella (see ISABELLA, tal de Buch, who put aside political differ- QUEEN OF ENGLAND [c. 1292–1358]) to En- ences to fight with his fellow nobles, gland in 1326, when she overthrew her destroyed the other main rebel force. husband, EDWARD II. In 1327, when John of These actions ended the uprising, al- Hainault participated in Edward’s cam- though the counter-Jacquerie continued as paign in SCOTLAND, Jean le Bel was a the nobility slaughtered all peasants who member of Hainault’s retinue, and his were known or suspected rebels, including chronicle is thus an eyewitness account of three hundred who were burned alive in a that expedition. Because of Jean’s connec- monastery near Montdidier and another tion to England and the English court, his thirteen hundred who were slain when the chronicle views the war from an English nobles surprised their camp at Poix. Politi- perspective and its great hero is Edward III, cally, the Jacquerie proved beneficial to the whose military achievements are recounted dauphin, who had done nothing to suppress in detail. it, and harmful to Navarre, who had led the According to his prologue, Jean began counterattack, and especially to Marcel, who writing his chronicle at the request of John had backed the Jacques. The rebel violence of Hainault. Jean’s stated goal was to faith- revived support for the Crown among the fully record the great battles, feats of arms, nobility, allowing the dauphin to recruit and chivalrous deeds that occurred during troops for action against both Navarre and Edward’s reign. Eschewing rhyme, which he the Paris revolutionaries. believed required ‘‘too many embellish- Further Reading: Bessen, David M. ‘‘The ments and repetitions’’ (Gransden, 165), Jacquerie: Class War or Co-opted Rebellion?’’ Jean wrote in French prose, a practice later Journal of Medieval History 11 (1985): 43–59; followed by Froissart, who also incorporated Mollat, Michel, and Philippe Wolff. The Popular his predecessor’s work down to 1361 into Revolutions of the Late Middle Ages. Trans. A. L. the first draft of his Chroniques. Froissart Lytton-Sells. London: Allen and Unwin, 1973. adhered so closely to Jean’s text that a manuscript of Les vrayes chronicles discov- JAMES I. See SCOTLAND ered in the nineteenth century was at first believed to be a copy of Froissart. JARGEAU, SIEGE OF. See LOIRE CAMPAIGN Jean began writing in about 1357, when he recorded the major events of the war up to JEAN LE BEL (d. c. 1370) that date. Later additions brought the nar- The fourteenth-century chronicler Jean le Bel rative into the 1360s. Although his writings is the author of Les vrayes chroniques, one of lack the narrative power of Froissart, Jean le the most valuable contemporary sources for Bel was more careful of his facts. Writing in the first phase of the HUNDRED YEARS WAR. reaction to what he saw as the false or ex- Born at Lie`ge into a wealthy and influ- aggerated histories related by poets and ential family, Jean le Bel was, like his fellow minstrels, Jean was determined to tell the chronicler, Jean FROISSART, a native of Hai- truth as he saw it. The first chronicler to nault. In 1313, he became a canon (i.e., a present the Anglo-French war and the deeds clerical member of a cathedral staff) at of its participants as things worth recording, Saint-Lambert in Lie`ge. Although a clergy- Jean, despite his pro-English stance, had man, Jean moved easily within noble circles little influence on the writing of chronicles in and was deeply imbued with the values and England, where, thanks to the war, the use ideals of contemporary CHIVALRY. According of French rapidly declined in the late four- to one source, Jean lived the lifestyle of the teenth century. In France, however, Jean le

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Bel, through Froissart, became the impetus attendants traveled for eleven days through for a whole series of important works of enemy territory to reach the dauphin’s court chivalrous history. See also NATIONAL CON- at Chinon on 6 March. After being kept SCIOUSNESS,GROWTH OF. waiting for several days while the dauphin’s Further Reading: Gransden, Antonia. Historical councilors debated the advisability of re- Writing in England. Vol. 2, c. 1307 to the Early ceiving her, Joan was summoned to court, Sixteenth Century. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University where she made a sensation by immediately Press, 1974; Thompson, Peter E., ed. and trans. picking the dauphin, whom she had never Contemporary Chronicles of the Hundred Years War: seen, out of a crowd. Joan and the dauphin From the Works of Jean le Bel, Jean Froissart, and then held an intense private conversation Enguerrand de Monstrelet. London: Folio Society, during which Joan, by unknown means, 1966; Tyson, Diana B. ‘‘Jean le Bel: Portrait of a convinced him that she had been sent by Chronicler.’’ Journal of Medieval History 12 (1986): God to defeat the English and see him 315–32. crowned. However, before he would give her an JEANNE, COUNTESS OF PENTHIE` VRE. army to relieve Orle´ans, the dauphin sent See BRETON CIVIL WAR Joan to the University of Poitiers, where, for eleven days, she was interrogated by theo- JEANNE D’ARC. See JOAN OF ARC logians charged with ensuring her ortho- doxy. Asked what language her voices JOAN OF ARC (c. 1412–1431) spoke, Joan, who spoke French with a pro- Joan of Arc, a French peasant girl whose nounced Limousin accent, answered, ‘‘A improbable military leadership raised the better tongue than I’’ (DeVries, 46). Showing siege of ORLE´ ANS and enabled the dauphin no fear or anxiety and offering such simple to be crowned king, is the most enigmatic and direct answers to complex questions, and compelling figure of the HUNDRED YEARS Joan passed the test, convincing her inquis- WAR. Although Joan’s intervention did not itors that her mission was divinely inspired. win the war for the French, it did turn the A few days later at Tours, Joan also passed a tide in their favor by restoring the prestige of physical test conducted by Yolande of Sicily, the House of VALOIS and inspiring its parti- the queen’s mother, who assured her son-in- sans to a renewed effort that ultimately ex- law that Joan was a virgin. At the end of pelled the English. these tests, on 22 March, Joan dictated her Joan was born in about 1412 in Domre´my, so-called ‘‘Letter to the English,’’ which was a village in the northeastern province of a stern and confident ultimatum addressed Lorraine. Her parents were prosperous to HENRY VI; JOHN, DUKE OF BEDFORD; and peasants and her uncle was a priest. At the other English leaders. If the English were age of thirteen, Joan began to hear the voices willing ‘‘to give up France and pay for of Saint Margaret, Saint Catherine, and the having occupied her,’’ they could go in archangel Michael, who, with increasing peace; but if they refused, ‘‘then wherever urgency, exhorted her to go to the aid of the we find you we will strike at you there, and king of France. By 1428, when Burgundian make a great uproar, greater than any made raiders forced Joan and her family to flee to in France for a thousand years’’ (DeVries, Neufchatel, the voices made this seemingly 64). Dispatched in late April, the letter, not impossible mission more precise—Joan was surprisingly, elicited no response from the to break the English siege of Orle´ans. In English, but had an immediate effect in February 1429, Joan persuaded Robert de dauphinist France, where men enthusiasti- Baudricourt, the dauphinist commander at cally flocked to join the army being raised to Vaucouleurs, to provide her with an escort to convey Joan to Orle´ans. the dauphin. Advised by her voices to cut her Assured of Joan’s sincerity and purity, hair and assume male attire, Joan and her and believing, perhaps, that he had nothing

173 JOAN OF ARC

across to the English lines to de- mand that they withdraw and in return receiving insults and abuse. During four days of near-con- tinuous combat, the French, driven by Joan’s sense of urgency and in- spired by her courage—she refused to leave the field after being wound- ed by an arrow—seized key English defenses. Shaken by the fervor of the French attacks, the English abandoned their remaining posi- tions and marched away on 8 May, thus lifting the siege and complet- ing the first part of Joan’s mission. To accomplish the second part, the dauphin’s coronation, Joan, in mid- June, accompanied an army com- manded by JOHN, DUKE OF ALENC¸ON, on a week-long campaign (see LOIRE CAMPAIGN) that cleared the Loire Valley of English garrisons and ended with a major victory at PATAY. Inspired by these triumphs, the dauphin marched to Rheims, where, on 17 July, he was crowned king as CHARLES VII in Joan’s pres- ence. Thanks to her military success, Joan was now a political force, a Although it inaccurately depicts her in female attire, this recognized leader of the court fac- drawing of Joan of Arc in the margin of the register of the tion that favored vigorous prosecu- Paris Parlement was done on 10 May 1429, only days after the tion of the war over negotiation. relief of Orle´ans, and thus is the only likeness of Joan done Joan urged the king to attack PARIS, during her lifetime. Reunion des Musees Nationaux/Art Resource, but the failure of her ill-considered New York. assault on the capital on 8 Septem- ber convinced Charles to arrange a truce and disband the army. In to lose, the dauphin ordered that Joan be April 1430, PHILIP THE GOOD, duke of BUR- supplied with a suit of ARMOR and a special GUNDY, laid siege to Compie`gne. Her influ- standard that she had designed on instruc- ence waning, Joan secretly left court to assist tion from her voices. On 29 April, Joan, ac- the town’s Valois garrison. Captured by the companied by a large relief force, entered BURGUNDIANS on 23 May, Joan was sold to Orle´ans, where she demanded that the the English and transferred to a military commander of the garrison, John, the Bas- prison in ROUEN in December. Accused of tard of Orle´ans (see JOHN, COUNT OF DUNOIS witchcraft and heresy, Joan, beginning on 21 AND LONGUEVILLE), launch an immediate as- February 1431, was tried before a tribunal sault on the English. When the Bastard, be- led by , bishop of Beauvais, lieving himself unready, did not attack until whose brief from the English was to dis- 4 May, Joan filled the time by shouting credit Charles by associating him and his

174 JOHN, COUNT OF DUNOIS AND LONGUEVILLE cause with a witch and heretic. Convicted by Saint. Westport, CT: Praeger, 2003; Warner, Ma- the court and by theologians from the Uni- rina. Joan of Arc: The Image of Female Heroism. New versity of Paris, who were appalled by her York: Knopf, 1981; Wheeler, Bonnie, and Charles use of male attire, Joan was brought on 24 T. Woods, eds. Fresh Verdicts on Joan of Arc. May to the cemetery of Saint-Ouen, where London: Garland, 1996. she was to be condemned to death. Before sentence could be read, Joan recanted, de- JOAN OF KENT, PRINCESS OF WALES. nying her voices, confessing to blasphemy See EDWARD, THE BLACK PRINCE;RICHARD II and sorcery, and promising to wear wom- en’s clothes. Sentenced to life imprisonment, JOHN, COUNT OF DUNOIS AND Joan asked to be sent to an ecclesiastical LONGUEVILLE (1402–1468) prison, where she could have female atten- The illegitimate son of CHARLES VI’s brother, dants. Cauchon, however, returned her to LOUIS, DUKE OF ORLE´ ANS, John, count of Du- the English military prison, where, four days nois, was CHARLES VII’s most loyal and able later, she overthrew her recantation by re- commander, and JOAN OF ARC’s most fa- suming male attire. Although Joan said that mous companion at the siege of ORLE´ ANS. it was more suitable to dress like a man After the assassination of his father in while she was in the keeping of men, his- 1407, John, known as the Bastard of Orle´ans, torians have surmised that the English, was educated by the duke’s wife, Valentine angry that she had escaped the flames, sent Visconti, who saw the precocious boy as her soldiers to gang-rape her or ordered her husband’s future avenger. After John’s half- jailers to hide her women’s clothes. In any brother, CHARLES, DUKE OF ORLE´ ANS, was event, her subsequent admission that her captured at AGINCOURT in 1415, leadership of voices had returned sealed her fate. the ARMAGNAC party, the Orle´anist faction Joan was burned at the stake in Rouen on in the FRENCH CIVIL WAR, passed eventually 30 May 1431. Charles VII made no attempt to the Bastard’s childhood companion, to help her and for twenty years said noth- Dauphin Charles, whose service he entered ing about her. In 1456, a new trial, ordered in 1417. In about 1418, the Bastard was by Charles largely to clear his name of in- captured by the Burgundians and remained volvement with a condemned heretic, re- a prisoner for two years. With the death of versed the verdict of 1431 and declared Joan his half brother Philip in 1420, John assumed innocent. In 1920, Joan, already a popular active leadership of the Orle´ans family and French icon and destined to become a sym- prime responsibility for raising Duke Char- bol of the French resistance during World les’s RANSOM. Among the most active dau- War II, was canonized by the Roman Cath- phinist captains in the 1420s, the Bastard olic Church. fought at BAUGE´ in 1421, assisted in the de- Further Reading: Barstow, Anne Llewellyn. fense of Mont-Saint-Michel in 1425, and Joan of Arc, Heretic, Mystic, Shaman. Lewiston, ME: made a name for himself by breaking the Edwin Mellen Press, 1986; DeVries, Kelly. Joan of English siege of MONTARGIS in 1427. Arc: A Military Leader. Stroud, England: Sutton In late 1428, the Bastard was given com- Publishing, 2003; Fraioli, Deborah A. Joan of Arc mand of the garrison in besieged Orle´ans. and the Hundred Years War. Westport, CT: Green- With the help of captains like E´ tienne de wood Press, 2005; Gies, Frances. Joan of Arc: The VIGNOLLES and Poton de XAINTRAILLES,he Legend and the Reality. New York: Harper and launched a series of sorties against the be- Row, 1981; Pernoud, Re´gine. Joan of Arc: By siegers, but these were largely unsuccessful Herself and Her Witnesses. London: Scarborough and the Bastard’s defense of the city has House, 1982; Pernoud, Re´gine, and Marie-Ve´ro- been criticized by some historians as inef- nique Clin. Joan of Arc. Trans. Jeremy Duquesnay fective and overcautious. In February 1429, Adams. New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1999; his plan to disrupt enemy supply lines was Richey, Stephen W. Joan of Arc: The Warrior frustrated at the Battle of the HERRINGS.In

175 JOHN, DUKE OF ALENC¸ON late April, he met Joan of Arc at Blois, where 1423, John also received appointment to the a strong French relief force was gathering. dauphin’s council. Captured at VERNEUIL in Despite some doubts about her mission and 1424, John, who succeeded his brother Peter disagreements with her military tactics, the as duke of Alenc¸on in 1425, remained a Bastard accepted Joan’s moral leadership prisoner until February 1429. Burdened with and won a great reputation for himself as an exorbitant RANSOM of 80,000 gold saluts, her most famous captain at the relief of Or- the duke was forced to take extreme mea- le´ans in May 1429 and during the subse- sures to raise the money. His wife, Joan, the quent LOIRE CAMPAIGN, which ended on 18 daughter of CHARLES, the captive duke of June with the victory at PATAY. Orle´ans, pawned her jewels, while Alenc¸on Throughout the 1430s, the Bastard led a surrendered several lordships, including the series of effective campaigns in the Seine barony of Fouge`res, which passed to his Valley that ended with the king’s triumphant uncle, JOHN V, duke of Brittany. entry into PARIS in 1436. Named grand On 7 March 1429, the day after her first chamberlain in 1433 and made count of Du- meeting with the dauphin, Alenc¸on met nois in 1439 and count of Longueville in 1444, Joan of Arc at Chinon. After jousting with the Bastard played a major role in the im- Joan and offering her a horse, the duke, who plementation of French military reforms in was surprised at the ease with which she the 1440s (see CHARLES VII, MILITARY REFORMS handled arms, quickly became devoted to OF). He again commanded armies in the the Maid and her cause. Although Alenc¸on NORMANDY CAMPAIGN of 1449–50 and in GAS- was not present at the siege of ORLE´ ANS, Joan CONY in 1451. He testified extensively at Joan stayed with him afterward, visiting his of Arc’s rehabilitation hearings in 1456 and home at Saint-Laurent between 22 May and held various diplomatic and political posts 2 June. Introduced to his mother and wife, during the last years of Charles VII. Although Joan promised the latter that she would dismissed from court on the accession of bring the duke back from the coming cam- Louis XI in 1461, he reconciled with the king paign ‘‘in the state he is in now or in a better in 1465 and served as a royal councilor until one’’ (DeVries, 98). Perhaps to ease the his death on 23 November 1468. strained relationship between Joan and Further Reading: DeVries, Kelly. Joan of Arc: A John, Bastard of Orle´ans (see JOHN,COUNT OF Military Leader. Stroud, England: Sutton Publish- DUNOIS AND LONGUEVILLE) and leader of the ing, 2003; Pernoud, Re´gine, and Marie-Ve´ronique Orle´ans garrison, the dauphin appointed Clin. Joan of Arc. Trans. Jeremy Duquesnay Alenc¸on, who was a friend to the former and Adams. New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1999. a brother-in-law to the latter, commander of the army. On 17 July, after the success of the JOHN, DUKE OF ALENC¸ON Loire Campaign, Alenc¸on was knighted by (c. 1407–1476) CHARLES VII at his coronation in Rheims. A friend and companion of JOAN OF ARC, The duke participated in Joan’s unsuc- who referred to him as ‘‘my fair duke,’’ John cessful assault on PARIS in early September, II, duke of Alenc¸on, commanded the dau- but left her when Charles VII disbanded the phinist army during the 1429 LOIRE CAM- royal army shortly thereafter. Although he PAIGN and the culminating Battle of PATAY. took part in campaigns in Maine, Anjou, and The second son of John I, duke of Alen- NORMANDY in the 1430s, Alenc¸on did not c¸on, who died at AGINCOURT in 1415, John II fight again with Joan, who was captured by grew up at the dauphinist court, where his the Burgundians in 1430 and burned at the mother, Mary of BRITTANY, fled after HENRY stake by the English in 1431. By 1439, V granted the duchy of Alenc¸on to his Alenc¸on’s friendship with the king had brother JOHN, DUKE OF BEDFORD. In response cooled, and the duke joined the Praguerie, to this grant, the dauphin named John II an uprising of disaffected nobles that was lieutenant-general of the duchy in 1420. In suppressed by the constable, Arthur de

176 JOHN, DUKE OF BEDFORD

Richemont (see ARTHUR III). Pardoned and of HARFLEUR. In 1417–19, Bedford again released in 1449, when he took part in the served as king’s lieutenant in England, pre- NORMAN CAMPAIGN, Alenc¸on was financially siding over PARLIAMENT and raising money ruined and attempted to repair his fortunes and supplies for his brother’s conquest of by marrying his daughter to the eldest son Normandy. In 1420, the duke returned to (the future Edward IV) of RICHARD, DUKE OF France to attend the signing of the Treaty of YORK. This communication with an English TROYES and to participate in the sieges of duke was regarded as treason by Charles Sens and MELUN. Bedford became heir to the VII, who ordered the duke’s arrest in the throne in March 1421, when his elder midst of his testimony at Joan of Arc’s nul- brother, THOMAS, DUKE OF CLARENCE, was lification trial in 1456. Imprisoned in the slain at BAUGE´. After another term as royal fortress of Aigues-Mortes, Alenc¸on was re- lieutenant, Bedford returned to France in leased on the accession of his godson, Louis May 1422, and was thus present when Henry XI, in 1461. However, when he refused V died at Vincennes in the following August. Louis’s demand for control of three for- In accordance with Henry V’s wishes, tresses and the wardship of his children, Bedford assumed the French regency in late Alenc¸on was rearrested. Although convicted 1422 upon the refusal of PHILIP THE GOOD, of treason and condemned to death in July duke of BURGUNDY, to take the office on 1474, Alenc¸on was never executed and died behalf of the infant Henry VI. In 1423, as a prisoner in the Louvre in 1476. part of the Treaty of AMIENS, a defensive Further Reading: DeVries, Kelly. Joan of Arc: A agreement binding the regent, Burgundy, Military Leader. Stroud, England: Sutton Publish- and JOHN V, duke of BRITTANY, in a triple ing, 2003; Pernoud, Re´gine, and Marie-Ve´ronique alliance in support of Henry VI’s French Clin. Joan of Arc. Trans. Jeremy Duquesnay Crown, Bedford married Burgundy’s sister, Adams. New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1999. ANNE. Until her death in 1432, the duchess played a vital role in easing relations be- JOHN, DUKE OF BEDFORD (1389–1435) tween her husband and her brother and in The third son of HENRY IV, John, duke of maintaining the vital Anglo-Burgundian Bedford, governed England as lieutenant for alliance. Between 1423 and 1429, Bedford ex- his brother HENRY V and France as regent for panded the area of Lancastrian rule to in- his nephew HENRY VI. After his brother’s clude most of non-Burgundian France north death in 1422, Bedford oversaw all phases of the Loire. Understanding the need to rule of the English war effort, maintaining the through French officers and institutions, ANGLO-BURGUNDIAN ALLIANCE, ruling NOR- Bedford initiated popular reforms in the MANDY and Lancastrian France, and defend- Anglo-Burgundian administration and took ing his nephew’s right to the French throne. steps to control brigandage. Although he John was knighted in October 1399, only seldom took the field in person, the duke weeks after his father deposed RICHARD II commanded at the greatest English victory and established the House of LANCASTER on of the decade, the Battle of VERNEUIL in Au- the English throne. A member of the Order of gust 1424. From December 1425 to March the GARTER by 1402, John became constable 1427, Bedford resided in England, where he of England and warden of the east march intervened in the bitter feud between his with SCOTLAND in 1403. Henry V made his brother, HUMPHREY, DUKE OF GLOUCESTER, brother duke of Bedford in May 1414 and and his uncle, Cardinal Henry BEAUFORT, entrusted him with the government of En- bishop of Winchester, a quarrel that split the gland in August 1415, when the king invaded English regency council. France and reopened the HUNDRED YEARS In 1429, the tide of war turned against the WAR. In August 1416, Bedford commanded English. Inspired by JOAN OF ARC, the French the English fleet at the Battle of the SEINE,a broke the siege of ORLE´ ANS, cleared the Loire naval victory that broke the French blockade of English garrisons (see LOIRE CAMPAIGN),

177 JOHN, DUKE OF BERRY and secured the coronation of the dauphin king’s release from captivity, Berry and his as CHARLES VII. Bedford’s regency was brother, LOUIS, DUKE OF ANJOU, were among temporarily suspended in 1430–31, when the hostages held in England to guarantee Henry VI, in a move urged by Bedford, came payment of their father’s ransom. Berry was to France for his coronation. Bedford took no thus involved in negotiation of the Treaty of part in the 1431 trial and execution of Joan of the HOSTAGES, an abortive 1362 agreement Arc, whom the duke, a man of strictly or- whereby the hostages, acting on their own thodox belief, later described as a witch. In authority, attempted to speed their release April 1433, five months after the death of by making further territorial and monetary Duchess Anne, Bedford married Jacquetta of concessions to the English. Luxembourg, the seventeen-year-old niece When war resumed in 1369, Charles V re- of the Anglo-Burgundian chancellor. The granted Poitou to his brother as an incentive duke’s relations with Burgundy, who had to retake AQUITAINE from the English. How- been seeking means to honorably detach ever, the subsequent French reconquest of himself from the English alliance, deterio- the county and duchy had more to do with rated after Anne’s death, and the two men the king’s success in persuading Gascon no- met for the last time in May 1433. In June, bles to switch allegiance than with Berry’s Bedford returned to England, where he military ability. In October 1374, Charles ex- again mediated between Gloucester and cluded Berry from the list of guardians Beaufort and successfully defended himself named to govern for the dauphin should he against charges of mismanaging the war, succeed as a minor, an omission that may which may have been inspired by Glouces- have proceeded from the king’s disapproval ter. Returning to France in July 1434, Bed- of his brother’s personal life. A man of cul- ford’s health began to fail and he died at ture and taste, Berry was one of the greatest ROUEN on 14 September 1435, only a week patrons of art in French history. As such, his before Burgundy made peace with Charles main interest was not politics or war, but VII at the Congress of ARRAS. using his lands and offices to increase his Further Reading: Allmand, C. T. Lancastrian wealth and enlarge his collections, which Normandy, 1415–1450: The History of a Medieval ranged in content from jewels, tapestries, and Occupation. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1983; Wil- objets d’art to castles, dogs, and books. The liams, E. Carleton. My Lord of Bedford, 1389–1435. duke is today best known for the surviving London: Longmans, 1963. manuscripts he commissioned, particularly his richly illuminated Tre`s Riches Heures,a JOHN, DUKE OF BERRY (1340–1416) prayerbook (known as a book of hours) that John, duke of Berry, was the son of JOHN II contains a calendar illustrated with depic- and the younger brother of CHARLES V. Best tions of the duke’s seventeen castles. known as a patron and collector of art, Berry On the accession of CHARLES VI in 1380, proved to be an inept soldier and a devious, Berry was appointed royal lieutenant in unreliable politician, who, despite efforts to Languedoc, but he rarely visited the province, mediate the political disputes of his brothers which he used mainly as a source of revenue and nephews, exacerbated the internal ri- to fund his collecting. The resulting overtax- valries that led to initiation of the FRENCH ation and maladministration threw the region CIVIL WAR and resumption of the HUNDRED into disorder and forced the king to dismiss YEARS WAR. his uncle from office in 1389. In 1392, the onset Born at Vincennes on 30 November 1340, of Charles’s mental illness brought Berry back John was made count of Poitou in 1356. into government. Lacking political ambition When Poitou was ceded to EDWARD III by himself, the duke had sought, in the 1380s, to the Treaty of BRE´ TIGNY in 1360, John II cre- temper the conflicting ambitions of his ated his son duke of Berry and Auvergne. brothers, Louis, duke of Anjou, and PHILIP THE From 1360 to 1364, following the French BOLD,dukeofBURGUNDY. After the latter’s

178 JOHN II, KING OF FRANCE death in 1404, Berry, as the king’s sole sur- nault, Brabant, and FLANDERS, the duke se- viving uncle, used his prestige and influence cured most of the Scheldt Valley before an to mediate the growing rivalry between his English naval victory at SLUYS ended the nephews, LOUIS, DUKE OF ORLE´ANS,andJOHN campaign in late June. In 1341, at the start of THE FEARLESS, duke of Burgundy. However, the BRETON CIVIL WAR, Normandy invaded when Burgundy, having arranged his rival’s BRITTANY on behalf of CHARLES OF BLOIS,the murder, seized power after 1409, Berry re- French-backed claimant to the Breton ducal acted to his exclusion from court by joining title. Quickly overrunning the duchy, he the ARMAGNAC (Orle´anist) faction and thus forced John de MONTFORT, Blois’s English- became party to the 1412 Treaty of BOURGES, backed rival, to capitulate. In 1345, Normandy an agreement that surrendered many of commanded an army in GASCONY, but failed Charles V’s conquests in return for English to intercept the forces of HENRY OF GROSMONT, assistance against Burgundy. Berry died in duke of Lancaster, and ended the campaign PARIS on 15 June 1416, a year after civil war upon receiving news of the French defeat at had brought the English back into France; he AUBEROCHE. In 1346, he returned to Gascony was succeeded by his daughter, Marie, and invested AIGUILLON, but abandoned the duchess of Bourbon. siege in late August when the developing Further Reading: Meiss, Millard. French Paint- CRE´CY campaign forced his recall. Frustrated ing in the Time of Jean de Berry: The Late Fourteenth by his failure either to take Aiguillon or reach Century and the Patronage of the Duke. 2. vols. Cre´cy in time for the battle, Normandy fell London: Phaidon, 1969; Perroy, Edouard. The into disagreement with his father. In October Hundred Years War. Trans. W. B. Wells. New York: 1346, the two quarreled over Philip’s refusal Capricorn Books, 1965. to honor a safe-conduct the duke had issued to Sir Walter MAUNY. The estrangement JOHN I, KING OF FRANCE. See SALIC LAW deepened in 1350, when Philip, having re- OF SUCCESSION cently lost his queen, Jeanne de Burgundy, to plague (see BLACK DEATH), angered Nor- JOHN II, KING OF FRANCE (1319–1364) mandy, who had been close to his mother, by John II was the eldest son of PHILIP VI and marrying a much younger woman, Blanche the second VALOIS king of France. Although d’E´vreux, the sister of CHARLES THE BAD, king John became known to posterity as ‘‘le Bon’’ of Navarre. (the Good), his reign was marked by mili- Normandy ascended the throne as John II tary defeat, political instability, economic in August 1350. A brave man and a chival- distress, and social unrest, and reached its rous knight, John as king was stubborn, nadir when the king, after four years of impulsive, and easily swayed by stronger captivity, agreed to the dismemberment of personalities and greater intellects. He was his kingdom. The last years of the reign, also rash, extravagant, and a poor judge of however, saw the initiation of a political and character, tending to rely for advice on close military recovery that came to fruition after friends and cronies and allowing his council John’s death. to become the tool of faction. John’s first In July 1332, John married Bonne of Lux- action was the sudden arrest of a recently embourg, by whom he had nine children. He paroled English captive, Constable Raoul de held several important APPANAGES tied to Brienne, count of Eu, who was subsequently former PLANTAGENET possessions, becoming executed for unspecified treasons. Unable to duke of NORMANDY and count of Maine and pay his RANSOM, Eu had surrendered his Anjou in 1332, and duke of Guienne in 1345. castle of Guines, which lay on the CALAIS Normandy received his first military com- march, to Edward III, an action that John mand in May 1340, when he launched an of- interpreted as treason. Angered by the haste fensive against the chief members of EDWARD and secrecy that surrounded Eu’s death, III’s ANTI-FRENCH COALITION.AttackingHai- most of the northwestern nobility attached

179 JOHN II, KING OF FRANCE

surrender much of western France in exchange for Edward’s renunci- ation of the French Crown. Wide- spread opposition to the treaty, and revelations that some of the coun- cilors who had supported it were complicit in the murder of the con- stable, led John to repudiate the agreement and end the Truce of CALAIS. By 1355, discontent with John’s government was widespread. Al- though the king imposed a new settlement, the Treaty of Valognes, on Navarre, the Estates-General, led by Parisian deputies demand- ing reform of a corrupt and incom- petent administration, assumed oversight of the collection of war TAXATION. In December, Navarre and John’s son, the Dauphin Charles, were implicated in an un- successful plot to seize power. Both were pardoned, but on 5 April 1356, the king suddenly arrested Navarre at a banquet hosted by the dauphin in Rouen. Although Navarre was imprisoned, some of his Norman supporters were summarily exe- cuted, an action that essentially plunged northwestern France into civil war. Having alienated both the bourgeois reformers of PARIS and John II, known as ‘‘The Good.’’ Scala/Art Resource, New York. much of the nobility, John was de- feated and captured at POITIERS on 19 September 1356, by EDWARD, THE BLACK PRINCE. themselves to John’s ambitious son-in-law, For the next four years, while John was a Charles of Navarre, who took every oppor- captive in England, France descended into tunity to offer himself as an alternative king. chaos. ROUTIER bands roamed the country, In January 1354, Navarre arranged the mur- JACQUERIE rebels murdered noblemen, and der of the new constable, Charles of Spain, a bourgeois revolutionaries led by E´ tienne royal favorite to whom John had granted MARCEL drove the dauphin from Paris. When lands claimed by Navarre. In February, in the Navarre escaped from prison in November Treaty of Mantes, John pardoned Navarre 1357, the continuance of Valois rule seemed and admitted many of his supporters to the in doubt. Desperate to win his freedom, John council, where they formed a majority in negotiated the First (1358) and Second (1359) favor of negotiating peace with England. Treaties of LONDON, promising to pay a large Anxious to go on crusade, John concluded ransom and surrender large blocks of terri- the Treaty of GUINES, whereby he agreed to tory in return for his release. Neither treaty

180 JOHN IV, DUKE OF BRITTANY took effect, mainly because the French gov- ducal authority, and preserved the inde- ernment could not meet English ransom de- pendence of the duchy. mands, and because Navarre’s ambition John IV was the son of John de MONTFORT, alienated his allies and improved the dau- who in 1341 claimed the succession to the phin’s political position. In 1360, following ducal title of his late half brother Duke John the failure of Edward III’s RHEIMS CAMPAIGN, III. Montfort’s claim was opposed by his John’s representatives negotiated the Treaty niece, Joan of Penthie`vre, whose cause was of BRE´ TIGNY, whereby Edward agreed to re- championed by her husband, CHARLES OF nounce his claim to the French Crown in BLOIS, a nephew of PHILIP VI. The civil war return for a ransom of 3 million gold e´cus that arose from these rival claims was and an enlarged AQUITAINE held in full sov- quickly subsumed into the HUNDRED YEARS ereignty. Released at Calais on 24 October WAR, with Philip backing Blois and EDWARD 1360, John soon fell behind on his ransom III supporting Montfort. When Montfort payments, being unable to squeeze taxes died in 1345, Edward assumed direction of from a kingdom ravaged by English routiers. the Montfort cause and guardianship of the Although some historians credit the dau- younger John de Montfort, who had been phin, the last years of John’s reign witnessed sent to safety in England by his mother Joan a gradual revival of royal authority. The of FLANDERS. In 1356, Montfort accompanied overthrow of Marcel and the waning of Na- HENRY OF GROSMONT, duke of Lancaster, to varre’s influence allowed the Crown to re- Brittany, where the sixteen-year-old boy gain the support of Paris and the nobility and participated in the English siege of Rennes. to convince the Estates to grant taxes that Although the Anglo-French Treaty of BRE´ - allowed the eventual creation of a royal army TIGNY called upon both parties to work to- capable of suppressing routiers. ward a settlement of the Breton succession On 3 January 1364, John voluntarily re- dispute, both JOHN II and Edward III ad- turned to LONDON. Although he gave no hered to their own candidates. In 1362, when reason for his action, it was partially related Edward terminated his guardianship and to the flight of his son, LOUIS, DUKE OF ANJOU, allowed Montfort to return to Brittany and who, while one of the hostages held in Ca- assume leadership of his cause, the Breton lais to ensure prompt ransom payments, civil war resumed. In April 1364, Montfort, broke parole and refused to return to cus- with the assistance of Sir John CHANDOS and tody. A more important reason was likely such English ROUTIER captains as Sir Robert John’s desire to negotiate directly with KNOLLES and Sir Hugh CALVELEY, defeated Edward for a favorable revision of the Bre´- and killed Blois at AURAY. That victory led in tigny agreement. Discussions were well un- April 1365 to the signing of the Treaty of derway when John died in London on 8 GUE´ RANDE, whereby Joan of Penthie`vre rec- April. He was succeeded by his eldest son ognized Montfort as Duke John IV. CHARLES V. See also ESTATES,GENERAL AND The new duke paid homage to CHARLES V, PROVINCIAL. but maintained close ties with England. In Further Reading: Perroy, Edouard. The Hun- 1370, he allowed Knolles to shelter in the dred Years War. Trans. W. B. Wells. New York: duchy after his abortive CHEVAUCHE´ E in Capricorn Books, 1965; Sumption, Jonathan. northern France, and in 1372, he formally The Hundred Years War. Vol. 2, Trial by Fire. repudiated VALOIS overlordship, an unpop- Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, ular action that cost him the support of the 2001. Breton nobility and forced him to flee to LONDON in 1373. After the exiled duke ac- JOHN IV, DUKE OF BRITTANY companied JOHN OF GAUNT, duke of Lan- (c. 1340–1399) caster, on the grand CHEVAUCHE´ EOF1373, a John IV, the first Montfort duke of BRITTANY, French army under Bertrand du GUESCLIN ended the BRETON CIVIL WAR, strengthened overran most of the duchy, save for Brest

181 JOHN V, DUKE OF BRITTANY and three other English-held fortresses in John was nine when he succeeded his fa- the west. On the advice of Olivier de CLISSON ther, JOHN IV, in November 1399. His mar- and other pro-French Bretons, Charles V riage to Jeanne of VALOIS, daughter of declared John contumacious and confiscated CHARLES VI and ISABEAU OF BAVARIA, pro- the duchy on 18 December 1378. Although duced seven children. Although lingering unhappy with John’s pro-English stance, the support among the Breton nobility for the Breton people liked the idea of incorporation rival Penthie`vre claim to the ducal title al- into the Valois state even less. They invited lowed Olivier, count of Penthie`vre, to briefly John to return, and on 4 April 1381, almost imprison the duke in 1420, Montfort au- six months after the death of Charles V, a thority was largely unchallenged during second Treaty of Gue´rande returned John to John’s rule. Acting through such capable power as a Valois vassal. Thereafter, the officials as Chancellor John de Malestroit, the duke followed a more neutral course in duke strengthened ducal administration, re- foreign affairs. He assisted the French in the formed the military, and initiated diplomatic suppression of the Flemish revolt in the and trade contacts with most of Western 1380s but retained links with England even Europe. He also promoted Breton indepen- though the English retention of Brest and of dence by emphasizing the sovereign nature John’s English lordships strained Anglo- of ducal authority through employment of Breton relations later in the decade. new coronation rituals, adoption of elaborate Domestically, the duke, in an effort to Burgundian ceremonial for the ducal increase ducal authority and thereby household, and issuance of gold coinage. strengthen Breton independence, reorganized In foreign affairs, the duke vacillated be- Brittany’s government, reformed its finances, tween French and Anglo-Burgundian alli- and enhanced the prestige of its court ances. Generally considered a weak man through a more formalized ceremonial, which who hated war and sought personal com- included the founding of an order of CHIV- fort, John was often swayed by stronger ALRY, the Order of the Ermine. The last years personalities, particularly his forceful youn- of John’s reign were marred by a bitter feud ger brother Arthur de Richemont (see AR- with John, count of Penthie`vre, who revived THUR III). However, the duke was committed his mother’s cause. In 1387, the duke cap- to Breton independence and genuinely con- tured and ransomed Clisson, Penthie`vre’s cerned for the welfare of his people, and his father-in-law and strongest supporter, and, in shifting alliances allowed Brittany to avoid 1392, John may have been responsible for an the suffering visited on the duchy by its attempt on Clisson’s life. In the 1390s, the fourteenth-century entanglement in the duke moved closer to France, marrying his Anglo-French war (see BRETON CIVIL WAR). son, the future JOHN V, to Jeanne, the In January 1414, John concluded a ten-year daughter of CHARLES VI. John died in No- truce with England, thereby ensuring Breton vember 1399. neutrality when HENRY VinvadedFrancein Further Reading: Jones, Michael. The Creation of the following year. In March 1419, John con- Brittany: A Late Medieval State. London: Hambledon cluded a more formal alliance with Henry, Press, 1988; Jones, Michael. Ducal Brittany, 1364– then at the height of his military success, 1399. London: Oxford University Press, 1970. but repudiated that agreement after the En- glish defeat at BAUGE´ in March 1421. In the JOHN V, DUKE OF BRITTANY (1389–1442) following May, the duke concluded an By constantly shifting allegiance to align agreement with the dauphin (see CHARLES VII) himself with the stronger party, John V, at Sable´, which included a Breton undertak- second Montfort duke of BRITTANY, main- ing to make war on England. In June 1422, tained Breton independence against both Henry undermined this alliance by releasing France and England during the last decades Richemont, an English prisoner since AGIN- of the HUNDRED YEARS WAR. COURT, who persuaded his brother to abandon

182 JOHN OF GAUNT, DUKE OF LANCASTER the dauphin and adhere to the Treaty of family, being attached as a youth to the TROYES. In April 1423, John brought Brittany household of his elder brother, EDWARD, THE into formal alliance with England and BUR- BLACK PRINCE. Richmond was with his GUNDY by signing the Treaty of AMIENS with brother at the naval battle of WINCHELSEA in JOHN, DUKE OF BEDFORD,andPHILIP THE GOOD, August 1350 and was knighted by his father duke of Burgundy. However, at Philip’s during the abortive English campaign in urging, John immediately signed a secret NORMANDY in 1355. He accompanied the king understanding with Burgundy whereby the on expeditions to SCOTLAND in 1355–56 and two dukes agreed to remain friends even if commanded his own retinue during the one reconciled with the dauphin. RHEIMS CAMPAIGN of 1359–60. He witnessed In December 1425, nine months after Riche- the ratification of the Treaty of BRE´TIGNY in mont entered the dauphin’s service, John October 1360 and was elected a knight of the concluded the Franco-Breton Treaty of Sau- GARTER in April 1361. Richmond married mur, whereby the duke did homage to the Blanche, the daughter of HENRY OF GROSMONT, dauphin and allowed the French to recruit duke of Lancaster, in May 1359, and suc- in the duchy. After declaring war on Brit- ceeded to his father-in-law’s lands and titles tany in January 1426, the English invaded in November 1362, thus becoming the and defeated Richemont. In September 1427, wealthiest nobleman in England. In January the duke repudiated the Saumur agreement, 1367, Lancaster sailed to AQUITAINE, where he reaffirmed the Treaty of Troyes, and re- joined the Black Prince’s Castilian campaign joined the triple alliance. Constant clashes (see CASTILIAN WAR OF SUCCESSION)andledthe between English and Breton sailors dam- van of the Anglo-Gascon army at the Battle of aged Anglo-Breton relations in the early NA´ JERA. In 1368, the death of his elder brother, 1430s, although lengthy negotiations, Lionel, duke of Clarence, combined with the marked by a growing friendship between deteriorating health of the king and the HENRY VI and John’s younger son Gilles, prince, forced Lancaster to assume increasing prevented hostilities. After the ANGLO-BUR- responsibility for the conduct of the war. GUNDIAN ALLIANCE ended with the Treaty In June 1369, the king appointed Lancaster of ARRAS in 1435, John maintained a deli- lieutenant of the PLANTAGENET realm in cate neutrality, allied with England but France. In 1370, the duke reinforced the friendly with France and willing to broker prince in Aquitaine, where Lancaster was any Anglo-French peace. John died on 29 present at the sack of LIMOGES in September August 1442 and was succeeded by his son and became his ailing brother’s lieutenant in Francis I. October. He vigorously defended the duchy Further Reading: Jones, Michael. The Creation until July 1371, when his inability to pay his of Brittany: A Late Medieval State. London: Ham- troops led him to resign the lieutenancy. In bledon Press, 1988. September, Lancaster, a widower since 1368, married Constanza, the daughter of Pedro I, JOHN OF GAUNT, DUKE OF the late king of Castile. Approved by the LANCASTER (1340–1399) king and the prince, who sought means to The third surviving son of EDWARD III and break the Franco-Castilian alliance, the PHILIPPA of Hainault, and ancestor of the royal match gave Lancaster a claim to the Castil- House of LANCASTER, John of Gaunt, duke of ian Crown and colored his attitude toward Lancaster, was the wealthiest and most English foreign and domestic policy for the powerful English magnate of the late four- next two decades. Lancaster next com- teenth century. manded the CHEVAUCHE´ E of 1373, the largest Born in Ghent (a later corruption of which and longest English CHEVAUCHE´ E of the became ‘‘Gaunt’’), John was created earl of HUNDRED YEARS WAR. Leaving CALAIS, the Richmond in September 1342. He was early duke was forced to range far to the east of imbued with the martial traditions of his PARIS before turning south for Aquitaine,

183 JOHN OF LUXEMBOURG, KING OF BOHEMIA where he stayed until April 1374 organizing expedition to Castile to enforce his claim to the duchy’s defenses. In 1375–76, the duke the Castilian throne. The campaign achieved led the English delegation at the BRUGES little and the duke, after marrying his PEACE CONFERENCE, the ultimate failure of daughter by Constanza to the king of Cas- which promoted a rumor that Lancaster, tile, eventually renounced his claim. With encouraged by the imminent deaths of his the end of his Castilian ambitions, Lancaster father and elder brother, intended to secure no longer favored continuance of the Anglo- the English throne for himself. Acting as the French war, and his return to England in king’s representative, Lancaster presided 1389 allowed the king to resume per- over the Good Parliament of 1376, which sonal control of the government, some- defied his authority by impeaching those thing that he had lost during the duke’s royal officials believed responsible for the absence to a prowar faction led by Lan- Crown’s insolvency and recent military caster’s younger brother, THOMAS, DUKE OF failures. Although he did not oppose the GLOUCESTER. will of PARLIAMENT, Lancaster largely re- Supporting the Truce of LEULINGHEN,Lan- versed its acts during the following year. caster, who was created duke of Aquitaine in Granted palatinate rights in the duchy of February 1390, played a leading role in Lancaster in February 1377, and having Anglo-French peace negotiations and the ar- constructed the most extensive political af- rangement of a marriage between Richard finity in England, Lancaster dominated the and Isabella, the daughter of CHARLES VI (see government upon the accession of his ne- ISABELLA,QUEEN OF ENGLAND [1388–1409]). In phew, RICHARD II, in the following June. 1396, Lancaster married his longtime mis- Suspected of having designs on the throne tress, Katherine Swynford, by whom he had and blamed for high taxes and an unsuc- four children who were later legitimated cessful war, Lancaster was highly unpopu- under the name Beaufort (see BEAUFORT, lar, particularly in LONDON, where riots fol- HENRY;BEAUFORT,THOMAS). Lancaster’s death lowed his intervention in the 1377 trial of on 3 February 1399 was hastened by the John Wycliffe, who won the duke’s support king’s banishment of his son, Henry of Bo- by advocating a strong monarchy to reform lingbroke, in September 1398. In July 1399, a corrupt Church. During the PEASANTS’ RE- Bolingbroke returned to England, where he VOLT OF 1381, the rebels, unable to harm the overthrew Richard and took the throne as duke himself, who was then in Scotland, HENRY IV, first king of the House of Lancaster. destroyed his London palace, the Savoy. Further Reading: Goodman, Anthony. John of Although influential in the minority gov- Gaunt: The Exercise of Princely Power in Fourteenth- ernment, Lancaster’s relations with his ne- Century Europe. London: Longman, 1992. phew were strained. In 1384, Lancaster, perhaps through the machinations of Ri- JOHN OF LUXEMBOURG, KING OF chard’s favorite, Robert de Vere, earl of BOHEMIA. See CRE´ CY, BATTLE OF;EDWARD, Oxford, was accused of plotting treason; THE BLACK PRINCE however, the king accepted his uncle’s pro- testations of loyalty and the scheme came to JOHN THE FEARLESS, DUKE OF naught. In 1385, Lancaster again clashed BURGUNDY (1371–1419) with the king, this time over the latter’s John the Fearless, second VALOIS duke of refusal to personally lead an expedition to BURGUNDY, was leader of the BURGUNDIAN France. Royalist courtiers hatched an un- faction during the FRENCH CIVIL WAR. Eager successful plot to assassinate the duke, to assume his father’s dominant role in the which led to an angry confrontation be- government of his mentally ill cousin, tween uncle and nephew and an eventual CHARLES VI, Burgundy ordered the assassi- reconciliation brokered by the king’s mo- nation of his main rival, thereby initiating a ther, Joan of Kent. In 1386, Gaunt led an period of internal strife that culminated both

184 JOHN THE FEARLESS, DUKE OF BURGUNDY in his own murder and in the English con- FICATION OF THE DUKE OF BURGUNDY, which quest of NORMANDY. portrayed Orle´ans as a thief, traitor, and The eldest son of PHILIP THE BOLD and practitioner of black magic, whose murder MARGUERITE DE FLANDERS, John became was a justifiable act of tyrannicide, both count of Nevers in 1384. In 1396, Nevers led ‘‘lawful and meritorious’’ (Perroy, 229). the Franco-Burgundian contingent that par- When these brazen claims were largely ac- ticipated in the Crusade of Nicopolis, a large- cepted by public opinion, the king par- ly Burgundian effort to aid the king of doned Burgundy, although the supporters Hungary against the Turks. On 25 Septem- of CHARLES, the new duke of Orle´ans, con- ber, at the , Nevers won tinued to demand vengeance. By 1410, his appellation by leading a series of rash Burgundy dominated the king and court, cavalry charges that ultimately destroyed forcing the duke’s uncle, JOHN, DUKE OF his force and left him captive. Put to RAN- BERRY; the constable, Charles, lord of AL- SOM, Nevers remained in Turkish custody BRET; and various other princes to protest for nine months, not returning to Burgundy their exclusion from power by joining the until February 1398. Nevers succeeded his Orle´anists, who were now known as AR- father as duke of Burgundy in April 1404, MAGNACS due to the adherence to their cause and inherited his mother’s provinces in the of BERNARD, COUNT OF ARMAGNAC. Besieged Low Countries and western Germany in in Paris in 1411, the duke, promising terri- March 1405. A cold, brutal, and ambitious torial concessions, sought military assis- man, Burgundy also inherited his father’s tance from HENRY IV of England, who increasingly bitter political rivalry with the dispatched a small force to help break the king’s younger brother, LOUIS, DUKE OF OR- siege. In 1412, when the Armagnacs nego- LE´ ANS. Lacking his father’s authority and tiated a similar compact with Henry (see experience, Burgundy was frequently out- TREATY OF BOURGES), Burgundy defeated his maneuvered by Orle´ans, whose more at- enemies before the English could arrive, tractive personality won him the support of thus forcing the Armagnacs to repudiate Queen ISABEAU. Clashing initially over a their agreement and strengthening his hold proposed new tax, the cousins were soon at on Paris. odds over Burgundy’s desire for royal assis- In 1413, an attempt by his son-in-law, the tance in besieging CALAIS as retaliation for dauphin, LOUIS, DUKE OF GUIENNE, to nego- English attacks on FLANDERS. When the tiate an end to the civil war, led the duke to council, influenced by Orle´ans, rejected this incite the pro-Burgundian butchers of Paris request, Burgundy, in an effort to weaken to riot on behalf of his long promised pro- his rival, began posing as a champion of gram of reform. Known as CABOCHIENS, for governmental reform, a dangerous policy one of their leaders, Simon Caboche, the ri- that won him much support in PARIS but oters murdered opponents and overawed also aroused popular expectations that the the court, initiating a reign of terror that duke had no intention of fulfilling. In No- soon passed beyond the duke’s control. By vember 1407, Burgundy, finding his inter- summer, moderate city burgesses, alienated ests threatened and his ambitions thwarted, by the Cabochiens’ excesses, joined with arranged Orle´ans’s murder. Guienne in inviting the Armagnacs into Upon admitting his crime, which he as- Paris. On 23 August, Burgundy, after an cribed to the ‘‘intervention of the devil’’ unsuccessful attempt to kidnap the king, (Perroy, 227), Burgundy was forbidden the fled the capital. Formally banished, Bur- council and forced to flee Paris. However, gundy retreated to his domains, while the by taking advantage of the addled king’s Armagnacs controlled the government. Like grief, Burgundy returned to court in Feb- his rivals, Burgundy negotiated with HENRY ruary 1408, and on 8 March presented to the V, but no agreement resulted and in Febru- council a long document entitled the JUSTI- ary 1415 the two French factions concluded

185 JUSTIFICATION OF THE DUKE OF BURGUNDY the Peace of Arras, which lifted Burgundy’s document was well received by public banishment but did not restore him to opinion and thus instrumental in rehabili- power in Paris. The duke did not participate tating Burgundy and initiating the FRENCH in the AGINCOURT campaign in 1415 and took CIVIL WAR. no part in the defense of Normandy (see Assassins murdered Orle´ans in PARIS on NORMAN CAMPAIGN [1417–1419]), preferring the night of 23 November 1407. On 26 No- instead to war on the Armagnacs. vember, Burgundy fled the capital, having In May 1418, Burgundy, now allied with confessed to his uncle, JOHN, DUKE OF BERRY, the queen, who, like most Parisians, had that he ordered the attack. Devastated by his been alienated by an Armagnac regime brother’s death and in the grip of chronic nominally led by her remaining son, Dau- mental illness, CHARLES VI barred Burgundy phin Charles (see CHARLES VII), recaptured from the council, but took no further action, Paris. Since repelling the English required despite the urgings of Orle´ans’s wife and an accommodation with the dauphin, whom sons. Although sympathetic to the Orle´ans the duke believed to be weak and easily family, Berry and the other princes of the controlled, Burgundy opened talks with his blood shrank from civil war and remained opponents and reached a preliminary amenable to the king’s desire to reconcile the agreement at Corbeil in July 1419. To finalize royal family. Taking advantage of this op- the reconciliation, the dauphinists organized portunity, Burgundy negotiated his return a new conference to be held in a specially to court in late February 1408. Always pop- prepared enclosure on the bridge at MON- ular in Paris, Burgundy was welcomed by TEREAU on 10 September. During the course joyous crowds. Restored to the council, of the meeting, old servants of Orle´ans in the Burgundy now sought to portray himself dauphin’s entourage murdered Burgundy. not as a grateful penitent, but as a defender Thereafter, the new duke, PHILIP THE GOOD, of the common good who was absolutely abandoned all attempts at peace and, as part justified in his actions. of the subsequent Treaty of TROYES, con- To this end, the duke commissioned Jean cluded a formal ANGLO-BURGUNDIAN ALLI- Petit, a scholar, to pre- ANCE. pare a detailed listing of the many misdeeds Further Reading: Perroy, Edouard. The Hun- that had made the elimination of Orle´ans dred Years War. Trans. W. B. Wells. New York: imperative for the maintenance of order and Capricorn Books, 1965; Vaughan, Richard. John good government. Virtually everything ever the Fearless. London: Longman, 1979. said or rumored about Orle´ans was included in the Justification, which took Petit four JUSTIFICATION OF THE DUKE OF hours to read to the council. The late duke BURGUNDY (1408) was charged with employing black magic to The Justification of the Duke of Burgundy kill the king by a slow and indetectible dis- (Justification du duc de Bourgogne) was a order that would arouse no suspicion. He lengthy Latin document that justified the also, according to the Justification, attempted murder of LOUIS, DUKE OF ORLE´ ANS, as an act to kill the king and the dauphin, LOUIS, DUKE of heroic patriotism made necessary by the OF GUIENNE, by various other means, in- duke’s many crimes and villainies. Pre- cluding through the use of a poisoned apple, sented to the king and council on 8 March a cherry branch dipped in animal blood, and 1408, the Justification transformed JOHN THE a sword consecrated by two devils and FEARLESS, duke of BURGUNDY and instigator touched by the cadavers of executed crimi- of the murder, from a confessed killer to a nals. The duke was also accused of plotting selfless royal servant who had recognized against the king with numerous foreign and acted upon his duty to rid the state of a rulers, including the pope; his father-in-law, ruthless tyrant. Although an astoundingly the duke of Milan; and HENRY IV of En- brazen piece of political PROPAGANDA, the gland, whom Orle´ans was to help overthrow

186 JUSTIFICATION OF THE DUKE OF BURGUNDY

RICHARD II in return for the like service in was presented, the king, accepting that his deposing Charles VI. Among the duke’s brother had plotted against him, pardoned other alleged crimes were an attempt to Burgundy. Although the family and sup- kidnap Queen ISABEAU and the royal chil- porters of Orle´ans issued their own equally dren, the seizure of royal castles and for- vituperative manifesto against Burgundy in tresses, and the levying of war taxes that September 1408, it received little attention. were in fact used to fund attempts to usurp By the end of 1409, Burgundy controlled the Crown. Orle´ans, concluded Petit, was a Paris, the court, and the government. By godless tyrant whose murder, according to 1410, Berry and the other princes, stung theology and history, was a good and nec- more by their exclusion from power than by essary act for which the king should declare the murder of Orle´ans, precipitated civil war ‘‘the duke of Burgundy’s loyalty and good by rallying around CHARLES, eldest son of fame both within and without the kingdom’’ the late duke. See also ARMAGNACS;BURGUN- (Vaughan, 72). DIANS. Although it is now impossible to know Further Reading: Perroy, Edouard. The Hun- how much of the Justification was true, con- dred Years War. Trans. W. B. Wells. New York: temporary opinion, especially in Paris, large- Capricorn Books, 1965; Vaughan, Richard. John ly believed it. The day after the document the Fearless. London: Longman, 1979.

187 K

KENT, EARL OF. See HOLLAND,THOMAS, as ‘‘Knolles’s mitres.’’ In January 1359, after EARL OF KENT burning the suburbs of Orle´ans, Knolles took Auxerre, which paid him a huge RAN- KNIGHTS OF THE STAR. See STAR, Order SOM to withdraw in April. By the autumn, of the Knolles was back in Brittany, where he captured Bertrand du GUESCLIN at Pas KNOLLES, SIR ROBERT (c. 1325–1407) d’E´ vran. When the Treaty of BRE´ TIGNY for- A renowned leader of ROUTIERS who com- mally ended the war in 1360, Knolles re- manded armies for both EDWARD III and turned to England, where he was confirmed JOHN IV, duke of BRITTANY, Sir Robert in possession of his French estates and Knolles (or Knollys) won land, wealth, and pardoned for any crimes committed during fame through his long service in the HUN- his campaigns. In 1363, he entered the ser- DRED YEARS WAR. vice of Duke John of Brittany, who granted Born into a Cheshire family, Knolles the Breton lordships of Derval and Knolles began his military career in 1346 at Rouge´. He fought under Sir John CHANDOS the Battle of LA ROCHE-DERRIEN in Brittany, at AURAY in 1364, and, after a period of re- where he served as an ARCHER under Sir tirement following the signing of the Treaty Hugh CALVELEY. Although Knolles is often of GUE´ RANDE and the end of the BRETON described as either the nephew or half CIVIL WAR, Knolles joined EDWARD, THE brother of Calveley, with whom he was BLACK PRINCE, for the Spanish campaign frequently associated during the war, no that ended with the Battle of NA´ JERA in family relationship between the two men April 1367. can be proven. In 1351, Knolles and Calveley In 1370, the English government offered participated in the famous COMBAT OF THE Knolles command of a major expedition. THIRTY, which led to both being taken cap- When captains of higher rank refused to tive. Shortly after his release, Knolles, who serve under the lowborn Knolles, he was was beginning to acquire considerable land forced to share command with three other in Brittany, fought with Sir Walter BENTLEY knights, an arrangement that led to dis- at the Battle of MAURON in August 1352. In agreements and divided leadership. Al- 1356–57, Knolles cemented his reputation as though the English raided in a wide arc a warrior, serving with HENRY OF GROSMONT, across northern France, the French, using the duke of Lancaster, on a long CHEVAUCHE´E Fabian tactics adopted by CHARLES V, re- into NORMANDY and leading a daring attack fused to give battle, and in the autumn the on Honfleur that culminated in the de- quarrelling commanders split up. Knolles struction of a French army under Robert of reached the safety of his fortresses in Brit- Clermont, marshal of France. tany, but the force under Sir Thomas In 1358–59, Knolles led a destructive raid Grandison was decisively defeated by du into the Loire region, where the path of his Guesclin at Pontvallain near Le Mans on 4 army was marked by charred ruins known December. Blamed for the failure of the

188 KNOLLES, SIR ROBERT campaign, Knolles fell out of favor at the landowner with increasing mercantile inter- English court and spent the next few years ests, Knolles was sufficiently wealthy to make fighting in Brittany, Normandy, and AQUI- loans of over £6,000 to RICHARD II. Knolles TAINE. He was pardoned for the 1370 cam- died in retirement at his Norfolk manor of paign in 1374 and in about 1378 was Sculthorpe on 15 August 1407. retained by JOHN OF GAUNT, duke of Lan- Further Reading: Fowler, Kenneth. The King’s caster. In 1379, Knolles was appointed to de- Lieutenant: Henry of Grosmont, First Duke of Lan- fend the Kentish coasts and in 1380 he joined caster, 1310–1361. London: Elek, 1969; Goodman, THOMAS OF WOODSTOCK, earl of Buckingham, Anthony. John of Gaunt: The Exercise of Princely in a chevauche´e that largely retraced the route Power in Fourteenth-Century Europe. London: of the 1370 expedition. In 1381, Knolles Longman, 1992; Sumption, Jonathan. The Hundred was back in England, where he helped sup- Years War. Vol. 2, Trial by Fire. Philadelphia: press the PEASANTS’ REVOLT. Now an English University of Pennsylvania Press, 2001.

189 L

LA HIRE. See VIGNOLLES,E´ TIENNE DE Gaunt’s elder brother, Lionel, duke of Clar- ence, was only eight, Bolingbroke was the LANCASTER, DUKE OF. See HENRY OF obvious choice to replace Richard. Beyond GROSMONT,DUKE OF LANCASTER;JOHN OF his maturity, experience, and Plantagenet GAUNT,DUKE OF LANCASTER blood, Bolingbroke was already master of the kingdom. Although his usurpation was LANCASTER, HOUSE OF duly recognized by PARLIAMENT, Boling- The House of Lancaster, a branch of the broke, now HENRY IV, sought to justify his English royal House of PLANTAGENET, was actions. He countenanced rumors that the the ruling dynasty of England from 1399 to marriage of EDWARD, THE BLACK PRINCE, Ri- 1461, and then again briefly in 1470–71. The chard’s father, was irregular, thus throwing family came to power when Henry, duke of doubt on the ex-king’s legitimacy. He also Lancaster, deposed and supplanted his publicly declared himself the legitimate cousin RICHARD II. Although the dynasty’s king by right of descent from Edmund of right to the English throne was thus ques- Lancaster (known as ‘‘Crouchback’’), the tionable, HENRY V, the second Lancastrian younger brother of EDWARD I. This procla- king, was convinced that he was also right- mation took as true the popular belief that ful king of France. This conviction underlay Edmund was actually the elder brother, and the fifteenth-century resumption of the had been prevented from ascending the HUNDRED YEARS WAR, a phase of the struggle throne because of physical deformity. sometimes referred to as the Lancastrian By thus repudiating descent from Edward war. III, these specious attempts to legitimize the The family of Lancaster descended from family’s seizure of the English throne es- JOHN OF GAUNT, duke of Lancaster, the third sentially destroyed any claim it had to the son of EDWARD III. At Gaunt’s death in 1399, French throne. However, Henry ignored this his son, Henry of Bolingbroke, who had and, like his predecessors, proclaimed him- opposed the court in the 1380s, was in self king of France. Although internal re- temporary exile, having been banished for bellion and illness prevented Henry IV from ten years by Richard II. When the king made resuming the war, Henry V, who succeeded his cousin’s exile permanent and confiscated his father in 1413, rallied the country behind the extensive Lancastrian patrimony, his the dynasty by invading France in 1415. In- arbitrary actions alienated the English no- terested in controlling the entire kingdom, bility. In July, while Richard was in Ireland, not merely individual provinces, Henry won Bolingbroke returned to England and as- a major victory at AGINCOURT in 1415, and sumed leadership of a growing opposition then, taking advantage of internal divisions movement. By September, the king was in caused by the FRENCH CIVIL WAR, conquered custody. Because Richard had no children, NORMANDY by 1420. In the subsequent and his , Edmund Morti- Treaty of TROYES,CHARLES VI disinherited mer, earl of March, great-grandson of his son and recognized Henry as his heir.

190 LA ROCHE-DERRIEN, BATTLE OF

Thus, the treaty, which also arranged Hen- backed claimant to the duchy of BRITTANY, ry’s marriage to Charles’s daughter, CATHE- the battle crippled the Bloisian cause and left RINE OF VALOIS, became the legal basis of the the English firmly entrenched in the duchy. Lancastrian claim to the French Crown. La Roche-Derrien also forced PHILIP VI, then When Henry and Charles both died in 1422, seeking to break EDWARD III’s siege of CA- the Crown of France passed under the treaty LAIS, to divert men and resources to re- to Henry V’s ten-month-old son. trieving the French position in the BRETON HENRY VI, who may have inherited CIVIL WAR. Charles VI’s mental instability, was weak- In late May 1347, Charles of Blois laid siege minded and politically inept. Lacking strong to La Roche-Derrien, which was held by a leadership, the English were expelled from garrison commanded by Richard Totesham. France in 1453. Henry, shortly after hearing Because of its ruthless imposition of PAˆ TIS, news of the final defeat at CASTILLON, fell especially the demand for labor to build and into a prolonged stupor that rendered him maintain fortifications, the garrison was unaware of his surroundings and unable to hated by the peasants of the surrounding communicate. His inability to function as countryside, who flocked to Blois’s army king split the nobility into rival factions and brandishing homemade weapons. Because revived the long dormant Mortimer claim, his army numbered over three thousand men, thereby precipitating the English civil con- a much larger force than was required to take flict known as the Wars of the Roses. In 1460, the town, it is likely that Blois’s real intent was RICHARD, DUKE OF YORK, laid claim to the to compel Sir Thomas DAGWORTH, the English throne as the rightful heir, through his governor in Brittany, to give battle. Mortimer mother, of Richard II. In 1461, Dagworth took three weeks to raise a three months after York’s death in battle, his force of no more than a thousand men, son seized the throne as Edward IV, first which he marched to a position near La king of the House of York. Henry VI was Roche-Derrien on 19 June. When re- restored in October 1470, but then deposed connaissance indicated that Blois’s force again in April 1471. He was slain at the was split into four parts, each covering one Tower of London on 21 May, shortly after section of the wall and each divided from his only son died in battle. The Lancastrian the others by woods and marsh, Dagworth claim to the English Crown thereupon passed planned a predawn attack on the largest to Henry’s distant kinsman, Henry Tudor, group, which was camped east of town and earl of Richmond, who in 1485 became the under Blois’s direct command. However, first king of the House of Tudor. See also when a diversion against the western camp HUNDRED YEARS WAR,PHASES OF;MARGARET failed, the eastern assault was quickly re- OF ANJOU. pulsed, with Dagworth and some of his Further Reading: Allmand, Christopher, Henry men taken captive. The tide turned when V. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1992; the growing light revealed the situation to Griffiths, Ralph A., The Reign of King Henry VI. Totesham; he led his garrison and several Berkeley: University of California Press, 1981; hundred hatchet-wielding townsmen in a Kirby, John Lavan, Henry IV of England. London: surprise attack on the rear of the French Constable, 1970; Wolffe, Bertram, Henry VI. position, which speedily collapsed, allowing London: Eyre Methuen, 1981. the rescue of Dagworth and his fellows. Blois, fighting fiercely and covered with wounds, was eventually cornered and forced LA ROCHE-DERRIEN, BATTLE OF (1347) to surrender, which he did to a Breton knight The Battle of La Roche-Derrien was fought rather than to the lowborn Dagworth. Each of on 20 June 1347 outside the north Breton the remaining French contingents was then town of the same name. Resulting in the attacked and defeated in turn. The darkness capture of CHARLES OF BLOIS, the French- made it difficult to take prisoners, so French

191 LA ROCHELLE, BATTLE OF

LA ROCHELLE, BATTLE OF (1372) The Battle of La Rochelle was an Anglo-Castilian naval engagement fought in the waters off the French port of La Rochelle on 23 June 1372. The battle, which resulted in de- struction of the English fleet, ac- celerated the collapse of English au- thority in AQUITAINE and facilitated the eventual French capture of La Rochelle. When CHARLES V, through his ac- ceptance of the APPEAL OF THE GAS- CON LORDS, reignited the HUNDRED YEARS WAR in 1369, the Aquitinian nobility, carefully cultivated by Charles and deeply discontented with the rule of EDWARD, THE BLACK PRINCE, began defecting to the VA- LOIS. By 1372, Poitou, Pe´rigord, Quercy, Rouergue, and Agenais were largely lost to the English, and even BORDEAUX was under threat from the armies of LOUIS, DUKE OF ANJOU. Ad- vised by Guichard d’Angle, the marshal of Aquitaine, that many Poitevans would readily resume their English allegiance if supported This illustration from the Chronicles of Jean Froissart by sufficient arms and money, the depicts the defeat of an English Fleet by a Castilian fleet English government, with much tra- allied with France in the naval Battle of La Rochelle, 1372. vail, gathered a fleet of ships to Erich Lessing/Art Resource, New York. transport reinforcements to La Ro- chelle. To further reinvigorate the CASUALTIES were high, with over six hundred English cause in Poitou, the expedi- dead, including most of Blois’s leading noble tion also carried £20,000, collected with even supporters. Upon receiving news of the bat- more difficulty, for disbursement among the tle, Philip VI assumed direct charge of Brit- local nobility. The expedition was com- tany, to which he dispatched a force of seven manded by d’Angle and by John Hastings, hundred men under Amaury de Craon in the 26-year-old earl of Pembroke, who was early July. In 1348, when he was finally able to also appointed governor of Aquitaine. travel, Blois, whose RANSOM Dagworth had As the English ships approached La Ro- sold to Edward III, was transported to En- chelle, they found their path blocked by a gland, where he joined DAVID II of SCOTLAND waiting Castilian fleet, summoned by Charles and the prisoners of CRE´CY in the Tower of V under terms of the Franco-Castilian accord London. by which the French had helped Henry of Further Reading: Burne, Alfred H. The Cre´cy Trasta´mare win the Castilian throne in 1369 War. Ware, England: Wordsworth Editions Ltd., (see WAR OF CASTILIAN SUCCESSION). The 200- 1999; Sumption, Jonathan. The Hundred Years War. ton Castilian galleons were more maneuver- Vol. 1, Trial by Battle. Philadelphia: University of able than the square-rigged English ships, Pennsylvania Press, 1991. which were mainly transport vessels, not

192 LEULINGHEN, TRUCE OF

fighting ships. Commanded by professional effectively ended the second phase of the sailors who were experienced in naval war- HUNDRED YEARS WAR. Although frequently fare, the Castilian fleet also had an advan- extended, the truce collapsed before its tage in leadership over the English fleet, official expiration because the deposition whose commanders were more accustomed of the English king and the intensification of to fighting on land. Carrying 180 oarsmen the FRENCH CIVIL WAR destroyed support for apiece, the Castilian galleons rammed the peace in both countries. English vessels, while Castilian sailors on In late 1387, a group of English barons led deck set fire to the enemy rigging and pelted by RICHARD II’s uncle, THOMAS OF WOOD- the English ARCHERS with stones and other STOCK, duke of Gloucester, seized control of missiles. The English fleet was quickly over- the royal government. Tired of rule by royal come, with many vessels sunk and many favorites and anxious to resume the war, the others captured, including the ship carrying baronial regime soon found itself too poor the £20,000. Pembroke, d’Angle, and many and insecure to implement the war policy English knights were captured and taken that had brought it to power. In August back to Castile, where they were imprisoned 1388, the baronial council, with the reluctant for more than a year. Weakened by his con- acquiescence of Gloucester, agreed to ne- finement, Pembroke, whose RANSOM had gotiate, and talks opened in the parish been sold to Bertrand du GUESCLIN, died on church at Leulinghen in November. In that his way home. In September 1372, du Gue- same month, a coup led by LOUIS, DUKE OF sclin, with the help of the mayor, forced the ORLE´ ANS, brother of CHARLES VI, and backed capitulation of the unreinforced garrison at by the MARMOUSETS, overthrew the govern- La Rochelle, and by the start of 1374, the en- ment of the royal uncles in France. True to larged Aquitaine created by the Treaty of the policy of CHARLES V, the Marmousets BRE´ TIGNY had ceased to exist. English au- welcomed the English peace initiative and thority in southwestern France was thereafter the two governments soon agreed to a three- confined to Bordeaux and coastal GASCONY. year cessation of hostilities and the initiation Further Reading: Packe, Michael. King Edward of talks for a permanent settlement. III. Ed. L. C. B. Seaman. London: Routledge and In May 1389, Richard, following Charles’s Kegan Paul, 1983; Seward, Desmond. The Hun- example, declared himself of full age and dred Years War. New York: Penguin, 1999. dismissed his baronial keepers. Thereafter, the intermittent Anglo-French negotiations, LA TRE´ MOI¨LLE, GEORGES DE. See and the various extensions of the truce that accompanied them, were largely driven by CHARLES VII Richard’s desire for peace. Abandoning the policy of EDWARD III, Richard agreed to hold LAUNAC, BATTLE OF. See ALBRET,AR- AQUITAINE as a vassal of the French king, so NAUD-AMANIEU, LORD OF long as the terms of his obligation were clearly defined as requiring no more than LES-ESPAGNOLS-SUR-MER, BATTLE simple homage. The French rejected this OF. See WINCHELSEA,BATTLE OF proposal, insisting on liege homage, which placed the vassal under personal obligation ‘‘LETTER TO THE ENGLISH.’’ See JOAN OF to his overlord. The English also demanded ARC that Aquitaine be reconstituted as it had existed at the time of EDWARD, THE BLACK LEULINGHEN, TRUCE OF (1389) PRINCE. Such a restoration would have re- Concluded on 18 June 1389 at Leulinghen on quired surrender of most of the gains the border of English-held CALAIS, the Truce achieved under Charles V. Surprisingly, the of Leulinghen, while not a final settlement of French were willing to partially meet this outstanding issues, stopped the fighting and demand and to pay the remaining balance of

193 LIBELLUS FAMOSUS

JOHN II’s RANSOM, so long as the English LIBOURNE, TREATY OF. See EDWARD, THE withdrew from Calais, a requirement that BLACK PRINCE Richard could not accept. With the talks at a standstill and the truce set to lapse, a personal tragedy allowed Ri- LIMOGES, SACK OF (1370) chard to continue his peace policy. The death Occurring in September 1370, the sack of of Queen Anne of Bohemia in 1394, although Limoges, a city on the Vienne River about personally devastating to the king, allowed one hundred miles northeast of BORDEAUX, Richard to seek a marriage alliance with the was the last major military operation con- VALOIS. On 9 March 1396, Richard, who was ducted by EDWARD, THE BLACK PRINCE. Al- then twenty-nine, was married by proxy to though long characterized as a horrific Isabella, the eight-year-old daughter of massacre of noncombatants perpetrated by Charles VI (see ISABELLA,QUEEN OF ENGLAND an ill and angry prince, the sack is today [1388–1409]). Although no final agreement considered to have been less destructive of could be reached, the Truce of Leulinghen civilian life than is portrayed in the chief was extended for almost thirty years, prom- source for the period, the Chronicles of Jean ising peace for the next generation. FROISSART. However, in England, the peace policy On 21 August 1370, an army led by JOHN, was unpopular and its continuance rested DUKE OF BERRY, younger brother of CHARLES largely on the king’s ability to impose it on V, arrived outside Limoges. The town had the nobility. In September 1399, Henry of two parts. The first, dominated by the castle, Bolingbroke, the son of JOHN OF GAUNT, late was held by a strong English garrison; the duke of Lancaster, overthrew his cousin and second, the cite´, or administrative center took the throne as HENRY IV. Although pro- dominated by the cathedral and governed longed resistance to his usurpation pre- by the bishop, had no English troops. By the vented him from actively implementing it, 1259 Treaty of PARIS, the fortress and its Henry won the throne in part by promising surrounding town had been ceded to the to pursue a war policy. In France, the grow- king-duke of AQUITAINE, but the episcopal ing rivalry between Orle´ans, who advocated cite´ had continued under French control. In renewal of the war against an insecure 1360, the whole of Limoges had become part Henry IV, and JOHN THE FEARLESS, duke of of the English-held duchy of Aquitaine BURGUNDY, who supported maintenance of under the Treaty of BRE´ TIGNY. Ignoring the the truce, split the French nobility and shift- English garrison in the castle, Berry laid ed their attention from the English threat to siege to the cite´, which Bishop Jean de Cros the pursuit of their own quarrels. Thus, by surrendered without a fight on 24 August. 1413, the outbreak of civil war in France and Berry then installed a small French garrison the accession of the young and ambitious and withdrew. News of this defection en- HENRY V to the English throne rendered the raged the Black Prince. The bishop was Truce of Leulinghen inoperative and paved godfather to the prince’s eldest son, and the way for the renewal of war with the 1415 Edward had considered de Cros a trusted English invasion of France. friend. Further Reading: Neillands, Robin. The Hun- Accompanied by his brothers, JOHN OF dred Years War. London: Routledge, 1991; Perroy, GAUNT, duke of Lancaster, and EDMUND OF Edouard. The Hundred Years War. Trans. W. B. LANGLEY, the prince, who was forced by ill- Wells. New York: Capricorn Books, 1965. ness to travel by litter, left Angouleˆme on 7 September with an army of over three thousand men. Reaching Limoges on 14 LIBELLUS FAMOSUS. See CRISIS OF 1340– September, the prince ordered that the walls 1341; STRATFORD,JOHN,ARCHBISHOP OF CAN- of the cite´ be mined. Because Berry’s army TERBURY was still in the area, and another French

194 LOIRE CAMPAIGN force under Constable Bertrand du GUESCLIN Rheims, where the dauphin could be was also nearby, the English were anxious to crowned as King CHARLES VII. retake the town quickly. The mine was fired The French broke the English siege of Or- early on 19 September and a section of the le´ans on 8 May 1429. However, English gar- wall collapsed, allowing the English to pour risons installed in the previous autumn by into the town, overwhelm the garrison, and Thomas MONTAGU, earl of Salisbury, con- capture its leaders. Also taken captive, the tinued to control the nearby Loire towns of bishop was threatened with execution, but Jargeau, Beaugency, and Meung-sur-Loire. eventually released, while the French com- Although many possible objectives were manders were held to RANSOM. considered for a new campaign, Joan insisted According to Froissart, the English that priority be given to completion of the slaughtered the inhabitants of the town, second part of her mission, the crowning of with more than ‘‘three thousand persons, the dauphin at Rheims. The first step toward men, women, and children ...dragged out this goal was the reduction of English garri- to have their throats cut’’ (Froissart, 178), sons along the Loire, to which the dauphin and the prince angrily rejecting all entreaties agreed in early June. Thus, on 10 June, after a to restrain his men. However, other con- month spent reinforcing and resupplying the temporary accounts put the number of dead army, which had been seriously worn down at three hundred and make no mention of at Orle´ans, the French, now about six thou- the massacre of civilians. While some non- sand strong, began to move against Jargeau. combatants may have died in the assault, Although Joan was again accompanied by all and most of the men under arms were the captains of Orle´ans, including John, the probably slain, Froissart’s wholesale de- Bastard of Orle´ans (see JOHN, COUNT OF DU- struction of civilians is unlikely to have oc- NOIS AND LONGUEVILLE);E´ tienne de VIGNOLLES curred. What made the fall of Limoges (La Hire); and Poton de XAINTRAILLES, overall memorable was the virtual razing of the cite´ command of the army was given to JOHN, after it had been thoroughly pillaged. Meant DUKE OF ALENC¸ON, the dauphin’s friend and as a warning to other towns thinking about kinsman. abandoning their English allegiance, the The attack on Jargeau, which lay east of sack of Limoges did little to deter defections Orle´ans, began on 11 June, when the French and served only to highlight the prince’s beat back an English sortie and captured inability to effectively reassert his authority. most of the suburbs. On 12 June, French AR- Increasingly ill, and disheartened by the re- TILLERY began battering the walls. The En- cent death of his son and the deterioration of glish commander, William de la POLE, earl of English authority in Aquitaine, the prince Suffolk, tried to arrange surrender talks with returned to England in January 1371. La Hire, but the French leadership rejected Further Reading: Barber, Richard. Edward, the overture. At Joan’s urging, Alenc¸on fol- Prince of Wales and Aquitaine. New York: Charles lowed the bombardment with an assault on Scribner’s Sons, 1978; Froissart, Jean. Chronicles. the town. The attack finally succeeded when Trans. Geoffrey Brereton. New York: Penguin the Maid, who had been in the thick of the 1978. battle encouraging the men, was knocked down by a stone thrown from the walls. LINCOLN, BISHOP OF. See BURGHERSH, Upon seeing her rise and urge them forward, HENRY,BISHOP OF LINCOLN the French renewed the assault and carried the town; Suffolk was taken prisoner, and LOIRE CAMPAIGN (1429) most of his men were killed or captured. Led by JOAN OF ARC, the French Loire On 15 June, the French marched west of Campaign of June 1429 followed up the re- Orle´ans to assault the fortified bridge at lief of ORLE´ANS by freeing the Loire Valley of Meung, which they captured and garri- English garrisons and clearing a path to soned. With John TALBOT and his men thus

195 LONDON trapped in Meung, the French continued archs, such as RICHARD II and HENRY VI, west to Beaugency, where on about 16 June found themselves or their governments fre- the army was joined by a thousand men quently at odds with Londoners. under Arthur de Richemont, constable of London was a magnet for both knightly France (see ARTHUR III). Although Richemont and peasant immigrants from the country- was currently out of favor with the dauphin side; its population in the late fourteenth and thus should not have been received, century is estimated at almost ninety thou- Joan welcomed him and his men when an sand, even though the BLACK DEATH had English relief force under Sir John FASTOLF reduced it by one-third in the late 1340s. arrived outside Beaugency on 17 June. While Dominated by the great craft guilds, whose continuing the assault on the town, the members were freemen of the city and thus French formed line of battle, inviting Fastolf entitled to vote and hold office, London by to attack. Perhaps aware of the presence of the 1330s had enjoyed a century of self- Richemont and his men, Fastolf refused and government. The chief municipal officer was withdrew to Meung. The French then re- the mayor, who, with two sheriffs and a turned to Beaugency, which the English council of aldermen, governed the city and commanders, Matthew Gough and Richard presided over its courts. A legislative body, Guestin, surrendered that evening. the Court of Common Council, was estab- Next day, 18 June, Fastolf attacked the lished in the fourteenth century. Royal at- bridge at Meung, but his assault failed. As tempts to withdraw or limit the city’s rights elements of the French army arrived from and liberties along with royal demands for Beaugency, Fastolf decided to abandon money were the most frequent causes of Meung and retreat northward with his conflict between London and the Crown. army and Talbot’s garrison. With Joan again Such hostility had been common in the demanding speed, the French pursued century before Edward III’s accession in their foes and that afternoon caught and 1327. Henry III, EDWARD I, and EDWARD II defeated them at PATAY, thus clearing the had each imposed direct royal rule on the Loire Valley of English and opening the city at some point during their reigns. road to Rheims. Strong, popular, and victorious, Edward III Further Reading: Burne, Alfred H. The Agin- was able to extract the war funding he court War. Ware, England: Wordsworth Editions needed from the city without doing so, even Ltd., 1999; DeVries, Kelly. Joan of Arc: A Military though he followed policies that often Leader. Stroud, England: Sutton Publishing, 2003. harmed London’s economy. Edward’s ma- nipulation of the wool trade in the late 1330s LONDON (see DORDRECHT BONDS) and his selling of By far the largest city in the realm, London special trade licenses to foreign merchants in was the center of English trade and com- the 1360s were particularly resented. merce and thus a major source of Crown In the 1370s, the new vulnerability of revenue. The royal government, head- English overseas trade, as illustrated by the quartered in Westminster two miles west of naval disaster at LA ROCHELLE, and a sharp the city, relied heavily on loans and taxes decline in the aging king’s personal author- raised from the merchants and residents of ity caused London’s relations with the Crown London to pay for the HUNDRED YEARS WAR. to deteriorate. In 1376, the so-called Good As a result, London’s wartime relations with PARLIAMENT impeached various corrupt and the English Crown were generally more incompetent government officials, including volatile than PARIS’s relations with the three royalist members of the Court of Al- French Crown. Strong and militarily suc- dermen. The city was particularly hostile to cessful kings, such as EDWARD III and HENRY JOHN OF GAUNT, duke of Lancaster, who V, had little trouble tapping the city’s dominated the royal government in the last wealth, while weak or less martial mon- years of Edward III and the first of Richard

196 LONDON, FIRST TREATY OF

II. Already unpopular because of an un- king’s call for supplies to relieve besieged successful war and his failure to protect HARFLEUR, and, in 1418, when Henry, then English vessels from French attacks on the besieging ROUEN, requested food and drink high seas, Lancaster further angered Lon- ‘‘for the refreshing of us and our said host’’ doners by granting extensive trading rights (Inwood, 82), they readily dispatched con- to Italian merchants, thereby seriously veyances with the needed supplies. threatening the city’s commercial su- All this changed after Henry’s death in premacy. The result was city support, at 1422. For economic and patriotic reasons, least in its early stages, for the PEASANTS’ Londoners strongly supported the main- REVOLT OF 1381, during which Lancaster’s tenance of Lancastrian France, and the city magnificent London residence, the Savoy, invested heavily in the war during its last was destroyed by rebellious Londoners. two decades. Between the late 1420s and Under Richard II, London’s relations with the Battle of CASTILLON in 1453, London the Crown worsened. Alienated by the loaned the Crown an average of £6,000 per king’s extravagant court, Londoners strongly year. However, by the 1440s, defeat in supported THOMAS OF WOODSTOCK, duke of France and economic depression at home Gloucester, and the other Appellants when, generated much anger in the city against as part of their attempt to curb Richard’s the royal government, which was seen as authority, they tried and executed the city’s dominated by corrupt and incompetent royalist mayor, Nicholas Brembre, in 1388. courtiers, such as William de la POLE, duke In 1392, Richard, now back in power, pun- of Suffolk. In 1450, Londoners were initially ished the city’s refusal to loan him money by sympathetic to JACK CADE’S REBELLION, but revoking London’s privileges and liberties, when the rebels looted the city, opinion in seizing control of its revenues, and imposing London turned against them, and on the an enormous fine of £100,000. Although the night of 5 July the citizens joined the Tower king eventually reduced the fine and re- garrison in expelling the insurgents. By the stored some of the privileges, London end of the war, dissatisfaction with Henry warmly welcomed HENRY IV when he de- VI was already turning into support for his posed Richard in 1399. rival, RICHARD, DUKE OF YORK, whose fac- Relations with the Crown improved tion retained the allegiance of London under the House of LANCASTER. The city throughout most of the subsequent civil made frequent loans to the impecunious war. See also TOWNS AND THE HUNDRED Henry IV, with three-time mayor Richard YEARS WAR. Whittington loaning the king almost £25,000 Further Reading: Baker, Timothy. Medieval by 1413. Although plague, foreign competi- London. New York: Praeger, 1970; Inwood, Ste- tion, and French depredations depressed phen. A History of London. New York: Carroll and trade and population in the early fifteenth Graf Publishers, 1998; Sheppard, Francis. London: century, the popular Henry V had little A History. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1998; trouble obtaining loans and TAXATION from Williams, Gwyn A. Medieval London from Com- London. In the city, Henry’s revival of the mune to Capital. London: Athlone, 1970. war was popular, promising a restoration of national glory, safe sea lanes, and profits LONDON, FIRST TREATY OF (1358) from plunder and RANSOMS. The king’s cle- Concluded on 8 May 1358 in a formal cere- ver PROPAGANDA efforts, including much mony held in the hall of , the triumphant pageantry surrounding celebra- First Treaty of London (also known as the tions of his victory at AGINCOURT, his con- Treaty of Windsor) was the initial Anglo- clusion of the Treaty of TROYES, and his French accord negotiated after the English marriage to CATHERINE OF VALOIS, ensured capture of JOHN II at POITIERS in 1356. More civic support for his campaigns. In 1416, an agreement as to John’s RANSOM terms Londoners enthusiastically responded to the than a settlement of outstanding issues, the

197 LONDON, SECOND TREATY OF treaty failed because its financial terms and the intrigues of Navarre left his govern- could not be met by a French government ment weak and distracted and made collec- weakened by internal disorder. tion of the first ransom payment impossible. Negotiations between John II and EDWARD When no money arrived on 1 November, and III began in LONDON in September 1357. Little a French embassy asked Edward for more progress was made until November, when time, complaining that the depredations of news arrived of the escape from prison of his own subjects were preventing fulfillment CHARLES THE BAD, king of Navarre, an event of the agreement, Edward angrily declared that greatly increased the likelihood of civil that the routiers were not his responsibility war in France and further weakened the and demanded strict compliance with every VALOIS hold on the French throne. With John treaty provision. With this clearly impossible, anxious to return to France, and Edward Edward informed the dauphin on 20 No- anxious to take advantage of his captive’s vember that he was no longer bound by the desperation, a provisional treaty was con- treaty and would resume the war on ex- cluded by the end of the year. The agreement piration of the truce. The First Treaty of set John’s ransom at 4 million e´cus (£667,000). London was thus dead by late 1358, although The sum of 600,000 e´cus (£100,000) was to be Edward and John soon began new talks that paid by 1 November 1358 to secure John’s led to conclusion of the Second Treaty of release, with the rest of the ransom to come London in March 1359. See also BRE´TIGNY, in regular installments over a period of TREATY OF; ESTATES, GENERAL AND PROVINCIAL; years. Edward was also to receive, in full LONDON, SECOND TREATY OF. sovereignty, most of southwestern France, Further Reading: Curry, Anne. The Hundred about a quarter of the kingdom. In the north, Years War. 2nd ed. Houndmills, England: Pal- John surrendered CALAIS and its pale, the grave Macmillan, 2003; Sumption, Jonathan. The county of Ponthieu, the town of Montreuil, Hundred Years War. Vol. 2, Trial by Fire. Philadel- and the Norman lands left to Edward by phia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2001. Godfrey of HARCOURT. Other clauses called for the restoration of Navarre’s brother, LONDON, SECOND TREATY OF (1359) Philip, to all his French lands and for an Negotiated in little more than a month be- eventual resolution of the BRETON CIVIL WAR. tween a captive king and his captor, the The treaty demanded no concessions of Ed- Second Treaty of London was sealed by the ward and required John to secure perfor- monarchs of England and France in LONDON mance of his undertakings with the surren- on 24 March 1359. Desperate to return to der of numerous hostages, including most of France where internal disorder and the re- the chief nobles of France and two prominent bellion of CHARLES THE BAD, king of Navarre, citizens from each of the 20 largest towns. threatened the continuance of the VALOIS While humiliating to John, the terms of the dynasty, JOHN II was willing to make almost treaty were actually less harsh than those of any concession to win his release. Even the abortive Treaty of GUINES of 1354, though he had little knowledge of condi- Edward having dropped his claims to NOR- tions in France, where the political position MANDY and the western Loire Valley. None- of his son, the dauphin (see CHARLES V), had theless, in France, the agreement was widely recently improved, John rapidly concluded opposed, especially in PARIS. In February an agreement that represented an almost 1358, the Estates-General rejected the treaty complete surrender to EDWARD III. and sought to limit John’s power to conduct When failure to pay the initial installment negotiations while a prisoner. Although the of John’s RANSOM led Edward to abandon the dauphin (see CHARLES V) gradually strength- First Treaty of London (see LONDON,FIRST ened his position as head of the French state, TREATY OF) in November 1358, the French revolution in Paris, the JACQUERIE uprisings, king and his advisors, all captives in Lon- the brigandage of Anglo-Gascon ROUTIERS, don, concluded that further territorial

198 LOUIS, DUKE OF ANJOU concessions were required to end the war ward learned of this decision, he abandoned and convince Edward to join with John in the treaty and announced his intention of crushing Navarre’s uprising. Thus, while invading France before the end of the year. the ransom terms of the new agreement Recruitment for a campaign aimed at the were similar to those of the first treaty—a capture of Rheims, the traditional corona- total of 4 million e´cus (£667,000), a first in- tion site of French kings, began in June. stallment of 600,000 e´cus (£100,000) due by 1 Thus, the RHEIMS CAMPAIGN, launched August 1359, and the surrender of hostages in October 1359, had as its objective the to guarantee the rest—the territorial con- crowning of Edward as king of France. See cessions were far more extensive. Besides also BRE´ TIGNY, TREATY OF; ESTATES, GENERAL the surrender of southwestern France called AND PROVINCIAL. for in the first treaty, the second agreement Further Reading: Curry, Anne. The Hundred also gave Edward NORMANDY,BRITTANY, Years War. 2nd ed. Houndmills, England: Pal- Maine, Anjou, and Touraine, all in full so- grave Macmillan, 2003; Sumption, Jonathan. The vereignty. In effect, the treaty recreated the Hundred Years War. Vol. 2, Trial by Fire. Philadel- twelfth-century Angevin Empire of Henry phia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2001. II. Along with CALAIS and an enlarged pale that included the Boulonnais, Edward LONGBOW. See ARCHERS would dispossess the Valois of almost half their kingdom and control all the French LONGUEVILLE, COUNT OF. See JOHN, Atlantic provinces except FLANDERS and Pi- COUNT OF DUNOIS AND LONGUEVILLE cardy. For his part, Edward agreed to re- nounce his claim to the French throne, to LORDS APPELLANT. See RICHARD II; release John upon delivery of the initial THOMAS OF WOODSTOCK,DUKE OF GLOUCESTER ransom payment, and to join the French king in making war on Navarre should he fail to LOUIS, DUKE OF ANJOU (1339–1384) accept the treaty by 24 June. Louis, duke of Anjou, was the second son Because the agreement was so favorable to of JOHN II and the brother of CHARLES V. Edward, some chroniclers speculated that Embittered by his experience as an English the English king had never expected it to hostage, Anjou opposed the Treaty of be ratified by the French, but had instead BRE´ TIGNY and sought the conquest of imposed its impossible terms merely as a AQUITAINE. As his brother’s lieutenant in means of justifying another invasion of Languedoc after 1364, he strove to under- France once the treaty was rejected. Al- mine the English position in southwestern though possible, such a ploy seems unlikely, France. for both kings sincerely tried to convince In 1354, when Anjou was only fifteen, their subjects to accept the agreement. In John II gave his son as a hostage to CHARLES France, despite John’s support, the treaty THE BAD, king of Navarre, who required a met great resistance. PARIS and other towns safe-conduct before traveling to PARIS to re- were appalled by the prospect of England ceive pardon for murder. Although present controlling the mouths of most major French at the Battle of POITIERS in September 1356, rivers, while taxpayers in the remaining Anjou did not witness his father’s capture, Valois territories, seeing some of the richest having left the field when his uncle, Philip, provinces handed to the PLANTAGENETS, re- duke of Orle´ans, mistakenly withdrew his fused to be saddled with the entire burden men after the initial French attack. of John’s ransom. When the Estates-General In 1360, Anjou, acting under compulsion, met in Paris on 19 May 1359, the deputies, surrendered himself to the English as a hos- after long deliberations, pronounced the tage for his father’s RANSOM. Having recently treaty unacceptable and urged the dauphin married for love, Anjou was particularly to reject it and prepare for war. When Ed- frustrated by the slow pace of negotiations

199 LOUIS, DUKE OF GUIENNE and the failure of the French government to the conquest of Naples. Having persuaded make sufficient payment to secure his re- the French government to give him an army, lease. He was therefore one of the signatories Anjou invaded Italy but was defeated by his to the 1362 Treaty of the HOSTAGES, a private rival, Charles of Durazzo. The duke died in agreement negotiated by the captives with Italy in 1384. EDWARD III. The treaty won the hostages’ re- Further Reading: Perroy, Edouard. The Hun- moval to CALAIS, but otherwise became a dred Years War. Trans. W. B. Wells. New York: dead letter when Anjou broke parole by re- Capricorn Books, 1965; Sumption, Jonathan. The fusing to return to English custody after a Hundred Years War. Vol. 2, Trial by Fire. Philadel- three-day visit to his wife. The English pro- phia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2001. claimed his flight shameful and dishonor- able, and his father demanded his return, but LOUIS, DUKE OF GUIENNE (1397–1415) Anjou refused, and John’s voluntary return Although only in his teens, Louis, duke of to captivity was motivated in part by a desire Guienne and dauphin of France, was a to restore his family’s honor. major figure in the FRENCH CIVIL WAR, having An intelligent man and an astute politi- been forced by his father’s mental illness to cian, Anjou, unlike his brothers, was also take an active role in government. Frustrat- a competent soldier. However, his many ing both ARMAGNAC and BURGUNDIAN at- gifts, as one contemporary writer declared, tempts to dominate him, the dauphin tried ‘‘were tarnished by his unbounded greed’’ unsuccessfully to reconcile the factions by (Sumption, 527) and his lust for power. The creating his own moderate royalist party. duke harbored designs on the kingdoms of The eighth child of CHARLES VI and ISA- Majorca and Naples, and, as lieutenant of BEAU OF BAVARIA, Louis became dauphin at Languedoc, conducted a semi-independent the death of his brother Charles in 1401. His foreign policy that generally supported his APPANAGE, the duchy of Guienne, comprised brother’s goals but always furthered his own those parts of AQUITAINE not held by the ambitions. English and constituted a future incentive to Anjou led opposition to the Bre´tigny set- overthrow English power throughout the tlement and, from his position in Langue- southwest. Entrusted to his mother’s guar- doc, worked secretly to obstruct the English dianship, Guienne quickly became a pawn administration in Aquitaine. He orchestrated in the escalating feud between JOHN THE French intervention in the CASTILIAN WAR OF FEARLESS, duke of BURGUNDY, and the dau- SUCCESSION in 1365 and again two years later phin’s uncle, CHARLES, DUKE OF ORLE´ ANS.To after the initial effort collapsed in defeat at prevent him from falling into Burgundy’s NA´ JERA in 1367. While the king sought hands, the queen and Orle´ans spirited him mainly to draw ROUTIERS out of France and out of PARIS in August 1405, although the to distract EDWARD, THE BLACK PRINCE, Anjou Burgundians quickly overtook the dau- always saw the Castilian venture as a pre- phin’s party and brought him back to the lude to the conquest of Aquitaine. By 1373, capital. In December 1409, two years after the duke’s efforts resulted in a friendly re- Orle´ans’s murder by Burgundian assassins, gime in Castile and in a series of campaigns, Burgundy assumed guardianship of the some of which he led, that recaptured many twelve-year-old dauphin. Although Gui- of the territories surrendered to the English enne was empowered to summon and pre- in 1360. side over the council in his parents’ absence, On the accession of twelve-year-old real power rested with Burgundy. CHARLES VI in 1380, Anjou, as eldest uncle, By 1412, the dauphin began to assert his claimed the regency. He eventually agreed independence, overseeing, against Burgun- to forego the title of regent, but dominated dy’s advice, the drafting of the Treaty of the government until 1382, when he with- Auxerre with the Armagnac princes and ar- drew to Provence to launch a campaign for ranging a public ceremony of reconciliation

200 LOUIS, DUKE OF ORLE´ ANS between his warring relatives. In early 1413, brother of CHARLES VI. A clever and de- the dauphin, whose entourage inclined to- termined man, Louis sought to rule for his ward the Armagnacs, decided to move weak and mentally unstable brother, an am- against Burgundy, but was forestalled by the bition that brought him into conflict with his duke, who fomented the CABOCHIEN in- uncle and cousin of BURGUNDY. This rivalry surrection in Paris to overawe the court split the French royal family and led even- and secure his control of the government. tually to the outbreak of the FRENCH CIVIL However, by summer, moderates in Paris, WAR, which allowed the English to invade alarmed by the excesses of the Cabochiens, France and reopen the HUNDRED YEARS WAR. rallied around Guienne, who negotiated the Made count of Valois by his father in 1375, peace of Pontoise with the Armagnac lead- Louis received the Duchy of Touraine from ers in late July. On 4 August, the dauphin his brother in 1386. Touraine married Val- made a triumphal entry into Paris, which, entina Visconti, daughter of the duke of with the continuing Cabochien violence, Milan in 1387. Besides the county of Asti, the turned the capital against Burgundy, who bride’s dowry, the match gave Touraine fled on 23 August. ambitions in Italy. In the early 1390s, the In 1414, seeking to avoid domination by Avignon pope, Clement VII, proposed an the new Armagnac regime, Guienne greatly eventually unsuccessful plan to make Tour- increased his suite of household retainers in aine ruler of the papal states of central Italy. an effort to create a moderate party under his The duke convinced the French royal coun- own leadership. After an unsuccessful mili- cil, which he then dominated, to provide tary campaign against Burgundy, Guienne military support for his Italian adventures negotiated the peace of Arras, which was and to ally with Milan, a commitment that ratified in February 1415. The agreement benefited Touraine more than the kingdom. annulled the decree of banishment against However, a council no longer controlled by Burgundy, but excluded him from power the duke terminated the alliance in 1395, and and led the duke to withdraw to his own Touraine’s Italian ambitions came to naught, domains in sullen neutrality. In 1414–15, being eventually consumed by his quest for the dauphin participated in negotiations power in France itself. with HENRY V, whose escalating demands Touraine entered French politics in No- made renewal of the HUNDRED YEARS WAR vember 1388, when, with the assistance of inevitable. In preparation, the king ap- the MARMOUSETS, he engineered a coup that pointed Guienne captain-general of the ended his uncles’ control of the royal gov- frontiers in April 1415. Unable to prevent the ernment. The king, who had been largely English capture of HARFLEUR in September, under his uncles’ tutelage since his accession Guienne was not allowed to be present at the in 1380, was declared of full age and in disastrous Battle of AGINCOURT in October. personal control of the government, a move When the dauphin died childless in the fol- that permitted dismissal of the royal uncles lowing December, his passing ended efforts from the council and of their supporters at Armagnac-Burgundian reconciliation and from the government. Touraine now filled led to an intensification of the civil war. the royal administration with his followers Further Reading: Famiglietti, Richard C. Royal and controlled both council and court, Intrigue: Crisis at the Court of Charles VI, 1392– where he encouraged the weak-minded king 1420. New York: AMS Press, 1986; Perroy, and his more politically adept wife, Queen Edouard. The Hundred Years War. Trans. W. B. ISABEAU, in their constant balls and revels. In Wells. New York: Capricorn Books, 1965. June 1392, the duke exchanged Touraine for the wealthier duchy of Orle´ans. LOUIS, DUKE OF ORLE´ ANS (1372–1407) The onset of the king’s madness in August Louis, duke of Orle´ans, was the second sur- 1392 ended the duke’s political dominance viving son of CHARLES V and the younger and allowed the royal uncles, particularly

201 LOUIS X, KING OF FRANCE

PHILIP THE BOLD, duke of Burgundy, to re- And unlike the French failure to take ad- assert their influence, and thereafter Orle´ans vantage of Henry IV’s troubles, HENRY V and Burgundy, supported by growing and made the most of the opportunity provided increasingly hostile factions, struggled with by this civil war. Orle´ans was succeeded as one another to control the government. After duke by his thirteen-year-old son Charles Burgundy’s death in April 1404, the rivalry (see CHARLES,DUKE OF ORLE´ ANS). See also with Orle´ans was intensified by the late Justification of the Duke of Burgundy. duke’s son, JOHN THE FEARLESS, who, al- Further Reading: Famiglietti, Richard. Royal though less influential than his father, was Intrigue: Crisis at the Court of Charles VI, 1392–1420. equally ambitious. Each cousin worked New York: AMS Press, 1986; Perroy, Edouard. The continually against the interests of the other Hundred Years War.Trans.W.B.Wells.NewYork: and the council became the scene of violent Capricorn Books, 1965. disputes between the two. Having more personal charm and political experience LOUIS X, KING OF FRANCE (1289–1316) than his rival, Orle´ans proved generally Known as le Hutin, ‘‘the Quarrelsome’’ more successful, winning the support of the Louis X was the eldest son of PHILIP IV and queen, who was accused by the BURGUN- Jeanne of Navarre. Louis’s death without DIANS of being Orle´ans’s lover. In 1405, when male heirs initiated the first succession crisis Burgundy threatened to impose his will by in the history of the royal House of CAPET force, Orle´ans and the queen spirited the and led to acceptance of the notion that dauphin, LOUIS, DUKE OF GUIENNE, out of women could not inherit the throne of PARIS, and civil war was only narrowly France. This principle proved of prime im- averted. portance twelve years later when one of the Although the war with England had been claimants to the French Crown was EDWARD suspended by the Truce of LEULINGHEN, III, king of England. Orle´ans believed that the deposition of RI- At the death of his mother on 2 April 1305, CHARD II in 1399 and the continuing internal Louis inherited her lands, becoming count of rebellion that plagued his supplanter, HENRY Champagne and king of Navarre. Five IV, offered France a golden opportunity to months later, on 23 September, Louis mar- expel the English from GASCONY and CALAIS. ried Marguerite of BURGUNDY, who in 1312 In 1404, despite Burgundy’s opposition, bore him a daughter, Jeanne. In 1314, Philip Orle´ans persuaded the royal council to ap- IV, possibly on information provided by his prove campaigns against both. However, daughter, Isabella, the wife of EDWARD II of Orle´ans, more a courtier than a soldier, England (see ISABELLA,QUEEN OF ENGLAND [c. failed in his 1406 invasion of Gascony, and 1292–1358]), publicly accused Louis’s wife, Burgundy’s half-hearted investment of Ca- and the wife of Louis’s younger brother, lais was also unsuccessful. By 1407, the two Charles of La Marche (see CHARLES IV), of dukes were more interested in fighting each adultery. Although the details of the affair other than fighting the English. are uncertain, Philip was convinced of the On 23 November 1407, Orle´ans, who had charges and had the women imprisoned and spent the evening with the queen, was lured their alleged lovers executed. Louis, there- into an ambush in a dark Paris street and fore, spent the last months of his father’s murdered by assassins hired by Burgundy. reign attempting to secure a papal annul- Claiming that he had acted ‘‘through the in- ment of his marriage. tervention of the devil’’ (Perroy, 227), Bur- Louis succeeded his father in November gundy confessed his crime and fled the 1314, but was not crowned until 3 August capital. Orle´ans’s death therefore became 1315. He inherited a monarchy tarnished by the initiating event of a long struggle be- the adultery scandal, which threw doubt on tween the Burgundians and the ARMAGNACS the legitimacy of Philip IV’s grandchildren, (as Orle´ans’s faction was eventually called). and weakened by widespread discontent

202 LOUIS DE MALE, COUNT OF FLANDERS over the late king’s financial policies and English-backed regime of Ghent burghers frequent disregard of traditional rights. To that had ruled Flanders since driving his fa- placate the leagues of disaffected subjects ther into exile in 1339, Louis, assisted by that had formed in the last months of French troops, led a band of Flemish exiles Philip’s reign, Louis undertook a series of into the county in August 1348 to support an reforms and, influenced by his uncle, uprising against the Ghent government in Charles, count of Valois, executed his fa- the town of Alost. On 29 August, he prom- ther’s most unpopular minister, Enguerran ised amnesty to Bruges, where loyalty to the de Marigny. House of Dampierre was strong. Although The death of the imprisoned Marguerite both Ghent and Bruges sent armies against in April 1315 allowed Louis to marry the count, Louis divided the former with Clemence of Hungary on the following 31 promises of pardon and full restoration of July. Clemence was pregnant when Louis municipal privileges. When the army of died on 5 June 1316, after a reign of less than Bruges mutinied and declared for the count, two years. On his deathbed, the king de- the army of Ghent dissolved and Louis clared Jeanne, his daughter by Marguerite, marched triumphantly across Flanders, ar- legitimate, apparently intending her to suc- riving at Bruges on 17 September. When the ceed should Clemence miscarry or have a city opened its gates to him, Louis promptly girl. Born on 13 November, Clemence’s son, blockaded both Ghent and Ypres, forcing John I, died five days after his birth, leaving them to appeal to EDWARD III for aid. the succession in dispute between Louis’s Realizing that he had to placate the four-year-old daughter Jeanne and his 26- militantly pro-English elements within his year-old brother Philip, count of Poitiers, county, which, in any event, was still eco- who had acted as regent since Louis’s death. nomically dependent on English wool, Louis Despite much opposition, the count was opened negotiations with Edward. In De- crowned as PHILIP V in January 1317, and an cember 1348, these talks resulted in the assembly of notables, faced with an anointed treaties of Dunkirk, whereby the English monarch, proclaimed, as a rule of law, that a king accepted restoration of the count’s au- woman could not succeed to the throne. thority and his formal allegiance to PHILIP VI Jeanne was eventually allowed to inherit the in return for a promise of friendship and Crown of Navarre, which at her death in Louis’s willingness to allow his subjects to 1349 passed to her son, CHARLES THE BAD. See continue recognizing Edward as king of also SALIC LAW OF SUCCESSION. France. A second agreement, which was Further Reading: Brown, Elizabeth A.R. never put into effect, bound Louis to re- ‘‘Kings Like Semi-Gods: The Case of Louis X of nounce his French allegiance if Philip did France.’’ Majestas 1 (1993): 5–37; Brown, Elizabeth not restore Artois and other territories taken A. R. The Monarchy of Capetian France and Royal from Flanders. Although the former had to Ceremonial. London: Variorum, 1991; Strayer, be taken by storm, both Ghent and Ypres Joseph R. The Reign of Philip the Fair. Princeton, were under the count’s control by mid-Jan- NJ: Princeton University Press, 1980. uary 1349. Forced to consult with the larger towns LOUIS DE MALE, COUNT OF before levying taxation, Louis nevertheless FLANDERS (1330–1384) strengthened and professionalized the cen- Louis de Male, count of FLANDERS, preserved tral administration and won the support of his authority for most his rule by balancing smaller towns by confirming their right to formal allegiance to VALOIS France and in- produce certain types of cloth. In 1360, he formal alliance with PLANTAGENET England. was a signatory to the Treaty of BRE´ TIGNY, Louis succeeded his father, LOUIS DE thereby officially making peace with En- NEVERS, upon the latter’s death at CRE´ CY in gland, and, in 1363, Edward III established August 1346. Intent on overthrowing the the wool staple at Calais, thereby stabilizing

203 LOUIS DE NEVERS, COUNT OF FLANDERS the flow of English wool into Flanders. In By order of PHILIP IV, Louis had been re- 1368, Louis was the only French vassal to moved from his family as a child and raised refuse to publish CHARLES V’s proclamation at the French court. When he succeeded his announcing his acceptance of the APPEAL OF grandfather, Robert de Be´thune, in 1322, he THE GASCON LORDS, an action that renewed was French in language and tastes and had the HUNDRED YEARS WAR. In 1375, the count little knowledge or experience of his county. mediated the Anglo-French talks at the In 1323, in a clumsy attempt to limit the priv- BRUGES PEACE CONFERENCE. ileges of the town of Bruges, Louis ignited a In 1363, Louis negotiated the marriage of rebellion that eventually engulfed almost the MARGUERITE, his daughter and heir, to ED- entire county. Unable to subdue his re- MUND OF LANGLEY, son of Edward III. Be- bellious subjects, Louis appealed to PHILIP VI, cause the match created the possibility of a who, being anxious to secure the count’s northern English APPANAGE based on Flan- support, crushed the Flemish rebels at Cassel ders, Charles V persuaded the French pope, on 23 August 1328, thereby restoring Louis to Urban V, to forbid the marriage because the power. Feeling himself beholden to Philip parties were within the prohibited degree of and unwilling to risk further French inter- kinship. Charles then proposed that Mar- ference in his county, Louis now pursued a guerite marry his brother, PHILIP THE BOLD, consistently pro-French policy. duke of BURGUNDY, for whom the pope In the 1330s, Louis’s continued meddling readily supplied the dispensation denied in municipal affairs again increased political Langley. Louis, angry over the failure of the tensions, causing even Ghent, which had not English match, did not approve the mar- supported the earlier uprising, to oppose riage until 1369, when the French agreed to him. With the advent of the Hundred Years return various territories taken from Flan- War, Flanders found itself caught between ders by PHILIP IV. Louis’s Valois allegiance and the great Louis excluded his son-in-law from the towns’ need for English wool, the cloth in- government until 1380, when the count’s dustry being the basis of the Flemish econ- favoring of Bruges caused a new uprising in omy. In August 1336, after Louis rejected a Ghent and forced him to seek assistance proposed ANGLO-FLEMISH ALLIANCE, the En- from Burgundy. In November 1382, a French glish government forbade wool exports, an army led by the duke crushed the Ghent action that devastated the Flemish economy. militia at Roosebeke, killing the rebel leader In October, when Philip forbade his vassals Philip van ARTEVELDE. Burgundy was thus to trade with the English, Louis dutifully effective ruler of Flanders when Louis died enforced the ban, thereby completely sever- on 30 January 1384. ing relations with England. Further Reading: Nicholas, David. Town and In January 1338, economic unrest result- Countryside: Social, Economic, and Political Tensions ing from the English embargo erupted into in Fourteenth-Century Flanders. Bruges: De Tem- open rebellion. Under the leadership of pel, 1971. James van ARTEVELDE, captain of Ghent, the Flemings forged an alliance with Edward III. LOUIS DE NEVERS, COUNT OF When attacks on Ghent and Bruges failed, FLANDERS (c. 1304–1346) Louis fled to PARIS in February 1339. He Although he spent much of his rule in exile accompanied the French army during the or at war with his people, Louis de Nevers, campaigns of 1339–40 (see THIE´ RACHE CAM- count of FLANDERS, was a loyal vassal of the PAIGN; TOURNAI, SIEGE OF), and was a member French Crown. His firm adherence to the of the French embassy that negotiated the VALOIS complicated efforts by EDWARD III to Truce of ESPLECHIN in September 1340. By build a strong ANTI-FRENCH COALITION in the 1342, the count’s intrigues against the in- Low Countries during the first decades of creasingly high-handed van Artevelde re- the HUNDRED YEARS WAR. gime slowly gained support, especially in

204 LOUIS DE NEVERS, COUNT OF FLANDERS the French-speaking areas of the county. In August 1346, the count was slain fighting for May 1345, the town of Dendermonde de- the Valois at the Battle of CRE´ CY. He was clared for the count and in July van Arte- succeeded as count by his son, LOUIS DE velde was assassinated in Ghent. However, MALE. the three great towns—Ghent, Bruges, and Further Reading: Lucas, Henry Stephen. The Ypres—refused to accept Louis unless he Low Countries and the Hundred Years’ War, 1326– recognized Edward as king of France. When 1347. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, the count refused, the towns concluded 1929; Nicholas, David. Town and Countryside: new agreements with the English king and Social, Economic, and Political Tensions in Four- Louis returned to the French court. On 26 teenth-Century Flanders. Bruges: De Tempel, 1971.

205 M

MAINE, SURRENDER OF (1448) Although Henry had committed himself The evacuation of Maine, a county in west- and his government, the surrender had no central France held for over two decades by support within the Norman administration the English, occurred in 1448, two and a half or the Maine garrisons, both of which had to years after HENRY VI secretly agreed to sur- cooperate if the evacuation was to occur. As render the province as a means of facilitat- a result, several surrender dates passed ing an Anglo-French peace. By discrediting without any action being taken. Armed with the English government at home and de- Henry’s letter, Charles made extension of moralizing the English military in France, the truce conditional on implementation of the abandonment of Maine was instru- the surrender. In England, rumors of the mental in ending the HUNDRED YEARS WAR. surrender generated much anger against Buffering English NORMANDY to the north Suffolk, who, in May 1447, solemnly de- and threatening French Anjou to the south, clared in the king’s presence that he had Maine was a vital part of Lancastrian France. never been party to any proposals to relin- Maine had been English since 1425, when quish Maine. In July 1447, Henry, in return JOHN, DUKE OF BEDFORD, had seized its capital, for an extension of the truce to 1 May 1448, Le Mans. In 1444, CHARLES VII demanded gave the French another written promise to Maine in return for accepting the Truce of surrender Maine. To implement this under- TOURS. Although William de la POLE,earlof taking, Edmund BEAUFORT, earl of Somerset, Suffolk, who negotiated the truce for the whom Henry had created count of Maine, English, was accused of secretly agreeing to replaced RICHARD, DUKE OF YORK, a royal the surrender, it is uncertain whether he ac- opponent, as king’s lieutenant in Nor- tually did so. The peace policy that compre- mandy. In July 1447, Somerset, acting as hended the surrender of Maine was the count of Maine, was ordered to convey the king’s policy; in the summer of 1445, Henry county to the English commanders in Le personally promised a French ambassador Mans, Mathew Gough and Fulk Eyton, who that he would restore the county by October. were, in turn, to surrender Maine to the Nothing came of this promise, mainly be- French. cause no royal councilor wanted to be asso- Expecting to oversee the surrender, Char- ciated with such an unpopular action. les’s representatives arrived in Le Mans in Nonetheless, on 22 December 1445, Henry, October. However, Gough and Eyton, sup- assured by Charles that the surrender of ported by such other English military leaders Maine would ensure a final peace, and re- as Sir John FASTOLF, frustrated the handover peatedly urged to relinquish the province by with a series of delaying tactics. In February his new wife, MARGARET OF ANJOU,whose 1448, Charles ignored the truce and laid siege father would thereby make good his claims to Le Mans. Unable to resist the new stand- to the county, secretly conveyed to Charles’s ing army Charles had constructed during representatives a letter formally promising to the truce, Gough and Eyton surrendered surrender Maine by 30 April 1446. Le Mans on 15 March. By June, the English

206 MALESTROIT, TRUCE OF garrisons of Maine had fallen back on Nor- convinced the French to intervene and a mandy, which now lay exposed to French royal army led by John, duke of NORMANDY attack from the south. Henry had under- (see JOHN II) entered the duchy in late De- mined his ministers and demoralized his cember. Normandy quickly recaptured all commanders by voluntarily surrendering a the recent English conquests and by mid- key portion of Lancastrian France for nothing January brought his army, which was more than Charles’s vague agreement to look significantly larger than the Anglo-Breton favorably on the conclusion of peace. The force, to within twenty miles of Vannes. surrender of Maine and the subsequent loss Unwilling to risk battle or reveal the of Normandy had serious political con- weakness of his army, Edward allowed two sequences in England, overthrowing Suffolk, cardinals, who had sought to arrange a truce tarnishing Somerset, and contributing to the since the previous summer, to begin nego- internal strife that led eventually to the Wars tiations for a cessation of hostilities, although of the Roses. See also CHARLES VII, MILITARY he would not allow them to view the size or REFORMS OF. condition of his army. On 19 January, rep- Further Reading: Griffiths, Ralph A. The Reign resentatives of the two kings signed a truce of King Henry VI. Berkeley: University of Califor- in the Church of St. Mary Magdalene in nia Press, 1981; Wolffe, Bertram. Henry VI. Malestroit. Although the agreement gave London: Eyre Methuen, 1981. Vannes to the pope, who was to hold it for Philip until expiration of the truce, its terms MALESTROIT, TRUCE OF (1343) were generally favorable to Edward. Both Concluded on 19 January 1343 and intended kings retained their current holdings in to run until 29 September 1346, the Truce of Brittany, FLANDERS,AQUITAINE, and SCOT- Malestroit was the first step in a papal effort LAND, and Philip agreed to release de Mont- to mediate a permanent settlement of the fort. This meant the English were free to HUNDRED YEARS WAR. Although financial consolidate their position in western Brit- exhaustion and military stalemate were the tany, to maintain their alliance with the re- main reasons PHILIP VI and EDWARD III ac- gime of James van ARTEVELDE in Flanders, cepted the truce, the stated purpose of the and to strengthen their garrisons in GAS- agreement was to permit both monarchs to CONY. Only in Scotland, where DAVID II had send representatives to Avignon to treat for recently driven the English from Roxburgh peace under the auspices of Pope CLEMENT and Sterling, did Edward sustain losses VI. In fact, the truce served mainly as a re- under the truce. spite that allowed both sides, but particu- In 1344, negotiations mediated by the larly the English, to renew their will and pope opened in Avignon. Because Edward ability to continue the war. believed Clement was pro-French and Philip In October 1342, Edward intervened per- believed he had the stronger hand, neither sonally in the BRETON CIVIL WAR to revive the king seriously pursued peace. Each made failing cause of John de MONTFORT, then a demands the other could not accept. The prisoner in PARIS. Landing in BRITTANY on 26 French refused to discuss either Edward’s October with an army of five thousand, claim to the French throne or the granting of Edward joined the Montfortists in a plan to full sovereignty to the PLANTAGENETsin recapture the town of Vannes. When an as- Aquitaine. Meanwhile, both sides violated sault failed on 29 November, Edward was the truce in Brittany and Aquitaine, while forced to lay siege. With the west of the the Scots continued raiding England and duchy safely Montfortist, Edward launched Philip refused to release de Montfort. When a CHEVAUCHE´ E into eastern Brittany, where the AVIGNON PEACE CONFERENCE collapsed in CHARLES OF BLOIS, the French-backed ducal February 1345, both parties were already claimant, was in control. The rapid capitu- preparing to renew the war. In the following lation of Re´don, Malestroit, and Ploermel June, more than a year before the truce’s

207 MANTES, TREATY OF intended expiration, Edward formally re- dismissed advisors, actions that caused nounced the Malestroit agreement. Marcel to break with the Crown and refuse Further Reading: Sumption, Jonathan. The to recruit Parisian contingents for the com- Hundred Years War. Vol. 1, Trial by Battle. ing campaign. After the king’s defeat and Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, capture at POITIERS in September, Marcel 1999. threw his support behind the partisans of the recently imprisoned Charles of Navarre, MANTES, TREATY OF. See CHARLES THE who controlled the session of the Estates- BAD,KING OF NAVARRE General that began in October. Before voting further supply, the Estates demanded that MARCEL, E´ TIENNE (1310–1358) the dauphin dismiss and try a number of E´ tienne Marcel was a prosperous PARIS royal officials, govern only with the advice draper, who, as the city’s provost of the of a permanent commission appointed by merchants, led a rebellion against the French the Estates, and release Charles of Navarre. Crown in 1357–58. By giving leadership and In December, a month after dismissing the focus to Parisians who were angered by the Estates and fleeing Paris, the dauphin or- high taxes and military defeats of the HUN- dered a new manipulation of the currency. DRED YEARS WAR, Marcel became virtual Marcel organized a boycott of the new ruler of Paris, driving the Dauphin Charles coinage and led a mob to the Louvre, where (see CHARLES V) from the capital and nego- the dauphin’s brother, LOUIS, DUKE OF tiating with CHARLES THE BAD, king of ANJOU, was compelled to suspend the coin- Navarre, and with other towns to form an age ordinance. Fearing that widespread ac- anti-VALOIS alliance. ceptance of the new issue would allow the Born into a cadet branch of a prominent dauphin to dispense with the Estates, Mar- family of Parisian merchants, Marcel, in cel continued to incite demonstrations of his about 1345, married the daughter of a supporters to dominate the city and over- wealthy banker, and used her dowry and awe the court. her father’s connections to launch a suc- In January 1357, the dauphin returned to cessful career as a cloth merchant. By the Paris, withdrew the new coinage, and re- late 1340s, he was a supplier of the royal called the Estates. In March, the Estates, court and a respected and influential busi- dominated by friends of Navarre and Mar- nessman. In 1354, he was elected provost of cel’s increasingly radical supporters, forced the merchants, an important municipal ma- the dauphin to accept a sweeping reform gistracy that gave him responsibility for the ordinance. By the end of the year, the pro- recruitment of the city’s military forces and vost and his supporters, who had adopted the maintenance of its defenses. As pro- distinctive hoods of crimson and blue as vost, he was also spokesman for the their insignia, controlled the city. On 22 representatives of the towns in the Estates- February 1358, Marcel, learning that the General, an office he performed when the dauphin planned to bring troops into Paris assembly met in Paris in December 1355. to overthrow the revolutionary regime, led a Marcel helped negotiate an agreement mob to the Louvre, where the Parisians whereby JOHN II undertook to cease his de- murdered two royal marshals in the dau- basement of the coinage, dismiss certain of phin’s presence. In March, having appointed his ministers, and accept a series of gov- Marcel to his council, the dauphin left Paris ernmental reforms in return for a large grant and began rallying support against the rev- of TAXATION to finance new campaigns olutionaries, whose excesses generated against the English. sympathy for the dauphin in the provinces. In May 1356, the king, dissatisfied with In May, the provost gave support to the the tax so far collected, resumed his ma- JACQUERIE, which alienated most nobles from nipulation of the currency and recalled his his cause. By July, Marcel’s support was

208 MARGARET OF ANJOU, QUEEN OF ENGLAND ebbing in Paris. Continuing disorder and Henry and Margaret. On 24 May, with Suf- fear of the English mercenaries whom Na- folk acting as proxy, fifteen-year-old Mar- varre, now Marcel’s close ally, had deployed garet was formally betrothed to the English around the city, led a group of influential king; four days later, the two governments Parisians to conspire with the dauphin signed the Truce of TOURS. against the regime. On 31 July, a royalist Married to Henry on 23 April 1445, Mar- mob murdered Marcel, thereby ending the garet was crowned on 30 May. Intelligent, Paris revolution and allowing the dauphin energetic, and strong-willed, the young to enter the capital on 2 August. See also queen was almost immediately unpopular. ESTATES,GENERAL AND PROVINCIAL. French, possessed of no dowry, and closely Further Reading: Sumption, Jonathan. The associated with Suffolk and the peace party, Hundred Years War. Vol. 2, Trial by Fire. Philadel- she was to many the symbol of a feeble phia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2001. policy that meant defeat and dishonor in France. Easily dominating her weak, va- MARGARET OF ANJOU, QUEEN OF cillating husband, Margaret soon involved ENGLAND (1430–1482) herself in politics, becoming a strong ad- Margaret of Anjou was the wife of HENRY VI. vocate for the peace policy that had made Queen by virtue of the peace policy pursued her queen. Already derided as a queen who by her husband in the 1440s, Margaret was, was ‘‘not worth ten marks a year’’ (Seward, through her influence on Henry and her 245), Margaret urged Henry to keep his rash intervention in court politics, a key figure in promise to surrender Maine to the French, the formulation of English policy during the thereby earning even more popular hostility last decade of the HUNDRED YEARS WAR. (see MAINE,SURRENDER OF). In 1447, Suffolk, During the subsequent Wars of the Roses, who was rumored to be the queen’s lover, Margaret became effective leader of the engineered the arrest of Gloucester, who House of LANCASTER. died while in custody. Public opinion as- Margaret was the daughter of Rene´, duke cribed the mysterious death to murder, and of Anjou, a descendant of JOHN II, and the declared Margaret Suffolk’s accomplice. niece of CHARLES VII, who was married to In 1450, the loss of NORMANDY swept Anjou’s sister. In the early 1440s, Cardinal Suffolk from power. Embarrassed by fi- Henry BEAUFORT, bishop of Winchester, and nancial weakness and shackled by a king William de la POLE, earl of Suffolk, leaders of who was unfit to rule, Suffolk’s government the English peace party, sought to further collapsed amid charges of treason leveled by their goals by arranging a French marriage such opponents as York, who, thanks to for Henry. Being unwilling to offer his own Margaret’s failure to conceive, was Henry’s daughter and thus forge yet another En- probable heir. As an increasingly bitter ri- glish connection with the House of VALOIS, valry developed between York and Suffolk’s Charles suggested a match with Margaret. successor, Edmund BEAUFORT, duke of Although Henry’s uncle, HUMPHREY, DUKE Somerset, the queen, who viewed York as a OF GLOUCESTER, and his cousin, RICHARD, threat to the throne, closely identified herself DUKE OF YORK, leaders of the court faction with Somerset. In August 1453, Henry suf- favoring more vigorous prosecution of the fered a mental collapse that rendered him war, bitterly opposed a French match, Suf- incapable of ruling; in October, Margaret, folk sailed to France in February 1444 with amidst rumors that the child was not Hen- instructions to conclude both a peace and a ry’s, gave birth to a son, Edward, who dis- marriage. When negotiations for a perma- placed York as heir. To safeguard the rights nent peace bogged down over the French of her child, Margaret sought the regency, refusal to make significant concessions, but her claim was rejected in favor of York, Suffolk accepted a truce running until 1 who was named protector by PARLIAMENT in April 1446 and agreed to the marriage of March 1454. Henry’s recovery the following

209 MARGARET OF FRANCE, QUEEN OF ENGLAND

Christmas ended York’s regime, but the Anglo-French peace negotiations conducted continuing efforts of Margaret and Somerset by Pope Boniface VIII. The couple was wed to destroy York and his allies led to the at Canterbury on 10 September 1299, almost eventual outbreak of civil war. four years before the signing of a final Over the next four years, Henry remained peace agreement. Their first child, Thomas too weak-minded to govern effectively and of Brotherton, earl of Norfolk, was born in Margaret assumed leadership of the anti- June 1300, with his younger brother, Ed- York faction. Following Henry’s overthrow mund of Woodstock, earl of Kent, arriving in March 1461, Margaret spent most of the in August 1301, and his sister, Eleanor, in next decade in exile in SCOTLAND and France. May 1306. Forty years younger than her She helped engineer Henry’s brief restora- husband, Margaret exercised little political tion in 1470–71, but was captured and im- influence, but frequently interceded with the prisoned in the Tower of London in May king on behalf of subjects needing pardons 1471 after her son’s death in battle and her or favors. Her most important effort in this husband’s murder. Ransomed and returned regard was on behalf of Prince Edward, to France by Louis XI in 1475, Margaret died whom she reconciled with his father in 1305. on 25 August 1482. See also NORMAN CAM- The queen persuaded the king to allow PAIGN (1449–50). LONDON merchants to resume lending Further Reading: Griffiths, Ralph A. The Reign money to the prince and was largely re- of King Henry VI. Berkeley: University of Califor- sponsible for preventing the break-up of the nia Press, 1981; Maurer, Helen E. Margaret of prince’s household. Anjou: Queenship and Power in Late Medieval Margaret may have undertaken such in- England. London: Boydell Press, 2003; Seward, tercessions in part to counter bad feeling Desmond. The Hundred Years War. New York: aroused by her French birth and her asso- Penguin, 1999. ciation with an unpopular peace treaty. Al- though a later story that she passed MARGARET OF FRANCE, QUEEN OF important political and military information ENGLAND (1279–1318) to her brother is highly implausible, it may The daughter of Philip III and half-sister of indicate the existence of suspicion and hos- PHILIP IV, Margaret of France became the tility regarding the French queen. In 1299, second wife of EDWARD I as part of the peace for instance, a chronicler criticized Marga- process that ended the ANGLO-FRENCH WAR ret’s visit to St. Albans as too long and OF 1294–1303. Like her niece, Isabella (see costly, although at her death most English ISABELLA,QUEEN OF ENGLAND [c. 1292–1358]), writers praised her as kind, beautiful, and who was married to EDWARD II as part of the pure. Margaret enjoyed good relations with same peace process, and such later French Prince Edward and his surviving sisters, princesses as Isabella, the second wife of and was treated with affection and tender- RICHARD II (see ISABELLA,QUEEN OF ENGLAND ness by her husband, who several times [1388–1409]), and CATHERINE OF VALOIS, the rescued her from the consequences of her wife of HENRY V, Margaret was part of a overspending. In 1302, he gave her £4,000 series of attempts to use marriage to create out of the royal revenues from marriages amity between the English royal Houses of and wardships to meet her debts, and, in PLANTAGENET and LANCASTER and the French 1305, he increased her landed endowment royal Houses of CAPET and VALOIS. by £500 per year. After Edward’s death in The possibility of a marriage between July 1307, Margaret remained on good terms Edward, who had been a widower since the with Edward II, although little is known of death of Queen Eleanor of Castile in 1290, her life after 1308. She died on 14 February and Margaret was first raised in 1293–94, 1318 and was buried in London. although actual discussions regarding the Further Reading: Prestwich, Michael. Edward I. match did not begin until 1298 as part of the Berkeley: University of California Press, 1988.

210 MARMOUSETS

MARGATE, BATTLE OF. See CADZAND, Although the pope justified his prohibi- BATTLE OF tion by calling the proposed match with Cambridge ‘‘a danger to [the couple’s] souls, a pernicious example to others and a scan- MARGUERITE DE FLANDERS, dal to many’’ (Sumption, 577), in 1367, he DUCHESS OF BURGUNDY (c. 1349–1405) readily granted a dispensation for Mar- Marguerite was the daughter and heir of guerite to marry Burgundy, to whom she LOUIS DE MALE, count of FLANDERS. Through was even more closely related. Angered by her marriage to PHILIP THE BOLD, duke of French interference in his affairs, Flanders BURGUNDY and brother of CHARLES V, and drove a hard bargain for his daughter’s through the marriages she and her husband hand, which Charles won for his brother arranged for their children, she helped cre- only by agreeing to return to Flanders the ate the state of Burgundy, which in the fif- towns and castellancies of Lille, Douai, and teenth century played a central role in the Orchies, which had been seized by PHILIP IV HUNDRED YEARS WAR. in 1305. Marguerite finally wed Burgundy at Married briefly to Philip de Rouvre, the Ghent on 19 June 1369, and eventually bore last Capetian duke of Burgundy (see CAPET, him at least eleven children, seven of whom HOUSE OF), who died in November 1361, lived to adulthood. Marguerite thereafter became one of the Marguerite succeeded to her grand- most coveted heiresses in Europe. Her mother’s lands in 1382, and her father’s in dowry included not only her father’s pro- 1384. In 1385, Marguerite and Philip ar- vinces of Flanders and Rethel, but her pa- ranged advantageous marriages for two of ternal grandmother’s counties of Artois and their children with members of the Wittels- Burgundy, and a claim through her mother bach family, thereby ensuring the even- to the . Marriage to Mar- tual incorporation of Holland, Zeeland, and guerite thus promised a potential husband Hainault into the Burgundian state. In 1390, substantial holdings in the Low Countries Marguerite’s maternal aunt Jeanne named and western Germany. Seeking to create a her niece and husband co-heirs to Brabant. great English APPANAGE on the northern Although Philip ruled all his wife’s lands, borders of France, EDWARD III, in the early Marguerite frequently acted as regent in his 1360s, proposed a marriage between Mar- absence. Like her husband, she was a great guerite and his son EDMUND OF LANGLEY, earl patron of the arts and a collector of books. of Cambridge. By combining Flanders and Marguerite willed her lands to her husband Marguerite’s other inheritances with CALAIS, in 1391, but only died a year after Philip, on Ponthieu, and the PLANTAGENET holdings in 21 March 1405. She was succeeded in her northern France, Cambridge would be the territories by her eldest son, JOHN THE FEAR- most powerful prince in northwestern Eu- LESS, the second Valois duke of Burgundy. rope and a significant threat to VALOIS France, Further Reading: Sumption, Jonathan. The which would then be bracketed by Plantag- Hundred Years War. Vol. 2, Trial by Fire. Philadel- enet Flanders in the north and Plantagenet phia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2001; AQUITAINE in the south. Although Margue- Vaughan, Richard. Philip the Bold: The Formation rite’s father was agreeable to the match, of the Burgundian State. Woodbridge, England: Charles V derailed the marriage in 1364 by Boydell Press, 2002. prevailing upon the French pope, Urban V, to forbid it on grounds of consanguinity. MARGUERITE DE MALE. See MARGUERITE Like the members of most noble families, the DE FLANDERS couple was related within the degrees of affinity prohibited by the Church; their MARMOUSETS marriage could not proceed without a papal The term ‘‘Marmousets’’ denotes a French po- dispensation. litical faction composed of former financial

211 MARSHAL OF FRANCE and military servants of CHARLES V who had characterized the reign of Charles V. tried to reimpose his ideals of efficient, While Orle´ans distracted his brother with economical government on the administra- costly entertainments, the Marmousets ran tion of CHARLES VI. Although the Marmou- the kingdom. The council was reduced to a sets dominated the royal government for more manageable size and its members were less than four years, many of their ideas re- bound by oath to each other and to the wel- mained influential within the ARMAGNAC/ fare of the realm. To avoid the favoritism of dauphinist party during the FRENCH CIVIL the previous regime, appointments to im- WAR and were put into practice during the portant offices were made by the council, and last years of the HUNDRED YEARS WAR. the financial and judicial departments were ‘‘Marmouset,’’ meaning ‘‘small boy,’’ and reformed and reorganized, with all servants implying a person of no status or con- of the royal uncles dismissed or demoted. In sequence, was a term of derision applied to late 1389, the Marmousets took the king to the faction by their political opponents, the Languedoc, where Berry’s lieutenancy had supporters of Charles VI’s uncles, JOHN, impoverished the province. Charles dis- DUKE OF BERRY, and PHILIP THE BOLD, duke missed his uncle and replaced or arrested his of BURGUNDY. On the death of Charles V in supporters in the provincial administration. 1380, the minority government of his twelve- Although generally more rational and year-old son fell under the control of the economical, the new government proved no boy’s uncles. By 1384, when the eldest uncle, more popular than the uncles’ regime. This LOUIS, DUKE OF ANJOU, died, most of Charles unpopularity stemmed largely from the V’s ministers had been dismissed or rel- Marmousets’ unwillingness to countenance egated to minor offices, their places taken by true reform and their insistence on main- partisans of Berry and Burgundy, who taining the high war TAXATION of the pre- exploited their control of king and council vious reign, which, with the conclusion of for the financial and political advantage of the Truce of LEULINGHEN in 1389, seemed to themselves and their masters. fund only court extravagance. Marmouset On 3 November 1388, Pierre Aycelin, dominance abruptly ended in August 1392 cardinal of Laon and a royal councilor, an- when the king fell into a fit of violent mad- nounced the king’s intention to assume ness, the first episode in a lifetime of inter- personal control of the government. Charles mittent insanity. The royal uncles quickly dismissed his uncles and filled his council resumed control, removing the leading and administration with his father’s old Marmousets from office. La Rivie`re and Le ministers, who soon became known as Mercier were imprisoned; John of Montaigu Marmousets. Although the king was nearly fled to Avignon; and Clisson was fined, twenty, he was still immature and easily led; banished, and dismissed as constable. Al- the driving force behind the change in gov- though some Marmousets eventually re- ernment was the king’s brother, LOUIS, DUKE turned to office in minor posts, they ceased OF ORLE´ ANS, who, in likely alliance with to exist as a coherent faction; however, many Queen ISABEAU, sought the power and profit of their ideas and policies were later put into denied him by his uncles. Besides Aycelin, effect by CHARLES VII, the eventual heir of the leading Marmousets included Olivier de the Marmouset-Armagnac tradition. CLISSON, constable of France; Bureau de La Further Reading: Perroy, Edouard. The Hun- Rivie`re; John le Mercier; John de Montaigu; dred Years War. Trans. W. B. Wells. New York: William Melun, count of Tancarville; and Capricorn Books, 1965. Nicolas de Bosc, bishop of Bayeux. Although favoring the interests of Orle´ans, MARSHAL OF FRANCE. See ARMIES, the Marmouset regime sought no revolu- COMMAND OF;AUDREHEM,ARNOUL D’,MAR- tionary change, but worked instead for a re- SHAL OF FRANCE;APPENDIX 6: ‘‘CONSTABLES turn of the administrative arrangements that AND MARSHALS OF FRANCE AND ENGLAND’’

212 MAUNY, WALTER, LORD MAUNY

MARTIN V. See PAPACY AND THE HUNDRED France to join Edward for the developing YEARS WAR CRE´CY campaign. Despite this safe-conduct, Mauny was attacked and most of his men were captured, although he escaped, thereby MAUNY, WALTER, LORD MAUNY adding to his growing reputation. (d. 1372) In 1347, Mauny served at the siege of Walter Mauny (or Manny), one of the ablest CALAIS and was one of the English rep- English captains of the HUNDRED YEARS resentatives who negotiated the Truce of WAR, earned a European reputation for Calais after the city’s fall (see CALAIS,TRUCE valor and CHIVALRY. OF). On 31 December 1349, he played a key The son of a noble Hainaulter family, part in foiling a French attempt to retake Mauny came to England in 1327 in the en- Calais by treachery. Leading a small party of tourage of his countrywoman, Queen PHI- knights that included the king and EDWARD, LIPPA,wifeofEDWARD III. Knighted in 1331, THE BLACK PRINCE, traveling incognito, Mauny fought in SCOTLAND in the early Mauny ambushed the French as they en- 1330s and was appointed admiral of the tered Calais Castle. Uttering the war cry north in 1337. In the first of many gallant ‘‘Mauny to the rescue’’ to preserve his an- exploits recorded by his fellow Hainaulter, onymity, the king led Mauny and his com- Jean FROISSART, Mauny descended on Cad- rades in a nightlong fight that saved the sand, an island at the mouth of the Scheldt town. During the 1350s, Mauny undertook from which French attacked various military and diplomatic assign- English shipping. During the raid, Mauny ments; he fought at the naval Battle of single-handedly rescued HENRY OF GROS- WINCHELSEA in 1350, broke the Scottish siege MONT, earl of Derby, when he was in danger of Berwick Castle in 1355, and negotiated an of capture; Mauny also took several prison- extension of the Anglo-French truce in 1359. ers, including the bastard brother of LOUIS He accompanied the king during the RHEIMS DE NEVERS, count of FLANDERS. In 1340, the CAMPAIGN of 1359–60, was one of the English king, who had already granted Mauny nu- guarantors of the Treaty of BRE´ TIGNY in 1360, merous lands and offices, gave him £8,000 and was one of JOHN II’s guardians when the for the RANSOM of his Cadsand prisoners. captive French king was transferred to Ca- In 1339, at the start of the THIE´RACHE lais. In the 1360s, Mauny served briefly in CAMPAIGN, Mauny, according to Froissart, Ireland and participated in negotiations for a vowed to be the first to enter France and seize marriage between the king’s son, EDMUND a stronghold, which he did by crossing the OF LANGLEY, and MARGUERITE, daughter of Hainault frontier with forty companions and LOUIS DE MALE, count of Flanders. surprising the castle of Thun l’Eveˆque. In Mauny’s service in the war made him June 1340, Mauny fought at the Battle of both wealthy and famous. Summoned to SLUYS and was present later in the year at the PARLIAMENT as Lord Mauny in 1347, he be- siege of TOURNAI. In 1342, Mauny landed in came a knight of the GARTER in 1359 and BRITTANY, where, among other adventures, he received extensive grants of land in England broke the siege of Hennebon, thereby liber- and AQUITAINE. Although likely exaggerated ating the wife of John de MONTFORT,the by Froissart, Mauny’s chivalric exploits were EnglishclientintheBRETON CIVIL WAR.In well known on both sides of the Channel. In 1345–46, Mauny distinguished himself dur- 1349, he acquired land near Smithfield out- ing Derby’s first two campaigns in GASCONY. side LONDON where fifty thousand victims of In the latter year, while John, duke of NOR- the BLACK DEATH were supposedly buried. MANDY, was besieging the Gascon town of Mauny later founded a house of Carthusian AIGUILLON, Mauny released a Norman knight monks, the London Charterhouse, on the in his custody without ransom in return for a site and was buried in the monastery on his safe-conduct from the duke to travel through death in January 1372.

213 MAURON, BATTLE OF

Further Reading: Packe, Michael. King Edward front, driving their foes back down the hill. III. Ed. L. C. B. Seaman. London: Routledge and On the English right, the hedgerow an- Kegan Paul, 1983; Sumption, Jonathan. The chored the struggling English line and also Hundred Years War. Vol. 1, Trial by Battle. disrupted any cavalry pursuit of the fleeing Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, archers. As the French right wing collapsed, 1999. the English men-at-arms fell on the exposed flank and the entire French line was even- MAURON, BATTLE OF (1352) tually driven downhill in confusion. On the The Battle of Mauron occurred on 14 August valley floor and on the steep slopes of the 1352 near the village of Mauron in central hill opposite the battle site, the English ar- BRITTANY. Although the English forces in chers did great execution, shooting down Brittany were seriously depleted by this hundreds of exhausted French knights who costly victory, the French army was shat- were rendered practically immobile by the tered, forcing the French Crown to largely heat and the weight of their own ARMOR. abandon its direct involvement in the BRE- French casualties were horrendous. Over TON CIVIL WAR for the next decade. five hundred men-at-arms lay dead on the Upon his return from England in July field, and 160 prisoners were taken for 1352, Walter BENTLEY, Thomas DAGWORTH’s RANSOM. Guy de Nesle was killed, along successor as English governor in Brittany, with many prominent Breton noblemen who found that Guy de Nesle, the French com- supported the cause of CHARLES OF BLOIS, the mander in the duchy, had reestablished the French-backed claimant in Brittany. Also sieges of English garrisons at Ploermel and slain were eighty-nine knights of JOHN II’s Fougeray. Gathering a force that probably Order of the STAR, which had only recently numbered fewer than a thousand men, been formed to rival EDWARD III’s Order of Bentley broke both sieges before the French the GARTER. English losses were also heavy, commander could stop him. Leaving his and became even larger after the battle when camps near Rennes on 11 August, de Nesle Bentley had thirty archers beheaded for encountered Bentley a half mile east of leaving the field. So desperate was the Mauron in the late afternoon of 14 August. English manpower shortage at Mauron that The English deployed on high ground in Bentley had to send immediately to England the traditional formation, with bodies of for reinforcements. Nonetheless, English ARCHERS on the wings to cover the dis- dominance in the duchy remained largely mounted men-at-arms in the center. How- unchallenged until the 1360s. ever, the English line stood on open ground, Further Reading: Burne, Alfred H. The Cre´cy unprotected by woods or field works and War. Ware, England: Wordsworth Editions Ltd., backed by a hedgerow that could hinder 1999; Sumption, Jonathan. The Hundred Years War. retreat. When Bentley refused his invitation Vol. 2, Trial by Fire. Philadelphia: University of to surrender, de Nesle launched his attack, Pennsylvania Press, 2001. sending his cavalry to disperse the archers on the English right, and his men-at-arms to MEAUX, SIEGE OF (1421–1422) simultaneously attack on foot in the English Lasting from October 1421 to May 1422, the fashion. The French cavalry charge was English investment of Meaux, a town on the successful; most of the archers fled the field River Marne about thirty miles east of PARIS, thereby exposing the men-at arms to their was HENRY V’s longest siege and last major left, who were quickly pushed back to campaign. The fall of the city cleared the hedgerow. With Bentley wounded, the northern France of dauphinist strongholds, English were in serious trouble. secured English communications with However, on the English left, the second BURGUNDY and FLANDERS, and ended all im- body of archers, facing no cavalry charge, mediate threats to Anglo-Burgundian con- quickly broke up the French assault in their trol of Paris. However, the long and difficult

214 MELUN, SIEGE OF winter operation accelerated English war duke of Burgundy, and by the seeming de- weariness and may have undermined the cline of enthusiasm for the war in England, health of the king, who died three months where recruitment was becoming increas- later. ingly difficult. Only news of the birth in Meaux was situated in a horseshoe bend early December of Henry’s son, the future of the Marne, which divided the town from HENRY VI, gave cause for cheer. the Marche´, a heavily fortified market. The In March, the garrison withdrew to the siege began on 6 October 1421, with Henry Marche´, which was protected by the river dividing his twenty-five hundred men into and by a canal that effectively turned the four divisions, which communicated with peninsula on which the market lay into an one another via a bridge of boats across the island. With much travail, the English Marne. The king commanded the northern brought up their artillery and repaired the sector, while Richard BEAUCHAMP, earl of connecting bridge, which had been de- Warwick; Thomas BEAUFORT, duke of Exeter; stroyed by the garrison during its retreat. and Edmund Mortimer, earl of March, led Realizing that they could expect no help the other divisions. Many ARTILLERY pieces, from the dauphin, the garrison decided to both gunpowder cannon and traditional negotiate. Henry’s terms were harsh. The wooden siege engines, were deployed about Bastard of Vaurus; all English deserters; the walls. Because of dauphinist raiders, anyone implicated in the murder of JOHN supplies had to be brought from Paris, ne- THE FEARLESS, duke of Burgundy; and any- cessitating the detailing of troops to protect one who had sworn to uphold the Treaty of English convoys. Inside the town, the garri- TROYES were to be surrendered to the king to son was led by the Bastard of Vaurus, an await his pleasure. Henry even demanded experienced soldier with a reputation for that the man who ‘‘blewe and sounded an brutality, and contained a large number of Horn during the siege’’ (Burne, 175) be Scots and some English and Irish deserters, handed over. With no alternative, the garri- all of whom understood that they would son accepted these terms on 2 May 1422. The receive no mercy if the town fell. Bastard of Vaurus was hanged and four English attempts to bombard Meaux into other men, including the unfortunate horn surrendering failed, and, in December, blower, were also executed. The other pris- heavy rains caused the Marne to overflow its oners were carried to Paris and then to banks and flood the English siege lines. confinement in England. Northern France When the bridge of boats was swept away, was now free of dauphinist garrisons, but, in Warwick’s southern division was for a time June, the king, perhaps affected by his ex- dangerously isolated from the rest of the ertions at Meaux, fell ill. His condition de- army, while the garrison, plentifully sup- teriorated steadily over the following weeks plied with boats, made frequent sorties until he died at Vincennes on 31 August. outside the walls. Dysentery appeared in the Further Reading: Allmand, Christopher. Henry cold, wet English camps, which were now V. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1997; even more difficult to supply, the king being Burne, Alfred H. The Agincourt War. Ware, obliged to send away most of his horses for England: Wordsworth Editions Ltd., 1999. lack of forage. As the siege dragged on, de- moralization and doubt began to afflict the MELUN, SIEGE OF (1420) English soldiery. Upon seeing his son killed Extending from July to November 1420, the by a cannonball, Sir John Cornwall suppos- English siege of Melun, a town on the Seine edly cried out that he had come to France to some thirty miles southeast of PARIS, removed conquer NORMANDY, not to deprive the an important dauphinist garrison from the dauphin (see CHARLES VII) of his rightful environs of the capital, which thereafter Crown. Even the king became disheartened submitted to the Anglo-Burgundian regime by the inactivity of his ally PHILIP THE GOOD, created by the Treaty of TROYES. Because of

215 MEN-AT-ARMS its length and difficulty, the siege angered began a series of counter-tunnels, which al- HENRY V, who revealed his implacable re- lowed his men to attack the English in a solve to be obeyed as rightful heir and re- series of desperate underground struggles gent by treating the prisoners of Melun with fought by torchlight in stale air and at close exceptional severity. quarters. In one such encounter, the king Following conclusion of the Troyes was fiercely engaged by Barbazon, who agreement in May, and his marriage to CATH- withdrew when he realized whom he was ERINE OF VALOIS in early June, Henry, ac- fighting. As the siege dragged on into the companied by his new ally, PHILIP THE GOOD, autumn, Henry’s position deteriorated. duke of BURGUNDY; his new father-in-law, Dysentery struck the English camp, while CHARLES VI; and his brothers, THOMAS, DUKE large numbers of Burgundians deserted and OF CLARENCE, and JOHN, DUKE OF BEDFORD, rumors abounded that a dauphinist relief left Troyes and marched west with an force was coming. However, conditions Anglo-Burgundian force of twenty thou- were even worse inside the city, where the sand. Before entering Paris, Henry moved garrison was eating horseflesh by October. against a string of dauphinist garrisons Finally, on 18 November, Barbarzan, whose holding key towns on the Yonne and Seine men had eaten nothing for almost a week, southeast of the capital. Sens surrendered negotiated the town’s surrender with Ri- without a fight on 10 June, but Montereau, chard BEAUCHAMP, earl of Warwick. site of the recent murder of JOHN THE FEAR- Henry spared the lives of most of the LESS (see MONTEREAU CONFERENCE), held out garrison and townsmen, although some until 1 July, not capitulating until Henry had were summarily executed, such as Bertrand eighteen prisoners hanged in full view of the de Chaumont, who, as an English subject garrison. On 9 July, the king invested Melun, from GASCONY, was, despite the pleas of which, according to the Chronicle of London, Clarence, beheaded as a traitor. Barbazan was ‘‘one of the worst [places] that ever he and five hundred of his men were taken laid siege to’’ (Allmand, 152). The city was prisoner, as was anyone in the town con- strongly defended, with its center and cita- nected to the murder of Burgundy’s father. del located on a small island in the Seine that Although most of the soldiers were held for was connected to the rest of the city on each RANSOM, Barbazan was imprisoned in a cage bank by heavily fortified bridges. The ex- in Paris and Chaˆteau Gaillard for seven perienced 700-man garrison was ably led by years. On 1 December, Henry, Charles, and Arnaud Guillaume, lord of Barbazan, and Philip entered Paris, where English troops enthusiastically assisted by armed towns- quickly secured all strongpoints, and the men. Although Henry had Charles call upon city authorities, realizing from Melun that his subjects to surrender, they refused. Henry ‘‘would put to death without mercy’’ When the Scots soldiers in the garrison re- (Seward, 151) all who opposed him, quickly fused a similar call from their king, James submitted. I(see SCOTLAND), who was a prisoner in Further Reading: Allmand, Christopher. Henry the English camp, Henry began siege V. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1997; operations, with the English encamped on Seward, Desmond. Henry V: The Scourge of God. the west bank and the BURGUNDIANS on the New York: Viking, 1988. east. ARTILLERY Although English began an al- MEN-AT-ARMS. See ARMIES,COMPOSITION OF most constant bombardment, the guns had little effect, causing Henry to begin tunnel- ing under the walls in an effort to under- MERCENARIES. See ROUTIERS mine them. Because they were close to the river, the miners had to work in knee- MERCILESS PARLIAMENT. See PARLIA- deep water and mud. Barbazan, meanwhile, MENT

216 MONTAGU, THOMAS, EARL OF SALISBURY

MONTAGU, THOMAS, EARL OF nist garrisons. In 1425, Salisbury con- SALISBURY (1388–1428) solidated the English hold on Anjou and Commander of the besieging army at OR- Maine by leading a successful campaign that LE´ ANS, Thomas Montagu (or Montague), culminated with the capture Le Mans (see fourth earl of Salisbury, was a friend and MAINE,SURRENDER OF). When Bedford re- companion of HENRY V and among the most turned to England in 1425, conduct of the capable and effective English leaders of the war was entrusted to Salisbury, Suffolk, and HUNDRED YEARS WAR. Richard BEAUCHAMP, earl of Warwick, with The son of John Montagu, third earl of Salisbury’s special charge being Normandy, Salisbury, who was posthumously attained Anjou, and Maine. for treason against HENRY IV in 1401, Tho- In February 1426, Salisbury resigned his mas, through loyal service to the House commands to go on pilgrimage to Jerusalem of LANCASTER, was officially recognized as in fulfillment of a vow made in combat. fourth earl of Salisbury in 1409 and fully However, the pope released him from the restored to his father’s estates by 1421. vow and the earl returned to royal service by His military career began in 1412, when the end of the year. In 1427, Salisbury, now a he served with THOMAS, DUKE OF CLARENCE, member of the royal council, sailed to En- in the French expedition necessitated by the gland, where he attended PARLIAMENT and Anglo-ARMAGNAC Treaty of BOURGES. Ad- raised reinforcements. In 1428, the earl mitted to the Order of the GARTER in 1414, launched a campaign against Orle´ans, which the earl fought with Henry V at AGINCOURT he invested on 12 October after seizing the in 1415 and with JOHN, DUKE OF BEDFORD,in neighboring Loire towns of Jargeau, Meung, the naval Battle of the SEINE, which relieved and Beaugency. Because the Orle´ans cam- HARFLEUR in 1416. In 1417, Salisbury ac- paign was opposed by England’s ally, PHILIP companied the king to NORMANDY, where he THE GOOD, duke of BURGUNDY, there has been served at the sieges of Caen, Falaise, and much debate over why it was undertaken ROUEN. In April 1419, the king named Sal- and on whose decision. The plan is some- isbury lieutenant-general in Normandy, times ascribed to Salisbury, who was said to with responsibility for defense of the English hold a grudge against Burgundy for sexual marches south of the Seine. As further evi- advances made by the duke toward the dence of royal confidence, Salisbury was countess of Salisbury in 1424; however, this given military command in Anjou in No- is uncertain, and the earl certainly acted vember 1420 and made governor of Alenc¸on with the approval of Bedford, with whom he and other English-held fortresses in the fol- had also clashed over the extent of his ju- lowing month. For these services, the earl risdiction in various of his commands. On was rewarded with numerous French land about 24 October 1428, the earl, while ob- grants and creation as count of Perche in serving Orle´ans from the newly captured 1419. fortification of Les Tourelles, was severely In March 1421, Salisbury retrieved Clar- wounded in the face by a cannon shot from ence’s body from the battlefield of BAUGE´ , the city. He died on 3 November. See also after the duke had rushed into combat MONTAGU,WILLIAM,EARL OF SALISBURY; without waiting for the earl to arrive with NORMAN CAMPAIGN (1417–1419). the rear guard. In June 1423, Bedford, now Further Reading: Allmand, Christopher. Henry regent for HENRY VI, appointed Salisbury V. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1997; governor of Champagne. In the following Seward, Desmond. Henry V: The Scourge of God. July, the earl fought at CRAVANT, and, in New York: Viking, 1988; Warner, M. W. ‘‘Chivalry August 1424, he distinguished himself at the in Action: Thomas Montague and the War in Battle of VERNEUIL. In late 1424, Salisbury France, 1417–1428.’’ Nottingham Medieval Studies and William de la POLE, earl of Suffolk, 42 (1998): 146–73; Williams, E. Carleton. My Lord of attempted to clear Champagne of dauphi- Bedford, 1389–1435. London: Longmans, 1963.

217 MONTAGU, WILLIAM, EARL OF SALISBURY

MONTAGU, WILLIAM, EARL OF at the Battle of HALIDON HILL. In 1334, he SALISBURY (1301–1344) was part of the English commission that William Montagu (or Montague), first earl of failed to negotiate a settlement of the Aqui- Salisbury, was a close friend and advisor of taine question. In 1336, he conducted an EDWARD III and a leading figure in the dip- unsuccessful siege of Dunbar Castle in lomatic and military initiatives of the 1330s Scotland. Created earl of Salisbury in 1337 and early 1340s. and endowed with extensive lands in WALES The eldest son of William Montagu, Lord and the West Country, Montagu was in the Montagu, the younger William succeeded to same year appointed lord admiral and his father’s title in 1319. In September 1325, commander of a projected expedition to Montagu, who was knighted by EDWARD II GASCONY. In 1338, Salisbury became earl prior to embarking, accompanied Prince marshal of England and campaigned again Edward to France. After his father’s de- in Scotland. During the winter of 1338–39, position in 1327, the prince, now Edward III, the earl again participated in negotiations grew increasingly frustrated with the tight with the French and was a member of Ed- control exercised over him and his govern- ward’s inner council of advisors at his court ment by his mother, Queen Isabella (see in the Low Countries. Although Salisbury ISABELLA,QUEEN OF ENGLAND [c. 1292–1358]), opposed the policy of paying continen- and her lover, Roger Mortimer, earl of tal allies, finding the subsidies demanded March. Taking Montagu and a few other shockingly high, he loyally supported efforts trusted household knights into his con- to conclude the ANGLO-FLEMISH ALLIANCE and fidence, the king plotted to free himself. In twice stood hostage with the king’s creditors September 1329, Edward sent Montagu to allow Edward to return to England and to Avignon, where, in secret audience, he arrange payment. gave the pope a password (‘‘Pater Sancte’’), In April 1340, Salisbury was captured whereby he could know which letters from while leading a reconnaissance of the town of England reflected the king’s true mind. In Lille; coming too close to the walls, his party October 1330, after being interrogated by the was cut off by a sortie from the town. Sent to council on suspicion of intriguing with the PARIS, Salisbury and his comrades were king, Montagu led a band of armed men into saved from execution by the intervention of Nottingham Castle and arrested March. John of Bohemia. In October, Salisbury was Immediately awarded with lands worth exchanged for the Scottish earl of Moray as £1,000 a year, Montagu thereafter maintained part of the Truce of ESPLECHIN, the earl a special influence with Edward. Over the agreeing to never again take arms against next decade, his attendance at court was Philip. Salisbury stood with Edward during constant and he accompanied the king on all the CRISIS OF 1340–1341, arresting various major military and diplomatic expeditions. treasury officials for incompetence and ser- His advice was sought on all matters of ving on the commission that investigated the importance, his seal was used to validate charges against Archbishop John STRATFORD. royal letters, and he even occasionally con- In 1343, Salisbury campaigned in BRITTANY ducted official business on his own author- with ROBERT OF ARTOIS before undertaking a ity. He was allowed to adopt the eagle crest, diplomatic mission to Castile. The earl died a royal symbol, as his own emblem, and he on 30 January 1344 from wounds received stood godfather to Edward’s second son, in a tournament held at Windsor. His de- Lionel of Antwerp. scendant, Thomas MONTAGU, fourth earl of Montagu accompanied the king to France Salisbury, was the leading English captain in in April 1331, when Edward traveled in France in the 1420s. disguise to pay homage to PHILIP VI for Further Reading: Packe, Michael. King Edward AQUITAINE. In 1333, Montagu campaigned III. Ed. L. C. B. Seaman. London: Routledge and with the king in SCOTLAND and was present Kegan Paul, 1983; Sumption, Jonathan. The

218 MONTEREAU CONFERENCE

Hundred Years War. Vol. 1, Trial by Battle. abandoning their artillery as they fled in Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, panic. 1999. Besides establishing the military reputa- tion of the Bastard, the victory greatly MONTARGIS, SIEGE OF (1427) heartened the dauphin and his supporters Running from July to September 1427, the and severely disrupted Bedford’s plans; the English siege of Montargis, a town sixty English could ill afford the loss of men, miles southeast of PARIS, resulted in one of guns, and supplies suffered at Montagis. the few victories won by dauphinist forces Nonetheless, Bedford moved to quickly re- before the appearance of JOAN OF ARC. establish the siege, even offering a sub- Intending to launch an offensive into stantial reward to anyone who could take dauphinist France, JOHN, DUKE OF BEDFORD, the town. By late 1428, as the English com- in early July 1427, ordered Richard BEAU- menced the assault on dauphinist France CHAMP, earl of Warwick, to capture the for- with the siege of ORLE´ ANS, Montagis was in tress town of Montargis, a key point in the English hands. region between the rivers Seine and Loire. Further Reading: Seward, Desmond. The Hun- With a force of about three thousand, War- dred Years War. New York: Penguin, 1999; wick commenced his siege on 15 July. Williams, E. Carleton. My Lord of Bedford, 1389– Standing on high ground and encircled by 1435. London: Longmans, 1963. the rivers Loing and Vernisson, Montargis was a formidable stronghold defended by a MONTEREAU CONFERENCE (1419) large, well-supplied garrison. The town was Held on 10 September 1419 in a specially also intersected by various canals, which prepared enclosure on the Yonne River likewise divided the besieging force. English bridge at Montereau, the conference be- progress was therefore slow; by early Sep- tween the dauphin and JOHN THE FEARLESS, tember, despite a vigorous and continuous duke of BURGUNDY, leaders, respectively, of ARTILLERY bombardment, little headway had the ARMAGNAC and BURGUNDIAN factions, been made against the town’s defenses. was called ostensibly to reconcile the parties To reinforce and resupply the garrison, and thus end the FRENCH CIVIL WAR. How- the dauphin (see CHARLES VII) dispatched a ever, rather than unite the French against the force of sixteen hundred commanded by English invader, the conference, which re- John, Bastard of Orle´ans (see JOHN, COUNT OF sulted in the murder of Burgundy, drove the DUNOIS AND LONGUEVILLE), and by E´ tienne duke’s son into formal alliance with HENRY de VIGNOLLES, an able soldier better known V, thereby prolonging the HUNDRED YEARS as ‘‘La Hire.’’ The Bastard sent a message to WAR and jeopardizing VALOIS rule. Montargis telling the garrison of his im- When the English completed their con- pending arrival and laying out a co- quest of NORMANDY by capturing ROUEN in ordinated plan of action. On 5 September, January 1419, Burgundy, who had custody his men appeared suddenly on the road of PARIS and of the king, CHARLES VI, and the south of town. As the English moved for- dauphin, who controlled the southern third ward to attack, crossing a small wooden of France, the so-called ‘‘Kingdom of Bour- bridge over the Loing, the garrison opened ges,’’ sought to make peace as a prelude to the town’s sluice-gates, thereby initiating a joint action against the English. The two flood that split the English army in two leaders met at Corbeil in July and drafted a by sweeping away the bridge and the men preliminary agreement, but the dauphinists on it. Meanwhile, the garrison attacked pushed for another meeting to finalize the English from behind while the Bastard terms, and, after obtaining Burgundy’s re- simultaneously pressed his assault across luctant consent, arranged the conference at the river. In the ensuing rout, Warwick lost Montereau. The dauphinists also constructed a third of his force, with the survivors the palisaded enclosure on Montereau Bridge

219 MONTEREAU CONFERENCE

premeditated, and that Bur- gundy died as a result of an ar- gument that came to blows when one of the duke’s attendants drew his sword. The dauphin even hinted that Burgundy had intended to abduct him. This version of events is refuted by the fact that after the duke’s death all Burgundians on the bridge were taken prisoner, thus suggesting that the dauphinists were prepared for a struggle and had more than ten men in the enclosure. The other contrary evidence is the testimony of Jean de Poitiers, bishop of Valence, Partisans of the dauphin Charles (Charles VII) murder John who claimed that just before en- the Fearless, duke of Burgundy, on the bridge at Montereau, tering the enclosure, the dauphin 1419. Snark/Art Resource, New York. had an animated discussion with his chancellor, Robert le Mac¸on, who several times tried to pre- where the parties would meet and stipu- vent him from leaving. As soon as the dau- lated that no more than ten men attend the phin had gone, the bishop approached conference for each side. Mac¸on, who was visibly upset, and asked Although much is unclear about the what was amiss. The chancellor replied that meeting, what is certain is that at some point the dauphin was ‘‘badly advised’’ and that during the discussion members of the dau- he was preparing to ‘‘do something today by phin’s entourage attacked and killed Bur- which this kingdom and he himself will be gundy. The actual murderers—Guillaume lost’’ (Vale, 30). Bataille, Robert de Laire´, and the viscount of Whatever the truth, the events at Mon- Narbonne—were old servants of LOUIS, DUKE tereau transformed the course of the Hun- OF ORLE´ANS, who was himself murdered on dred Years War. Unable to make common Burgundy’s orders in 1407. The deed was cause with the man he held responsible for thus an act of revenge. What is uncertain, his father’s murder, PHILIP THE GOOD, the and the cause of much heated debate among new duke of Burgundy, allied himself with both contemporaries and later historians, is Henry V in the Treaty of TROYES in 1420. the exact nature of the dauphin’s role, if any, Although never an enthusiastic supporter of in the murder. The best evidence indicates the House of LANCASTER, the duke used the that the dauphin consented to the murder, ANGLO-BURGUNDIAN ALLIANCE as a means of but did not originate or encourage it. When securing his French possessions and enlarg- the attack began, Tanguy du Chaˆtel, the man ing his holdings in the Low Countries. In who had spirited the dauphin out of Paris 1435, Burgundy abandoned the English when the city fell to the Burgundians in connection and reconciled with the dauphin, 1418, pushed the prince outside the en- now king as CHARLES VII, at the Congress of closure, thus shielding him from harm ARRAS. As part of the settlement, Charles and preventing him from witnessing the was required to deny any personal in- murder. volvement in the murder at Montereau, to Immediately after the assassination, the punish the guilty parties, and to pay for dauphinists denied that it was in any way Masses for the late duke’s soul. Charles was

220 MONTFORT, JOHN DE also required to send a councilor to make denied any collusion with Edward. How- humble apology on his knees before Philip ever, since it was clear that Philip intended on the king’s behalf. So momentous were the to detain him while Blois secured the duchy, events at Montereau to future generations, Montfort secretly returned to Brittany in that a monk conducting Francis I through early September to put his garrisons on a the burial vault of the dukes of Burgundy in war footing. On 7 September, the Parlement the early sixteenth century picked up the declared in favor of Blois. shattered skull of Duke John and said, ‘‘This Montfort now sent representatives to is the hole through which the English en- England, where, in early October, Edward tered France’’ (Seward, 180). agreed to provide military assistance in re- Further Reading: Seward, Desmond. The Hun- turn for Montfort’s recognition of PLANTAG- dred Years War. New York: Penguin, 1999; Vale, ENET overlordship. However, plans to send M. G. A. Charles VII. Berkeley: University of an English expedition to Brittany were California Press, 1974; Vaughan, Richard. John the abandoned when word arrived that Mont- Fearless. London: Longman, 1979. fort had surrendered Nantes on 2 November to a French army commanded by Blois and MONTFORT, JOHN DE (d. 1345) John, duke of NORMANDY (see JOHN II). In John, count of Montfort, was the English- December, Montfort traveled to Paris under backed claimant to the duchy of BRITTANY at a safe-conduct; however, Philip cancelled the start of the BRETON CIVIL WAR. the safe-conduct and imprisoned the count The half brother of Duke John III, Mont- when he refused to surrender his claim to fort, whose lands were concentrated mainly the duchy in return for a pension and a in northern France, was little known inside grant of land in France. While Montfort the duchy when the duke died in April 1341. languished in the Louvre, Brittany fell into In early May, Montfort took possession of civil war. The strong-willed countess of Nantes, the ducal capital. After securing the Montfort, Jeanne de FLANDERS, kept her ducal treasury, the count summoned the husband’s cause alive until it was rescued Breton nobility to Nantes to pay him ho- by English military intervention in 1342. mage as duke. However, most Breton no- Under the terms of the Anglo-French blemen stayed away because they expected Truce of MALESTROIT concluded in January PHILIP VI to give the duchy to his nephew, 1343, Philip released Montfort on 1 Sep- CHARLES OF BLOIS, the husband of Montfort’s tember, but extracted from him a promise niece and rival, Jeanne de Penthie`vre. To not to return to Brittany. With his wife, who improve his position, Montfort tried to se- had fallen into madness, and his young cure control of eastern Brittany, the most children in England, Montfort adhered to pro-French region of the duchy. In June and this agreement until 1345, when Philip, in an July, he marched through the eastern dis- effort to complete the destruction of the tricts accepting the submission of the most Montfortist party, again placed the count in important towns. By mid-August, the bulk detention. On 25 March, Montfort escaped of the duchy was in Montfort’s possession. to England. In July, he returned to Brittany Anxious to avoid civil war in Brittany, with William de BOHUN, earl of North- Philip might have left Montfort undisturbed ampton, who allowed the count to take had the king not heard rumors that the charge of the siege of Quimper in an effort to count planned to ally himself with EDWARD revive support for his cause. However, III. To forestall this, Philip summoned Montfort proved to be a poor general and an Montfort to PARIS, where he was ordered to uninspiring leader. He was surprised at remain until the PARLEMENT rendered its Quimper by Blois’s army and forced to decision on the Breton succession. Even withdraw in disorder. Trapped in a nearby though Montfort talked to English agents, he fortress, Montfort escaped only by bribing a had made no commitments and therefore sentry. His party in disarray, the count

221 MONTIEL, BATTLE OF withdrew to Hennebont, where he fell ill ward as king of France. Edward dispatched and died on 26 September. The Montfortist a small relief force under Sir Walter MAUNY, cause was thereafter maintained by Edward which landed in May 1342. Although cred- III, who assumed guardianship of Mont- ited by chroniclers with many daring ex- fort’s son. In 1364, the younger Montfort ploits during this period, Mauny was too slew Blois at AURAY and thus won recogni- weak to attack Blois, who ignored the En- tion as JOHN IV, duke of Brittany. glish and laid siege to Monfortist strong- Further Reading: Jones, Michael. Between holds in southern Brittany. By August, France and England: Politics, Power and Society in Countess Jeanne was besieged by land and Late Medieval Brittany. Burlington, VT: Ashgate sea at Brest and the future of the Monfortist Publishing Company, 2003; Jones, Michael. The cause looked bleak. However, on 18 August, Creation of Brittany: A Late Medieval State. London: an English fleet carrying an army of three Hambledon Press, 1988; Sumption, Jonathan. The thousand under William de BOHUN, earl of Hundred Years War. Vol. 1, Trial by Battle. Northampton, dispersed the French ships Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, and landed the earl and his men at Brest, 1999. forcing Blois to lift the siege. Reinforced by eight hundred men under OBERT OF RTOIS MONTIEL, BATTLE OF. See CASTILIAN R A and by contingents of WAR OF SUCCESSION Breton Montfortists, Northampton marched to Morlaix, which he placed under siege in early September. Learning that Blois was MONTREUIL, PROCESS OF. See PROCESS approaching with a relieving force several times larger than his own army, North- MORLAIX, BATTLE OF (1342) ampton withdrew most of his army from the The Battle of Morlaix, an encounter between siege lines and marched toward the enemy. an Anglo-Breton army and the forces of On the morning of 30 September, he de- CHARLES OF BLOIS, the French-backed clai- ployed his men in a strong defensive posi- mant to the duchy, was fought on 30 Sep- tion on the slope of a hill that was backed by tember 1342 near Morlaix in northwestern a thick wood, which gave protection from BRITTANY. The first pitched battle of the cavalry attack and served as a baggage park. BRETON CIVIL WAR, Morlaix was also the first Northampton’s line consisted of dismounted major land battle of the HUNDRED YEARS men-at-arms at its center and bodies of ar- WAR, and as such was the first demonstration chers on the flanks. Remembering the tactics of the English battle tactics—dismounted of the Scots at Bannockburn, the English men-at-arms flanked by ARCHERS in a strong dug a trench in their front and covered it defensive line—that were to win such later with branches as an unwelcome surprise for fourteenth-century battles as CRE´CY and enemy horsemen. POITIERS. Finding the English in his front, Blois di- The death of childless Duke John III of vided his force into three divisions and or- Brittany in April 1341 initiated a war of dered the first, which consisted of dis- succession between his two heirs—his niece mounted Bretons, to launch a frontal assault. Jeanne de Penthie`vre, who was Blois’s wife, A hail of arrows broke up the attack before and his half brother John de MONTFORT. Blois’s men had even reached the hidden Claiming the duchy in right of his wife, trench. Thus, when the mounted second Blois, who was declared duke by his uncle column attacked, Blois’s unsuspecting ca- PHILIP VI, invaded Brittany and captured valry plunged into the trench, where the Montfort. However, Jeanne de FLANDERS, English archers did terrible execution among Montfort’s wife, appealed for aid to EDWARD the downed and tangled men. Although ap- III, who had promised to support her hus- palled by his losses, Blois ordered his third band in exchange for his recognition of Ed- division to attack the still outnumbered

222 MORTIMER, ROGER, EARL OF MARCH

English. Because his archers were low on English had now won a foothold in Brittany, ammunition and the trench, battered and the civil war, which had seemed so near its filled with corpses, was no longer a barrier, end, would last for another two decades. Northampton retreated into the woods at his Further Reading: Burne, Alfred H. The Cre´cy rear, where his men stood siege for several War. Ware, England: Wordsworth Editions Ltd., days until Blois, unable to effectively reach 1999. his enemy, withdrew. Having fought a much larger force to a standstill, Northampton re- MORTIMER, ROGER, EARL OF MARCH. turned to the siege of Morlaix. Because the See ISABELLA,QUEEN OF ENGLAND (1292–1358)

223 N

NA´ JERA, BATTLE OF (1367) an effort to win support for his cause, he The Battle of Na´jera (or Navarrete) was opened talks with the prince and CHARLES fought in northeastern Castile near the town THE BAD, king of Navarre. On 23 September, of Na´jera on 3 April 1367 between an Anglo- these three principals signed the Treaty of Gascon army commanded by EDWARD, THE Libourne, whereby Pedro promised money BLACK PRINCE, and a Franco-Castilian force and land to his allies in return for their as- commanded by Bertrand du GUESCLIN, con- sistance in restoring him to the Castilian stable of France, and Henry of Trasta´mare, throne. Although many in the prince’s en- the pretender to the Castilian throne. A tourage disliked and distrusted Pedro, ED- major victory for the Black Prince, Na´jera WARD III and his ministers were alarmed by was the result of Anglo-French intervention the threat posed by a pro-French Castile, in the CASTILIAN WAR OF SUCCESSION, a con- while the prince, besides being eager for flict that offered both sides in the HUNDRED military action, was, like the French, anxious YEARS WAR an opportunity to employ the to free his domains of routiers. Relying on ROUTIERS who were ravaging their lands and Pedro to keep his promise to pay for the a chance to strike at each other’s interests campaign, the prince gathered an army of without openly jeopardizing the BRE´TIGNY ten thousand men and in February 1367 led peace settlement. Although a military suc- them through the Pyre´ne´an passes, which cess, the battle and its aftermath were polit- had been opened to the invaders by the king ical disasters for the prince, who in his effort of Navarre, who sent troops but declined to to obtain funds to meet his campaign ex- participate himself. penses initiated events that led eventually to Advised by the French king to avoid battle resumption of the Hundred Years War. and wait for hunger and exhaustion to force Suspected of poisoning his French wife the prince to withdraw, Trasta´mare recalled and known as ‘‘the Cruel’’ for his harsh rule, du Guesclin and many of the French cap- Pedro I of Castile was overthrown by his tains who had served him in the previous half brother, Henry of Trasta´mare, in March year. With their forces largely deployed in 1366. Assisted by a routier army commanded Aragon, the French brought only about a by du Guesclin and including numerous thousand men to augment Trasta´mare’s English captains such as Hugh CALVELEY, Castilian troops. As the Anglo-Gascon army Trasta´mare was crowned king of Castile on advanced, shadowed from a distance by 29 March, one day after Pedro fled Burgos, Trasta´mare, the towns and garrisons in its the Castilian capital. By backing Trasta´mare, path quickly declared for Pedro. On 1 April, CHARLES V and his brother, LOUIS, DUKE OF Trasta´mare, fearing the imminent collapse of ANJOU, the royal lieutenant in Languedoc, his political support, abandoned the defen- had emptied southern France of routiers and sive strategy urged by Charles V and de- placed a strong French ally on the southern ployed his forces on open ground astride the borders of PLANTAGENET Aquitaine. In late main road from Logron˜o near the town of July, Pedro landed in AQUITAINE, where, in Na´jera, a spot the prince later called ‘‘a good

224 NATIONAL CONSCIOUSNESS, GROWTH OF place to wait for us’’ (Sumption, 552). On 2 marshal Arnoul d’AUDREHEM, and most of April, the prince left Logron˜o, advancing to Trasta´mare’s leading captains were cap- the village of Navarrete, where he formed tured, indicating that Na´jera, like POITIERS, his army into line of battle. The front line had degenerated at the end into a scramble comprised the English ARCHERS and men-at- for prisoners and RANSOMS. Although many arms, who were nominally led by JOHN OF of his men made a fortune in ransoms, the GAUNT, duke of Lancaster, the prince’s prince was soon at odds with the newly re- brother, but in fact commanded by the more stored Pedro, who declared himself unable experienced Sir John CHANDOS. The main to pay his debt to the prince and unwilling body of the army consisted largely of Gas- to cede him territory as security. In late cons, who were commanded on the right by August, when Pedro reneged on his promise Arnaud-Amanieu, lord of ALBRET, and John, to pay a first installment on what he owed, count of Armagnac, and on the left by Jean the prince, ill with the disease the eventually de GRAILLY, the captal de Buch. In the center, killed him and unable to maintain his men the prince commanded various bands of in the field any longer, withdrew to Aqui- routiers and Castilian exiles. Once in forma- taine empty-handed. Forced to raise taxes tion, the army left the road and advanced in Aquitaine to pay for the campaign, the upon the enemy overland from the north, a prince thereby alienated such powerful line of march that put them on Trasta´mare’s Gascon noblemen as Armagnac and Albret, left flank by dawn on 3 April. whose subsequent petition against the Surprised by the speed and direction of prince’s actions (see APPEAL OF THE GASCON the enemy advance, du Guesclin was forced LORDS) gave Charles V the pretext he re- to quickly wheel his eastward facing army to quired to resume the Hundred Years War in the north. Amidst the panic and confusion 1369. caused by this maneuver, much of the Cas- Further Reading: Barber, Richard. Edward, tilian infantry and cavalry defected to the Prince of Wales and Aquitaine. New York: Charles enemy. Fearing the breakup of his force, du Scribner’s Sons, 1978; Sumption, Jonathan. The Guesclin ordered his dismounted French Hundred Years War. Vol. 2, Trial by Fire. Philadel- and Castilian men-at-arms to attack. They phia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2001. fell upon the division led by Lancaster and Chandos, which was also dismounted. The NATIONAL CONSCIOUSNESS, English held the French attack, allowing the GROWTH OF Gascon wings of the prince’s army to begin Through its length and intensity, the HUN- an enveloping movement against du Gues- DRED YEARS WAR gradually broke down re- clin’s men. Led by Trasta´mare and his gional loyalties and local identities, thereby brother, the Castilian heavy cavalry, refus- fostering a growing sense of nationalism ing to demean themselves by fighting on within both societies. If the development of foot, charged the enemy, but were deci- national consciousness was more dramatic in mated by English arrows, just as the French France than in England, this was largely be- had been at CRE´CY. The prince now attacked cause the former, as the kingdom under at- all along the line, with his own command tack, was in greater need of unity to defend assailing the Castilians along their front itself, while the latter, being smaller and less while Lancaster and Chandos struck their populous, already possessed an adminis- flank. As Trasta´mare’s army disintegrated, trative unity based on highly developed and more than half of it was destroyed trying to widely accepted royal institutions. flee. Since the late twelfth century, the expan- While the prince’s army suffered few ca- sion of royal power and prestige under the sualties, Trasta´mare lost more than five kings of the House of CAPET had done much thousand men. The pretender himself es- to foster French unity. By the early four- caped the field, but du Guesclin, the French teenth century, the personal piety of Louis

225 NATIONAL CONSCIOUSNESS, GROWTH OF

IX (St. Louis) and the centralizing policies of the imposition of new types of taxes late in his grandson, PHILIP IV, had extended royal John’s reign, and the publication of the or- authority and prestige well beyond the dinance of 1383 whereby CHARLES VI estab- confines of the royal domain. One of the lished the principle that all people, whether long-term causes of the Hundred Years War, they lived in Crown lands or the territories the ongoing jurisdictional dispute between of Crown vassals, were to pay aides, led to a the kings of France and the PLANTAGENET system of royal taxation that was accepted, if king-dukes of AQUITAINE, was just the most grudgingly, because it was required to suc- famous example of what was occurring in cessfully resist the English. By the end of the all French fiefs—royal authority was slowly fourteenth century, even the nobility and the undermining the government of local lords. clergy were paying royal taxes and thus The idea was growing that ‘‘France’’ en- being tied more closely to the wider national compassed more than just the lands ruled community. directly by the king; it included all lands that In England, the war promoted national had a feudal connection to the Crown, and feeling in two ways. The long conflict de- all the people of these lands belonged to one fined the French as the great national enemy, country under one king, who, through his who were derided as weak, effeminate, and officials, acted for the common good. After deceitful. Through their many battlefield 1337, the long Anglo-French war accelerated victories, the English developed a sense this process by increasing the need for a of superiority and a greater confidence in coordinated national defense against the themselves and their military prowess. The English, and thus became the most im- popes might be French, but triumphs like portant factor in the promotion of French those at CRE´ CY, POITIERS, and AGINCOURT nationhood. clearly indicated that God favored the En- Besides involving the Crown in local af- glish. Thus, for the English, hatred of their fairs, the war stimulated the development of enemy inspired pride in themselves, their national institutions, such as the army and country, and their king. The war accelerated the fiscal system that supported it. The this process by encouraging the replacement growth of a national army as the royal in- of French with English as the official lan- strument for defending all the people began guage of government and DIPLOMACY.In in the last years of JOHN II and was com- 1362, PARLIAMENT opened for the first time pleted by the reforms of CHARLES V. Dis- with a speech in English, and the Statute of carded during the FRENCH CIVIL WAR, the Pleading, passed in the same parliamen- reforms that had created a professional tary session, allowed English law courts army paid by the Crown and led by the king to conduct business in English. The war also or his officers were reinstituted in expanded promoted the use of English among the no- form by CHARLES VII in the 1440s. In 1448, bility, whose members, prior to the war, had the creation of the franc-archers, raised by displayed their French heritage by speaking having each community provide one man French. However, by the 1390s, Geoffrey for military service in return for tax ex- Chaucer was writing in English, and, by the emptions, signaled the transformation of the early fifteenth century, English diplomats king’s army into a French national army were objecting to the use of French at Anglo- comprising representatives from each com- French conferences and negotiations. Thus, munity and locality in the realm. Along with language, in conjunction with widespread development of the army came development anti-French feeling, blended the various of a national system of TAXATION. The nation segments of English society into one com- could not be defended if the army could not munity of common interests. See also ARMIES, be maintained, and the army could not be COMMAND OF;CHARLES VII, MILITARY RE- maintained if it could not be paid for. The FORMS OF;PAPACY AND THE HUNDRED YEARS need to collect John II’s enormous RANSOM, WAR;PROPAGANDA AND WAR PUBLICITY.

226 NAVAL WARFARE

Further Reading: Allmand, Christopher. The raiders would frequently inflict on the En- Hundred Years War. Cambridge: Cambridge Uni- glish coast in the 1370s; and the Franco- versity Press, 1988; Curry, Anne. The Hundred Castilian blockade of BORDEAUX (1451), which Years War. 2nd ed. Houndmills, England: Pal- helped complete the French reconquest of grave Macmillan, 2003; Seward, Desmond. The GASCONY. The naval battles of the Hundred Hundred Years War. New York: Penguin, 1999. Years War were hand-to-hand encounters that recreated land combat on the decks of NAVAL WARFARE ships. Men fought with the same weapons Although noblemen were not trained for used on land, although sailors might throw naval warfare, which, unlike fighting on soap or stones to impede enemy boarders, or land, was not considered a noble pursuit, quicklime to blind enemy combatants. The naval operations were an important part of same projectile weapons employed on land the HUNDRED YEARS WAR. The English, being were used to bombard enemy ships, in- the aggressors, required ships to transport cluding longbows and crossbows—English men, supplies, and equipment, as well as to ARCHERS made effective use of the former control sea lanes and defend coasts against against grappled French vessels at Sluys—as raiders. The French, attempting to resist in- well as lances, spears, and darts; ARTILLERY, vasion, needed vessels that could intercept however, was rarely mounted on ships be- enemy fleets and launch swift, destructive fore the fifteenth century. raids on enemy shores. While navies only Naval needs also affected overall strategy became vital components of European mili- and the course of wartime DIPLOMACY. The tary establishments in the sixteenth century, VALOIS soon realized that they could not the Hundred Years War laid the ground- depend on the maritime resources of FLAN- work for that development in both England DERS, the Flemings being too dependent on and France, neither of which had real navies wool for their cloth industry to make war on before 1300. During the war, both kingdoms the main supplier of that vital commodity. developed ships and fleets suited to their As a result, French kings forged agreements particular needs, as well as the facilities and with Castile, Genoa, and even Denmark to administrative support required to maintain supply ships for naval actions against the naval forces. English. The Anglo-French interventions in The Hundred Years War witnessed sev- the CASTILIAN WAR OF SUCCESSION in the 1360s eral large naval battles. The most important were based in large part on the desire of of these encounters were the Battle of SLUYS both parties to secure for themselves the (1340), which was the first major Anglo- assistance of the Castilian fleet, the value of French engagement of the war; the Battle of which was clearly demonstrated at La Ro- WINCHELSEA (1350), which was an English chelle in 1372. Intervention in Brittany in the attempt to clear the Channel of Castilian 1340s was similarly based on a desire to raiders; the Battle of LA ROCHELLE (1372), control the ports and naval resources of that which cost the English both a fleet and an duchy, and Edward III’s siege of CALAIS in important port; the Battle of CADZAND 1346–47 was undertaken in the hope of se- (1387), which gave the English temporary curing for England a cross-Channel port for control of the Channel; and the Battle of the landing men and supplies. In the fifteenth SEINE (1416), which broke the French siege of century, HENRY V focused his attention on HARFLEUR. Other important naval actions conquering NORMANDY in part to achieve included the English seizure of Brest (1342), English control of both sides of the Channel which gave EDWARD III a major port in and thus secure his armies’ lines of supply BRITTANY and secured the sea route to and communication. AQUITAINE; the French attack on Winchelsea In the fourteenth century, neither Crown (1360), which destroyed an English town owned many ships, largely because the cost and foreshadowed the damage French of building them and the facilities required to

227 NAVARRE maintain them were prohibitively expensive. HENRY VI was too poor to rebuild his father’s Thus, war fleets were raised as needed by fleet, the English war effort was severely impressing private vessels. Officers working hampered by lack of a navy. under the admirals were sent to ports to re- Further Reading: Allmand, Christopher. The quisition ships for the king’s use. In England, Hundred Years War. Cambridge: Cambridge the Cinque Ports, a confederation of south- University Press, 1988; Rodger, N. A. M. The eastern towns, had a special responsibility to Safeguard of the Sea: A Naval History of Britain, 660– provide the Crown with ships and sailors; 1649. London: HarperCollins, 1997; Sherborne, however, the large fleets required to trans- J. W. ‘‘The Hundred Year’s War: The English port Edward III’s army to France for the Navy: Shipping and Manpower.’’ Past and Present RHEIMS CAMPAIGN in 1359 or Henry V’s for 37 (1967): 163–75. the AGINCOURT campaign in 1415 deprived many merchants and fishermen of their ves- NAVARRE. See CHARLES THE BAD,KING OF sels during the height of the trading and NAVARRE fishing seasons. Because ship owners re- ceived no payment for the use of their ves- NAVARRETE, BATTLE OF. See NA´ JERA, sels, no compensation for lost business, and BATTLE OF no reimbursement for vessels destroyed, damaged, or captured in royal service, NEVILLE’S CROSS, BATTLE OF (1346) such impressments were highly unpopular. Although an Anglo-Scottish battle fought What’s more, requisitioned ships often had to near Durham in northern England, Neville’s be substantially modified for war service. Cross was an important engagement of the Ships carrying horses needed special accom- HUNDRED YEARS WAR, being the culmination modations below decks, while merchant of a Scottish invasion of England undertaken vessels destined for naval combat had to be by DAVID II to relieve English pressure on fitted with high castles fore and aft. his ally, PHILIP VI of France. Occurring on 17 The English need for vessels with carrying October 1346, less than two months after the capacity meant that high-sided merchant Battle of CRE´ CY, Neville’s Cross allowed the cogs were best suited to royal service, and victorious English to capture the Scottish impressments of such ships continued to be king and to neutralize the ‘‘Auld Alliance’’ the best way to raise a fleet. In France, where as a threat to English action in France. the need was for smaller, faster ships that When EDWARD III landed in NORMANDY in could engage the enemy at sea and raid his July 1346, David II, whom the English had coasts, the ideal vessel was the , a flat- driven into French exile in the 1330s, launched bottomed ship powered by oars or sails that a series of raids into northern England. could come in close to shore. By the 1360s, Upon receiving news of the French defeat at the French Crown was building its own gal- Cre´cy on 26 August, David assembled the leys at the Clos de Gale´es, a shipyard in largest Scottish invasion force of the century, ROUEN. In the fifteenth century, Henry V which he led into England on 7 October in realized that he needed a permanent fleet to an effort to disrupt the English siege of CA- patrol the Channel and regularly ferry men LAIS. After besieging Liddell Castle and and supplies to France. By the 1420s, the sacking the wealthy priory of Hexham, the king, through purchase, capture, and con- Scots arrived before the walls of Durham on struction, had built a royal fleet of thirty-five 16 October. Although the town agreed to vessels and given oversight of naval matters pay RANSOM, elements of an English army to a clerk of the king’s ships headquartered in commanded by William la Zouch, arch- Southampton. However, after Henry’s death bishop of York, and the wardens of the in 1422, the fleet was gradually disbanded to Scottish border, Henry Percy, Lord Percy, save money, with ships being sold or allowed and Ralph Neville, Lord Neville of Raby, to rot. By the 1440s, when the government of arrived at Durham next day and quickly

228 NOGENT-SUR-SEINE, BATTLE OF deployed for battle on a hill known as Ne- captained by Eustache d’Aubricourt, was ville’s Cross. The armies remained immobile fought near the town of Nogent in Cham- for some hours until David’s , the pagne on 23 June 1359. The battle was a key traditional Scottish formations of massed victory in the first successful campaign to spearmen, advanced on the English posi- expel brigand companies from a French tion. Although the Scots fought bravely, they province. were decimated by the English ARCHERS and The first routier bands entered the great, repulsed by the English infantry. Hit twice open plain of Champagne, a prosperous re- by arrows and having lost one-third of his gion east of PARIS, in late 1358. Many of these men, King David was compelled to surren- companies had been in the pay of CHARLES der when his army at last began to disin- THE BAD, king of Navarre, who in the pre- tegrate. vious year had employed them to suppress Almost fifty Scottish nobles, including the JACQUERIE in districts around the capital. John Randolph, earl of Moray, lay dead on Comprising men of many states, but pri- the field. Although Robert Stewart, David’s marily English, French, and Hainaulters, the nephew and heir apparent, fled to safety companies found easy pickings in Cham- while the battle was still in progress, he was pagne, a province that heretofore had seen appointed guardian of the realm during little fighting or brigandage. Besides Au- David’s captivity, which lasted until October bricourt, a Hainaulter who had fought for 1357. In return for David’s release, Edward the English in GASCONY and whose elder tried to force the Scots to pay an exorbitant brother was a founding member of the ransom and to accept an English prince as Order of the GARTER, the chief routier cap- heir to the Scottish throne. The Scots rejected tains were two Englishmen who had long these proposals, although David, increas- served Navarre, a mysterious figure known ingly desperate to regain his freedom, was to the French as Rabigot Drury and an ad- more willing to compromise than were his venturer named Robert Scot. Aubricourt subjects. When the English capture of JOHN also joined forces with two other routier II in 1356 ended all hope of French assis- leaders, a German known as Albrecht and tance, the Scots agreed to a ransom of an Englishman named Peter Audley, the 100,000 marks and swore to take no arms brother of Sir James AUDLEY, one of EDWARD, against England until it was paid in full. THE BLACK PRINCE’s lieutenants at POITIERS. Because this sum was a heavy burden for The three created a routier army of more SCOTLAND, the final result of Neville’s Cross than a thousand men. By March 1359, these was an indefinite truce that ended the and other captains, acting together or sepa- Anglo-Scottish war and largely nullified rately, had seized castles and strongholds the FRANCO-SCOTTISH ALLIANCE for the rest of across Champagne, from which they sallied the fourteenth century. forth to commit further acts of rape, pillage, Further Reading: Grant, Alexander. Indepen- and murder. dence and Nationhood: Scotland, 1306–1469. Lon- Aubricourt’s men captured the town of don: E. Arnold, 1984; Neillands, Robin. The Nogent on the Seine, which they used as a Hundred Years War. London: Routledge, 1991; base to strike northward, plundering vil- Nicholson, Ranald. Scotland: The Later Middle lages and castles in the Marne Valley and Ages. New York: Barnes and Noble, 1974. the vicinity of Rheims. By late April, Au- bricourt controlled a string of towns and NEWSLETTERS. See PROPAGANDA AND WAR strongholds in the area between Nogent and PUBLICITY Rheims, with Drury, Scot, and other cap- tains exercising similar dominance over NOGENT-SUR-SEINE, BATTLE OF (1359) western Champagne. While forming large The Battle of Nogent-sur-Seine, a clash be- bands allowed the routiers to assault siz- tween a royal army and a force of ROUTIERS able towns and fight pitched battles, the

229 NORMAN CAMPAIGN companies found their numbers to be a NORMAN CAMPAIGN (1417–1419) detriment when they tried to base them- Launched in August 1417, HENRY V’s Nor- selves on a small castle, for too many man campaign, unlike the fourteenth- mouths quickly depleted the locally avail- century CHEVAUCHE´ ES of EDWARD III, aimed at able supplies, especially should the fortress conquest and occupation of territory rather come under siege. This problem dictated the than destruction of enemy morale and re- strategy of seizing a chain of nearby castles, sources. Henry was interested not in dis- thus easing the supply problem but per- membering France, but in possessing its mitting the companies to combine quickly to Crown, which he fervently believed was his raise a siege or meet an enemy in battle. by right. To achieve that ultimate end, To counter the routier threat, the roy- Henry needed to establish effective political al lieutenants of Champagne—John of and economic control over NORMANDY by Chalon, lord of Arlay, and Henry, count of systematically seizing all important towns Vaude´mont—gathered an army in the Seine and fortresses. Thus, the Norman campaign Valley south of Nogent near Troyes. Draw- was a slow process characterized by care- ing infantry from the towns and hiring ca- fully prepared sieges, and by treatment of valry from the local nobility, the lieutenants the Norman people as rebellious subjects assembled a force of about twenty-five who received mercy when they submitted to hundred by mid-June, when they marched their rightful lord and punishment when on Nogent. Unwilling to stand siege, Au- they did not. bricourt, leading a force of about seven On 1 August 1417, Henry landed an army hundred men, retreated about fifteen miles of about ten thousand men on the Norman down the Seine to a strong defensive posi- coast near the castle of Touques, which tion near Bray. Adopting English tactics, promptly surrendered. The English then Aubricourt deployed his men on foot along marched southwest, investing Caen on the high ground in a vineyard, where the vines River Orne. The town surrendered on 4 would disrupt cavalry charges. Although September after a two-week siege that was Aubricourt was confident of victory, the highlighted by the capture intact of the royal lieutenants, unlike PHILIP VI at CRE´ CY, monastery of St. E´ tienne, the burial site of did not engage in headlong cavalry assaults, William the Conqueror. As he had done at but divided their force into three divisions to HARFLEUR two years earlier, Henry expelled attack the routiers from several directions at that part of the town’s population that re- once, thereby maximizing their advantage in fused to accept his lordship, their places to numbers. Aubricourt’s men were quickly eventually be taken by settlers from En- overwhelmed; most were killed, with the gland. To cut off western Normandy, Henry leaders, such as Aubricourt himself, taken moved south, taking all strongholds be- prisoner and held to RANSOM. After the vic- tween Caen and Alenc¸on, which fell in mid- tory at Nogent, royalist forces attacked the October. The English then turned east, other companies in turn, thereby clearing taking Mortagne and Belleˆme, before settling Champagne of routier garrisons by late down in late December to the siege of Fa- summer. Although the king’s lieutenants laise, the Conqueror’s birthplace. The town allowed some bands to withdraw from the and its formidable castle withstood a pro- province under safe-conducts, local peasants longed ARTILLERY bombardment before sur- and townsmen were not so generous, falling rendering in mid-February 1418. In March, a upon the retreating routiers and killing new expedition led by Thomas BEAUFORT, many. duke of Exeter, left LONDON with supplies Further Reading: Sumption, Jonathan. The and two thousand men, who, like the troops Hundred Years War. Vol. 2, Trial by Fire. already in France, had indented (see IN- Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, DENTURES) to serve for a year. By August, 2001. almost the whole of the duchy west of the

230 NORMAN CAMPAIGN

Seine had fallen to Henry, with only the port Eu on 8 and 15 February, respectively. By the of Cherbourg, which capitulated to HUM- beginning of March, only five major castles PHREY, DUKE OF GLOUCESTER, in September, held out, including Chaˆteau Gaillard, Gisors, causing any difficulty. and Mont St. Michel, all of which (save for Thanks to the ongoing FRENCH CIVIL WAR, the latter), fell shortly thereafter. For the first the English, prior to May 1418, had little time in over two hundred years, Normandy reason to fear an attempt to relieve the was a possession of the English Crown. See Norman garrisons. The ARMAGNAC govern- also NORMAN CAMPAIGN (1449–1450). ment in PARIS was hard pressed by JOHN THE Further Reading: Allmand, Christopher. Henry FEARLESS, duke of BURGUNDY, who was more V. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1997; concerned with blockading the capital than Burne, Alfred H. The Agincourt War. Ware, with resisting the English. In May, an up- England: Wordsworth Editions Ltd., 1999. rising in Paris overthrew the Armagnac re- gime and handed the city to Burgundy, who NORMAN CAMPAIGN (1449–1450) once again had custody of CHARLES VI and In little more than a year, the French cam- was thus de facto ruler of France. Although paign launched against NORMANDY in July now theoretically committed to the defense 1449 extinguished English rule in the duchy of Normandy, Burgundy was in no position and, with the exception of CALAIS, stripped to do so effectively. All thought of Burgun- the House of LANCASTER of its holdings in dian opposition to the English advance northern France. Marked by one pitched ended on 20 July, when the English, after a battle and a series of successful sieges, the three-week siege, crossed the Seine and Norman Campaign illustrated the effective- captured Pont-de-l’Arche, thus cutting the ness of the reorganized French army and link between ROUEN and Paris. The river especially of the new French ARTILLERY train. crossing was achieved with the use of pon- On 24 March 1449, an English force under toons, with which, thanks to Henry’s careful the ROUTIER captain Franc¸ois de Surienne planning, the army was well supplied. seized the Breton town of FOUGE` RES. Un- Using a pontoon bridge to cross by night to dertaken in retaliation for recent French an island in the middle of the stream, Sir operations in Maine, the ill-advised English John Cornwall led a small force that rowed attack made an open enemy of Francis I, to the north bank under cover of ARCHERS duke of BRITTANY, and convinced CHARLES firing from the island. Cornwall was able to VII to abandon the Truce of TOURS.Ata surprise the BURGUNDIANS and thus secure council held at Chinon on 17 July 1449, the and hold a bridgehead. When another En- king ended talks with the English lieutenant, glish force crossed via two pontoon bridges Edmund BEAUFORT, duke of Somerset, and laid above and below the town, Pont-de- announced formal resumption of the HUN- l’Arche was cut off and surrendered, forcing DRED YEARS WAR. Within a month, the the Burgundians to abandon the line of the French opened a three-pronged attack on Seine. Lancastrian Normandy, with overall com- On 29 July, Henry opened the siege of mand given to the veteran soldier, JOHN, Rouen, the Norman capital, which held out COUNT OF DUNOIS,JOAN OF ARC’s companion until 19 January 1419, thus necessitating at the siege of ORLE´ ANS. By the end of the another winter investment. When the citi- year, the counts of Eu and Saint-Pol had zens of Rouen appealed to Burgundy for aid, overrun much of eastern Normandy; Du- the duke advised the city to look to its own nois, supported by another of the Maid’s defense. The capture of Rouen led to the captains, JOHN, DUKE OF ALENC¸ON, had cap- capitulation of most of the remaining French tured VERNEUIL and most of central Nor- strongholds in northern and eastern Nor- mandy; and Francis of Brittany, supported mandy. Lillbourne surrendered on 31 Jan- by his uncle, Arthur de Richemont, the uary, Mantes on 5 February, and and French constable (see ARTHUR III), had

231 NORMANDY retaken most of the west, including Fouge`res, last English stronghold in the duchy, sur- which fell on 5 November. Everywhere, but rendering on 12 August, a year to the day especially in the countryside, the French after the commencement of French opera- were greeted as liberators. The English, even tions. though they controlled many strongpoints, The ease of his victory persuaded Charles were thoroughly demoralized by the speed to attack GASCONY in 1451, a campaign that and effectiveness of the French campaign, culminated with the final conquest of that and many towns and fortresses offered little duchy in 1453. In England, the rapid col- or no resistance. lapse of Lancastrian Normandy overthrew On 9 October, an army commanded by the Suffolk, was a factor in the outbreak of JACK king himself encamped around ROUEN. CADE’S REBELLION, and aggravated the aris- When the city authorities opened the gates, tocratic feuds that later helped launch the Beaufort and his men withdrew into the Wars of the Roses. See also CHARLES VII, castle, which the duke surrendered on 29 MILITARY REFORMS OF;MAINE,SURRENDER OF; October, thereby allowing Charles to make a NORMAN CAMPAIGN (1417–1419). triumphal entry into the Norman capital Further Reading: Burne, Alfred H. The Agin- on 20 November. Although winter slowed court War. Ware, England: Wordsworth Editions French operations, and John TALBOT, earl of Ltd., 1999; Perroy, Edouard. The Hundred Years Shrewsbury, made a futile attempt to dis- War. Trans. W. B. Wells. New York: Capricorn rupt enemy movements with his small force, Books, 1965. English strongpoints continued to fall, in- cluding HARFLEUR, which capitulated in NORMANDY December. Located across the Channel from England in In England, the increasingly unpopular northwestern France, the duchy of Nor- regime of William de la POLE, duke of Suf- mandy, a former PLANTAGENET possession folk, collected, with much difficulty, a re- held by the French Crown since 1204, be- lieving force of about five thousand men, came the center of Lancastrian France in the which was dispatched under Sir Thomas fifteenth century. Kyriel in March 1450. Landing at Cher- In the fourteenth century, English activity bourg, Kyriel retook several fortresses be- in France focused mainly on AQUITAINE, fore his army was destroyed by Richemont BRITTANY, and FLANDERS, and interest or in- and John, count of Clermont, at FORMIGNY on volvement in Normandy was brief and 15 April. In this battle, as well as in all the sporadic. The first English intervention in campaign’s important sieges, the artillery of the duchy began on 12 July 1346, when ED- the French master of ordinance, Jean BU- WARD III, encouraged by Norman dissidents REAU, played an important role, giving the led by Godfrey of HARCOURT, opened the French the tactical advantage that the long- CRE´ CY campaign by landing at Saint-Vaaste- bow (see ARCHERS) had once given the En- la-Hogue. Although the culminating battle glish at such battles as CRE´CY and AGIN- was fought in Ponthieu, most of the cam- COURT. With no English army in the field, the paign occurred in Normandy, as the English campaign became simply a matter of redu- marched eastward through the duchy burn- cing the remaining English fortresses, the suc- ing and looting. However, the campaign cessful conclusion of which was made almost demonstrated that pro-English sentiment inevitable by Bureau’s guns. While the Bre- in Normandy was weak and that Edward tons cleared the western districts, the royal lacked the manpower to effectively garrison army forced the capitulation of Caen on 1 the duchy. In the late 1350s, Edward as- July, which Somerset surrendered after a sumed the title duke of Normandy and in- cannonball smashed into a room occupied cluded the duchy among the territories to be by his family. Falaise fell on 21 July and granted him in full sovereignty in the abor- Domfront on 2 August, with Cherbourg, the tive Second Treaty of LONDON, but the final

232 NORTHAMPTON, PEACE OF settlement achieved by the Treaty of BRE´ - southward toward the Loire, English rule in TIGNY in 1360 left Normandy to the VALOIS. Normandy was secure; the duchy was gen- In 1378, the English acquired the Norman erally peaceful and the English garrisons port of Cherbourg from CHARLES THE BAD, were reduced. In 1429, English defeats at KING OF NAVARRE, who had made Normandy ORLE´ ANS and PATAY opened eastern Nor- a center of revolt against the government of mandy to French attack. Insecurity increased Dauphin Charles (see CHARLES V) in the early both taxes and brigandage, making the 1360s (see COCHEREL,BATTLE OF). The English English administration highly unpopular used the town as a base for naval raids until and leading to a serious revolt in western 1393, when RICHARD II surrendered it in Normandy in 1435–36. Although the upris- pursuit of the peace policy he followed after ing was eventually suppressed, Harfleur the Truce of LEULINGHEN. was lost until 1441 and Lancastrian rule in In the fifteenth century, Normandy be- the duchy was permanently weakened. came vital to the English war effort. HENRY V After 1436, when CHARLES VII recovered proclaimed himself duke of Normandy and PARIS, Rouen became the administrative stressed his Norman ancestry by way of center of Lancastrian France, but the English proving his right to hold the duchy in full were now seen as an occupying force and sovereignty. In 1415, the king opened the Norman support for the Lancastrian regime AGINCOURT campaign by seizing the Nor- declined throughout the 1440s, when Anglo- man port of HARFLEUR at the mouth of the French hostilities were halted by the Truce Seine. Beginning in 1417, Henry undertook a of TOURS. In 1449, the French resumed the systematic conquest of the duchy, which war with a campaign that retook the duchy was completed with the fall of ROUEN in within a year. The last English army in January 1419. Each of the main towns and Normandy was decisively defeated at FOR- fortresses received an English garrison and MIGNY in April 1450 and English rule—and English subjects were encouraged to settle in the HUNDRED YEARS WAR—ended in Nor- the duchy to eventually make Normandy a mandy with the fall of Cherbourg on the self-sustaining English province capable of following 12 August. See also NORMAN paying for its own defense. In 1420, the CAMPAIGN (1417–1419); NORMAN CAMPAIGN Treaty of TROYES provided for an English- (1449–1450); PONTOISE,SIEGE OF. controlled Normandy that was to remain Further Reading: Allmand, C. T. Lancastrian separate from France until Henry or his Normandy, 1415–1450: The History of a Medieval heirs inherited the French Crown from Occupation. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1983; Curry, CHARLES VI. Anne. The Hundred Years War. 2nd ed. Hound- After his brother’s death in 1422, JOHN, mills, England: Palgrave Macmillan, 2003. DUKE OF BEDFORD, tried to foster Lancastrian rule in the duchy by carefully observing NORTHAMPTON, EARL OF. See BOHUN, local laws and customs and by frequently WILLIAM DE,EARL OF NORTHAMPTON consulting the Norman Estates on de- fense and taxation. Following the Battle of NORTHAMPTON, PEACE OF. See SCOT- VERNEUIL in 1424, which pushed the war LAND

233 O

ORDER OF THE GARTER. See GARTER, forked indentations on the free end. The ORDER OF THE banner was attached either vertically to the lance or to a bar suspended from the lance ORDER OF THE STAR. See STAR,ORDER tip. In later battles, the Oriflamme was car- OF THE ried in association with the French royal standard of golden fleur-de-lis on a blue ORDONNANCE CABOCHIENNE. See CA- background, a more familiar emblem to BOCHIENS modern eyes. The banner was first carried into battle in ORIFLAMME the 1120s, when Louis VI, disregarding the The Oriflamme, a long forked banner of tradition that it only be used against ene- scarlet embroidered with golden flames and mies of Christianity, unfurled it against carried from a gilded lance, was the military various Christian rulers, including Henry I standard of the VALOIS kings of France dur- of England. In the thirteenth century, Louis ing the HUNDRED YEARS WAR. IX (St. Louis) retrieved the banner from The origins of the banner are uncertain, Saint-Denis to carry it on his crusade against although it was believed to be the emblem of the Muslims. In the fourteenth century, Charlemagne, and to represent a sacred French kings raised the Oriflamme when- flaming lance with which the emperor could ever the military situation was deemed ser- defeat the enemies of Christendom. In ious enough to require display of such a some of the earliest traditions, the banner is potent symbol of royal authority and power. merely ornamentation for the lance on Almost destroyed during the French victory which it hangs, which is the true symbol of over Flemish militia at Mons-en-Pe´ve`le in importance. In the tenth century, Hugh, the 1304, the banner also appeared on the bat- first king of the House of CAPET, entrusted tlefields of Cassel (1328) and Roosebeke the Oriflamme to the Abbey of Saint-Denis, (1382), which were victories over Flemish the monastery near PARIS that became the rebels, and at CRE´ CY (1346), POITIERS (1356), burial place of French kings. A twelfth- and AGINCOURT (1415), all major defeats at century story also linked the banner to the the hands of the English. Perhaps because of counts of Vexin and their traditional role as its association with so many military di- protectors of Saint-Denis, a special relation- sasters, the Oriflamme was raised less fre- ship that passed with the county to the kings quently after 1420. It appeared on the of France in 1077. battlefield for the last time in the late fif- Descriptions of the standard’s appearance teenth century, and thereafter remained at vary, perhaps as a result of worn or dam- Saint-Denis until it was destroyed during aged banners being occasionally replaced. In the French Revolution. general, the Oriflamme was said to be of Further Reading: Hallam, Elizabeth M. Cape- blood-red silk with green fringe, golden tian France, 987–1328. London: Longman, 1980; lines or circles of flame, and two or three Keen, Maurice. The Laws of War in the Late Middle

234 ORLE´ ANS, SIEGE OF

Ages. Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1965; Lewis, P. S. Later Medie- val France: The Polity. London: Mac- millan, 1980.

ORLE´ ANS, DUKE OF. See CHARLES,DUKE OF ORLE´ANS; LOUIS, DUKE OF ORLE´ ANS

ORLE´ ANS, SIEGE OF (1428–1429) Perhaps the most studied and written-about military operation of the HUNDRED YEARS WAR, the English siege of Orle´ans, the chief dauphinist town on the Loire, ran from 12 October 1428 to 8 May 1429. Inspired by the most unorthodox of military leaders, JOAN OF ARC, a teenage girl who wore ARMOR and claimed to be sent by heaven to save France, the French relief of the city turned the tide of the war. Although it would take an- other twenty-four years to drive the English from France, Joan’s victory at Orle´ans restored the prestige of the VALOIS monarchy and imbued its cause with the aura of divine approval, thereby demoralizing the English, who after Orle´ans found themselves largely on the defensive. On 1 July 1428, Thomas MON- A modern view of Orle´ans showing the bridge across the Loire TAGU, earl of Salisbury, landed in that was the scene of much fighting during the English siege of France with a force of about three the town in 1428–29. Erich Lessing/Art Resource, New York. thousand. The earl marched to PARIS, where, in consultation with JOHN, DUKE OF BEDFORD, and other English Salisbury isolated Orle´ans by systematically leaders, the decision was made to capture capturing other Loire towns, including Orle´ans, thereby securing the Loire and Meung, Jargeau, and Beaugency. On 12 Oc- threatening the heartland of dauphinist tober, the earl, commanding a force of per- France. Although it was a breach of CHIVALRY haps five thousand, including men hired to attack the possessions of a captive— from PHILIP THE GOOD, duke of BURGUNDY, CHARLES, DUKE OF ORLE´ANS, had been an encamped around Orle´ans. Although he English prisoner since AGINCOURT in 1415— lacked sufficient troops to completely encircle the operation was approved because tak- the city, which was large, high-walled, well- ing the city might at last convince the French supplied, and defended by seventy-one guns that the Valois cause was lost. In August, and fifty-four hundred men commanded by

235 ORLE´ ANS, SIEGE OF

John, the Bastard of Orle´ans, brother of the although a diversionary attack on the bou- captive duke (see JOHN,COUNT OF DUNOIS AND levard by the garrison probably ensured her LONGUEVILLE [1402–1468]), Salisbury began entry. Over the next four days, Joan vehe- an immediate bombardment. Within days, mently urged an immediate attack on the the English seized the Tourelles, a stone for- English, while the Bastard, believing himself tress that protected the far end of the bridge unready for such an assault, refused to do connecting the city to the south bank of the so; on 1 May, he left for Blois to gather more Loire. On about 24 October, Salisbury, while troops. Joan, meanwhile, in an apparent at- reconnoitering the city from an upper win- tempt to provoke the enemy into attacking, dow of the Tourelles, was struck by metal spoke to the English across the lines, de- fragments blasted from the fortress walls manding that they withdraw in obedience to by French ARTILLERY. With much of his jaw God’s will and receiving in return many and lower face gone, the earl died on 3 No- insults. Upon the Bastard’s return on 4 May, vember. the French attacked and captured the Saint The death of Salisbury stalled the English Loup boulevard. On 5 May, the French oc- assault, for William de la POLE, earl of Suf- cupied the recently abandoned boulevard of folk, who now assumed command, was a Saint Jean le Blanc, and on 6 May, the more cautious leader. He moved most of the French, in a furious assault led by Joan, army into winter quarters in nearby towns, captured the boulevard of the Augustins, leaving only a token force before Orle´ans thus pinning the English in the Tourelles and thus enabling the French to bring more between the city and the relieving force. On troops and supplies into the city. In De- 7 May, despite the Bastard’s desire to rest cember, John TALBOT and Thomas SCALES, his men, the French assaulted the Tourelles Lord Scales, arrived at Orle´ans to assume at Joan’s insistence. When Joan refused to joint command with Suffolk, while Sir Wil- leave the field after being wounded in the liam Glasdale took charge of the Tourelles. shoulder by an arrow, the French, who had On 12 February, the failure of a French at- been making little headway, were inspired tempt to intercept an English supply convoy by her courage and eventually carried the at the Battle of the HERRINGS severely dam- fortification. Glasdale, who had personally aged the city’s morale. The besiegers also mocked Joan as a ‘‘whore of the ARMA- constructed a number of boulevards—low GNACS’’ (DeVries, 75), was slain with most of earthwork defenses—around the city, in- his men. cluding a particularly strong one, known as Next day, 8 May, the English abandoned the boulevard of the Augustins, before the their remaining boulevards and ordered Tourelles. These defenses seemed to indicate themselves for battle. The French sallied an English willingness to starve the city into forth to meet them, but Joan, unwilling to surrender and a belief, shared by many in fight on Sunday, urged them not to attack, the increasingly demoralized town, that no but only to defend themselves from enemy relief attempt would be made by the dau- assaults. Despite rumors that Sir John FAS- phin. However, in early March, Joan of Arc TOLF was approaching with reinforcements, came to the dauphin at Chinon, where she the English had apparently lost faith in their told him that God had sent her to relieve boulevard defenses. When the French did Orle´ans and see him crowned. Encouraged not attack, they marched away, with Suffolk by the Maid, the dauphin began assembling withdrawing to Jargeau and Talbot and a large relief force at Blois. Scales to Meung. News of the Maid’s victory On 29 April, Joan entered Orle´ans from overjoyed the dauphinists and profoundly the east, bypassing the English Saint Loup shocked the English. In June, Joan accom- boulevard without incident, an achievement panied another French army that during a later ascribed to a miracle worked by Joan, weeklong campaign culminating at PATAY,

236 ORLE´ ANS, SIEGE OF cleared the Loire of English garrisons (see Further Reading: Burne, Alfred H. The Agin- LOIRE CAMPAIGN) and allowed the dauphin court War. Ware, England: Wordsworth Editions to march to Rheims and be crowned as Ltd., 1999; DeVries, Kelly. Joan of Arc: A Military CHARLES VII on 17 July. Leader. Stroud, England: Sutton Publishing, 2003.

237 P

PAPACY AND THE HUNDRED of France. For the next seventy-three years, a YEARS WAR string of French-born popes, supported by a Although a supranational institution of wide largely French cardinalate, presided over the influence, the papacy was hampered in its Church from Avignon. efforts to prevent or end the HUNDRED YEARS Jacques Fournier, who as Benedict XII WAR by its perceived lack of impartiality. (r. 1334–42) was pope at the start of the war From 1305 to 1378, the papacy was viewed in the 1330s, undertook strenuous but un- as being subservient to the French Crown, availing efforts to prevent the outbreak of and from 1378 to 1417 effective papal me- hostilities. Although it suited English pur- diation was rendered impossible by the poses to denounce the French-born pope as ‘‘Great Schism,’’ a disputed papal succes- biased, Benedict failed not because he was sion that resulted in several lines of popes pro-French, but because EDWARD III and competing with one another for the support PHILIP VI were fundamentally unwilling to of national rulers and thereby aggravating reach a settlement. Pierre Roger, who was rather than healing the political divisions of elected pope in 1342 as CLEMENT VI (r. 1342– the Hundred Years War. While most popes 52), brokered the Truce of MALESTROIT in of the war period took seriously their duty 1343 and sponsored the AVIGNON PEACE to bring peace to Europe, and most of the CONFERENCE of 1344, by which he sought to peace conferences and truce talks of the bring the warring parties to terms. Again the fourteenth century had some papal in- talks failed largely because neither monarch volvement, no settlement was ever achieved truly wanted peace and because Clement’s largely because the English and French former position as chancellor of France al- Crowns did not want one and because the lowed Edward to plausibly dismiss him as a papacy lacked sufficient influence to impose VALOIS puppet. Although Clement genu- one. inely sought peace, he, like Benedict, took a The so-called ‘‘Babylonian Captivity’’ of conservative rather than a pro-French view the papacy began in 1305 with the election of of the dispute over Aquitaine; that is, Bertrand de Got, archbishop of BORDEAUX,a Edward III was seen as a feudal vassal Gascon, who, as a subject of the French challenging the authority of his legitimate Crown and a vassal of the PLANTAGENET overlord, who was a solemnly anointed king. king-dukes of AQUITAINE, seemed a good In this context, it was hard for the Avignon choice to heal the rifts created by the bitter popes to give serious consideration to Ed- quarrel between PHILIP IV and the late pope, ward’s claim to the French throne, which Boniface VIII (r. 1294–1303). Choosing the none of them ever recognized. Thus, all name Clement V (r. 1305–14), the new pope Anglo-French negotiations sponsored by the was persuaded by the French king to avoid Avignon popes ended in failure, including the political turmoil of Rome and base his the 1352–54 talks arranged by E´ tienne Aubert, papacy in Avignon, a town in the Rhoˆne who was pope as Innocent VI (r. 1352–62), valley that was then just outside the borders and the 1375–77 BRUGES PEACE CONFERENCE

238 PARIS sponsored by Pierre Roger de Beaufort, the In 1416, Holy Roman Emperor Sigismund nephew of Clement VI and pope as Gregory convened the Council of Constance in an XI (r. 1370–78). effort to end the schism; however, all efforts Papal influence declined steadily as the in this direction were bedeviled by the on- war progressed. In England, Edward III going Anglo-French hostility and by the confiscated the property of French monastic intensifying FRENCH CIVIL WAR, as English houses on grounds of national security and delegates quarreled with French, and AR- PARLIAMENT enacted the statutes of Praemu- MAGNAC delegates argued with BURGUN- nire (1353, 1393) and Provisors (1351, 1390) DIANS. To end the papal divisions, Sig- to elicit more papal cooperation with the ismund tried to secure the cooperation of the Crown, especially on ecclesiastical appoint- Houses of Valois and LANCASTER. He re- ments. Blatant pro-French actions, such as the ceived a cold reception in PARIS, which he refusal of Guillaume de Grimoard, pope as visited only six months after the Battle of Urban V (r. 1362–70), to permit a marriage AGINCOURT, but he was warmly welcomed to between Edward’s son, EDMUND OF LANGLEY, LONDON by HENRY V, who eventually per- duke of York, and MARGUERITE,thedaughter suaded him to sign the anti-French Treaty of of LOUIS DE MALE, count of Flanders, while at CANTERBURY. the same time encouraging her marriage to In 1417, the Council of Constance effec- CHARLES V’s brother, PHILIP THE BOLD, duke tively ended the schism by securing the of BURGUNDY, further eroded English respect resignation or deposition of the various anti- for papal authority. In both kingdoms, mon- popes and electing Oddo Colonna as Pope archs taxed the clergy without papal sanction Martin V (r. 1417–31). Headquartered in and exercised significant influence over the Rome, the new pope won the allegiance of functioning of national churches. most of Europe, including both England and In 1376, despite the protests of Charles V, France. However, his efforts to restore papal Gregory XI returned the papacy to Rome. authority took precedence over war media- On his death two years later, the Roman tion, in which he was in any case tainted in mob forced the election of an Italian, Barto- English eyes by his refusal to accept the lomeo Prignano, who took the name Urban Treaty of TROYES in 1420. In 1434, his suc- VI (r. 1378–89). Convinced by French cardi- cessor, Gabriele Condulmaro, who took the nals that Urban’s election was invalid, name Eugenius IV (r. 1431–47), officially Charles V backed their election of one of recognized CHARLES VII as rightful king of their own, Robert of Geneva, as Pope France, thus limiting his effectiveness as a Clement VII (r. 1378–94), an action that led mediator at the Congress of ARRAS in 1435, to the creation of two competing lines of where was made the last significant papal popes—one backed by the French and attempt to broker a settlement of the Hun- Scottish Crowns and headquartered in dred Years War. Avignon, and one backed by the English Further Reading: Curry, Anne. The Hundred Crown and most of Europe and head- Years War. 2nd ed. Houndmills, England: Pal- quartered in Rome. This division, which grave Macmillan, 2003; Mollat, G. The Popes at ended any hope of papal war mediation, Avignon, 1305–1378: The ‘‘Babylonian Captivity’’ of became even worse in 1409, when the the Medieval Church. New York: Harper and Row, Council of Pisa deposed the current Roman 1965; Renouard, Yves. The Avignon Papacy: The and Avignon popes and elected as their Popes in Exile, 1305–1403. New York: Barnes and successor Pietro Philarghi as Pope Alex- Noble, 1994. ander V (r. 1409–10). Although France and England, for once in agreement, accepted PARIS Alexander, the deposed popes each retained Paris during the HUNDRED YEARS WAR was the loyalty of other states, thus leaving the the largest and wealthiest city in France, as Church with three popes. well as the center of royal government.

239 PARIS

Although not always the residence of the bureaucracy, strongly supported the exten- king and his court, it was the administrative sion of royal authority. and judicial heart of the kingdom, being the At the start of the war in the fourteenth seat of the Chambre des Comptes, the cen- century, the city’s population is estimated to tral auditing office, and the PARLEMENT, the have exceeded eighty thousand, with per- central law court. The city’s cultural and haps a quarter of that number being stu- economic dominance were guaranteed by dents. As the royal administration grew in the University of Paris, the most influential size and competence, great lords, both lay European university of the Middle Ages, and spiritual, found it increasingly im- and the rise within the city of great mer- portant to be resident in the city, while im- chant families, who by the fourteenth cen- portant corporate bodies, such as towns and tury held important positions in royal monasteries, found it necessary to maintain government and finance. As a result of this representatives in Paris. The bourgeoisie of preeminence, Paris played a key role in the Paris, increasingly dominated by families of history of the Anglo-French war, especially great wealth, grew in economic strength and during the 1350s, when the city rose against political sophistication. royal authority, and the early fifteenth cen- The city’s relations with the VALOIS kings tury, when Paris was under English occu- fluctuated. Like his Capetian predecessors, pation. PHILIP VI maintained an itinerant court, Paris arose from Celtic and Roman set- spending more time in royal manors than in tlements on an island in the River Seine, the city, but JOHN II was frequently in res- later known as the Iˆle-de-la-Cite´, and its idence at the royal palace on the western adjoining banks, later known, because of the end of the Iˆle-de-la-Cite´ and CHARLES V also river’s many twists, as the Right and Left spent much time in the capital, although his Banks (when facing downstream). The preferred residences were on the Right Roman city, called Lutetia, became known Bank, the Louvre, or the Hoˆtel de Saint-Pol. as Paris, from a local Celtic tribe, the Parisi, The latter was also a favorite residence of in the late fourth century. Under the early CHARLES VI, whose illness precluded much Capetian kings, Paris became the center of travel outside the city. However, CHARLES royal government, the expansion of which, VII spent little time in Paris. Forced to flee a especially after Louis VI took up residence BURGUNDIAN mob in 1418, Charles did not in Paris after 1130, fueled the city’s growth. return to Paris until the city was retaken The kings of the House of CAPET found the from the English in 1436, and even thereafter city’s location ideal for checking the aspira- spent more time at his Loire residences. tions of regional dynasties, such as the An- During the early fourteenth century, royal gevin and ultimately English royal House of fiscal policy, especially the Crown’s frequent PLANTAGENET to the west and the House manipulation of the currency, strained the of Champagne to the east. Under the kings city’s once close collaboration with the king. of the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, Paris Both PHILIP IV and PHILIP V met fierce op- experienced unprecedented growth, both in position from the city, with the latter’s ad- population and wealth, with the university visors even debating the possibility of achieving corporate independence by the moving the capital to Orle´ans. Although the early thirteenth century. Louis IX re- city suffered severely during the BLACK organized the city’s administration in 1261, DEATH of the late 1340s, Paris continued to creating the offices of pre´voˆt to exercise royal expand outside the walls built by Philip II in authority within Paris, and pre´voˆt des mar- the early thirteenth century. In 1356, the chands to lead the merchant community. By pre´voˆt des marchands, E´ tienne MARCEL, who the end of the thirteenth century, Paris was was a member of one of the city’s great the acknowledged seat of the national capi- merchant families, began construction of a tal, and Parisians, who dominated the royal new wall, which was continued by Charles

240 PARIS, TREATY OF

V. In the aftermath of John II’s capture at Further Reading: Butler, Raymond R. Is Paris POITIERS, Marcel led a revolutionary move- Lost? The English Occupation, 1422–1436. Staple- ment that drove the dauphin from the city. hurst, England: Spellmount, 2003; Couperie, Demanding governmental reform, Marcel Pierre. Paris through the Ages. New York: Braziller, split his party by supporting the JACQUERIE in 1968; Jones, Colin. Paris: Biography of a City. 1358, an action that allowed the dauphin to London: Allen Lane, 2004; Velay, Philippe. From regain support in the city and led to Marcel’s Lutetia to Paris: The Island and the Two Banks. Paris: murder by a Paris mob. Another Parisian CNRS, 1992. uprising, the Maillotins, erupted in 1382, when the city resisted the imposition of new PARIS, TREATY OF (1259) royal taxes that bore heavily on urban pop- Concluded on 13 October 1259, the Treaty of ulations. The government of Charles VI re- Paris was a personal agreement between sponded by crushing the rebellion and Louis IX (St. Louis) of France and Henry III abolishing the office of pre´voˆt des marchands. of England regarding the feudal status of all During the FRENCH CIVIL WAR, the city French territories claimed by the English supported JOHN THE FEARLESS, duke of BUR- king. By making the king of England a vas- GUNDY, who won over the bourgeoisie and sal of the king of France, the treaty created the university by posing as a reformer. In an ultimately untenable relationship be- April 1413, Burgundy, in an effort to main- tween two sovereign monarchs and their tain his dominance, incited the butchers of kingdoms. In the 1330s, the increasingly se- Paris to rise in favor of reform. Known as the vere political and legal strains arising from CABOCHIENS, for their leader, Simon Ca- this relationship became a root cause of the boche, the rebels plunged the city into a HUNDRED YEARS WAR. three-month reign of terror and forced the Under Henry II and his sons, England had decree of a massive reform ordinance. The controlled a vast continental domain en- ARMAGNACS crushed the uprising when they compassing most of western France. In 1202, entered Paris in September following Bur- Philip II (Augustus), acting in his capacity as gundy’s flight. For the next five years, the city, King John’s feudal overlord, summoned suffering intermittent Burgundian sieges, John to the French court to answer an appeal was controlled by an Armagnac regime in- launched against him by certain of his vas- creasingly dominated by BERNARD, COUNT OF sals in Poitou. When John failed to appear, ARMAGNAC, who maintained order through Philip declared John’s lands forfeit and by his ruthless Gascon bands. After retaking the 1204 had seized NORMANDY, Maine, Anjou, city in May 1418, the Burgundians slaugh- and Touraine, leaving John with only Poitou tered their rivals, killing the count and for- (until 1224) and AQUITAINE. Thereafter, the cing the dauphin to flee. In 1420, conclusion two kings and their successors remained of the Treaty of TROYES, which recognized technically at war, with the kings of England HENRY V as heir to the French throne, brought still claiming the lost northern provinces and the city under Anglo-Burgundian control, the kings of France still upholding the con- and for the next sixteen years Paris was the fiscation of Aquitaine. capital of the Lancastrian domains, while By the 1250s, both monarchs had good dauphinist southern France was adminis- reasons for wanting to stabilize their re- tered from the dauphin’s strongholds be- lationship. Henry III, embroiled with his low the Loire. Although dissolution of the barons and entangled in a scheme to make ANGLO-BURGUNDIAN ALLIANCE at the Con- his brother ruler of Sicily, needed the gress of ARRAS in 1435 allowed Charles VII friendship and military assistance of the to regain Paris in 1436, it took until the French king. Although Louis was sincerely end of the war in the 1450s for the city to desirous of peace between the two kingdoms regain its former political and economic and their royal families, he also wanted to dominance. formalize a relationship that recognized him

241 PARLEMENT OF PARIS as the feudal overlord of the king of England. Further Reading: Curry, Anne. The Hundred Negotiations between the two parties began Years War. 2nd ed. Houndmills, England: Pal- in 1257 and a treaty was completed in May grave Macmillan, 2003; Vale, Malcolm. The 1258, although settlement of various details Origins of the Hundred Years War. Oxford: Clar- delayed ratification until October 1259. endon Press, 2000. The main clauses of the treaty called for Henry to surrender his claims to Normandy, PARLEMENT OF PARIS Maine, Anjou, Touraine, and Poitou, and for Headquartered in PARIS, the Parlement was Louis to confirm PLANTAGENET possession of the central law court of the French mon- Aquitaine, which was to be restored to its archy. The Parlement received and tried 1204 extent by the surrender of various ter- appeals from lower royal courts and from ritories held by Louis or members of his seigniorial courts in the great fiefs and AP- family. Because of the complexity of land- PANAGE territories. Devoted to the interests holding in the ceded areas, the clauses of the French Crown and to the extension of governing the transfer were complicated royal authority throughout the realm, the and soon became the cause of endless con- personnel of the Parlement often used their troversy. Henry was also to become a peer of authority to interfere with local administra- France and to perform liege homage to tion, a practice that was particularly re- Louis for all his holdings in France, includ- sented in the duchy of AQUITAINE, where ing GASCONY, which, the English later ar- jurisdictional conflict between the French gued, was an allod (i.e., a territory held in Crown and the English king-dukes was an absolute ownership) and never held of the important factor in the coming and con- French king. Because liege homage implied tinuance of the HUNDRED YEARS WAR. a personal subordination to one’s lord, per- As the royal domain grew in the twelfth formance of this rite, which was due on and thirteenth centuries, the great nobles every change of duke or monarch, caused and clerics, as well as towns and members of much friction. However, because he was the lesser nobility, began to resort to the eager for the five hundred knights Louis king’s courts for more timely and impartial agreed to fund, Henry performed such hom- justice. By 1250, the court ceased to travel age in the garden of the royal palace in PARIS with the king and was permanently located on 4 December 1259. in the royal palace on the Iˆle-de-la-Cite´ in Although the treaty brought peace for Paris, where it gradually developed a pro- several generations, it contained within it fessional staff of clerical and lay officers the seeds of the Hundred Years War. As a trained in the law. The Parlement’s central vassal of the king of France, the king-duke of role in the dispensation of royal justice was Aquitaine suffered constant interference in cemented by Louis IX’s decision to permit the administration of his duchy. Any vassal the court to hear appeals from the bailiwicks who was unhappy with the king-duke’s (bailliages) and seneschalcies (se´ne´chausse´es), lordship could appeal to the PARLEMENT in the main administrative districts of the royal Paris. If the king of France summoned the domain. By the fourteenth century, most of duke of Aquitaine to support him in a for- the court’s work involved appeals rather eign war, as was his feudal right, the duke than cases of original jurisdiction. Philip III might find himself compelled to fight a ruler issued the court’s first rules of operation in with whom he had an alliance as king of 1278, and its basic organization and proce- England, a circumstance that threatened his dures were solidified in the half century freedom of action in English foreign policy. prior to the Hundred Years War. Thus, EDWARD III eventually went to war The Parlement eventually comprised with France to end his feudal subservience three departments. The original Parlement to a fellow monarch and to win full sover- was the Grand’Chambre or Chamber of eignty in his French lands. Pleas, which heard great cases of state and

242 PARLIAMENT cases involving the death penalty or cor- tration of justice in the dauphinist portions of poral punishment. It oversaw the other the kingdom, while the Paris Parlement con- departments and issued the arreˆt,orfinal tinued to function for the Anglo-Burgundian decree that settled all cases. The Chambre realm. In 1435, when the Paris Parlement des Requeˆtes heard petitions from anyone declared its 1421 decision banishing the wishing to initiate a suit in the Parlement. If dauphin illegal, PHILIP THE GOOD, duke of a petition was accepted, a commission was BURGUNDY, used the reversal as a pretext for sent to the locality from which the suit ori- abandoning the ANGLO-BURGUNDIAN ALLI- ginated to gather evidence. If, upon re- ANCE at the Congress of ARRAS. After re- viewing this material, the masters of the gaining the capital in 1436, CHARLES VII Grand’Chambre decided the investigation merged the two bodies, abolishing the had been properly conducted, the case went Bourges Parlement and gradually purging to the Chambre des Enqueˆtes, where the the Paris Parlement of its most pro-Bur- written evidence was analyzed and conclu- gundian and pro-English personnel. sions drawn. The litigants never appeared Further Reading: Allmand, Christopher. The before the Chamber. Final decision in the Hundred Years War. Cambridge: Cambridge Uni- case was rendered by the masters of the versity Press, 1988; Curry, Anne. The Hundred Grand’Chambre, who issued the arreˆt set- Years War. 2nd ed. Houndmills, England: Pal- tling the matter. grave Macmillan, 2003; Shennan, J. H. The The appeals that led to the various Parlement of Paris. Stroud, England: Sutton Pub- confiscations of PLANTAGENET Aquitaine, in- lishing, 1998. cluding the actions initiating the ANGLO- FRENCH WAR OF 1294–1303, the War of SAINT- PARLIAMENT SARDOS, and the Hundred Years War, all Parliament was the supreme legislative and originated with and were decided by the judicial assembly of medieval England. Parlement. The APPEAL OF THE GASCON LORDS, During the course of the HUNDRED YEARS which overturned the Treaty of BRE´ TIGNY, WAR, Parliament, largely through the in- was secretly lodged with the Parlement in creasing royal need for money to fund the May 1368. When EDWARD, THE BLACK PRINCE, war, gradually acquired a variety of im- refused a summons to appear before the portant rights and functions, including the court to answer the appeal, the Parlement approval of TAXATION, the right of petition pronounced him contumacious on 2 May and redress, and the power to impeach royal 1369 and the formal confiscation of Aqui- ministers. taine, which restarted the war, was decreed The principle that the king could only in the following November. After 1380, and obtain new taxes through the consent of his especially after the onset of the FRENCH CIVIL people in Parliament evolved in the 1290s WAR in the 1410s, the Parlement underwent out of EDWARD I’s unprecedented need for frequent purges, as each new regime, whe- taxation to conduct his wars in SCOTLAND ther MARMOUSET,BURGUNDIAN,orARMA- and France (see ANGLO-FRENCH WAR OF 1294– GNAC, sought to fill the court with its 1303). After 1337, the even greater financial supporters. In 1420, the Parlement, now needs of EDWARD III led to further parlia- under Anglo-Burgundian control, formally mentary attempts to control royal finances. registered, or approved, the Treaty of TROYES In early 1340, Parliament granted new tax- making HENRY V heir to CHARLES VI. In ation only on condition that royal tax- January 1421, the Parlement formally de- collectors be made responsible to it and that clared the dauphin, who had refused a all taxes granted be spent only on the war. In summons to appear, incapable of succession the following spring, during the CRISIS OF and banished from the realm. The dauphin, 1340–1341, Parliament intervened in the in consequence, established his own Parle- dispute between the king and his chief ment in Bourges to supervise the adminis- minister, John STRATFORD, archbishop of

243 PARLIAMENT

Canterbury, to protest attempts by Edward’s sheriffs three to eight weeks’ notice of a ses- supporters to prevent the archbishop from sion, Parliament sat usually for five or six attending the assembly’s sessions. Despe- weeks at time, although some sessions lasted rately in need of funds, Edward reluctantly only one week while others ran for over assented to a series of parliamentary peti- twenty weeks. Most wartime Parliaments tions that declared no peer could be arrested, met at the palace of Westminster, just outside tried, or imprisoned except in full Parlia- LONDON, although the king could have Par- ment; a public audit should be conducted of liament meet anywhere in the kingdom, and royal finances; and all high officers of state sessions in York, Carlisle, and other northern should be appointed in Parliament. Al- towns were common during campaigns in though Edward later annulled these mea- Scotland. sures, important precedents, such as no Reacting to military defeat and govern- taxation without redress of grievances, had ment weakness, the so-called Good Par- been set. liament of 1376 evolved the procedures Despite this dispute, Edward’s relations of impeachment, whereby the Commons with Parliament were usually good. During brought charges against corrupt and in- the reign, the Lords, which comprised 21 competent ministers who were then tried by bishops, 25 great abbots, and about 40–50 the Lords. Among those impeached were the temporal peers, and the Commons, which royal chamberlain, William Latimer, and comprised 2 knights from each of the 37 the king’s rapacious mistress, Alice Perrers. shires and about 180 burgesses from towns The impeachment movement was led by Sir authorized to elect them, ceased to meet to- Peter de la Mare, who became the first gether. In the 1340s, the lower clergy ceased speaker of the Commons. Although de la to sit with the Commons and instead sent Mare led the opposition in 1376, the office of representatives to Convocation, the legisla- speaker was later usually held by agents of tive assembly of the English Church. These the Crown who supervised debate and the changes caused the knights of the shire to passage of legislation in the government’s begin identifying more closely with the interest. townsmen than with the nobility. Knights of RICHARD II had generally poor relations the shire were selected in the county courts with his Parliaments, particularly the Mer- under the supervision of the sheriff, while ciless Parliament of 1388, which was domi- burgesses were elected according to proce- nated by the Appellants led by THOMAS OF dures laid down in each town’s charter, WOODSTOCK, duke of Gloucester, who im- which often restricted voting to small groups peached, exiled, and executed many of the (see TOWNS AND THE HUNDRED YEARS WAR). By king’s favorites. In 1399, acting upon the the 1370s, service in Parliament was seen as precedent set during the removal of EDWARD an honor and many gentlemen sought re- II in 1327, Parliament increased its influence election to county positions or stood for by sanctioning Richard’s deposition in favor election as town representatives. In 1406, of his cousin, HENRY IV. Except for the reign Parliament enacted the first legislation reg- of HENRY V, when the king’s deft manage- ulating parliamentary elections and in 1430 it ment of Parliament procured the increased restricted the vote to freeholders with land taxation needed to fund renewed war, the worth at least 40 shillings per year. In 1445, political position of the House of LANCASTER election as shire MP (i.e., member of Parlia- under Henry IV, who was a usurper, and ment) was restricted to gentry with sufficient HENRY VI, who was mentally unstable, was wealth to support the rank of knight. Al- weak, and Parliament gained definite con- though Parliament met, on average, once a trol over the granting of taxation in the fif- year, some years, such as 1332 with four teenth century. In 1407, for instance, Henry meetings, saw multiple sessions. Called and IV recognized the principle that all money dismissed by the king, who generally gave bills had to originate in the Commons, and,

244 PATAY, BATTLE OF later in the century, Parliament began and those of Beaugency, the English with- granting new kings the right of collecting drew northward toward Janville. Unwilling customs duties for life. The fifteenth century to brook any delay, Joan told the French also saw parliamentary statute recognized as commanders, who led a force of between six legally superior to the common law and able and eight thousand men, to pursue their re- also to interfere with the canon law and the treating enemies and bring them to battle. liberties of the Church. MPs also acquired A four-hour march brought the English various privileges, including immunity from near Patay around midday, when the rear- arrest during sessions, although attempts to guard informed Fastolf, who seems to have secure complete freedom of speech were been in overall command, that the French strongly resisted by the Crown. Nonetheless, were advancing rapidly. Fastolf decided to by the 1450s, Parliament, thanks to the fi- deploy his army, which may have num- nancial and political needs of the Anglo- bered almost five thousand, in the tradi- French war, had evolved much of its modern tional defensive formation that had won organization and procedure. AGINCOURT and so many other HUNDRED Further Reading: Butt, Ronald. A History of YEARS WAR battles. Ordering his vanguard, Parliament: The Middle Ages. London: Constable, supply train, and ARTILLERY into the woods 1989; Harriss, G. L. King, Parliament and Public on his flank, Fastolf sent Talbot and about Finance in Medieval England to 1369. Oxford: five hundred mounted ARCHERS forward to Clarendon Press, 1975; Richardson, H. G., and delay the French while the army made its G. O. Sayles. The English Parliament in the Middle preparations. Unaware of Talbot’s men, the Ages. London: Hambledon Press, 1981; Sayles, French vanguard might have ridden into an G. O. The King’s Parliament of England. New York: ambush had it not been for a frightened stag, Norton, 1974. which leapt from the woods in front of the French and veered toward Patay and Talbot’s PATAY, BATTLE OF (1429) concealed men, who, being startled, cried Fought on 18 June 1429, the French victory at out. Thus alerted to the English presence, Patay, a village located about ten miles the French cavalry, which was commanded northwest of Orle´ans, was the culminating by E´ tienne de VIGNOLLES (known as ‘‘La engagement of the LOIRE CAMPAIGN, which Hire’’) and Poton de XANTRAILLES, crashed was inspired and led by JOAN OF ARC. into Talbot’s surprised men and drove them Seeking to complete the second part of her back onto Fastolf’s line, which was not yet divine mission, the crowning of the dau- ready to receive an attack. phin, the Maid was anxious to open the road Between the confused flight of Talbot’s to Rheims, the traditional coronation site, by archers and the atypically rapid onset of the clearing the Loire of English garrisons. French attack, Fastolf’s force was quickly Having broken the siege of ORLE´ ANS in overwhelmed. The English army disin- early May, the reinforced dauphinist army, tegrated, with many slain and many cap- now commanded by JOHN, DUKE OF ALENC¸ON, tured, including, among the latter, Talbot proceeded, on 10 June, against he English- and Thomas SCALES, Lord Scales. Rallying a held towns in the Loire Valley. Driven by the small force of archers, Fastolf escaped to Maid’s insistence on quick action, the French Corbeil, where, next day, he personally in- captured Jargeau and then laid siege to formed JOHN, DUKE OF BEDFORD, of the defeat. Beaugency and Meung. On the morning of 18 According to one source, the duke angrily June, an English relief force, jointly com- blamed Fastolf for the disaster and summa- manded by John TALBOT, Lord Talbot, and Sir rily stripped him of his GARTER. Joan, arriv- John FASTOLF, was preparing to assault the ing on the field with the French rearguard, bridge at Meung when news arrived of the did not strike a blow, but it was her determi- fall of Beaugency. Facing the possibility of nation and stern demand for speed that had being caught between the Meung besiegers won the day. Although Patay temporarily

245 PAˆ TIS strengthened the ANGLO-BURGUNDIAN ALLI- By the 1350s, payments became more ANCE by compelling Duke PHILIP THE GOOD to systematic and more onerous as local garri- help reinforce PARIS against possible attack, sons and commanders became more inter- the French successes in the Loire Valley al- ested in enriching themselves than in lowed the dauphin, accompanied by Joan, to conducting the war. By engendering great march to Rheims and there be crowned king hatred of the garrison, the practice often as CHARLES VII. destroyed local support for the English Further Reading: Burne, Alfred H. The Agincourt cause and created serious political problems War. Ware, England: Wordsworth Editions Ltd., for EDWARD III. When CHARLES OF BLOIS, the 1999; DeVries, Kelly. Joan of Arc: A Military Leader. French-backed claimant in the BRETON CIVIL Stroud, England: Sutton Publishing, 2003. WAR, besieged LA ROCHE-DERRIEN in 1347, enraged local peasants joined him, eager to PAˆ TIS attack the English garrison with sticks and Paˆtis,or‘‘RANSOMS of the country,’’ were stones. regular payments in cash or kind demanded The collecting of paˆtis also had a more by garrison commanders of the people in insidious effect. It tended to free comman- their district. An English innovation that ders of small or isolated castles from the arose in BRITTANY during the 1340s, paˆtis control of royal officers. Although loosely replaced the disorganized thievery by which acknowledging the authority of the English small English garrisons had initially sus- Crown, these garrison commanders, who tained themselves with a more systematic had often captured their fortresses on their protection scheme by which local com- own initiative, considered themselves local munities paid their garrisons to leave them conquerors who were entitled to collect paˆtis alone or to defend them from outside raid- as their rightful spoils of war. As a result, ers. By the 1350s, the system was extended the conduct of the war in Brittany and beyond Brittany to other English-controlled elsewhere often passed beyond the effective areas of France and in the 1360s was taken control of the king and his chief lieutenants. up on a less formal basis by the ROUTIERS that Nonetheless, paˆtis continued to be collected ravaged wide areas of the country. and in 1361, as the mutual cession of terri- Every garrison carefully staked out its tory called for by the Treaty of BRE´ TIGNY ransom territory, demanding that all villages began, Edward III demanded that English within marching distance pay a stated as- garrison commanders be paid all arrears of sessment in cash, food, wine, building sup- paˆtis due to them before relinquishing their plies, or labor. Late or refused payments strongholds. were extracted by force, and resistance often Further Reading: Seward, Desmond. The Hun- meant arbitrary executions and burned or dred Years War. New York: Penguin, 1999; Sump- plundered property. Assessment had to be tion, Jonathan. The Hundred Years War. Vol. 2, carefully calculated so that the garrison Trial by Fire. Philadelphia: University of Pennsyl- could get maximum payment without pre- vania Press, 2001. cipitating an uprising or causing the peas- ants to flee their villages. Travelers through PEASANTS’ REVOLT OF 1381 the district were also forced to pay for safe- A consequence of the profound socio- conducts or to pass through tollgates and economic changes fostered by war and roadblocks. Profits from paˆtis were pooled plague, the Peasants’ Revolt of 1381 was the for the use of the whole garrison, although most dangerous English rebellion of the cuts were taken by the garrison commander fourteenth century. Although its immediate and, theoretically, by the king. In many cause was the imposition by PARLIAMENT of areas, however, the main benefit to the burdensome taxes designed to finance re- Crown was not in cash paid but in relief newal of the HUNDRED YEARS WAR, its long- from the burden of supporting garrisons. term cause was a social policy designed to

246 PEASANTS’ REVOLT OF 1381 protect the economic position of landlords by restricting the eco- nomic opportunities of peasants. While the rebellion itself was a failure, especially in terms of its most idealistic goal, the abolition of class distinctions, it marked the start of a gradual process whereby serfdom disappeared from English society. By significantly reducing the number of agricultural laborers, the first visitation of the BLACK DEATH in the late 1340s sig- nificantly increased the demand for agricultural labor. With landlords now competing for scarce workers, wages rose and peasant mobility increased. Seeking to regain their economic advantage, noble and gentle landholders used their control of Parliament to pursue a restrictive In the climactic moment of the Peasants’ Revolt of 1381, William labor policy. In 1349, EDWARD III Walworth, the lord mayor of London, slays rebel leader Wat promulgated a royal ordinance Tyler in the presence of Richard II. Art Resource, New York. that froze wages and prices at preplague levels and fined serfs who left their lord’s manor. In 1351, the first Evasion of the third tax was immediate postplague Parliament fortified the king’s and widespread. The 1370s had witnessed decree with the Statute of Laborers, which the loss of much of AQUITAINE, costly and increased fines and established special com- fruitless campaigns, and French raids on missions in each county to enforce the new English coasts. Tired of a war that cost them labor restrictions. Through these measures, much and promised them little, peasants labor regulation became a national rather already frustrated with wage restrictions than a local concern. Although there was were unwilling to silently suffer the gov- scattered resistance to enforcement of these ernment’s imposition of further economic acts in the 1350s, the kind of class-driven hardship. On 30 May 1381, irate peasants in violence that France had experienced in 1358 Essex drove out royal commissioners sent to with the JACQUERIE did not appear in England investigate instances of tax evasion. Between until 1381, when new TAXATION aggravated 1 and 4 June, antitax disturbances erupted peasant anger over labor restrictions. In across Essex and Kent. By 10 June, the dis- February 1377, Parliament passed a new poll orders turned violent, with rebels attacking tax to be levied at the rate of one shilling per tax collectors and destroying the property of head. A second tax, enacted in April 1379 to local tax officials. In Essex, for instance, the help fund a proposed CHEVAUCHE´E by THOMAS rebels fell upon the Hospital of the Knights OF WOODSTOCK, duke of Gloucester, was as- of St. John, the master of which was Robert sessed at a graduated rate, but the poll tax of Hales, who, as treasurer, was closely asso- November 1380, which ignited the Peasants’ ciated with the tax. The speed with which Revolt, used a flat rate of 3 shillings a head, bands of local rebels coalesced into larger triple the 1377 assessment. groups suggests a certain degree of

247 PE´ RIGUEUX, PROCESS OF organization and cooperation. Choosing as who was attending the king, struck Tyler, their leader Wat Tyler, an obscure figure who who was then stabbed repeatedly by one of may once have fought in France, the rebels the king’s squires. With great presence of advanced on LONDON on 11 June, the day mind, Richard rode toward the rebels, RICHARD II arrived in the capital from among whom were many ARCHERS, and Windsor. On 12 June, as the king took shelter urged them to meet him at Clerkenwell, thus in the Tower of London, rebels sacked Lam- drawing them away from London and giv- beth Palace, the home of Archbishop Simon ing Walworth and Sir Robert KNOLLES time Sudbury, the chancellor of England, and then to gather loyal troops, including Londoners met with representatives of the city of Lon- alienated by rebel looting. By evening, Tyler don at Blackheath. Harangued by the radical had been beheaded and order had been re- preacher John Ball, who is best known for the stored to the city. rhyming couplet, ‘‘When Adam delved and Although smaller insurrections erupted Eve span / Who was then a gentleman?’’ the elsewhere throughout the summer, the death rebels crossed London Bridge and entered of Tyler was the effective end of the uprising. the city on 13 June. After breaking open Fleet On 2 July, while royal troops hunted down and Newgate Prisons, destroying legal re- rebel leaders, Richard cancelled all charters cords at the Temple, and burning Savoy of manumission issued on 14 June. On 15 Palace, the London residence of Richard’s July, John Ball was executed in St. Albans. unpopular uncle, JOHN OF GAUNT, duke of Arrests and executions continued until Au- Lancaster, the rebels met the king at Green- gust, when the king ordered their end. In wich, where the talks, which Richard con- November, Parliament granted a general ducted from his barge, came to naught. pardon to all offenders. Despite the grave On 14 June, after a night of riotous dis- threat they had posed to the established order in the city, the fourteen-year-old king order in June, by the end of the year, most met with the Essex rebels at Mile End, where rebels had again been reduced to serfdom. he agreed to their demand for the abolition Further Reading: Dobson, R.B., ed. The Pea- of serfdom. After receiving charters of free- sants’ Revolt of 1381. 2nd ed. London: Macmillan, dom hastily drafted by royal clerks, many of 1983; Dunn, Alastair. The Great Rising of 1381. the Essex men returned home. However, Charleston: Tempus Publishing, 2002; Hilton, while the Mile End meeting was occurring, R. H. Bond Men Made Free: Medieval Peasant Tyler and some of the Kentish rebels Movements and the English Rising of 1381. New stormed the Tower, where they seized and York: Viking, 1973; Hilton, R. H., and T. H. beheaded Sudbury, Hales, and John Legge, Ashton, eds. The English Rising of 1381. Cam- another royal official considered responsible bridge: Cambridge University Press, 1984; Oman, for the poll tax. On 15 June, Richard met Charles. The Great Revolt of 1381. Reprint, New Tyler and the Kentish insurgents at Smith- York: Greenwood, 1969. field. Greeting the king with inappropriate familiarity, Tyler made a series of radical PE´ RIGUEUX, PROCESS OF. See PROCESS demands that included confiscation and redistribution of Church property and abo- PHILIP IV, KING OF FRANCE (1268–1314) lition of most bishoprics and secular lord- Known as le Bel, ‘‘the Fair,’’ Philip IV was ships. In essence, Tyler wished to erase all the son of Philip III and the grandson of social and ecclesiastical distinctions below Louis IX (St. Louis). During his reign, Philip the king. When Richard responded by ask- expanded the authority of the House of ing why the rebels did not go home, Tyler CAPET within France and influenced the grew angry and drew his dagger. The ac- course of ecclesiastical and secular affairs counts of what happened next are confused throughout Western Europe. By vigorously and contradictory, but at some point the exercising his overlordship in AQUITAINE, mayor of London, Sir William Walworth, Philip initiated the ANGLO-FRENCH WAR OF

248 PHILIP V, KING OF FRANCE

1294–1303, the first conflict between the two morality and ordered his minister, Guil- kingdoms since the Treaty of PARIS and a laume de Nogaret, to bring Boniface to trial precursor of the HUNDRED YEARS WAR. before a Church council. After Boniface died Philip married Jeanne of Champagne and as a result of the violence offered him by Navarre in 1284, and succeeded his father Nogaret’s men, Philip established French as king in October 1285, having become heir dominance of the papacy by persuading to the throne on the death of his older Clement V, a Gascon elected pope in 1305, to brother in 1276. Devoted to the memory of abandon Rome and establish the papal court his grandfather, whose achievements he at Avignon, thereby initiating the seventy- sought to emulate, Philip persuaded the year period of papal history known as pope to canonize Louis in 1297. Committed the ‘‘Babylonian captivity.’’ Again alleging to protecting the legitimate rights of the heresy and immorality, Philip also de- Capetian Crown, Philip, in May 1294, con- stroyed the Knights Templar, seizing their fiscated the duchy of Aquitaine after its assets in 1307 and ruthlessly suppressing duke, EDWARD I of England, refused a that order of crusaders in 1311. summons to appear at the French court. In 1314, in another example of the king’s Although the summons was precipitated by stern morality, Philip threw doubt on the a number of clashes between French and legitimacy of his own grandchildren by Gascon sailors (see GASCONY), the incidents publicly charging two of his daughters-in- were part of a long series of jurisdictional law with adultery. The scandal resulted disputes arising out of the king-duke’s in the imprisonment of the women and feudal subordination to the French Crown. the execution of their alleged lovers. Philip’s Believing that Edward sought to evade last years also saw formation of numerous French overlordship, and perhaps desirous leagues of discontented subjects protesting of extinguishing English rule in Aquitaine, royal manipulation of the coinage and the Philip ordered his brother, Charles of Va- suppression of local rights and customs. lois, to invade the duchy. Settled in 1303, Philip died in November 1314 in the midst the war resulted in no change in the status of these protests, and was succeeded by the of Aquitaine, but had momentous con- eldest of his three sons, LOUIS X. When Louis sequences for Philip and France. It plunged died in 1316, his daughters were passed over France into war with FLANDERS, a recent ally in favor of his brother PHILIP V, whose own of Edward I; embroiled Philip in a bitter daughters were set aside at his death in 1322 quarrel with Pope Boniface VIII; and re- in favor of his brother CHARLES IV. Charles’s sulted, as part of its settlement, in a mar- death without male heirs in 1328 brought riage between Philip’s daughter Isabella (see the Crown to the first VALOIS king, PHILIP VI. ISABELLA,QUEEN OF ENGLAND [c. 1292–1358]) Further Reading: Brown, Elizabeth A. R. The and Prince Edward (see EDWARD II), which Monarchy of Capetian France and Royal Ceremonial. gave Philip’s PLANTAGENET grandson, ED- London: Variorum, 1991; Brown, Elizabeth A. R. WARD III, a claim to the French Crown. Politics and Institutions in Capetian France. London: Although eventually settled in Philip’s Variorum, 1991; Strayer, Joseph R. The Reign of favor, the Flemish war produced a humil- Philip the Fair. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University iating French defeat at Courtrai in 1302. The Press, 1980. quarrel with Boniface began with the pope’s refusal to sanction royal TAXATION of the PHILIP V, KING OF FRANCE clergy to fund the Anglo-French war and (c. 1290–1322) then evolved into a dispute regarding the Known as le Long, ‘‘the Tall,’’ Philip V was nature and limits of papal jurisdiction over the second son of PHILIP IV and Jeanne of secular affairs. A man of uncompromis- Navarre. By ignoring the rights of his niece, ing orthodoxy and rigid morality, Philip the only surviving child of his elder brother charged the pope with heresy and im- LOUIS X, Philip forced establishment of the

249 PHILIP VI, KING OF FRANCE precedent, later accepted as a rule of law, found this insufficient and threatened to that women could not succeed to the throne retain the county of Ponthieu, an English of France. In 1328, this principle was ex- possession seized by Louis in an Anglo- tended to bar males, such as EDWARD III of French trade dispute, if Edward did not England, from inheriting the Crown through personally render homage. This Edward fi- a woman. nally did at Amiens in June 1320. Philip became count of BURGUNDY in Jan- Philip died on 2 January 1322. Ironically, uary 1307 upon his marriage to Jeanne, the declaration barring women from the daughter of the previous count. Made count throne that had confirmed Philip’s accession of Poitiers in 1311, Philip had his APPANAGE denied the Crown to his four daughters—his enlarged by his brother in 1315. When Louis only son having died in February 1317. died in June 1316, he left a four-year-old Philip’s younger brother, Charles of La daughter, Jeanne, whose legitimacy had been Marche (see CHARLES IV), succeeded to the called into question by the alleged adultery of throne without opposition. See also SALIC her late mother, and a pregnant second wife. LAW OF SUCCESSION. On 16 July, Philip secured the regency by Further Reading: Brown, Elizabeth A. R. The outmaneuvering the other candidates—his Monarchy of Capetian France and Royal Ceremonial. uncle, Charles of Valois, and Jeanne’s uncle, London: Variorum, 1991; Brown, Elizabeth A. R. Eudes of Burgundy. Although the queen Politics and Institutions in Capetian France. London: gave birth to a son, John I, on 13 November, Variorum, 1991; Strayer, Joseph R. Reign of Philip the child died five days later. the Fair. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, By unknown means, Philip then induced 1980. Jeanne’s most vocal champions—Valois and Philip’s younger brother, Charles of La PHILIP VI, KING OF FRANCE (1293–1350) Marche—to support his accession, even The son of Charles, count of Valois, and the though most of the nobility refused to attend nephew and cousin of the last four Capetian his coronation at Rheims on 9 January 1317. kings of France, Philip VI was the first To secure his shaky hold on the throne, French ruler of the House of VALOIS. In the Philip asked an assembly of notables, sum- 1330s, Philip’s growing dispute with ED- moned to PARIS on 2 February, to confirm his WARD III over sovereignty in the PLANTAG- accession. Unable to oppose an anointed ENET fief of AQUITAINE and his attempts to king, the assembly legitimized Philip’s thwart English ambitions in SCOTLAND led to usurpation and swept aside Jeanne’s claim the outbreak of the HUNDRED YEARS WAR. by declaring that women could not inherit As a youth, Philip of Valois had little ex- the Crown of France. pectation of ascending the throne; his uncle, Philip proved to be a strong and popular PHILIP IV, had several sons and the House of king. He instituted a series of reforms in CAPET had not failed of heirs since attaining national and local administration, pacified the throne in the tenth century. However, the leagues of discontented subjects that had Philip’s eldest cousin, LOUIS X, and Louis’s disrupted the reign of Louis X, attempted to posthumous son, John I, both died in 1316. reform the coinage, and ended the ongoing Louis’s brother set aside his nieces to be- hostilities in FLANDERS.EDWARD II of En- come king as PHILIP V, but then died himself gland, who was married to Philip’s sister in 1322, leaving his own daughters to be Isabella (see ISABELLA,QUEEN OF ENGLAND [c. displaced by Philip IV’s last son, CHARLES 1292–1358]), had avoided paying homage IV. On the death of his father in 1325, Philip for AQUITAINE to Louis X and continued to of Valois, besides inheriting a substantial delay the ceremony after Philip’s accession. APPANAGE comprising the counties of Valois, In June 1319, Edward sent a deputation to Maine, and Anjou, became heir presumptive swear homage on his behalf, but Philip to his childless cousin. Upon the death of

250 PHILIP VI, KING OF FRANCE

Charles IV on 1 February 1328, the French many. On 24 May 1337, Philip, having ear- nobility, ignoring a claim to the throne put lier proclaimed the ARRIE` RE-BAN throughout forward by fifteen-year-old Edward III of France, ordered the confiscation of Aqui- England, a grandson of Philip IV through taine, thereby officially initiating the Hun- his mother Isabella (see ISABELLA,QUEEN OF dred Years War. During the early campaigns ENGLAND [c. 1292–1358]), named Philip re- of the war, such as at Buirenfosse during the gent with the understanding that he would THIE´ RACHE CAMPAIGN in 1339 and at the become king if Charles’s pregnant queen siege of TOURNAI in 1340, Philip frustrated gave birth to a daughter, which she did on 1 his opponent and many of his own nobles by April. Crowned on 29 May, Philip VI, who refusing battle. However, a new rebellion in later proved to be a poor military leader, Flanders in 1339 allowed Edward to con- started his reign with a major military vic- struct an ANGLO-FLEMISH ALLIANCE that tory, crushing, at the behest of his vassal, prompted him to lay formal claim to the LOUIS DE NEVERS, count of FLANDERS, an army Crown of France on 6 February 1340. In of Flemish rebels at Cassel on 23 August. June, the English won a major naval victory Not trained for kingship, Philip had little at SLUYS, and in 1341 the commencement of direct experience of government and tended the BRETON CIVIL WAR, initiated in part by to distrust courtiers and bureaucrats, pre- Philip’s decision to recognize his nephew, ferring to govern secretively through family CHARLES OF BLOIS, as duke of Brittany, gave members and favored advisors. Although a Edward a new front against France. Despite serious man who worked hard at governing, his acceptance of the papal-mediated Truce Philip lacked political judgment and, as the of MALESTROIT in 1343, Philip, like Edward, chronicler Jean FROISSART declared, ‘‘was al- was uninterested in a negotiated settlement ways ready to accept advice from fools’’ of the Aquitinian dispute; in 1345, the (Sumption, 108). The circumstances of his AVIGNON PEACE CONFERENCE hosted by Pope accession also left him with a more limited CLEMENT VI collapsed and war resumed. authority than that exercised by his pre- During the last years of the reign, as the decessors, who did not owe their throne to king grew tired and obese, the French mili- the acquiescence of the nobility. The presence tary position deteriorated rapidly. In 1345, of possible rival candidates to the throne, English victories at AUBEROCHE and BER- such as Edward III, and another descendant GERAC cemented Plantagenet gains in Aqui- of Philip IV through the female line, CHARLES taine, and, in August 1346, a large French THE BAD, king of Navarre, gave any dis- army personally commanded by Philip suf- gruntled nobleman attractive alternatives to fered a disastrous defeat at CRE´ CY. In June Philip. Later in the reign, many members of 1347, the English gained the upper hand in the nobility of NORMANDY and northwestern Brittany by capturing Blois at the Battle of France intrigued with Navarre, while Phil- LA ROCHE-DERRIEN, and in August, a year- ip’s failure to rule in their favor on succession long siege that Philip was powerless to disputes in Artois and BRITTANY, led ROBERT break ended with the fall of CALAIS. By the OF ARTOIS and John de MONTFORT to ally time the BLACK DEATH descended on France themselves with Edward III. in 1348, temporarily ending the war and Although Edward did homage to Philip claiming the life of Philip’s queen, Jeanne of for Aquitaine on 6 June 1329, ongoing jur- BURGUNDY, the French war effort was in isdictional disputes in the duchy strained disarray. Stung by defeat at Cre´cy, the Anglo-French relations in the 1330s. While French nobility were angry and divided, Philip strengthened ties with Edward’s op- while the Estates-General, convening in ponents in Scotland, the English king con- PARIS in late 1347, demanded significant structed an ANTI-FRENCH COALITION among governmental reforms before voting new the princes of the Low Countries and Ger- war TAXATION. Discredited and heavily in

251 PHILIPPA OF HAINAULT, QUEEN OF ENGLAND debt, Philip died on 22 August 1350; he was France’s northeastern frontier in the 1330s. succeeded by his son, JOHN II. See also CALAIS, Philippa’s family connections also gave Ed- SIEGE OF;ESTATES,GENERAL AND PROVINCIAL. ward important continental allies, such as Further Reading: Perroy, Edouard. The Hun- the German emperor Ludwig of Bavaria and dred Years War. Trans. W. B. Wells. New York: the marquis of Juliers, both of whom joined Capricorn Books, 1965; Sumption, Jonathan. The Edward’s ANTI-FRENCH COALITION in the late Hundred Years War. Vol. 1, Trial by Battle. 1330s. Edward was also able to make ex- Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, tensive territorial claims on Philippa’s be- 1999. half, including to Zeeland on her brother’s death in 1345 and to Holland on her neph- PHILIPPA OF HAINAULT, QUEEN OF ew’s death in the 1360s. Beyond high poli- ENGLAND (c. 1314–1369) tics, Philippa’s marriage brought many able Philippa, one of four daughters of William, knights from Hainault into the English count of Holland and Hainault, was the wife camp, most notably Walter MAUNY. Philippa of EDWARD III. Although she took little direct also drew important nonmilitary men to part in English politics, her marriage to Ed- England; both JEAN LE BEL and Jean FROIS- ward significantly influenced the course of SART, two of the most important chroniclers the HUNDRED YEARS WAR by making possible of the war in the fourteenth century, were a series of important political and personal from Hainault. The former came to England connections between England and the Low with his patron, John of Hainault, and the Countries. latter enjoyed the patronage of the queen Philippa met Edward, then Prince of herself. The unknown herald of Sir John Wales, in 1326, when he came to Hainault CHANDOS who wrote a life of the Black with his mother, Queen Isabella (see ISA- Prince was also a Hainaulter. BELLA,QUEEN OF ENGLAND [c. 1292–1358]), Philippa accompanied the king on many who was seeking allies against her estranged military campaigns. She was with him in husband, EDWARD II. The betrothal of Ed- SCOTLAND in the 1330s; in the Low Countries ward and Philippa, which was negotiated from 1338 to 1342, when she was for a time a during the visit, suited both the prince and hostage to Edward’s debtors; at the siege of his mother—the former finding himself at- CALAIS in 1347, when her intercession saved tracted to Philippa over her sisters, and the the town’s leaders from execution; and at latter obtaining, as the bride’s dowry, the the naval battle of WINCHELSEA in 1350, men and money she needed to invade En- which she witnessed from the shore. She gland and depose her husband. The young also shared Edward’s taste for CHIVALRY, couple—he was fifteen and she about thir- presiding over tournaments and several teen—was married in York on 30 January times attending ceremonies of the Order of 1328, although Philippa’s coronation did not the GARTER. A pious and compassionate occur until 4 March 1330, only three months woman, Philippa also had an interest in before the birth of her first child, EDWARD, education, being, for instance, patron and the future Black Prince. Philippa eventually namesake of Queen’s College, Oxford. Al- bore her husband seven sons and five though her influence with the king waned daughters, thus magnificently fulfilling the when her attendant, Alice Perrers, became first duty of a medieval queen and sig- Edward’s mistress in the 1360s, Philippa, nificantly enhancing the possibilities of Ed- who was apparently not beautiful and rather ward’s marriage DIPLOMACY. plump in later years, held her husband’s Besides vital assistance in bringing about affection until her death on 15 August 1369. his early accession—Philippa’s uncle, John Further Reading: Hardy, B. C. Philippa of of Hainault, was coleader of Isabella’s in- Hainault and Her Times. London, 1910; Packe, vasion force—the alliance with Hainault Michael. King Edward III. Ed. L. C. B. Seaman. provided Edward III with a secure base on London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1983.

252 PHILIP THE BOLD, DUKE OF BURGUNDY

PHILIP THE BOLD, DUKE OF 1384, upon the death of his father-in-law, he BURGUNDY (1342–1404) became count of Flanders; and in 1390, he By combining the French APPANAGE of BUR- and his wife became coheirs to the duchy of GUNDY with control of FLANDERS and various Brabant. In 1385, he made possible the other provinces in the Low Countries and eventual incorporation of Holland, Zeeland, northern France, Philip the Bold, first VALOIS and Hainault into the Burgundian state by duke of Burgundy, laid the foundations of marrying two of his children into the Wit- the Burgundian state that so powerfully telsbach family. shaped the course of the HUNDRED YEARS Upon the accession of eleven-year-old WAR in the fifteenth century. The fourth son Charles VI in 1380, Burgundy led the op- of JOHN II and youngest brother of CHARLES position to establishment of a regency under V, Burgundy dominated the minority gov- his eldest surviving brother, LOUIS, DUKE OF ernment of his nephew CHARLES VI and thus ANJOU, and thus came himself to dominate was instrumental in initiating the political the royal government, which he did not feud that led eventually to the FRENCH CIVIL hesitate to employ in his own interests. In WAR. 1382, he used his control of the council to In 1356, Philip, then only fourteen, fought authorize French intervention in Flanders, beside his father at the Battle of POITIERS, which had been in rebellion against Bur- where both were captured by the English. gundy’s father-in-law since 1379. A royal Released with the king after the conclusion army defeated the rebels and killed their of the Treaty of BRE´ TIGNY in 1360, Philip was pro-English leader, Philip van ARTEVELDE,at created duke of Touraine, a title that he Roosebeke in November. In 1388, Burgundy surrendered in 1363 when his father made secured the services of another royal army him duke of Burgundy and premier peer of to aid him in his quarrel with the duke of the realm. Charles V confirmed his brother’s Guelders, and both Burgundy and his titles in 1364 when he made Burgundy the brother, JOHN, DUKE OF BERRY, drew liberally key figure in his plan to forestall the creation upon the royal revenues to support various of a powerful English appanage in Flanders of their personal projects. and the Low Countries. Charles persuaded In 1388, the MARMOUSETS, a group of for- the pope to forbid a proposed marriage mer servants of Charles V who sought to between EDMUND OF LANGLEY, earl of Cam- end the uncles’ exploitation of the Crown’s bridge and son of EDWARD III, and MAR- resources, convinced the king to dismiss GUERITE, daughter and heir of LOUIS DE MALE, Burgundy and Berry. Supported by the king’s count of Flanders. In York’s stead, Charles brother, LOUIS, DUKE OF ORLE´ ANS, who re- offered Burgundy, who, after two years of sented his exclusion from power under the Anglo-Flemish negotiations, married Mar- uncles, the Marmousets governed until Au- guerite in 1369. Although Burgundy signed gust 1392, when the onset of Charles’s a secret undertaking to return, upon his as- mental illness allowed Burgundy to resume sumption of power in Flanders, the terri- control of the royal administration. Although tories demanded of the Crown by Louis de increasingly challenged at court by Orle´ans, Male in the marriage treaty, Burgundy also who became a formidable rival after 1400, promised his father-in-law that he would Burgundy continued to exercise significant never do so, and thus retained all upon influence until his death on 27 April 1404, Louis’s death. when his title, lands, and political standing In the 1380s, Burgundy significantly ex- were inherited by his eldest son, JOHN THE panded his territorial holdings in the Low FEARLESS, count of Nevers. Countries and northeastern France. In 1382, Further Reading: Palmer, J. J. N. England, on the death of his wife’s grandmother—a France, and Christendom, 1377–99. Chapel Hill: daughter of PHILIP V—Burgundy gained University of North Carolina Press, 1972; control of Artois and Franche-Comte´;in Vaughan, Richard. Philip the Bold: The Formation

253 PHILIP THE GOOD, DUKE OF BURGUNDY of the Burgundian State. Woodbridge, England: In the 1420s, Burgundy provided only Boydell Press, 2002. minimal military assistance to the Lancas- trian war effort, preferring to focus his ef- PHILIP THE GOOD, DUKE OF forts on transforming Burgundy from a BURGUNDY (1396–1467) French APPANAGE to an independent state. As the greatest nobleman of France and the By the early 1440s, Burgundy, who was a dominant prince of the Low Countries, Philip skilled diplomat and clever politician, had the Good, the third VALOIS duke of BUR- doubled his holdings, acquiring, through GUNDY, played a major role in the Lancastrian conquest or marriage, the provinces of phase of the HUNDRED YEARS WAR. During Namur, Brabant, Luxembourg, Holland, Philip’s 47-year reign, the principality of Zeeland, and Hainault. In 1424–25, Bur- Burgundy achieved effective autonomy and gundy’s interest in the latter three provinces reached the height of its power, prestige, was challenged by HUMPHREY, DUKE OF and prosperity. During the last decades of GLOUCESTER, younger uncle of Henry VI. the Anglo-French war, Philip exploited the Gloucester’s marriage to Jacqueline, coun- French Crown’s weakness and the En- tess of Holland, Zeeland, and Hainault, who glish Crown’s need for military support had fled to England to escape the husband to strengthen and enlarge the Burgundian Burgundy had chosen for her, led the state. couple to invade Hainault, where clashes The son of JOHN THE FEARLESS, the leader with Burgundian forces nearly wrecked the of the BURGUNDIAN faction during the Anglo-Burgundian connection. Only Bed- FRENCH CIVIL WAR, Philip succeeded his fa- ford’s intervention and Gloucester’s sub- ther as duke of Burgundy and count of sequent abandonment of his wife’s cause FLANDERS in September 1419, when John was saved the alliance. In May 1430, shortly after murdered by ARMAGNAC partisans of the his forces captured her at Compie`gne, Bur- dauphin at the MONTEREAU CONFERENCE. gundy visited JOAN OF ARC in the tent where Convinced of the dauphin’s complicity in she was being held. Several months later, the the murder, Philip abandoned all attempts duke handed her over to the English, who to make peace and instead allied himself executed her in 1431. with HENRY V through the 1420 Treaty of When Anne, duchess of Bedford, died in TROYES. Although the treaty made Henry 1432, the loss of her personal mediation heir to CHARLES VI and regent of France, the caused relations between Philip and Bedford ANGLO-BURGUNDIAN ALLIANCE it created al- to deteriorate. By 1435, Burgundy had come lowed Philip to consolidate his holdings in to believe that he could exercise more in- France and expand his territories in the Low fluence over the weak and indolent dau- Countries. In April 1423, Burgundy signed phin, now king as CHARLES VII, than he the Treaty of AMIENS, a tripartite alliance could over the strong-willed Bedford. Al- with JOHN, DUKE OF BEDFORD, who was now though the duke despised Charles, growing regent in France for his infant nephew dissatisfaction in PARIS with the Anglo-Bur- HENRY VI, and JOHN V, duke of BRITTANY. gundian regime threatened to weaken the Sealed by Bedford’s marriage to Burgundy’s duke’s popularity there, and led him to ex- sister ANNE, the treaty confirmed the signa- plore the possibility of a reconciliation. In tories’ acceptance of Henry’s right to the September, at the Congress of ARRAS, Bur- French throne. However, the tenuous nature gundy made peace with Charles, who of Burgundy’s commitment to the House of agreed to exempt the duke from paying LANCASTER was demonstrated by the secret homage for his French fiefs for his lifetime, agreement he immediately signed with to confirm all territorial concessions made to Brittany whereby the dukes agreed to re- Burgundy by the English, and to send a rep- main allies should either one choose to rec- resentative to make humble apology on the oncile with the dauphin. king’s behalf for the murder at Montereau.

254 PLANTAGENET, HOUSE OF

Although the agreement humiliated Charles, The word ‘‘Plantagenet’’ originated as a it allowed him to retake Paris, reform his nickname for Henry II’s father, Geoffrey, army and administration, and eventually Count of Anjou (d. 1151). Although the exact expel the English (see CHARLES VII, MILITARY meaning of the name is unknown, it was REFORMS OF). suggested in the nineteenth century that it Burgundy played no role in the last cam- derived from Geoffrey’s habit of wearing a paigns of the Hundred Years War, and sprig of broom (Planta genista) in his helm or instead tried unsuccessfully to convince cap. Other less widely accepted explanations Emperor Frederick III to recognize him as claim that Geoffrey had a fondness for king of an independent Burgundian state. hunting among the broom or that Geoffrey By 1453, Burgundy faced a revived Valois planted broom as cover to improve his monarchy no longer menaced by the En- hunting. The name Plantagenet was never glish. In 1456, Burgundy gave asylum to used by Henry II or his successors or applied Charles’s rebellious son, the dauphin, Louis, to them by contemporaries; it was first but the duke’s influence in Paris waned adopted as a surname in the late 1440s by and his principality remained essentially a RICHARD, DUKE OF YORK, head of the Yorkist Franco-Imperial appanage that lacked the branch of the family, who probably assumed cohesion to long survive the growing power it to emphasize his direct descent from Henry of France. The model of late medieval CHI- II and so illustrate the superiority of his claim VALRY, Burgundy instituted the Order of the to the Crown over that of his political rivals. Golden Fleece in 1430 and established an In the mid-twelfth century, Henry II won elaborate court ceremonial that was even- the English Crown and inherited or other- tually copied by many European rulers, in- wise acquired most of western France. cluding Edward IV of England. Philip died Through his mother, the daughter of Henry I on 15 June 1467 and was succeeded by his and granddaughter of William the Con- son Charles the Bold, whose death in battle queror, he became king of England in 1154. without male heirs in 1477 saw much of Through his father, he received Normandy French Burgundy eventually reabsorbed by as a grant in 1150 and Anjou as an inheritance the Valois monarchy. in 1151; through his marriage to Eleanor of Further Reading: Cartellieri, Otto. The Court of AQUITAINE, he acquired that duchy in 1152; Burgundy: Studies in the History of Civilization. and through his son’s marriage to the New York: Askell House, 1970; Vaughan, Ri- daughter of the deposed duke of BRITTANY, chard. Philip the Good: The Apogee of Burgundy. he acquired control of that duchy in 1166. Woodbridge, England: Boydell Press, 2002. Although technically a vassal of the House of CAPET, Henry in practice exercised a lar- PLANTAGENET, HOUSE OF gely independent authority throughout his The name ‘‘Plantagenet’’ has been used by French domains. In 1204, Henry’s son John historians since the seventeenth century to lost most of these territories to Philip II Au- refer to the English royal family that des- gustus of France. By the 1220s, only a portion cended from Henry II (r. 1154–89), and that of Aquitaine, the coastal region of GASCONY ruled England from 1154 to 1485. The Plan- around BORDEAUX, remained under Plantag- tagenets were a French dynasty descended enet control. In 1259, John’s son, Henry III, from the counts of Anjou and the dukes of concluded the Treaty of PARIS with Philip’s NORMANDY. During the HUNDRED YEARS grandson, Louis IX (St. Louis), agreeing to WAR, five Plantagenet kings—EDWARD III, renounce his claims to the lost provinces in RICHARD II, HENRY IV, HENRY V, and HENRY return for formal recognition as duke of an VI, the last three from the Lancastrian enlarged Aquitaine. By making the king of branch of the family—contended with the England a vassal of the king of France, a House of VALOIS for control of western feudal relationship that later Plantagenet France and possession of the French Crown. kings found incompatible with their status as

255 POITIERS, BATTLE OF a sovereign monarch, the treaty initiated the Poitou, the Battle of Poitiers, like the battles long dispute over Aquitaine that in large part of CRE´ CY and AGINCOURT, was an unexpected led to the Hundred Years War. English victory that had devastating con- Henry III’s son, EDWARD I, fought a war sequences for France. By concluding with the with France over the issue in the 1290s (see capture of JOHN II, the battle thrust France ANGLO-FRENCH WAR OF 1293–1303) and Ed- into a period of severe political and social ward’s son, EDWARD II, fought another in the upheaval that threatened the continuance of 1320s (see SAINT-SARDOS, WAR OF). Edward III, VALOIS rule and led eventually to the Treaty a grandson of PHILIP IV through his mother of BRE´ TIGNY and French acceptance of PLAN- Isabella (see ISABELLA,QUEEN OF ENGLAND [c. TAGENET sovereignty in AQUITAINE. 1292–1358]), added a new dimension to the To follow up his successful CHEVAUCHE´ E dispute by claiming the French Crown, an OF 1355, which had severely damaged the action that promised an end to the quarrel economy of southern France, EDWARD, THE over Aquitaine by making Edward his own BLACK PRINCE, prepared in early 1356 for overlord. He was unable to remove the Va- another raid in force from GASCONY, this time lois from the throne; however, in 1360, thanks northward toward the Loire Valley. In June, to victories at CRE´CY and POITIERS, Edward HENRY OF GROSMONT, duke of Lancaster, won full sovereignty over an enlarged landed in NORMANDY, where he led a CHE- Aquitaine through the Treaty of BRE´TIGNY. VAUCHE´ E designed to draw French attention The Valois regained most of this territory away from the prince’s campaign, and to under CHARLES V, but then nearly lost the relieve pressure on the partisans of CHARLES whole kingdom to Edward’s great-grandson, THE BAD, king of Navarre, a potential English Henry V, who in 1420 won recognition as heir ally recently imprisoned by John. Although to the French throne through the Treaty of Lancaster avoided battle, his activities held TROYES. Henry’s premature death and a John in the north, while the prince, after military resurgence under CHARLES VII per- leaving BERGERAC on 4 August, marched mitted the Valois to finally expel the Plantag- northeast through central France. Leading an enets from France in 1453. Anglo-Gascon force of about six thousand, In the later 1450s, the dynasty was torn the prince reached Tours on 7 September. On apart by a succession dispute between the 11 September, after an unsuccessful assault Lancastrian and Yorkist branches of the fam- on the town, the prince learned that John had ily. Henry VI, third king of the House of crossed the Loire at the head of a large army LANCASTER, held the throne in the 1450s be- and was now only ten miles from the En- cause his grandfather, Henry IV, had de- glish. Fearful of being caught between the posed his cousin Richard II in 1399, thereby royal army and the recently strengthened breaking the natural line of succession. The garrison of Tours, the prince withdrew im- resulting civil war, known as the Wars of the mediately toward BORDEAUX. Roses, ended in 1485, when the last Plantag- By 17 September, the French army, which enet king, Richard III, was defeated and contained about eleven thousand men, had killed by Henry VII, first king of the House passed west of the English line of march and of Tudor. was in position to block any retreat into Further Reading: Fowler, Kenneth. The Age of Gascony. On 18 September, the prince took Plantagenet and Valois: The Struggle for Supremacy, up a strong defensive position on a hill 1328–1498. New York: G. P. Putnam’s Sons, 1967; about five miles southeast of Poitiers near Harvey, John. The Plantagenets. 3rd ed. London: the village of Nouaille´. That night, papal Severn House, 1976. agents, whom the prince suspected of being pro-French, attempted to negotiate a truce. POITIERS, BATTLE OF (1356) Exhausted, outnumbered, and short of sup- Fought on 19 September 1356 near Poitiers, plies, the English were not eager to fight, but the capital of the southwestern county of the French king, sensing his enemy’s weak-

256 POITIERS, BATTLE OF ness, was unwilling to make any concessions that the prince could accept, and talks collapsed next morning. The prince deployed his men in one line, with Thomas BEAUCHAMP, earl of Warwick, holding the left; William Montagu, earl of Salis- bury; the right; and the prince himself in command of the center. About four hundred of the prince’s two thousand ARCHERS acted as a reserve. Protected by hills, vines, and hedges, the English were dif- ficult to reach, and Jean de Cler- mont, one of the French marshals, proposed that the French not attack until hunger and thirst forced the prince to abandon his prepared position, although this suggestion was derided as cowardice. How- ever, because of the difficult ter- rain, the French, perhaps at the suggestion of William Douglas, Lord Douglas, leader of a sizable Scottish contingent, decided to abandon their centuries-old tradi- tion of fighting from horseback. As a result, the entire army dis- mounted except for a force of about five hundred heavily armored knights, who were placed in front of the three parallel battle lines into John II surrenders to the English to end the Battle of Poitiers, which John divided his army. The 1356. Giraudon/Art Resource, New York. first line was commanded by the dauphin (see CHARLES V) and Doug- las; the second by the king’s brother, Philip, heavily armored horses, both attacks failed duke of Orle´ans; and the third, consisting of because the difficult ground caused the two thousand picked men, by the king horsemen to bunch up, thus blunting the himself. force of their charge and exposing their Realizing the seriousness of their situa- more vulnerable flanks to the archers. The tion, the prince and his commanders decid- first French battle line followed the cavalry, ed to begin a retreat while maintaining line suffering casualties from archer fire when it of battle. When Clermont and Arnoul pushed through gaps in the hedgerow but d’AUDREHEM, the French marshals in com- otherwise reaching the English line in good mand of the cavalry, noticed movement on order. After two hours of desperate hand-to- the English left, they launched immediate hand combat, the French retreated. Likely assaults on the archers holding each wing of acting on the king’s orders, the dauphin’s the enemy force. Although English arrows knights escorted him from the field. proved relatively ineffective against the Upon seeing his nephew withdraw, Orle´ans,

257 POLE, MICHAEL DE LA, EARL OF SUFFOLK perhaps thinking a general retreat had captors by almost £300,000, over three times begun, also withdrew, taking the second what the English had spent on the previous French division with him. Left alone to face year’s campaign. Most of the important an English army that now outnumbered prisoners were bought by the prince and him, John attacked with the third division. EDWARD III, with the captal de Buch receiving Because of the unusual length of the battle almost £5,000 for one of his captives. Among and the prince’s strict orders against break- the twenty-five hundred French dead were ing formation, the English archers were now Clermont; Pierre, duke of Bourbon; and almost out of arrows, allowing John’s men to Geoffrey de Charny, who had borne the OR- reach the English line with few casualties. IFLAMME. In England, the sheer magnitude of Although the French were fresh, while the victory seemed a clear sign that God fa- their opponents had been fighting for three vored the Plantagenet cause, while in France, hours, English morale was high. As the ar- the shock of defeat bred social anarchy and chers abandoned their longbows to fall upon political revolution, and made an eventual the enemy with swords and knives, Jean de settlement on terms favorable to the English GRAILLY, the captal de Buch, led a mounted seem almost inevitable. force of sixty men-at-arms and a hundred Further Reading: Barber, Richard. Edward, archers around the French army. Raising the Prince of Wales and Aquitaine. New York: Charles standard of St. George as a signal, the captal Scribner’s Sons, 1978; Burne, Alfred H. The Cre´cy attacked the French rear, thereby causing War. Ware, England: Wordsworth Editions Ltd., sufficient confusion to allow the prince to 1999; Hewitt, Herbert J. The Black Prince’s Expedi- remount some of his knights and send a tions of 1355–1357. Manchester: Manchester Uni- second cavalry charge led by Sir James versity Press, 1958; Sumption, Jonathan. The AUDLEY crashing into the French front. The Hundred Years War. Vol. 2, Trial by Fire. Philadel- dismounted French line broke into small phia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2001. groups, with many men being shot down by English archers as they tried to flee the field. POLE, MICHAEL DE LA, EARL OF As John fought bravely on, the battle de- SUFFOLK. See RICHARD II generated into an unseemly scramble for prisoners and RANSOMs. Some men were POLE, SIR WILLIAM DE LA (d. 1366) captured several times when their original William de la Pole, a Yorkshire merchant captors, upon claiming a token of surrender, and moneylender, rose to prominence by ran off to find other prisoners. When John financing the military campaigns of EDWARD and his son, PHILIP THE BOLD, eventually III. Pole’s financial activities during the submitted, they were roughly handled by a HUNDRED YEARS WAR led to perpetuation of crowd of men eager for a share of the royal a royal tax on wool exports and to the dis- ransom. The king was eventually rescued by placement of free trade in wool by large Warwick, who conveyed him to the prince. merchant monopolies. Because his men were more experienced Between 1327 and 1330, William and his at fighting on foot and his commanders brother Richard (d. 1345), wine merchants in better able to control the movements of their the Yorkshire port of Kingston upon Hull, men, the prince had won a brilliant triumph. loaned the king over £13,000. The brothers The English took about three thousand financed these loans by borrowing from prisoners, including, besides the king and other merchants who were unwilling to lend his son, Audrehem; Jean, count of Eu; the to the king directly, but who trusted the archbishop of Sens, and most of John’s po- Poles. During the early 1330s, while serving litical and military advisors. The eventual as mayor of Kingston upon Hull, William ransoms were enormous. Not including used the profits of his highly successful John’s ransom, the prisoners taken at Poi- wool trade to provide loans and buy arms tiers are estimated to have enriched their for Edward’s campaigns in SCOTLAND.In

258 POLE, WILLIAM DE LA, DUKE OF SUFFOLK

1337, Pole devised a scheme for funding the purchased from the Crown. Pole was thus French war with wool exports. With LONDON still a wealthy man when he died on 21 June merchant Reginald Conduit, Pole headed a 1366. Thanks to Pole’s financial services to syndicate that was given a monopoly on the Crown, his family entered the English English wool exports and the power to re- peerage, his son Michael de la Pole becom- quire wool growers to sell on credit. The ing earl of Suffolk in 1385, his great-grand- syndicate planned to ship thirty thousand son William de la POLE, duke of Suffolk, sacks of wool each year to Dordrecht in the serving as Henry VI’s chief minister in the Low Countries and to advance the Crown 1440s, and his great-great-great-grandson £200,000 on the sale of the wool. When some John de la Pole, earl of Lincoln, being rec- of Pole’s associates abused their power of ognized as heir to the throne in 1485. See also compulsory purchase and smuggled some CRISIS OF 1340–41. of the wool on their own account, royal of- Further Reading: Fryde, E. B. William de la Pole, ficials, in dire need of funds to pay the king’s Merchant and King’s Banker. London: Hambledon allies, collapsed the scheme by confiscating and London, 2003; Horrox, Rosemary. The de la the wool already collected in Dordrecht. The Poles of Hull. Beverley, England: East Yorkshire Crown issued the so-called DORDRECHT Local History Society, 1983. BONDS to the syndicate, which then agreed that the government should dispose of the POLE, WILLIAM DE LA, DUKE OF wool as it saw fit, but the failure of the plan SUFFOLK (1396–1450) left the Crown impoverished and severely William de la Pole, duke of Suffolk, was one hampered the English war effort. of the English commanders at the siege of In 1338 and 1339, Pole, acting alone, loaned ORLE´ ANS in 1429 and chief minister of HENRY the king over £100,000, and was rewarded VI in the 1440s. In the latter capacity, Suffolk with reluctant sales of royal estates and ele- was responsible for implementing the king’s vation to the rank of banneret. Angered by unpopular peace policy and, through the the failure of the wool syndicate and by rapacity of his faction, for the royal financial Pole’s success at obtaining repayment, Ed- difficulties that made peace with France ward ordered Pole’s arrest on 30 November necessary. 1340. Charged with smuggling wool and William was the great-grandson of Wil- punished with confiscation of his property— liam de la POLE, the Hull merchant who fi- particularly the former royal estates—Pole nanced EDWARD III’s early campaigns. His was released in May 1342 when the king father, Michael de la Pole, the second earl of again had need of his services. In 1343, Pole Suffolk, died at the siege of HARFLEUR in organized a new company that was given September 1415, and his elder brother, Mi- control of the royal customs, which it used as chael, the third earl, was killed some weeks security to raise new loans for the Crown. later at AGINCOURT, making William the Pole withdrew from the company in 1345, fourth earl of Suffolk. The earl went to but his successors financed the CRE´ CY cam- France in 1417, serving with HUMPHREY, paign and the siege of CALAIS before going DUKE OF GLOUCESTER,inNORMANDY and with bankrupt in the economic downturn that HENRY V at the siege of ROUEN. In May 1419, followed the BLACK DEATH in 1348–49. Suffolk was appointed admiral of Nor- Although Pole avoided any responsibility mandy, his first significant command, and in for the company’s debts, the extended per- 1420 he joined the king at the siege of iod of truce in the early 1350s (see CALAIS, MELUN. The earl became a member of the TRUCE OF) improved the king’s finances and Order of the GARTER in 1421. After the king’s allowed him to renew the charge of smug- death in 1422, Suffolk became one of the gling against Pole, who only escaped com- chief noble lieutenants of the regent, JOHN, plete ruin by forgiving all outstanding royal DUKE OF BEDFORD, and compiled a compe- debts and renouncing all claims to lands tent, if not distinguished record, serving

259 PONTOISE, PEACE OF frequently under such veteran commanders French; although the highly unpopular sur- as Thomas, MONTAGU, earl of Salisbury, and render was the king’s idea, it was Suffolk, as Richard BEAUCHAMP, earl of Warwick. chief minister, who was blamed (see MAINE, In October 1428, upon the death of Salis- SURRENDER OF). In 1449, the ill-considered bury, Suffolk assumed leadership of the English seizure of FOUGE´ RES in BRITTANY English forces besieging Orle´ans; however, provoked a French attack on Normandy, in December, overall command of the siege which, after a weak defense by Suffolk’s went to John TALBOT. When the French under prote´ge´, Edmund BEAUFORT, duke of Somer- JOAN OF ARC and John, the Bastard of Orle´ans set, fell in 1450 (see NORMAN CAMPAIGN [1449– (see JOHN,COUNT OF DUNOIS AND LONG- 1450]). The loss of Normandy created a UEVILLE), lifted the siege in May 1429, Suffolk public outcry against Suffolk, who was im- withdrew to Jargeau with part of the English peached by PARLIAMENT in February 1450. army. On 12 June, during the French LOIRE The Commons charged the duke with cor- CAMPAIGN, Suffolk surrendered Jargeau and ruption, extortion, and treason, alleging that was taken prisoner; forced to sell land to he had used diplomatic missions to France as meet his RANSOM, the earl was released in the opportunities to plot Henry’s overthrow. On spring of 1430. In the following autumn, he 17 March, the king intervened, dismissing married Alice Chaucer, the widowed coun- the treason charge but declaring Suffolk’s tess of Salisbury, who was a kinswoman of guilt on the others and ordering him ban- Cardinal Henry BEAUFORT, a leading member ished for five years. Suffolk took ship for the of the regency council, and the grand- Low Countries on 30 April, but was inter- daughter of the poet Geoffrey Chaucer. cepted by an English , the Nicholas of In about 1433, Suffolk left France to pursue the Tower, which was probably acting on or- a political career in England. As a prote´ge´ of ders of his political enemies, particularly RI- Beaufort, he supported the conclusion of CHARD, DUKE OF YORK, who blamed Suffolk peace with France, a policy that put him at for their exclusion from office. Suffolk was odds with Gloucester, who led the war beheaded by his captors on 2 May, and his party. By the early 1440s, Suffolk had es- body was thrown ashore at Dover. tablished himself as leader of a group of Further Reading: Griffiths, Ralph A. The Reign younger courtiers who exercised increasing of King Henry VI. Berkeley: University of Califor- influence over Henry VI. In 1444, Suffolk nia Press, 1981; Harriss, G. L. Cardinal Beaufort: A negotiated the Truce of TOURS with CHARLES Study of Lancastrian Ascendancy and Decline. VII and arranged Henry’s marriage to the Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1988; Watts, John. French king’s kinswoman, MARGARET OF Henry VI and the Politics of Kingship. Cambridge: ANJOU, who became the earl’s political Cambridge University Press, 1996; Wolffe, Ber- ally after her coronation in 1445. The deaths tram. Henry VI. London: Eyre Methuen, 1981. of Gloucester and Beaufort in 1447 left Suffolk in control of the royal government PONTOISE, PEACE OF. See FRENCH CIVIL and brought him a series of important of- WAR fices and promotions, including appoint- ments as lord admiral (1447) and governor PONTOISE, SIEGE OF (1441) of CALAIS (1448) and elevation to a dukedom Situated on the Oise about twenty miles (1448). northwest of PARIS along the main road from Although Suffolk and his supporters ROUEN, the town and bridge of Pontoise of- made enemies by using their influence with fered the nearest river crossing and most the king to enrich themselves and exclude direct northern approach to the capital. The others from power, it was military defeat ultimate success of the French siege of Pon- that toppled the duke’s administration. In toise, which ran intermittently from June to 1448, the government ceded Maine to the September 1441, freed Paris from the threat

260 PROCESS of English assault, opened NORMANDY to the manded by RICHARD, DUKE OF YORK,the threat of French assault, and demonstrated Lancastrian lieutenant in France, approached the growing importance of ARTILLERY in SIEGE Pontoise in mid-July. After a complicated WARFARE. two-week campaign during which the Following the termination of the ANGLO- French crossed and recrossed various rivers BURGUNDIAN ALLIANCE at the Congress of to escape York, the siege was broken and ARRAS in 1435, Pontoise reverted to its VA- Charles, having narrowly avoided capture, LOIS allegiance, forcing John TALBOT to re- was back in Paris. Although he had relieved capture the town by stealth on 13 February Pontoise, York was desperately short of 1437. A group of Talbot’s soldiers entered supplies and could not remain in the field; by Pontoise from the south disguised as pea- mid-August, he was back in Rouen. Charles, sants, while a scaling party, dressed in white perhaps stung by whispered charges of to blend into the snowy landscape, ap- cowardice arising from his tortuous efforts proached the walls from the north. At the to avoid battle, ordered the reinvestment of appointed time, the former opened the gates Pontoise, which was again under bombard- to Talbot, while the latter swarmed over the ment by 16 August, when Talbot tried again walls, thus capturing the town before the to resupply the garrison. This time, the con- garrison could strike a blow. stable advanced against him, forcing Talbot CHARLES VII’s recapture of Pontoise in to wheel around the northern flank and 1441 was a much longer and more difficult punch through the French siege lines where undertaking, with a French historian later they had earlier been weakened to meet the describing the campaign as ‘‘a veritable English advance. Although Talbot resupplied siege of Troy’’ (Burne, 293). The French in- the garrison again on 6 September, Bureau’s vested the city on 6 June with a force of guns continued battering the walls. By 16 about five thousand commanded by Con- September, the French had taken most of the stable Arthur de Richemont (see ARTHUR III) suburbs, and, on 19 September, a simulta- and including such leading French captains neous assault at various points along the as E´ tienne de VIGNOLLES (‘‘LA HIRE’’) and weakened wall forced the capitulation of the Poton de XAINTRAILLES. Unable to approach garrison. About five hundred English sol- the city until the English had been cleared diers were slain in the fighting, while John, from the bridge, the French brought up their Lord Clinton, the garrison commander, was artillery, which, under the skillful direction put to RANSOM with most of his officers. of Jean BUREAU, weakened the barbican so Further Reading: Burne, Alfred H. The Agin- that it could be carried by storm. Bureau’s court War. Ware, England: Wordsworth Editions guns were then transported across the river, Ltd., 1999. where they began bombarding the town. On about 16 June, as Talbot approached with a PONTVALLAIN, BATTLE OF. See GUE- small relief force, the constable, acting on SCLIN,BERTRAND DU;KNOLLES,SIR ROBERT orders from the king, who was traveling with the army, reluctantly withdrew be- PRAGUERIE. See CHARLES VII hind his defenses, thus allowing Talbot to resupply the garrison before drawing off. A PROCESS short time later, Talbot reappeared with a ‘‘Process’’ is the term used for a series of new supply train, which he again carried Anglo-French commissions that met in the into Pontoise without hindrance from the early fourteenth century to discuss and set- French. tle the many disputes arising between the Heartened by the French king’s unwill- two Crowns over the duchy of AQUITAINE. ingness to give battle, an English army of By failing to resolve the fundamental issue perhaps three thousand, this time com- of sovereignty in Aquitaine, these processes

261 PROPAGANDA AND WAR PUBLICITY contributed to the coming of the HUNDRED came to believe that the real French policy YEARS WAR. was not amicable settlement, but the ulti- In 1259, the Treaty of PARIS created a mate extinction of the king-duke’s authority feudal relationship between the kings of in Aquitaine through a slow but incessant France and England, making the latter vas- process of administrative encroachment. sals of the former by recognizing the English Further war was avoided until 1323 be- monarch’s possession of Aquitaine. There- cause Philip IV and his two elder sons, LOUIS after, successive English rulers, accustomed X and PHILIP V, were too distracted by dis- to exercising unfettered authority in their content in France and turmoil in FLANDERS to own kingdom, grew increasingly unwilling contemplate a new conflict with Edward II. to accept their feudal subordination to the However, CHARLES IV took a harder line to- king of France in their continental posses- ward Aquitaine, and the so-called War of sions, especially since French monarchs SAINT-SARDOS (1323–25) resulted in another made frequent use of their overlordship to confiscation of the duchy, which lasted until interfere in their vassal’s administration of 1329, when both thrones had new occu- his own duchy. Both sides had cause for pants—PHILIP VI in France and EDWARD III complaint. French royal officials often ig- in England. To settle compensation issues nored the king-duke’s jurisdiction, usurped arising from the new war, the kings created the authority of his officers, and encouraged the Process of Agen, which sat from 1331 to his Gascon subjects to appeal against his 1334 and was no more successful than its policies to PARIS. English administrators predecessors. Three years after this third often hindered French officials in the per- process collapsed in mutual recrimination, formance of their legitimate duties and for- Philip again confiscated Aquitaine, thus in- cibly prevented Gascons from appealing the itiating the Hundred Years War. See also king-duke’s decisions. GASCONY. In June 1303, the ANGLO-FRENCH WAR OF Further Reading: Cuttino, G. C. ‘‘The Process 1294–1303, which had proved financially of Agen.’’ Speculum 19 (1944): 161–78; Vale, ruinous for both Crowns, was officially Malcolm. The Origins of the Hundred Years War. ended with the restoration of Aquitaine to Oxford: Clarendon Press, 2000. PLANTAGENET control. Three years later, in an effort to avoid another war, PHILIP IV and PROPAGANDA AND WAR PUBLICITY EDWARD II finally put into practice a princi- Because of its length, cost, and consequences ple first enunciated in a 1285 statute of the to civilian populations, the HUNDRED YEARS Westminster PARLIAMENT, which called for WAR required that royal governments man- creation of ad hoc Anglo-French commis- age the expectations and secure the support sions empowered to adjudicate disputes of their people. Although the term ‘‘propa- arising over local rights and duties not for- ganda’’ did not come into use until the mally falling under the appellate jurisdiction nineteenth century, it aptly describes the of the French Crown. The first such com- variety of activities in which the VALOIS and mission, the Process of Montreuil, met from PLANTAGENET monarchies engaged to pro- 1306 to 1311; the second, the Process of mote the involvement of their subjects in the Pe´rigueux, from 1311 to 1316. Both bodies ongoing war. had a sizable Gascon membership, and both At the highest level, kings in both coun- mainly discussed compensation issues aris- tries called upon scholars and legal experts ing from property confiscated or other losses to marshal evidence and devise arguments suffered during the late war. Neither con- upholding the positions of each royal house. ference led to a settlement largely because Although the resulting tracts and treatises the French viewed the process as a lawsuit were legalistic and pedantic works of Latin between unequals. With the French Crown scholarship meant only for a learned and acting as both accuser and judge, the English limited audience, they provided broad un-

262 PROPAGANDA AND WAR PUBLICITY derpinnings for the royal claims upon which affairs, praying for the success of the national the war was being fought. Based on appeals cause was a powerful weapon. to history, or at least to a particular view of Beyond boosting morale and commit- history, these documents justified the war ment, the Church also kept people informed on legal and moral grounds. In England, of war events. In the 1420s, the English such works carefully laid out the Plantag- nailed verses and illustrated genealogies enet and Lancastrian claims to the French tracing HENRY VI’s claim to the French Crown, and, in France, they refuted English throne to the doors of Norman churches, (and later Burgundian) claims by attempting which thus served as community bulletin to prove that the Valois were the true des- boards for educating illiterate parishioners cendants of the Frankish kings. about the legitimacy of the House of LAN- Simpler messages were used to appeal to CASTER. Priests were also active agents in the the uneducated and unsophisticated, who dissemination of war news, reading from needed to be made aware of war events, the pulpit letters and reports sent from the particularly military successes. In 1346, battlefield by kings and commanders. News- Londoners organized processions celebrat- letters from the front, such as those dis- ing EDWARD III’s victory at CRE´ CY and patched by Edward III after Cre´cy and the witnessed DAVID II of SCOTLAND, recently Black Prince after NA´ JERA, are so plentiful captured at NEVILLE’S CROSS, being paraded for the fourteenth century that they have through the streets to the Tower. In May been described as a ‘‘rudimentary publicity 1357, even grander celebrations welcomed system ...used for spreading military EDWARD, THE BLACK PRINCE, as he entered the news’’ (Prince, 417), and the Church was the capital accompanied by his royal prisoner, primary network through which this system JOHN II. In October 1416, on the first anni- operated. versary of AGINCOURT,HENRY V ordered War news and information was also dis- public commemorations of that battle, and, tributed by literary writers—chroniclers, in 1450, CHARLES VII ordered the issuance of poets, and political commentators—who a medal to similarly commemorate the re- lauded national heroes and denigrated the cent English expulsion from NORMANDY. enemy. In the fourteenth century, the bal- Victories could also be profitably em- lads of Eustache Deschamps expressed the ployed by the Church, which was frequently sense of French NATIONAL CONSCIOUSNESS called upon to support the war effort by as- that was growing out of the war, while, in the suring subjects that God was on their side. fifteenth century, the unknown composer of Nothing conferred God’s endorsement of a the ‘‘Agincourt Carol’’ captured English cause like victory on the battlefield, as En- pride in Henry V. As the war progressed, glish bishops and priests repeatedly empha- the literary conventions of CHIVALRY, which sized in sermons preached after victories like called for one to honor and respect a worthy Cre´cy and POITIERS. And if God fought for opponent, gave way to abuse, slander, and England, as seemed the case in the mid- ridicule of the national enemy. French wri- fourteenth century, was it not then right for ters proclaimed that the English had tails, Englishmen to do the same? Of course, God were arrogant and overbearing, and (parti- could use war to punish as well as to honor, cularly after the deposition of RICHARD II) and throughout the conflict people in both delighted in killing their kings. In the fif- countries were frequently exhorted to pray teenth century, the French referred to the for good fortune in battle. In the English English as ‘‘godons,’’ from ‘‘God-damn,’’ a diocese of Lincoln, the government requested phase in wide use among English soldiers. special prayers for war-related intentions on English writers characterized the French as more than fifty occasions during the war. In stubborn, effeminate, deceitful, and unable an age that believed strongly in the efficacy of to see that God was against them. By thus prayer and in divine intervention in human condemning and stereotyping the enemy,

263 PROPAGANDA AND WAR PUBLICITY propaganda literature played an important Palgrave Macmillan, 2003; Maddicott, J. R. ‘‘The role in developing a sense of national con- County Community and the Making of Public sciousness in both countries during the Opinion in Fourteenth-Century England.’’ Trans- course of the war. actions of the Royal Historical Society, 5th ser., 28 Further Reading: Allmand, Christopher. The (1978): 34–35, 38; Prince, A. E. ‘‘A Letter of Hundred Years War. Cambridge: Cambridge Uni- Edward, the Black Prince, Describing the Battle of versity Press, 1988; Curry, Anne. The Hundred Najera in 1367.’’ English Historical Review 41 Years War. 2nd ed. Houndmills, England: (1926): 415–18.

264 R

RANSOM themselves. However, kings were often so Medieval military convention recognized hard pressed to fund the ongoing war that men taken in battle as the private property of they were unable to help men burdened their captors, not as prisoners of the state. with high ransoms. Many of the French Anyone who captured another man on the knights taken by the English in 1345 at battlefield was entitled to detain his prisoner BERGERAC and AUBEROCHE, two early battles as long as he wished, to contract with him to that clearly demonstrated the financial ben- receive an agreed-upon ransom for his re- efits of ransoming captives, found them- lease, or to mortgage or sell his ransom to the selves shunned by royal officials to whom Crown or anyone else willing to pay a good they applied for assistance. Other captives of price. During the HUNDRED YEARS WAR, Auberoche, such as John de Galard, lord of prisoners were thus valuable and sought- Limeuil, took service with the English after prizes of war, and the personal pursuit Crown in lieu of a ransom he could not pay. of high-ranking and wealthy captives was As the war gradually strengthened national sometimes undertaken with greater energy feelings in both realms, such men often and enthusiasm than the pursuit of military found themselves accused of treason by objectives. their former comrades. Although custom dictated that ransoms A few men made great fortunes out of should be reasonable, the actual practice ransoms. HENRY OF GROSMONT, duke of during the Hundred Years War was to de- Lancaster, realized almost £70,000 from the mand the highest possible ransom that the ransoms of Bergerac and Auberoche, suffi- prisoner, when aided by friends, family, and cient for him to magnificently rebuild Savoy tenants, could afford. In some instances, Palace outside LONDON. Sir Walter MAUNY meeting one’s ransom required the sale of grew rich on the ransoms received from a land, which, particularly in the later stages series of noble prisoners taken in FLANDERS of the war or the most ravaged regions of the and BRITTANY in the 1330s and 1340s. As the country, did not always sell well or quickly. war continued, a substantial market in ran- A noble family might thus be ruined by the soms developed, driven in part by the royal need to pay ransom, as happened to the practice of buying the ransoms of high- Burgundian lord William de Chaˆteauvillain, ranking prisoners, and by the actions of men who turned to his landed relatives to guar- who speculated in the purchase of ransoms. antee payment of the 20,000 saluts owed Among the latter was Sir John Cornwall, to his French captors in 1430. Sometimes who in 1423 purchased the ransoms of the prisoners had to call upon their king for lords of Gaucourt and Estouteville and of assistance in paying ransom. HENRY VI John, duke of Bourbon, all of whom had contributed 1,500 livres for the ransom of Sir been captives since 1415. Another such John Handford in 1444 and PHILIP VI as- dealer in ransoms was Sir Walter Hunger- sisted knights, who, having paid their ran- ford, who rebuilt his castle in Somerset with soms, could not afford to remount or rearm the ransoms of eight prisoners brought back

265 RHEIMS CAMPAIGN from AGINCOURT. As to royal purchase of versity Press, 1988; Sumption, Jonathan. The ransoms, EDWARD III paid Sir Thomas DAG- Hundred Years War. Vol. 1, Trial by Battle. WORTH £3,500 for the ransom of CHARLES OF Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, BLOIS, the French-backed claimant to the 1999. duchy of Brittany, who was captured at LA ROCHE-DERRIEN in 1347, and HENRY V paid RHEIMS CAMPAIGN (1359–1360) Sir John Cornwall a high price for the count The last campaign commanded by EDWARD of Vendoˆme, who was taken at Agincourt. III and one of the largest English expeditions Kings also rewarded their favorite lieuten- of the HUNDRED YEARS WAR, the Rheims ants by purchasing their prisoners for sig- Campaign, which lasted from October 1359 nificant sums, such as the 1,000 marks Ed- to April 1360, was an attempt to force the ward III gave Mauny for , a French to conclude peace on English terms. military engineer seized in SCOTLAND. In the Although JOHN II was a captive in LONDON, fifteenth century, CHARLES VII did some- and the government of Dauphin Charles (see thing similar in France, granting estates CHARLES V) was hampered by internal un- in Poitou to his favorite, George de la rest and financial weakness, the English Tre´moı¨lle, to compensate him for an un- campaign failed to achieve its original pur- collectible ransom. pose, largely due to the dauphin’s strategy The most famous ransoms of the war were of refusing battle. This tactic turned the ex- those Edward III demanded for the release pedition into a series of fruitless sieges and of DAVID II of Scotland, taken at NEVILLE’S frustrating marches by an army struggling CROSS in 1346, and JOHN II of France, cap- to keep itself fed and supplied. tured at POITIERS in 1356. The circumstances With the failure of the Second Treaty of of John’s capture illustrate how highly LONDON in March 1359, Edward recruited prized ransoms had become. Surrounded by his largest army to date, a force numbering enemies, John was called upon to surrender, almost twelve thousand. The expedition’s but only did so when assured that his captor objective was the city of Rheims, the tra- was a knight. Immediately upon handing ditional coronation site of French kings, over his gauntlet as a token of surrender, the where Edward planned to have himself king was seized by a band of Gascons, solemnly crowned king of France. As an whose members struggled with one another anointed French monarch, Edward hoped to grab hold of John and thereby stake their to overthrow the VALOIS regime or, failing claim to a portion of his ransom. More that, to increase pressure on the dauphin to alarmed by this situation than by combat, make significant territorial concessions to John was rescued by the intervention of end the war and regain his father’s free- Thomas BEAUCHAMP, earl of Warwick, who dom. Joined by troops raised in Hainault respectfully led the king to EDWARD, THE by Walter MAUNY, the English fleet of elev- BLACK PRINCE. The ransoms of both kings— en hundred ships landed at CALAIS on 28 100,000 marks for David and 3 million e´cus October 1359. On 4 November, the English for John—severely strained the resources marched out of Calais in three columns; the and political stability of their countries. king commanded the main force, which However, in both cases, the process of col- marched north through Artois, while ED- lecting ransom, being conducted in com- WARD, THE BLACK PRINCE, led the southern munities throughout each realm, promoted wing through the Somme Valley and the development of stronger national iden- HENRY OF GROSMONT, duke of Lancaster, tities. See also NATIONAL CONSCIOUSNESS, followed a middle route. Due to the size of GROWTH OF;PROPAGANDA AND WAR PUB- the force and the lateness of the year, LICITY. supply was a problem from the start and Further Reading: Allmand, Christopher. The largely dictated the line of march, with Hundred Years War. Cambridge: Cambridge Uni- each column proceeding on a broad front

266 RICHARD, DUKE OF YORK so as to draw provisions from the widest By 3 May, the main provisions of the Treaty possible area. of BRE´ TIGNY were agreed. Upon hearing that The French withdrew into walled towns the dauphin had assented to the treaty on 10 and made no attempt to hinder the English May, the English marched quickly north, columns as they marched by. The weather with Edward embarking from Honfleur on proved a more dangerous enemy; a cold and 19 May and the rest of the army proceeding rainy November made roads impassable to Calais, where the men took ship shortly and rivers unfordable, and the English col- thereafter. umns briefly lost contact as food and fodder Further Reading: Burne, Alfred H. The Cre´cy grew scarce. Edward reached Rheims on War. Ware, England: Wordsworth Editions Ltd., 4 December, and his army quickly sur- 1999; Sumption, Jonathan. The Hundred Years War. rounded the town, whose garrison was well Vol. 2, Trial by Fire. Philadelphia: University of supplied behind its high walls. When an Pennsylvania Press, 2001. attempt to storm the walls failed, the English began a winter siege; however, the supply RICHARD, DUKE OF YORK (1411–1460) situation soon grew critical, forcing Edward Richard, third duke of York, succeeded to withdraw on 11 January 1360. JOHN, DUKE OF BEDFORD,asHENRY VI’s lieu- With no settled plan except to keep his tenant in France, thereby assuming respon- army in being, Edward moved toward BUR- sibility for conduct of the HUNDRED YEARS GUNDY, where, on 10 March, the Burgundi- WAR. In 1460, York, after years in opposi- ans agreed to the Treaty of Guillon, whereby tion, laid claim to the Crown, thus initiating they paid Edward 200,000 florins to spare the Wars of the Roses and precipitating his the duchy. Meanwhile, bands of French death in battle. With his son’s subsequent partisans harassed the English columns, seizure of the throne, the duke became the killing or capturing the unwary, including immediate ancestor of the royal House of the writer Geoffrey Chaucer, who was put to York, which ruled England until 1485. RANSOM. In late March, with the weather fi- Richard was the only son of Richard, earl nally improving, Edward made for PARIS. of Cambridge, who was executed for treason Although he probably did not expect to take by HENRY V in 1415, and Anne Mortimer, the capital—even his army was insufficient who died shortly after her son’s birth. He for that—Edward did hope to force the was descended from EDWARD III through dauphin to come to terms. Negotiations both his parents. Cambridge was the son of commenced, but, time being on their side, Edward’s fourth son, EDMUND OF LANGLEY, the French rejected Edward’s territorial de- duke of York, and Anne was a great- mands, which still reflected the Treaty of granddaughter of Edward’s second son, London. Unable to feed his army, Edward Lionel, duke of Clarence. Thus, through his withdrew from Paris on 12 April. The next mother, Richard had a claim to the PLANTAG- day, Monday 13 April, disaster struck the ENET throne that was technically superior to English. The weather, which had been un- that of the House of LANCASTER, which de- seasonably mild, turned suddenly cold, with rived from Edward’s third son, JOHN OF sleet and rain followed by a hard freeze; so GAUNT, duke of Lancaster. Richard was only many sick and hungry men and horses died four when the death of his paternal uncle at of exposure that the day became known the Battle of AGINCOURT made him duke of among the English as ‘‘Black Monday.’’ York, and only fourteen when the death of The tragedy convinced Edward to mod- his maternal uncle made him earl of March erate his demands and obtain the best set- and heir to the Mortimer claim to the tlement possible. He therefore sent messages throne, which had lain dormant since HENRY to Paris signaling his willingness to treat on IV deposed RICHARD II in 1399. To en- French terms. On 1 May, a peace conference sure York’s loyalty to the Lancastrian re- opened at Bre´tigny, a village near Chartres. gime, the government arranged his early

267 RICHARD, DUKE OF YORK marriage—he was perhaps fifteen—to Cecily of men, money, and authority. Although Neville, the daughter of Ralph Neville, earl the government mollified the duke by pay- of Westmorland, a staunch Lancastrian. ing the arrears of his wages and granting Knighted in 1426, York resided at court from him an APPANAGE in southern Normandy, it 1428 and in 1430 attended Henry VI’s cor- did not reappoint him. The French lieuten- onation in PARIS. By 1434, the duke was in ancy went to Edmund BEAUFORT, the new full possession of his patrimony and thus earl of Somerset, in 1446. York was instead the wealthiest peer of the realm. named lieutenant of Ireland, where he ar- Elected to the Order of the GARTER in 1433, rived in June 1449. While the Irish lieuten- York received his first military command in ancy is often portrayed as political banish- May 1436, when the king, anxious to see ment arranged by Henry’s chief minister ‘‘some great prince of our blood’’ (Johnson, William de la POLE, duke of Suffolk, who 226) in command in France, named York to viewed York as an opponent of the govern- the French lieutenancy. Other than the ment’s peace policy, there is no indication king’s surviving paternal uncle, HUMPHREY, that York openly opposed either the Truce of DUKE OF GLOUCESTER, there was no one else TOURS or even the English surrender of who fit this description. By the time York Maine. reached HARFLEUR in early June, Paris had Nonetheless, in 1450, following suppres- fallen to CHARLES VII, but the duke, working sion of JACK CADE’S REBELLION and the mur- with John TALBOT, Lord Talbot, who had der of Suffolk, York returned from Ireland a actual command of the armies, stemmed determined opponent of the Suffolk-Somer- the French advance and ensured the safety set faction, whose members he denounced of NORMANDY. In 1437, York, frustrated with as traitors responsible for the loss of Nor- the government’s inadequate funding of mandy and the bankruptcy of the Crown. his troops, asked leave to return home. The Fearing Beaufort ambitions, he tried un- government, perhaps equally frustrated successfully to have his position as heir ap- with York’s lackluster performance as lieu- parent confirmed. In 1452, he led an abortive tenant, replaced the duke with Richard uprising aimed at removing Somerset from BEAUCHAMP, earl of Warwick. However, the office. After 1453, York and his noble allies earl’s death in April 1439 precipitated a were increasingly at odds with Queen competition for the office between the war MARGARET OF ANJOU, who feared that York faction led by Gloucester, who offered him- intended to displace her infant son as Hen- self as lieutenant, and the peace faction led ry’s heir. With the onset of the king’s mental by Cardinal Henry BEAUFORT, bishop of illness in 1453, York twice served as pro- Winchester, who suggested his nephew, tector, his second protectorate in 1455 being John BEAUFORT, earl of Somerset. Since he occasioned by victory over a royalist army at was not closely attached to either faction, St. Albans, where the duke’s chief rivals, York again emerged as the best candidate including Somerset, were slain. In 1460, for the office. York laid claim to the Crown, but PARLIA- Reappointed in July 1440, York demanded MENT, being unwilling to depose Henry, and received greater authority—he was imposed a settlement naming York Henry’s given all Bedford’s former powers—and heir. This arrangement precipitated civil better funding—he was promised £20,000 war, and on 30 December 1460, York was per year for his men. Arriving in Normandy slain at the Battle of Wakefield. However, in in June 1441, York temporarily lifted the March 1461, York’s eldest son seized the siege of PONTOISE, but otherwise undertook throne as Edward IV. See also MAINE,SUR- no further military effort. This inactivity al- RENDER OF. lowed Cardinal Beaufort to win a major Further Reading: Johnson, P. A. Duke Richard command for Somerset, whose ultimately of York, 1411–1460. Oxford: Clarendon Press, unsuccessful 1443 campaign stripped York 1988.

268 RICHARD II, KING OF ENGLAND

RICHARD II, KING OF ENGLAND a plot to kill the duke was uncovered in (1367–1400) 1385, Lancaster came armed to court to The eighth king of the House OF PLANTAG- confront Richard, but was soon reconciled to ENET, Richard II was the grandson and suc- his nephew by the intervention of the king’s cessor of EDWARD III. Like the reign of his mother, Joan of Kent. deposed great-grandfather, EDWARD II, Ri- In 1386, Lancaster left for Spain, leaving chard’s reign, which also ended in deposition, behind a political vacuum that was filled by was characterized by ongoing conflict with his younger brother, THOMAS OF WOODSTOCK, the nobility. This strife arose in part from Ri- duke of Gloucester. In the so-called Won- chard’s absolutist tendencies and in part from derful Parliament of 1386, Gloucester and his determined pursuit of peace with France. his allies—Richard Fitzalan, earl of Arundel, Although eventually successful in concluding and Thomas Beauchamp, earl of Warwick— a truce with the VALOIS, Richard’s efforts to forced the king to dismiss his councilors and end the HUNDRED YEARS WAR foundered on accept the tutelage of a council of nobles. In the opposition of his magnates and the un- 1387, Richard attempted to have the origi- willingness of the French to sign any agree- nators of the noble council declared traitors, ment leaving French territory in English an act that forced Gloucester and his col- hands. leagues, who now included Thomas Mow- Born in BORDEAUX, the second son of ED- bray, earl of Nottingham, and Lancaster’s WARD, THE BLACK PRINCE, Richard became his son, Henry, earl of Derby, to take arms and father’s heir upon the death of his elder appeal (i.e., accuse) the king’s supporters of brother, Edward of Angouleˆme, in 1371. He treason. After defeating Oxford at Radcot became heir to the English throne on his Bridge on 20 December, the opposition father’s death in June 1376 and king of lords, now known as the Lords Appellant, England at the age of ten in June 1377. Ri- forced Richard to summon the Merciless chard’s minority government was directed Parliament, which was so named because by a council of nobles dominated by the it decreed the banishment or death of king’s eldest living uncle, JOHN OF GAUNT, Richard’s closest advisors. Dominated by duke of Lancaster, who was himself not a Gloucester, the Appellant government con- member of that body. Although the French tinued the war. Although Arundel had won under CHARLES V had largely erased the a naval victory at CADZAND in March 1387, territorial gains achieved by Edward III, the lack of funds forced the Appellants to open council continued the war, imposing, peace talks that eventually resulted in the through PARLIAMENT, a series of unpopular Truce of LEULINGHEN. In May 1389, one poll taxes designed to fund new campaigns. month before the truce was concluded, Ri- This high war TAXATION caused the most chard, now twenty-two, used the imminent serious English rebellion of the fourteenth return of Lancaster to declare himself of full century, the PEASANTS’ REVOLT OF 1381. Al- age and resume control of the government. though only fourteen, Richard distinguished His Spanish ambitions satisfied, Lan- himself by courageously meeting the rebels caster, whom Richard made duke of AQUI- on several occasions. From 1381 to 1386, TAINE in 1390, now supported the king’s Richard ruled through a group of favorites peace policy. Sent to France in 1392 as the that included his tutor, Simon Burley; his king’s peace envoy, the duke failed to secure chancellor, Michael de la Pole, earl of Suf- a permanent settlement, but did achieve folk; and his chamberlain, Robert de Vere, successive extensions of the truce. Following earl of Oxford. Richard’s lack of enthusiasm the death of his queen, Anne of Bohemia, in for war, the growing influence of his favor- 1394, Richard extended his peace effort by ites, and the extravagance of his court, negotiating a match for himself with eight- caused the formation of a baronial opposi- year-old Isabella, the eldest daughter of tion that initially included Lancaster. When CHARLES VI (see ISABELLA,QUEEN OF ENGLAND

269 ROBERT OF ARTOIS

[1388–1409]). Concluded in 1396, the mar- fract Castle, where he died around 14 Feb- riage was accompanied by a 28-year truce ruary 1400. Precipitated by a plot hatched by that promised to end the war for a genera- Richard’s supporters, the ex-king’s death, tion. The political stability of the years after whether the result of violence or starvation, 1390 ended in 1397 when the king struck was likely ordered by his supplanter. down his old opponents. After arresting Further Reading: Goodman, Anthony. The Gloucester, Arundel, and Warwick, Richard Loyal Conspiracy: The Lords Appellant under Richard had all three condemned for treason in II. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1971; Parliament. Gloucester died mysteriously Palmer, J. J. N. England, France, and Christendom, while in captivity in CALAIS, while Arundel 1377–99. Chapel Hill: University of North Car- was executed and Warwick imprisoned olina Press, 1972; Saul, Nigel. Richard II. New for life. Contemporary English chronicles, Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1997; Tuck, mostly written after Richard’s deposition, Anthony. Richard II and the English Nobility. ascribed the king’s action to a thirst for London: Edward Arnold, 1973. vengeance, while more sympathetic French chronicles claimed that Gloucester and his ROBERT OF ARTOIS (1287–1342) companions, angered by the restoration of A kinsman of PHILIP VI, Robert of Artois, Brest to Duke JOHN IV of BRITTANY, were through a longstanding dispute over the hatching a new plot against the king. , fell into disfavor and was Whatever the truth, Richard used the ces- banished from France. Coming eventually to sation of hostilities with France to con- England, Robert became a confidant of ED- solidate his position in England, where he WARD III and thereby influenced the course acted in an increasingly high-handed man- of events during the early years of the ner. Making frequent use of forced loans HUNDRED YEARS WAR. and other highly questionable means of Robert was a descendant of Louis VIII of raising revenue, Richard persuaded Parlia- France and the grandson of Robert II, count ment to rescind the acts of the Merciless of Artois. Although his father was dead, Parliament and to compel all future peers to Robert did not succeed his grandfather as swear to uphold the acts of the current ses- count upon the latter’s death in 1302. The sion. inheritance customs of the county vested the In September 1398, a quarrel erupted be- succession in Robert’s aunt, Mahaut, who tween the two junior appellants, Notting- maintained her control of Artois despite two ham (now duke of Norfolk) and Derby (now legal challenges and endless intrigues ini- duke of Hereford). Norfolk, fearing that Ri- tiated by her nephew. In 1330, after the chard would move against them, told deaths of his aunt and her daughter, Robert Hereford so, but then denied it when Here- again laid formal claim to the county. As a ford told the king. Richard settled the matter close friend and advisor of his brother-in- by banishing both men. Upon Lancaster’s law, Philip VI, Robert had good hopes of death in February 1399, Richard confiscated success. However, because his chief rival, the Lancastrian estates and made Hereford’s Mahaut’s granddaughter Jeanne, was mar- banishment permanent. When Hereford ried to Eudes, duke of BURGUNDY, a power- landed in July, while the king was on cam- ful magnate who was also the queen’s paign in Ireland, the nobility rallied around brother, a formidable court faction devel- the duke. Captured in August, the childless oped in opposition to Robert. In December king was brought to the Tower of London, 1330, when the documents Robert had sub- where, on 29 September, he resigned the mitted in behalf of his claims were dis- Crown, probably under compulsion, to his covered to be forgeries, the king withdrew cousin. Hereford now took the throne as his favor and allowed a criminal prosecution HENRY IV, first king of the House of LAN- to proceed. Unwilling to stand trial, Robert CASTER. Richard was imprisoned in Ponte- fled the court. In April 1332, when suspicions

270 ROBERT OF ARTOIS

campaign in SCOTLAND and received numerous gifts of money and land. Although he seems to have genu- inely liked Robert, Edward saw the exile primarily as a useful instru- ment for harassing Philip. Robert’s claims of connections and influence in France and the Low Countries were exaggerated, but his growing influence in England infuriated Phi- lip, who formally demanded Ro- bert’s extradition in December 1336. When Edward did not comply, Phi- lip, in April 1337, used Edward’s sheltering of his ‘‘mortal enemy’’ (Sumption, 184) as a principal reason for confiscating the Duchy of AQUI- TAINE, the act usually taken as the start of the Hundred Years War. In the fourteenth century, Robert was also widely credited with con- vincing Edward to declare himself king of France. Although Robert’s actual involvement in this decision was probably slight, a poem entitled The Vow of the Heron, which was written within months of Edward’s announcement in 1340, claimed that Robert shamed the king into claim- Robert of Artois (far left) addresses an enthroned Edward III ing the French Crown by serving in this illustration from Jean Froissart’s Chronicles. Erich him a roast heron, ‘‘the most timid of Lessing/Art Resource, New York. birds for the most cowardly of kings’’ (Sumption, 292), who had al- were raised concerning his involvement in lowed another to usurp his rightful in- Mahaut’s death, Robert was formally ban- heritance. With the start of war, Robert ished from the realm and deprived of all his participated in the early English campaigns possessions. Obsessed with the succession to in the Low Countries, where Edward’s ef- Artois, Robert plotted rebellion and threat- forts to seize Artois on Robert’s behalf ened to destroy the royal family by sorcery, foundered on the objections of England’s thereby transforming Philip into an impla- allies and a total lack of support from within cable enemy who detained Robert’s family the county. A poor general, Robert led an and sought by all means to secure his capture. Anglo-Flemish army to defeat at the battle of After various wanderings, Robert arrived SAINT-OMER in July 1340 and was slain while in disguise in England in 1334. Edward leading the English fleet in an unsuccessful granted Robert’s request for asylum, but attack on the Breton town of Vannes in otherwise gave him no assistance in his November 1342. Despised in his own coun- quarrel with Philip. However, by 1336, Ro- try, Robert of Artois was buried in LONDON. bert, who was a skilled courtier with a Further Reading: Sumption, Jonathan. The martial flair, was in high favor at the English Hundred Years War. Vol. 1, Trial by Battle. court. He accompanied the king on Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press,

271 ROBERT OF BAUDRICOURT

1999; Wood, Charles T. The French Apanages and HUMPHREY, DUKE OF GLOUCESTER. With Rouen the Capetian Monarchy, 1224–1328. Cambridge, sheltering thousands of refugees who had MA: Harvard University Press, 1966. fled the fighting in Lower Normandy, Henry waited for starvation to win him the city. ROBERT OF BAUDRICOURT. See JOAN Despite rumors that a relieving army was OF ARC near, JOHN THE FEARLESS, duke of BURGUNDY, who had just driven the Armagnacs from ROOSEBEKE, BATTLE OF. See FLANDERS; Paris, was in no position to help Rouen; he LOUIS DE MALE,COUNT OF FLANDERS therefore advised the citizens to look to their own defenses. ROUEN, SIEGE OF (1418–1419) By October, the defenders were eating The successful siege of Rouen, the capital of horseflesh and by December rats, mice, and NORMANDY, cemented HENRY V’s conquest of dogs. With too many mouths to feed, the the duchy and brought the English within garrison drove out the poor and the infirm, striking distance of PARIS. Distracted by the leaving almost twelve thousand people to ongoing civil war between the BURGUNDIANS spend winter in the surrounding ditch be- and ARMAGNACS, the French failed to relieve cause Henry refused them passage through the city, thereby strengthening both Henry’s the English lines. Thousands died of cold determination to win the French Crown and and starvation both inside and outside the the French willingness to negotiate a settle- city, and on New Year’s Eve, Bouteiller ment. asked for talks. After ten days of negotia- On the night of 29 July 1418, Henry, hav- tion, the defenders agreed to surrender the ing severed the river link between Rouen city at noon on 19 January 1419 if help did and Paris, arrived outside the Norman cap- not arrive by then. In return for agreeing to ital. The city was large and strong, being take no arms against the English for a year, encircled by five miles of walls boasting the garrison was allowed to march out sixty towers with plentiful ARTILLERY and six without its weapons. The citizens were as- stout barbicans (i.e., fortified gateways). sured of their homes and property if they Flanked on the southwest by the Seine, the paid an indemnity of 300,000 gold crowns town was elsewhere protected by a wide and took an oath of allegiance to Henry. and unusually deep ditch well laid with When no relief arrived, the city surrendered wolf-traps. Expecting a siege, the citizens as agreed and, on 20 January, Henry en- had destroyed all structures outside the tered Rouen, where he remained for two walls to deny cover to the enemy and had months, repairing the city’s defenses and carried all available food and supplies inside organizing the administration of Nor- the city, thus forcing Henry to provision his mandy. Rouen now became the main En- men from England via the Seine. A bank of glish base in northern France, from which earth had been piled up inside the walls to Henry could threaten Paris and launch new strengthen them against artillery bombard- campaigns to the south. See also FRENCH ment and a garrison of four thousand men CIVIL WAR. commanded by the experienced Guy le Further Reading: Perroy, Edouard. The Hun- Bouteiller and ably assisted by citizens armed dred Years War. Trans. W. B. Wells. New York: with crossbows defended the walls. Capricorn Books, 1965; Seward, Desmond. The But time was on Henry’s side. The city was Hundred Years War. New York: Penguin, 1999. soon cut off from any hope of reinforcement or supply by four fortified camps occupied ROUTIERS by an army numbering nearly twice the gar- Routiers were unemployed soldiers who or- rison and soon reinforced by forty-five hun- ganized themselves into ‘‘free companies,’’ or dred additional troops, including fifteen routes, for the purpose of supporting them- hundred Irish kern, led by the king’s brother, selves by theft, pillage, and extortion.

272 ROUTIERS

Composed of and led by men of many dif- seizing towns and castles to serve as bases ferent nationalities, routier bands appeared from which to systematically pillage a par- in France during the intervals of peace that ticular area until it had been bled white. punctuatedtheHUNDREDYEARSWAR,butwere Another routier army, the so-called Tard- a particularly serious problem throughout Venus (Latecomers), pillaged the region the period 1357–69, following the Battle of around , while a force led by the in- POITIERS and conclusion of the Treaty of BRE´ - famous Gascon captain, , TIGNY, and in the years 1436–44, following invaded BURGUNDY in eastern France. Em- collapse of the ANGLO-BURGUNDIAN ALLIANCE ploying such English innovations as the at the Congress of ARRAS. In both instances, CHEVAUCHE´ E and the PAˆ TIS, these routier ar- the establishment of a regular, salaried mies extracted RANSOMs from towns and French army to employ the best of the routiers provinces, which, like the pope in Avignon, and destroy the rest, along with acceptance of paid them to go away. In 1362, the Great regular peacetime TAXATION to support that Company even defeated a French royal army, led to the eventual elimination of the army at the Battle of BRIGNAIS. routier menace. While local governments bribed routiers to The end of formal hostilities after conclu- go elsewhere, rulers such as CHARLES V and sion of a truce or treaty left many veteran the Black Prince attempted to solve the soldiers without employment. Unwilling to problem by finding the companies other return to lives of poverty or serfdom, many employment. The French constable, Ber- of these men banded together and used their trand du GUESCLIN, himself a former routier military training to live off the countryside, leader, attempted to gather companies for robbing, looting, killing, and torturing to service against the Turks in Hungary. When obtain supplies and valuables. Routier com- this failed, he took a routier army to Castile panies could be formidable military organi- in 1365 to help Henry of Trasta´mare over- zations, with formal command structures throw Pedro I. In 1367, the Black Prince in- and a regular staff of secretaries and bu- tervened with his own largely routier force to tiniers, the officers who collected and dis- restore Pedro at the Battle of NA´ JERA. How- tributed shares of booty. Some companies, ever, when the CASTILIAN WAR OF SUCCESSION such as the infamous bande blanche (white ended with Pedro’s death in 1369, large company) of Arnaud de CERVOLE, a famous numbers of routiers flowed back into Aqui- routier leader known as ‘‘the Archpriest,’’ taine and Languedoc. The first successful had their own distinctive uniforms. Many of anti-routier effort occurred in Champagne in the routiers of the 1360s had served under 1359, when local nobles and royal officers EDWARD, THE BLACK PRINCE, but the compa- defeated a routier force at NOGENT-SUR-SEINE. nies comprised men of all armies and many The taxes levied in the last years of JOHN II’s countries, including Bretons, Spaniards, reign and the military reorganization that Germans, Frenchmen, and Englishmen. these funds allowed under Charles V cre- However, the majority were Gascons and ated the professional French army that in the thus subjects of the PLANTAGENET king-duke 1370s defeated both the English and the of AQUITAINE, and many famous routier routiers. captains were Englishmen, such as Sir John In the 1410s, the outbreak of the FRENCH HAWKWOOD, Sir Hugh CALVELEY, Sir Robert CIVIL WAR and HENRY V’s renewal of the KNOLLES, and Sir John Cresswell, facts that Hundred Years War initiated a new wave of help explain why the French referred to all brigandage. Known now as e´corcheurs (flay- routiers, of whatever nationality, as Anglais, ers), routiers under such leaders as Rodrigo ‘‘English.’’ de Villandrando, a Castilian who had taken In the 1360s, the GREAT COMPANY, a con- service under both PHILIP THE GOOD, duke stantly reforming army of routier bands, of Burgundy, and CHARLES VII, and E´ tienne devastated southern France and Provence, de VIGNOLLES, a dauphinist captain and

273 ROUVRAY, BATTLE OF companion of JOAN OF ARC, wasted northern Further Reading: Seward, Desmond. The Hun- and eastern France, particularly after the dred Years War. New York: Penguin, 1999; Sump- Franco-Burgundian peace of 1435. Although tion, Jonathan. The Hundred Years War. Vol. 2, an attempt to interest the companies in an Trial by Fire. Philadelphia: University of Pennsyl- expedition against the Swiss in 1444 was vania Press, 2001; Wright, Nicholas A. R. only partly successful, the military reforms ‘‘ ‘Pillagers’ and ‘Brigands’ in the Hundred initiated by Charles VII during the Truce of Years War.’’ Journal of Medieval History 9 (1983): TOURS in the 1440s created a regularly paid 15–25. professional army that again defeated both the English and the routiers. See also CHARLES ROUVRAY, BATTLE OF. See HERRINGS, VII, MILITARY REFORMS OF. BATTLE OF THE

274 S

SAINTES, BATTLE OF (1351) Leaving troops to maintain the siege, Guy Fought on 1 April 1351 near the town of de Nesle marched through the night to in- Saintes in the province of Saintonge, the tercept the English, which he did next Battle of Saintes resulted from an English morning about three miles outside Saintes. attempt to provision the besieged garrison at The English dismounted and formed their Saint-Jean-d’Ange´ly. Although an English usual line of battle, the horses being led to victory, the battle, which is notable for the the rear; Guy de Nesle, abandoning the French commander’s adoption of the En- French proclivity for cavalry charges, which glish tactic of fighting on foot, failed to re- had proven so unsuccessful at CRE´ CY and supply the garrison and did not significantly elsewhere, ordered most of his men to dis- alter the military situation in southwestern mount as well. Except for small bodies of France. cavalry on each wing, the French then de- Upon his accession in August 1350, JOHN ployed on foot along a stretch of high II, ignoring his father’s recent agreement to ground. Although the details are uncertain, extend the Truce of CALAIS, prepared to the ensuing battle was a short, sharp en- launch a campaign against the English gar- counter that resulted in complete victory for risons in Saintonge. By February 1351, sev- the English. At some point, either just before eral thousand men led by Guy de Nesle and or after the French attacked the English line, his deputy Arnoul d’AUDREHEM arrived be- a force of several hundred men derived fore the town of Saint-Jean-d’Ange´ly, which from the nearby English garrisons of Taille- was held by one of the largest English gar- bourg and Tonnay-Charente assailed the risons in France, a force of almost six hun- French from the rear, thereby ensuring their dred men. However, the garrison’s winter defeat. stores were nearly exhausted and the town’s Over six hundred French knights were walls were old and in disrepair. The French killed or captured, the latter including both quickly surrounded the town and by late commanders. Although a glorious triumph March had cut and fortified the main roads rich in RANSOMS, Saintes left Cheverston leading south into English GASCONY.On31 unable to break through to Saint-Jean- March, the French commanders learned of d’Ange´ly, which was partially resupplied a the approach of a relieving force of several few days later by a small force led by the hundred men led by Sir John Cheverston, commander of the Taillebourg garrison. the seneschal of Gascony and Arnaud- Cheverston withdrew to BORDEAUX and John Amanieu, son of the lord of ALBRET. II quickly ransomed Guy de Nesle and re- Although too weak to break the siege, Che- inforced the army around Saint-Jean-d’An- verston and Albret planned to punch ge´ly, which fell to the French on 31 August. through the French lines and bring their Further Reading: Burne, Alfred H. The Cre´cy large supply train to the relief of the garri- War. Ware, England: Wordsworth Editions Ltd., son. 1999; Sumption, Jonathan. The Hundred Years War.

275 SAINT-MAUR, TREATY OF

Vol. 2, Trial by Fire. Philadelphia: University of deployed his troops behind defensive works Pennsylvania Press, 2001. and sought to draw the garrison into battle. Burgundy, as ordered by Philip, refused SAINT-MAUR, TREATY OF. See FRENCH combat, but, after hours of inactivity, a con- CIVIL WAR tingent of garrison troops charged, without orders, out the southeastern gate. Repulsed SAINT-POL DE LE´ ON, BATTLE OF. See by the Flemings in their front, they retreated, DAGWORTH,SIR THOMAS only to charge again when their adversaries foolishly abandoned their defenses and SAINT-OMER, BATTLE OF (1340) pursued them to the town walls. Seeing this Fought on 26 July 1340 outside the town of battle develop, Burgundy and Armagnac led Saint-Omer in western Artois, the Battle of their mounted retinues, almost a thousand Saint-Omer resulted in the destruction of an men, into the fight. Anglo-Flemish army and thereby con- Armagnac rounded the enemy’s left flank tributed to the collapse of EDWARD III’s and charged into the Flemish ranks. Thrown ANGLO-FLEMISH ALLIANCE. back with heavy losses, the Flemings fled to Following his victory at the Battle of the rear, creating panic among the troops SLUYS, Edward met James van ARTEVELDE guarding the Anglo-Flemish encampment. and other Flemish leaders to devise a strat- By driving them into the River Aa, the egy for the summer’s campaign in northern French slew almost eight thousand Flem- France. Fearful that a large French army ings. Meanwhile, Burgundy rode against his then massing in Artois would overrun foe’s right flank, where Robert commanded FLANDERS while their forces invaded France, the English archers and the men of Bruges. the allied leaders agreed to field two armies. Before the duke could attack, Robert’s men The first, commanded by the king himself, charged and overwhelmed their enemy. was to besiege the French town of TOURNAI. However, Robert never made effective use Because the second was to seize the town of of his archers, while the archers on the walls Saint-Omer in Artois, Edward gave com- allowed Burgundy and most of his men to mand of it to ROBERT OF ARTOIS, who claimed safely reenter the town. The battle now a large following within the county. With a presented the odd spectacle of Armagnac’s force of a thousand English ARCHERS under victorious men marching back to town along Sir Thomas Oughtred and almost fifteen one side of the Arras road while Robert’s thousand infantry drawn from the towns of victorious contingents marched back to their Flanders, Robert had a sizable, if in- encampment along the other side. Too ex- experienced and ill-disciplined, army. hausted to resume the fighting, each force Nervous about the huge army PHILIP VI reached its destination with little hindrance was gathering in Arras, Robert’s Flemings from the other. Robert’s jubilation dissolved worried about their homes and families; when he found his camp deserted and the they saw little benefit to themselves in in- bodies of his men scattered across a wide vading Artois and little evidence of support area. The remaining Flemish troops im- for Robert in the county. As a result, the mediately fled the field, forcing Robert and allied army conducted a slow, disorganized the English to follow; they arrived even- advance that allowed John, count of Ar- tually at Edward’s lines around Tournai. magnac, to reinforce the Saint-Omer garri- The Battle of Saint-Omer disrupted the son. Commanded by Eudes, duke of Anglo-Flemish alliance by exposing both BURGUNDY, who currently controlled Artois, Flanders and the army at Tournai to French the garrison now numbered several thou- attack. Within days, the leaders of the sand men. On 26 July, Robert, faced with the Flemish towns, including van Artevelde’s possibility of being caught between the opponents in Ghent, asked Philip for peace garrison and the approaching French army, terms. Abandoned by his allies and deeply

276 SAINT-SARDOS, WAR OF in debt, Edward reluctantly lifted the siege castle of Montpezat, burned the village and of Tournai and negotiated the Truce of ES- hanged the sergeant. PLECHIN in September. Although EDWARD II’s protestation that he Further Reading: Lucas, Henry Stephen. The knew nothing about the attack was ac- Low Countries and the Hundred Years’ War, 1326– cepted, CHARLES IV summoned Ralph Bas- 1347. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, set, the English seneschal of GASCONY; 1929; Sumption, Jonathan. The Hundred Years War. Raymond-Bernard; and other ducal officials Vol. 1, Trial by Battle. Philadelphia: University of to appear before him. When Edward recalled Pennsylvania Press, 1991. Basset and none of the others appeared, Charles ordered that Montpezat be seized, SAINT-SARDOS, WAR OF (1323–1325) an intrusion upon ducal jurisdiction that Lasting from October 1323 to September Edward met by ordering Raymond-Bernard 1325, the War of Saint-Sardos was the last to defend the castle. Unprepared for war and Anglo-French conflict before the HUNDRED distracted by domestic concerns, Edward YEARS WAR. Ignited by a local dispute in dispatched his brother, Edmund, earl of AQUITAINE, the War of Saint-Sardos, like the Kent, to negotiate with Charles. At the ANGLO-FRENCH WAR OF 1294–1303, arose from French court, anti-English feeling was run- tensions inherent in the feudal relationship ning high, and Charles gave every indication created by the Treaty of PARIS between the of intending to expel the Plantagenets king of France and the English king-duke of from Gascony. He demanded that Kent im- Aquitaine. The continued holding of French mediately agree to surrender both Mont- territory by the English king was as intol- pezat and the contumacious officials, which erable to the French Crown as continued the earl did on 10 June 1324. Kent also prom- French interference in the government of ised that Edward would come to France and Aquitaine was to the English Crown. In its pay homage for Aquitaine on 1 July. On course and causes, the War of Saint-Sardos about 24 June, when it became clear that foreshadowed the Hundred Years War, and Edward would not come, Charles authorized in its outcome and aftermath, it set the stage confiscation of the duchy. for the subsequent conflict. In August, the king’s uncle, Charles of Saint-Sardos was a village in the Agenais, VALOIS, invaded Aquitaine. When Kent sur- a province belonging to PLANTAGENET Aqui- rendered La Reole on 22 September, after taine. Because the local Benedictine priory concluding a six-month truce, only BOR- was a daughter-house of the Abbey of Sarlat, DEAUX, Bayonne, and a few other strong- which was outside the duke’s authority, the holds held out for Edward. Although the abbot petitioned the PARLEMENT in PARIS to French continued to make preparations for declare Saint-Sardos exempt from ducal the final conquest of the duchy, Charles jurisdiction. The question had been dis- signaled his willingness to negotiate by cussed at the PROCESS of Pe´rigueux in 1311, suggesting that his sister Isabella, Edward’s but no action was taken until December wife (see ISABELLA,QUEEN OF ENGLAND [c. 1322, when the Parlement declared for the 1292–1358]), act as mediator. Arriving in abbot. This decision allowed the French France in March 1325, Isabella won an Crown to authorize construction of a new extension of the truce, but could obtain royal BASTIDE in Saint-Sardos, an action that no softening of the French terms, which local landowners believed would draw set- demanded that Edward surrender the terri- tlers from their estates and local townsmen tories conquered by Valois until all out- feared would harm their trade. On the night standing disputes were settled, and that he of 15 October 1323, just after a French ser- temporarily surrender the rest of the duchy geant arrived in Saint-Sardos to take pos- until such time as he had performed homage session of the site for the Crown, a local for it. Forced to accept the first demand, landowner, Raymond-Bernard, lord of the Edward modified the second by granting

277 SALIC LAW OF SUCCESSION

Aquitaine to his son, Prince Edward, who to the throne. Louis left a seven-year-old officially ended the war by personally pay- daughter, Jeanne, as well as two adult ing homage to Charles on 24 September. brothers, the elder of whom, Philip, count of Although the agreement ended the war, it Poitiers, had acted as regent in the months humiliated Edward and discredited his al- following Louis’s death. Because the prob- ready unpopular government, which Isa- lem had never arisen before, there existed no bella, in possession of the prince and backed outright ban on female succession. What’s by English dissidents at the French court, more, women had long inherited noble fiefs overthrew in 1326. The deposition of Ed- in France and had succeeded to thrones in ward II in 1327 and the death of Charles IV other kingdoms, such as Navarre, which without male heirs in 1328 then transformed was ruled by a cadet branch of the Capetian the situation by placing Aquitaine in the dynasty. The question was settled not by possession of EDWARD III, an English king reference to Salic law, but by the political with a legitimate claim to the French throne. support Philip commanded, by Jeanne’s Further Reading: Chaplais, Pierre. The War of youth, and by widespread acceptance of the Saint-Sardos (1323–1325): Gascon Correspondence notion that women were unfit to rule a and Diplomatic Documents. London: Royal Histor- kingdom. The regent was crowned as PHILIP ical Society, 1954; Sumption, Jonathan. The Hun- V in January 1317. dred Years War. Vol. 1, Trial by Battle. Philadelphia: To further justify his rule, Philip con- University of Pennsylvania Press, 1991; Vale, vened an assembly of notables that declared Malcolm. The Origins of the Hundred Years War. women unable to succeed to the throne of Oxford: Clarendon Press, 2000. France. With this precedent established, there was no controversy when Philip died SALIC LAW OF SUCCESSION in 1322 and was succeeded by his brother The Salic Law of Succession is a purported CHARLES IV rather than by one of his five provision of the Lex Salica, a body of laws daughters. However, when Charles died promulgated for the Salian Franks by the without sons in 1328, the question was not Frankish kings of the sixth and seventh cen- the position of his daughters, but of his neph- turies. The succession law supposedly bars ew, Edward III of England, who was the son women from inheriting property and thus of Charles’s sister, Isabella (see ISABELLA, from succeeding to the throne or transmitting QUEEN OF ENGLAND [c. 1292–1358]). Edward a claim to the throne to their male descen- was nearer in blood to the last Capetian dants. The Salic Law of Succession is often kings than was his main rival, Philip, count described as the justification given for reject- of Valois, who was Charles’s cousin. How- ing EDWARD III’s claim to the French throne in ever, Philip’s descent from the Capetian 1328; however, no such law was mentioned at kings came through an unbroken male line, the time. In fact, the Salic Law of Succession, while Edward’s depended on his mother. or rather the principle it represents, was not The question then was this: If a woman fully developed until the mid-fifteenth cen- could not inherit the throne, could she tury when it became a means of defending the transmit a claim to it to her male heirs? VALOIS throne against both English and Bur- Again, the issue was settled by practical gundian claims. considerations rather than by appeal to Salic Beginning in 1316, the French royal house law. Philip was thirty-five, descended in the of CAPET, after more than three hundred male line, and thoroughly French; he had years of unbroken father-to-son succession, also acted as regent while the kingdom experienced three succession crises within a waited to see if Charles’s pregnant queen twelve-year period. The death of LOUIS X, had a son (a daughter was born in April). To and five months later of his infant son John I, the French nobility, Edward, despite his raised the possibility of a woman succeeding French blood and peerage, was a foreign

278 SCALES, THOMAS, LORD SCALES ruler. He was also only fifteen and his ac- The younger son of Robert Scales, Lord cession would give real power in France to Scales, Thomas inherited the family title in his mother, whose role in the deposition of July 1419 on the death without children of her husband, EDWARD II, did not recommend his elder brother Robert. Scales went to her. Little consideration was therefore given France in about 1420. Following the English to Edward’s claim and Valois was crowned victory at VERNEUIL in August 1424, JOHN, as PHILIP VI. DUKE OF BEDFORD, regent of France, placed The earliest reference to the Salic Law as Scales and Sir John FASTOLF in charge of bearing on the royal succession dates to Lancastrian operations in Maine. Admitted 1358, when the chronicler Richard Lescot to the Order of the GARTER in 1425, Scales wrote of it to the council of JOHN II, who was joined the besieging army at Orle´ans in De- then a prisoner in England. However, sig- cember 1428, when he assumed joint com- nificant efforts to elucidate the Salic Law of mand of the operation with William de la Succession did not occur until the fifteenth POLE, earl of Suffolk, and John TALBOT. After century, when various treatises used Salic the city was relieved by JOAN OF ARC in Law to attack HENRY V’s claim to the French May 1429, Scales withdrew with Talbot to throne; to denounce the 1420 Treaty of Meung and then, after joining a relief TROYES, which made Henry heir to the force under Fastolf, was captured by the throne; and to refute Burgundian claims to French at PATAY on 18 June. Freed by the the French regency. In the 1450s, CHARLES spring of 1430, Scales attended HENRY VI VII, now secure on his throne, ordered a when the king came to France in 1431 for his search of royal archives for documents upon coronation. Named captain-general of wes- which to base a Grand traite´ that formally tern NORMANDY and steward of the entire declared invalid all claims to the French duchy in 1435, Scales was also appointed to Crown that did not, like the Valois claim, the captaincies of various important Nor- descend through the unbroken male line. man strongholds, such as Domfront and The Salic Law of Succession was thus Cherbourg. In 1440, the king rewarded manufactured in the fifteenth century and Scales for his services with an annuity of retroactively applied to the early fourteenth- £100. century succession crises that helped pre- Although the Truce of TOURS ended hos- cipitate the HUNDRED YEARS WAR. tilities for five years beginning in 1444, Further Reading: Potter, J. ‘‘The Development Scales remained in France for most of the and Significance of the Salic Law of the French.’’ decade, during which he made significant English Historical Review 52 (1937): 235–53; Taylor, loans to the impecunious royal government. C. ‘‘Edward III and the Plantagenet Claim to the Despite a close association with RICHARD, French Throne.’’ In The Age of Edward III, ed. J. S. DUKE OF YORK, during the duke’s French Bothwell. Woodbridge, England: York Medieval lieutenancy—Scales stood godfather to York’s Press, 2002. eldest son (the future Edward IV) in 1442— Scales’s domestic political affiliations were SALISBURY, EARL OF. See MONTAGU, with York’s opponent, Suffolk, who was chief THOMAS,EARL OF SALISBURY;MONTAGU,WIL- minister to Henry VI in the later 1440s. When LIAM,EARL OF SALISBURY Scales returned from France in 1449, he became a prominent supporter of the Suf- SCALES, THOMAS, LORD SCALES folk regime. In 1450, Scales was charged (c. 1399–1460) with suppressing JACK CADE’S REBELLION; Co-commander of the English army at the given command at the Tower of London, he siege of ORLE´ ANS in 1429, Thomas Scales, helped loyal Londoners defend London Lord Scales, served the House of LANCASTER Bridge against rebel assaults on the night of in France for almost thirty years. 5–6 July.

279 SCOTLAND

Acting in the Suffolk interest, Scales be- pursue his ambition of ruling all Britain. came an important figure in East Anglian Having recently brought Wales under his politics in the 1450s. By the outbreak of the authority, he sought to do the same in Wars of the Roses in 1459, Scales was closely Scotland. At the request of the Scots, Ed- associated with Queen MARGARET OF ANJOU ward presided over the court that decided and the anti-Yorkist court party. In June the succession question in favor of John 1460, he attempted to hold LONDON against Balliol. However, the new king’s authority the Yorkists, but was forced to withdraw was immediately undermined by Edward, to the Tower when the city authorities who demanded that Balliol and his nobles opened the gates to York’s ally, Richard perform military service in Aquitaine (see Neville, earl of Warwick. With Robert ANGLO-FRENCH WAR OF 1294–1303), and by Hungerford, Lord Hungerford, Scales stood the Bruces, Balliol’s chief rivals, who con- siege in the Tower until the Yorkists’ capture tinued to contest the court’s decision. Balliol of the king at Northampton on 10 July made soon found himself at war with both Edward his position untenable. On 19 July, he slipped and the Bruces. In October 1295, a council of out of the Tower, but was captured and nobles acting in Balliol’s stead concluded an killed by London boatman in retaliation for alliance with France, a compact that, through his destructive bombardment of the city repeated renewals, lasted into the sixteenth during the Tower siege. His body lay naked century and became known in Scotland as on the Southwark shore until his godson, the ‘‘Auld Alliance.’’ Unable to defeat his now earl of March, gave it honorable burial. enemies, Balliol surrendered the kingdom to Further Reading: Griffiths, Ralph A. The Reign Edward in 1296, when many Scottish nobles of King Henry VI. Berkeley: University of Califor- renounced the French alliance and swore nia Press, 1981; Pollard, A. J. John Talbot and the homage to the English king. However, a War in France, 1427–1453. London: Royal Histor- Scottish independence movement quickly ical Society, 1983; Watts, John. Henry VI and the emerged under William Wallace and others, Politics of Kingship. Cambridge: Cambridge Uni- who paved the way for Robert Bruce to be versity Press, 1996. crowned king as Robert I in March 1306. The death of Edward I in 1307 and the military SCOTLAND incompetence of EDWARD II allowed Robert to The status of the con- gradually expel the English from most of stituted a key issue throughout the HUNDRED Scotland, especially following a decisive YEARS WAR. While seeking to overturn VA- victory at Bannockburn in 1314. Although the LOIS overlordship in AQUITAINE, the PLANTAG- pope placed Scotland under interdict at Ed- ENET kings of England sought also to secure ward’s request, the Scots in 1320 issued the their own overlordship in Scotland. The , declaring their in- possibility that PHILIP VI would help the tention to continue resisting English dom- Scots resist English ambitions toward their ination. In 1326, Robert renewed the French kingdom was an important immediate cause alliance. of the war. The effective use that both France In 1328, the government of Queen Isabella and Scotland made of one another in threat- and her lover, Roger Mortimer, earl of ening England allowed the FRANCO-SCOTTISH March, was forced to accept Scottish in- ALLIANCE of the 1290s to persist through- dependence in the unpopular Treaty of out the war, and, on occasion, turned Scot- Northampton (see Isabella, Queen of En- land into a major theater of Anglo-French gland [c. 1292–1358]). However, the death of conflict. Robert I in 1329 and EDWARD III’s overthrow Anglo-Scottish relations were largely of his mother’s regime in the following year peaceful until the 1290s, when a Scottish revived the Anglo-Scottish wars. With his succession dispute allowed EDWARD Ito victory at HALIDON HILL in 1333, Edward

280 SEINE, BATTLE OF THE forced DAVID II, Robert’s nine-year-old suc- plea from the dauphin for military assis- cessor, to flee to France. The arrival of his tance, and a large army was dispatched Scottish ally persuaded Philip VI to de- under John STEWART, earl of Buchan, who mand that any Anglo-French settlement in won a major victory at BAUGE´ in 1421. Re- Aquitaine also include the Scots. This re- warded with appointment as constable of quirement scuttled a proposed agreement France, Buchan persuaded other Scots to join and outraged Edward, who considered French service, including Archibald DOUG- Scotland a purely English matter. When the LAS, earl of Douglas, who landed with an Anglo-French conflict erupted in 1337, Ed- army of sixty-five hundred in 1424. Al- ward declared French intervention in Scot- though Buchan, Douglas, and most of their land a major justification for his decision to men were slain at VERNEUIL in August 1424, go to war. Aided by the English preoc- many individual Scottish knights continued cupation with France, the Scots, who proved to serve CHARLES VII. Released in 1424 for a themselves well able to maintain their in- payment of 60,000 marks, James I renewed dependence without either a resident king the French alliance in 1428 and agreed to or French troops, gradually drove out the dispatch a new army to the Continent in English, allowing David to return in 1341. In return for the county of Saintonge and the 1346, David, upon hearing news of CRE´CY, marriage of his daughter to Charles VII’s invaded England in support of his ally. De- son. James’s murder in 1437 and internal feated and captured at NEVILLE’S CROSS in disorder during the minority of his son, October, David remained a prisoner until James II, prevented the Scots from playing a 1357, when he was released upon agreeing major role in the final campaigns of the to a RANSOM of 100,000 marks. Having also Hundred Years War, although the Scots re- agreed to cease fighting the English until the newed the French alliance in 1448. huge sum was paid in full, David in effect Further Reading: Curry, Anne. The Hundred accepted an indefinite truce that limited ac- Years War. 2nd ed. Houndmills, England: Pal- tive Scottish participation in the Anglo- grave Macmillan, 2003; Laidlaw, James, ed. The French war for the rest of the century. Auld Alliance: France and Scotland Over 700 Years. Upon his accession in 1371, Robert II, first Edinburgh: University of Edinburgh, 1999; Ni- king of the House of Stewart, renewed the cholson, Ranald. Scotland: The Later Middle Ages. French alliance, as did his son, Robert III, New York: Barnes and Noble, 1974; Wood, shortly after his accession in 1390. Anglo- Stephen. The Auld Alliance, Scotland and France: Scottish hostilities continued in the form of The Military Connection. Edinburgh: Mainstream, constant cross-border raids and contrary al- 1989. legiances in the matter of the great papal schism, with Scotland recognizing Clement SEINE, BATTLE OF THE (1416) VII and England Urban VI (see PAPACY AND Fought on 15 August 1416 in the mouth of THE HUNDRED YEARS WAR). In 1406, internal the Seine Estuary near HARFLEUR, the Battle disorder forced Robert III to send his young of the Seine was one of the largest naval son and heir, James, to France, although the encounters of the war. The English victory boy was captured by the English while broke the French blockade of Harfleur and crossing the Channel. Upon Robert’s death helped HENRY V achieve mastery of the seas, shortly thereafter, his brother, Robert, duke a necessary prelude to the conquest of of Albany, assumed the regency on behalf of NORMANDY. his imprisoned nephew. After HENRY V in- Although Henry sought to make Harfleur vaded France in 1415, the Albany regime as secure a base as CALAIS, the cross-Channel allowed more frequent border raiding to distance to the former was four times that increase pressure on England in Henry’s of the latter and maintaining local control of absence. In 1419, the Scots responded to a the seas proved beyond the abilities of

281 SHAKESPEARE AND THE HUNDRED YEARS WAR

English naval power. Despite his victories in day concluded his treaty with Sigismund, the battles of VALMONT in March, Thomas rode with his new ally to Canterbury Ca- BEAUFORT, earl of Dorset and commander of thedral to hear Te Deum sung. See also NAVAL the Harfleur garrison, was in a desperate WARFARE. position by late spring. Blockaded by land Further Reading: Allmand, Christopher. Henry and sea, Dorset wrote pleading letters to V. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1997; England describing the privations of his Burne, Alfred H. The Agincourt War. Ware, men. Deeply engaged in the discussions that England: Wordsworth Editions Ltd., 1999. led to conclusion of the Treaty of CANTER- BURY with Sigismund, the Holy Roman em- SHAKESPEARE AND THE HUNDRED peror, Henry deputed the relief of Harfleur YEARS WAR to his brother, JOHN, DUKE OF BEDFORD. The Elizabethan playwright William Shake- Bedford spent the early summer collecting speare used the HUNDRED YEARS WAR as the ships and seamen at Southampton and backdrop for several of his English history Winchelsea and by early August had a fleet plays, particularly Henry V and 1 Henry VI. of perhaps a hundred vessels. After over- Although these plays depict historical coming logistical delays and foul winds that scenes and figures, Shakespeare compresses allowed the enemy to harry the English chronologies, distorts personalities, and fic- coast, Bedford set sail on 14 August with a tionalizes events for dramatic effect, making fair wind that put him in the Seine Estuary the plays inaccurate history but realistic il- by nightfall. Dawn revealed a French fleet of lustrations of sixteenth-century perceptions perhaps 150 ships commanded by Guil- of the Anglo-French conflict. laume de Montenay anchored in mid- Shakespeare deals only with the final stream before Harfleur. Besides numbers, phase of the war, from HENRY V’s invasion the French had the advantage of possessing of France in 1415 to the loss of Henry’s gains eight Genoese carracks, which were larger, during the reign of his son, HENRY VI, in the higher, and more powerful than anything in 1430s and 1440s. Henry V is the last play of the English fleet. The Genoese were the best the ‘‘major’’ tetralogy (i.e., four-play series), sailors in Europe, and from the higher decks which also includes Richard II and 1 and 2 of their warships could rain missiles of all Henry IV. With the ‘‘minor’’ tetralogy, com- kinds down upon the English. However, prising 1, 2, and 3 Henry VI and Richard III, with the French in an irregular massed for- these plays constitute Shakespeare’s dra- mation, Bedford bore down on them at full matic rendering of fifteenth-century English sail, and the sandbars and close quarters of dynastic history from the deposition of RI- the estuary allowed the maneuverability of CHARD II in 1399 to the destruction of Ri- the smaller English vessels to outweigh the chard III in 1485. The plays examine the mass and height of the Genoese ships. With nature of power and the devastating con- the element of luck also playing a part, the sequences of ambition for power, using the English prevailed after a long fight—the suffering of both the Hundred Years War sources say seven hours—capturing three and the Wars of the Roses as the manifes- Genoese carracks and driving another tation of those consequences. aground. CASUALTIES were heavy in both Written in 1599, Henry V contains in its fleets, with the English losing some twenty title character one of the most dominating ships and their crews. figures in the Shakespearean canon. The With the enemy fleet dispersed, half the play has traditionally been read as a pa- remaining English ships made for Harfleur triotic tribute to England’s greatest hero- and the relief of the starving garrison, while king, who crushed the ancient national the rest conveyed Bedford, who was wound- enemy and brought England to unprece- ed during the fight, back to England. Upon dented heights of international power and hearing of the victory, Henry, having that respect. As such, the play was well-suited to

282 SHAKESPEARE AND THE HUNDRED YEARS WAR the tense period of Anglo-Spanish hostilities born’’ (1.2), and to the defenders of Harfleur, during the late Elizabethan years, and has whose resistance will be punished with since enjoyed renewed popularity during ‘‘naked infants spitted upon pikes’’ (3.3). On every national crisis. However, in the several occasions, Henry presents himself as twentieth century, Henry V was more often the instrument of God’s will, but his words read from an anti-heroic perspective that leave little doubt that divine will coincides saw the king as a cold, ruthlessly ambitious with the king’s desire to conquer France for hypocrite who used religion to justify a ter- the House of LANCASTER. In the final scenes rible war waged largely for his own benefit. depicting Henry’s courtship of CATHERINE OF However his personality is construed, and VALOIS, the king’s plain-speaking can be both views are valid, Henry is the dom- read as the bluff charm of a soldier wooing inating subject of the play. Evidence in- his love or as the false humility of a victo- dicates that the powerful comic figure of Sir rious king claiming his prize. , a central character in 1 and 2 Written in early 1590, 1 Henry VI runs Henry IV, was excised from Henry V so as to from the 1422 funeral of Henry V to the 1445 prevent any detraction from the play’s cen- marriage of Henry VI and MARGARET OF tral concern, the nature of the king’s char- ANJOU, who is depicted as a scheming acter and motivations. Frenchwoman, although Shakespeare, for Beginning with a disparagement of SALIC dramatic effect, rearranges the order of LAW, by which the French seek to deny events and compresses decades into a quick Henry’s just claim to their throne, the play succession of scenes. For instance, the death presents Henry as a devout and thoughtful of John TALBOT, which actually occurred in monarch who contrasts sharply with the 1453 at the Battle of CASTILLON, is quickly French, who are depicted as vain, foolish, followed in the play by the execution of Joan and deceitful. At the siege of HARFLEUR,in la Pucelle (JOAN OF ARC, known as la pucelle, act 1, scene 3, Henry delivers one of the most ‘‘the maiden’’), which actually occurred in inspirational speeches in English literature, 1431, and then by Henry VI’s wedding. crying ‘‘Once more into the breach, dear French victories are seen as the consequence friends,’’ to identify himself with his men as of rivalries among the English nobility, a he exhorts them to new effort, and ending foreshadowing of the Wars of the Roses, with the battle cry ‘‘God for Harry! England which is the backdrop of the remaining and St. George!’’ to assert God’s support for plays of the minor tetralogy. The entire play his cause. In act 3, scene 4, as the English projects a vicious anti-French bias, particu- prepare for the Battle of AGINCOURT, Henry larly toward Joan, who is depicted as a witch utters the most famous and moving of Shake- and whore and whose successes are ascribed speare’s patriotic speeches, the ‘‘Saint Cris- to trickery and deceit. So virulent is the pin’s Day Speech,’’ in which the king tells play’s Francophobia that eighteenth- and his outnumbered men that ‘‘We few, we nineteenth-century commentators denied happy few, we band of brothers’’ will be Shakespeare’s authorship, believing the great remembered forever for the deeds done on playwright incapable of such feelings. How- Crispin’s day. Counteracting this heroic ever, the play’s treatment of Joan and her image are various scenes depicting the king countrymen is an accurate depiction of both as cold, brutal, and hypocritical. In act 1, fifteenth- and sixteenth-century English scene 2, Falstaff’s friends lament his offstage views of the traditional French enemy, and death, which they attribute to Henry’s harsh probably reflects both the sources Shake- rejection of his former friend in 2 Henry IV— speare used and his ready acceptance of ‘‘The king hath killed his heart.’’ The king their historical soundness. also makes horrifying, unchristian threats to Further Reading: Boyce, Charles. Shakespeare A the French ambassadors, promising death to to Z. New York: Bantam Doubleday Dell, 1990; ‘‘many a thousand ...yet ungotten and un- Norwich, John Julius. Shakespeare’s Kings. New

283 SHEPHERD, BATTLE OF THE

WAR, such as those at CALAIS in 1346– 47, ROUEN in 1418–19, ORLE´ANS in 1429, and PONTOISE in 1441, were sieges, as were the main encounters of such major expeditions as the RHEIMS CAMPAIGN of 1359–60, the English NORMAN CAMPAIGN OF 1417– 1419, and the French NORMAN CAM- PAIGN OF 1449–1450. Sieges occurred more frequently than major battles, especially in GASCONY between 1340 and 1380 and in BRITTANY during the BRETON CIVIL WAR. Sieges often had more momentous results than pitched battles; for instance, EDWARD III de- rived more lasting gains from the successfulsiegeofCalaisthanfrom the Battle of CRE´CY, while HENRY V won NORMANDY through successful siege warfare rather than at the Battle of AGINCOURT. Since the Welsh and the Irish had few large castles, and Robert I of SCOTLAND destroyed castles taken from the enemy, thus reducing the importance of sieges in the Anglo- Scottish wars, the English, at the start of the war in the 1330s, had no This depiction of the French siege of the castle of Jean de particular advantage over the French Derval shows Bertrand du Guesclin on a white horse to the in siege warfare. This explains in right and Louis, duke of Anjou, Charles V’s lieutenant in part the early English reliance on Languedoc, standing before his tent to the left. Erich Lessing/ CHEVAUCHE´ ES, since such campaigns Art Resource, New York. bypassed castles and towns to focus on destruction of the countryside. The widespread devastation caused York: Scribner, 1999; Saccio, Peter. Shakespeare’s by Edward III’s THIE´ RACHE CAMPAIGN in English Kings. 2nd ed. Oxford: Oxford University 1339 or EDWARD, THE BLACK PRINCE’s CHE- Press, 2000. VAUCHE´ E OF 1355 would have been impossible for an army encumbered with heavy siege SHEPHERD, BATTLE OF THE. See XAIN- equipment. An army meant for siege op- TRAILLES,POTON DE erations had different requirements from one intended to raid or fight battles. Ca- SHREWSBURY, EARL OF. See TALBOT, valry, the elite wing of any army, was of JOHN,EARL OF SHREWSBURY little use in sieges, which is one reason that the focus of military preparation was SIEGE WARFARE usually on battles, not siege warfare. Weight A siege is a military blockade or investment of numbers also had less importance, since a of a fortified castle or town undertaken to relatively small but well-supplied garrison compel its surrender. Some of the most im- behind strong walls might hold off a much portant engagements of the HUNDRED YEARS larger force indefinitely. As to ARCHERS,

284 SIEGE WARFARE fortifications negated the great advantage of those directed from the 1430s by CHARLES the longbow—its rate of fire. For attacking or VII’s master gunner, Jean BUREAU, led to the defending a castle, the crossbow, with its successful conclusion of most siege opera- accuracy and power, was the superior tions. A full-scale siege was a complex op- weapon. Sieges also required much special- eration, involving the encirclement and ized expertise—such as mining walls, solv- blockade of a town or fortress. The aim was ing problems of sanitation, establishing and to starve the garrison into surrendering, al- maintaining food supplies, building and though efforts were usually made to achieve employing siege weapons, or siting and fir- a quicker conclusion by using siege engines ing ARTILLERY. to batter down walls or set a castle alight, or Although kings employed military en- by tunneling under walls. In 1370 at LI- gineers to conduct siege operations, such as MOGES, the Black Prince’s miners shored up Brother Robert of Ulm, who built siege en- their tunnel with wooden braces that were gines in Scotland for EDWARD I, the status of then set on fire, causing the walls above to such men, who were technical experts, not collapse and allowing the attackers to over- military professionals, was far lower than run the town. Attempts were also made that of knights. The engineers built and to take castles by stealth. During the Thie´r- employed the equipment required to breech ache Campaign, Thomas BEAUCHAMP, earl town or castle walls. The largest were the of Warwick, bribed the commander of the great siege towers known as belfries, which French garrison at Baupaume to surrender had been used since Roman times. Some his fortress, but, before it could be im- were stationary structures that allowed be- plemented, the plan was discovered and siegers to overlook walls, while others could Warwick arrived to find the commander’s be wheeled up to walls to allow besiegers to mutilated body hanging from the walls. In launch an assault. Many kinds of siege en- 1349, the French promised an enormous gines were used to fling stones or incendiary bribe to an Italian mercenary in Calais, who material into besieged castles. Known under agreed to open a gate to a French party on various names, such as mangonels and pet- New Year’s Eve; however, Edward III raria, these devices were of various types, learned of the plot and went himself with a such as leather slings or wooden torsion party that included Sir Walter MAUNY and machines. In the thirteenth century, em- the Black Prince to surprise the French and ployment of massive counterweights led to foil their plan. development of the trebuchet, which could Because sieges could be extended affairs, launch far larger projectiles with greater they developed a set of recognized conven- accuracy than could manually operated tions for their proper conduct. The siege for- machines. Springalds were essentially large mally began upon the firing of the first shot crossbows on wheels that fired huge quar- from a siege engine or gun. A siege conducted rels. Battering rams broke down doors and by the king himself was more serious than gates and ‘‘cats’’ or ‘‘sows’’ were movable one directed by a subordinate, a distinction structures that shielded attackers or men recognized by INDENTURE pay rates. In- undermining walls. Besides these large de- dentures could also lay out the terms by which vices, a besieging army also required scaling a commander could negotiate a surrender of ladders, ropes, picks, shields, and tools of his master’s fortress. Rules as to pillage of a various kinds. captured town depended on whether the The development of artillery gradually surrender was by negotiated agreement or transferred the advantage in sieges from assault. Often a garrison agreed to surrender defenders to attackers. After 1417, cam- if not relieved by a certain date, as occurred at paigns involved more sieges than pitched Rouen in 1419 when JOHN THE FEARLESS,duke battles, and the increasingly effective em- of BURGUNDY, failed to come to the town’s ployment of more and larger guns, such as assistance. The fate of the garrison of a

285 SIGISMUND, HOLY ROMAN EMPEROR captured fortress also depended on the terms English ports, threatening invasions of arranged. The defenders of some castles England or SCOTLAND, and disrupting com- marched away under safe-conducts arranged munications with GASCONY. Although En- with their besiegers, but the leading citizens glish counter-raids destroyed eighteen of Calais appeared before Edward III with French galleys at Boulogne in January 1340, halters about their necks, their lives and PHILIP VI soon managed to assemble a fleet goods forfeit because of their protracted re- of almost two hundred ships at Sluys, where sistance, while the defenders of MEAUX were it lay poised to intercept any English force. executed or imprisoned by an angry Henry V. Commanded by Nicholas Be´huchet and Sieges could be horrific experiences, with Hugh Quie´ret, the French fleet also con- hunger and unsanitary conditions affecting tained Castilian and Genoese squadrons; besiegers as well as besieged. At HARFLEUR the Castilians were French allies and the in 1415, dysentery killed more people both Genoese were paid mercenaries led by an within and without the town than did the experienced naval captain named Barba- actual fighting. In 1419, the people of Rouen nera. were reduced to eating dogs and rats. When With considerable difficulty, EDWARD III the poor of Rouen were expelled to save assembled a fleet of about a hundred ships food, Henry V refused them passage at the Suffolk port of Orwell, from which he through his lines; most died of starvation or set sail on 22 June. On route, he was met by exposure in a ditch outside the walls. At fifty vessels of the northern fleet under Sir Meaux in 1422, conditions were as bad in the Robert Morley, who joined William de English siege lines as they were within the BOHUN, earl of Northampton, and Sir Walter town, and the long winter operation is be- MAUNY as the king’s chief lieutenants. Con- lieved to have undermined the health of sisting mainly of cogs, small shallow-draft Henry V, who succumbed to dysentery three merchant vessels best suited for transport- months later. See also BATTLE,NATURE OF; ing troops and supplies, the fleet carried an TOWNS AND THE HUNDRED YEARS WAR. army that Jean FROISSART likely over- Further Reading: Allmand, Christopher. The estimated at four thousand men-at-arms and Hundred Years War. Cambridge: Cambridge Uni- twelve thousand archers. After putting versity Press, 1988; Curry, Anne, and Michael ashore spies who reported that the number Hughes, eds. Arms, Armies and Fortifications in the of masts at Sluys was ‘‘like a great wood’’ Hundred Years War. Woodbridge, England: Boy- (Seward, 43), Edward divided his fleet into dell Press, 1994; Prestwich, Michael. Armies and three squadrons, with every group of three Warfare in the Middle Ages: The English Experience. ships consisting of two filled with ARCHERS New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1996. flanking one filled with men-at-arms. A fourth squadron carrying only archers acted SIGISMUND, HOLY ROMAN EMPEROR. as the reserve. See CANTERBURY,TREATY OF With the tide and wind in their favor and the sun at their backs, the English sailed into SLUYS, BATTLE OF (1340) the tightly clustered French fleet at about The Battle of Sluys was the largest naval noon on 24 June. What ensued was essen- encounter and first major battle of the tially a land battle fought across the decks of HUNDRED YEARS WAR. Fought on 24 June ships. After grappling an enemy vessel, the 1340 at the mouth of the River near the English longbowmen raked it with arrows Flemish port of Sluys, the battle dispelled before men-at-arms boarded to engage its the threat of French landings in England and crew in hand-to-hand combat. The English inaugurated a period of English initiative in quickly recaptured the Christopher and the FLANDERS and northern France. Edward, two royal vessels recently taken by In the late 1330s, French fleets controlled the French, but also suffered the loss, the Channel and Bay of Biscay, raiding through ARTILLERY fire, of a carrying

286 STAFFORD, RALPH, EARL OF STAFFORD various noblewomen sailing to join Queen PHILIPPA in Flanders. Slowly, and with heavy losses, the English advanced across decks, eventually sinking or capturing all enemy ves- sels except twenty-four ships of the rear squadron, which escaped under cover of darkness. Wounded in the leg, Edward ordered the execution of the French admirals, with Be´- huchet being hung from the yard- arm of the Thomas, the royal flag- ship. Although a major victory that boosted English morale and allowed Edward to land an army in Flanders, it did not give the king command of the Channel or immediately im- prove English fortunes on land. The campaign of 1340 ended in failure at TOURNAI in September with conclu- sion of the Truce of ESPLECHIN.In 1342, French raiders sacked Ply- mouth. Nonetheless, Sluys gener- ated enthusiasm for the war among the English, who took the victory as a sign that God favored the PLAN- An illustration from the Chronicles of Jean Froissart depicting TAGENET cause. the naval Battle of Sluys, 1340. Erich Lessing/Art Resource, Further Reading: Burne, Alfred H. New York. The Cre´cy War. Ware, England: Words- worth Editions Ltd., 1999; Seward, Des- mond. The Hundred Years War. New York: Penguin, 1999; Sumption, Jonathan. The through military service in the HUNDRED Hundred Years War. Vol. 1, Trial by Battle. YEARS WAR. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, The eldest son of Edmund Stafford, who 1991. had served EDWARD IinSCOTLAND, Ralph succeeded to his father’s estates by 1323, and SOMERSET, DUKE OF. See BEAUFORT,ED- began his career in royal service at Edward MUND,DUKE OF SOMERSET;BEAUFORT,JOHN, III’s accession in January 1327, when he was DUKE OF SOMERSET made a knight-banneret. In 1330, Stafford joined the group of young courtiers who STAFFORD, EARL OF. See STAFFORD, helped the king overthrow the regime of his RALPH,EARL OF STAFFORD mother, Queen Isabella, and her lover, Roger Mortimer, earl of March (see ISABELLA,QUEEN STAFFORD, RALPH, EARL OF OF ENGLAND [c. 1292–1358]). Stafford fought STAFFORD (1301–1372) in the Scottish campaigns of the 1330s, par- A friend and captain of EDWARD III, and lord ticularly distinguishing himself at the lieutenant of AQUITAINE, Ralph Stafford, earl Battle of Dupplin Moor in 1332. For this of Stafford, is an example of an English service, Stafford, like his father before him, commander who earned wealth and title was recognized as a peer and summoned to

287 STAR, ORDER OF THE

PARLIAMENT in November 1336 as Lord On 5 March 1351, Edward elevated Staf- Stafford. ford to an earldom, awarded him an annuity Stafford accompanied the king to France of 1,000 marks to support that dignity, and in 1338 and fought at the naval Battle of appointed him lieutenant of Aquitaine. The SLUYS in 1340. He was among the most earl fought a successful campaign in 1353, prominent of the king’s supporters during which brought him a number of rich RAN- the political CRISIS OF 1340–41 and was twice SOMS, but thereafter made little headway sent to Archbishop John STRATFORD to press against the French commander, John, count that cleric to submit to the Crown. In April of Armagnac, and was replaced as lieuten- 1341, Stafford led a group of king’s men who ant by the prince in 1355. Stafford accom- unsuccessfully attempted to prevent Strat- panied the king on the RHEIMS CAMPAIGN in ford from attending Parliament. In 1342, 1359 and participated in talks that culmi- Stafford sailed to BRITTANY as a lieutenant nated in the Treaty of BRE´ TIGNY in May 1360. under William de BOHUN, earl of North- In 1361, Stafford accompanied the king’s ampton. Stafford fought at MORLAIX on 30 son, Lionel, earl of Ulster, to Ireland in an September, but later in the autumn was attempt to revive the PLANTAGENET lordship captured at the siege of Vannes. Freed as in that island. Although Jean FROISSART part of a prisoner exchange, Stafford helped wrote that Stafford returned to France when negotiate the Truce of MALESTROIT in January war resumed in 1369, his age and ill health 1343 and in May was a member of the make that unlikely. He died at Tonbridge English embassy sent to defend Edward’s Castle in Kent on 31 August 1372. claim to the French Crown before Pope Further Reading: Rawcliffe, Carole. The Staf- CLEMENT VI. fords: Earls of Stafford and Dukes of Buckingham, In 1345, Stafford was appointed seneschal 1394–1521. Cambridge: Cambridge University of GASCONY, where, as one of the chief lieu- Press, 1978; Sumption, Jonathan. The Hundred tenants of HENRY OF GROSMONT, duke of Years War. Vol. 2, Trial by Fire. Philadelphia: Lancaster, he fought at BERGERAC and AU- University of Pennsylvania Press, 2001; Vale, BEROCHE. In 1346, he captured AIGUILLON, Malcolm. English Gascony, 1399–1453. London: where he was later besieged by John, duke Oxford University Press, 1970. of Normandy (see JOHN II). However, Staf- ford apparently escaped from Aiguillon be- fore the duke raised the siege on 20 August, STAR, ORDER OF THE for the English captain fought with the Founded by JOHN II of France in November king’s army at CRE´ CY in northern France on 1351, the Order of the Star was a chivalric 26 August. Although reappointed seneschal company of French knights designed to rival of Gascony in October, Stafford did not re- EDWARD III’s Order of the GARTER.More turn to the duchy, but took part in the siege lavish and political in conception than the of CALAIS, which ended in August 1347. English order, the Order of the Star was a After participating in negotiations that led to royal attempt to reinvigorate noble morale the Truce of CALAIS, Stafford returned to after the disastrous Battle of CRE´ CY and to England where, among other rewards and rekindle support for the VALOIS Crown and favors, he became a founding member of the enthusiasm for the HUNDRED YEARS WAR. Order of the GARTER. In September 1348, Formally titled the Company of Knights of Stafford entered into an INDENTURE with the Notre-Dame de la Noble-Maison, the Order king whereby he agreed to serve Edward for of the Star was officially inaugurated at a life with a retinue of sixty men-at-arms in magnificent ceremony held on 6 January 1352 return for an annuity of £600. In 1350, he at the royal manor of Saint-Ouen near PARIS. fought with the king and EDWARD, THE The charter endowing the order harked back BLACK PRINCE, at the naval battle of WIN- to the reign of Louis IX, the supposed golden CHELSEA. age of French CHIVALRY, when French knights

288 STEWART, JOHN, EARL OF BUCHAN were famous throughout Europe for their Painter, Sidney. French Chivalry: Chivalric Ideas courage, strength, and honor, and for their and Practices. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University dedication to royal service. The charter la- Press, 1940; Sumption, Jonathan. The Hundred mented the degeneration of this ideal by Years War. Vol. 2, Trial by Fire. Philadelphia: characterizing contemporary French knights University of Pennsylvania Press, 2001. as leading lives of idleness and selfish excess. To remedy this situation, John ordained STEWART, JOHN, EARL OF BUCHAN creation of an elite order of five hundred (c. 1380–1424) knights sworn to serve him alone, to advise One of the most famous and successful him to the best of their ability, and to fight for Scottish warriors to fight for the dauphin (see him until killed or captured. Failure to fulfill CHARLES VII) in the fifteenth century, John this last requirement, which was a direct re- Stewart, tenth earl of Buchan, was constable sponse to the recriminations that followed of France and victor of the Battle of BAUGE´ . Cre´cy, meant disgrace and expulsion from Stewart was the second son of Robert the order. Exemplary performance on the Stewart, duke of Albany, the brother of Ro- battlefield meant special recognition at the bert III. Inheriting the earldom of Buchan next annual chapter banquet to be held each from his younger brother in 1405, Albany August on the Feast of the Assumption. granted it to his son John, who, owing to a The inaugural ceremony appears to have lack of land to support the title, was not been rather sparsely attended, a lack of en- called earl until May 1412. Even though his thusiasm that may have stemmed from earldom was technically one of the most anger over the king’s recent execution of important in northern SCOTLAND, Buchan Raoul, count of Eu and constable of France, never exercised much influence in the region or from dissatisfaction with the cost of the nor held all the lands attached to the title. In event, especially in light of the financial his early years, Buchan was largely a pawn burdens recently placed on the nobility by to his father’s ambition to rule Scotland an unsuccessful war and the BLACK DEATH. in place of his brother, who was an invalid At the ceremony, members ate off gold plate given to bouts of depression. In 1402, the and wore fur-trimmed robes of red and English captured Murdoch, earl of Fife, Bu- white as they processed though a chapter chan’s elder half brother, at Homildon Hill, house decorated with specially made tapes- thus forcing Albany to groom Buchan as his tries. Beyond this, the prestige of the order political heir. Buchan began appearing reg- suffered an immediate blow. On the day of ularly at court after 1406, when he also re- the ceremony, while the captain of the castle ceived appointment as chamberlain, an of- was attending the festivities, John Dancaster, fice long held by his father. In about 1410, an English soldier of fortune, ignored the Albany married his son to Elizabeth, the Truce of CALAIS and surprised the fortress of daughter of Archibald DOUGLAS, fourth earl Guines, one of the chief French strongholds of Douglas, a match that transformed Bu- on the march of Calais. This event, coupled chan’s career, removing him from Scottish with noble indifference and the members’ politics and involving him in the HUNDRED strict adherence to the vow of no retreat— YEARS WAR. eighty-nine knights of the Star died at In 1419, Buchan, thanks to his connection MAURON the following August—doomed the with Douglas and his father’s exercise of the order. In October 1352, the king acknowl- Scottish regency, was appointed joint com- edged this failure by issuing an ordinance mander, with Douglas’s son, of a Scottish that transformed the order from a political- army sent to France to assist the dauphinists. chivalric institution to a confraternity for Except for occasional diplomatic and re- common worship. cruiting missions to Scotland, Buchan was to Further Reading: Keen, Maurice. Chivalry. spend the rest of his life in France serving New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1984; the dauphin. On 22 March 1421, Buchan led

289 STRATEGY AND TACTICS the Franco-Scottish force that defeated and important shifts in military strategy, while slew HENRY V’s brother, THOMAS, DUKE OF its course and outcome were affected by CLARENCE, at Bauge´. The earl was well re- important tactical innovations. warded for his victory, receiving the French The initial English strategy was the CHE- constableship, the lands of the lordship of VAUCHE´ E, a swift destructive raid in force Chaˆtillon-sur-Indre, and the services of a designed to cripple both morale and the personal astrologer. Now a major dauphi- ability to make war, thereby forcing the nist commander, Buchan scored a series of French to give battle or make peace on En- small successes in 1421–22, but his campaign glish terms. Fire was the main English in northern France in early 1423 failed due to weapon during the THIE´ RACHE CAMPAIGN of a growing unwillingness among the French 1339, when EDWARD III’s men so devastated to follow a foreign constable. the Cambre´sis that a year later papal officials Returning to Scotland, where his brother distributing a special grant to relieve suffer- was now duke of Albany and regent for the ing reported that over 174 parishes had been captive James I, Buchan induced Douglas to virtually annihilated. The English estimated enter French service. With HENRY VI’s gov- that during the campaign they burned or ernment threatening to release James, who destroyed 2,118 villages and castles. During was believed to be pro-English, the earl also the CHEVAUCHE´ EOF1355, EDWARD, THE BLACK concluded an agreement with his brother PRINCE, reportedly destroyed eleven large whereby the duke likely agreed to safeguard cities and thirty-seven hundred villages Buchan’s lands in return for the earl’s will- across southern France. Various other che- ingness to use the Scottish army in France to vauche´es in NORMANDY,BRITTANY, and GAS- intervene in Scotland on Albany’s behalf. CONY ravaged the countryside, where crops, This agreement was never implemented, for except for vineyards and orchards, might Buchan and Douglas were slain at VERNEUIL recover quickly, but the loss of livestock, in August 1424. Although a disaster for the windmills, and other buildings was more Albany interest in Scotland and a cause of devastating, leaving a local community with- lamentation at the dauphin’s court, Bu- out the resources either to rebuild or to con- chan’s death caused little mourning else- tribute to the French war effort. By 1360, the where in France, where the Scots were much scale of destruction and depopulation in disliked. rural France was horrific, with the depreda- Further Reading: Bonner, E. ‘‘Scotland’s ‘Auld tions of ROUTIERS and the JACQUERIE rebels Alliance’ with France, 1295–1560.’’ History 84 only adding to the damage done by the (1999): 5–30; Laidlaw, James, ed. The Auld English. Alliance: France and Scotland over 700 Years. Early in the war, the French strategy Edinburgh: University of Edinburgh, 1999; under PHILIP VI had been to avoid battle. Wood, Stephen. The Auld Alliance, Scotland and Without a victory, maintaining both a field France: The Military Connection. Edinburgh, Main- army and his grand ANTI-FRENCH COALITION stream, 1989. proved beyond the resources of Edward III, whose campaigns in 1339 and 1340 were, STRATEGY AND TACTICS despite the damage they caused, costly fail- Strategy is the overall plan or policy em- ures. Over the next two decades, Philip and ployed by a military command to effectively his son JOHN II reversed this strategy, a de- defeat the enemy, while tactics involve the cision that resulted in crushing defeats at disposition and maneuvering of military CRE´ CY in 1346 and POITIERS in 1356. How- forces in combat. Because of its length and ever, in 1359, the future CHARLES V resumed the varying political, economic, and military the policy of avoiding battle, and thereby conditions that applied during its several helped ensure the failure of Edward III’s phases, the HUNDRED YEARS WAR witnessed RHEIMS CAMPAIGN, a grand chevauche´e de-

290 STRATFORD, JOHN, ARCHBISHOP OF CANTERBURY signed to capture Rheims and have Edward merous English victories, including, besides crowned king of France. Believing that the Cre´cy, MORLAIX, Poitiers, and Agincourt. English could not economically sustain such The French made various attempts to coun- campaigns, Charles was less willing than his ter this formation, including a flank attack father to conclude the BRE´TIGNY agreement. on ROBERT OF ARTOIS’s Flemish infantry With the renewal of war in 1369, the English at SAINT-OMER in 1340, a mounted charge on continued the strategy of raiding and pillag- the archers by a large cavalry reserve at ing, but found it to be less effective. The MAURON in 1352, and dismounted cavalry French refused to fight, the English could no at Poitiers in 1356. Although these tactics longer live off a countryside they had dev- had varying degrees of success, the French astated, French towns and castles were better learned that chivalrous mounted charges, walled and fortified, the English them- like those thrown repeatedly at the English selves had to defend CALAIS and Brittany, lines at Cre´cy, spelled disaster against the and the campaigns became more expensive new English formations. This lesson was and less rewarding. Following the failure of momentarily forgotten at Agincourt in 1415, the great CHEVAUCHE´EOF1373 led by JOHN OF but the war of sieges that developed in the GAUNT, duke of Lancaster, the English lar- fifteenth century reduced the effectiveness gely abandoned the strategy of raid and of English archers and revealed the power of pillage. French artillery, which, by the 1440s, gave With the renewal of the war under HENRY the French the tactical advantage the V, English strategy changed. Henry’s aim longbow had earlier given the English. See was to conquer castles and towns by means also CHIVALRY;HUNDRED YEARS WAR, of SIEGE WARFARE, thus the AGINCOURT cam- PHASES OF. paign of 1415 began with the siege of HAR- Further Reading: Bennett, Matthew. ‘‘The FLEUR, while the NORMAN CAMPAIGN of 1417– Development of Battle Tactics in the Hundred 19 was a series of sieges culminating in the Years War.’’ In Arms, Armies and Fortifications in capture of ROUEN. Although several major the Hundred Years War, ed. Anne Curry and battles were fought in the 1420s, such as Michael Hughes, 1–20. Woodbridge, England: CRAVANT in 1423 and VERNEUIL in 1424, most Boydell Press, 1994; Prestwich, Michael. Armies major campaigns of the fifteenth century and Warfare in the Middle Ages: The English involved sieges, such as MELUN in 1420, Experience. New Haven, CT: Yale University MEAUX in 1422, ORLE´ ANS in 1429, and PON- Press, 1996. TOISE in 1441. The NORMAN CAMPAIGN of 1449–50, which reconquered Normandy for CHARLES VII, comprised a series of sieges STRATFORD, JOHN, ARCHBISHOP OF marked by Jean BUREAU’s skillful handling CANTERBURY (c. 1275–1348) of the French ARTILLERY. Even the last battle John Stratford, archbishop of Canterbury, of the war in 1453 resulted from an un- was a senior royal councilor who served as successful attempt by John TALBOT, earl of both chancellor of England and president of Shrewsbury, to break the French siege of the royal council. During the CRISIS OF 1340– CASTILLON. 1341, the most serious political upheaval of The great tactical innovation of the war EDWARD III’s reign, Stratford became the was the English defensive formation that focus of the king’s anger at what he believed used dismounted cavalry in combination was the failure of his ministers to faithfully with ARCHERS. Although the exact disposi- support his foreign and military policies. tion of English troops in this formation, Stratford’s vigorous and reasoned defense especially at major battles like Cre´cy, is of himself and his actions led to reaffir- much debated by historians, this tactical mation of the right of peers to be tried deployment was largely responsible for nu- only in PARLIAMENT and to eventual royal

291 SUFFOLK, DUKE OF acceptance of Parliament’s right to consent On 30 November 1340, Edward, angry to all TAXATION. that lack of resources had thwarted his re- Born probably in Stratford upon Avon, cent campaigns and forced him to conclude Stratford studied at Oxford, where he the Truce of ESPLECHIN, demanded that earned a doctorate of civil law in 1312. By Stratford, then president of the council, the early 1320s, he was dean of the Court of appear before him to account for his ac- Arches and held various benefices in Lich- tions. Stratford refused, insisting that he field, Lincoln, and York. In 1320, Stratford would submit himself only to the judgment accompanied EDWARD II to Amiens, where of Parliament. When other ministers were the king rendered homage to PHILIP V for arrested, and the archbishop’s brother, Ro- AQUITAINE. From 1321 to 1323, Stratford bert, was dismissed as chancellor, Stratford, served mainly as English representative at fearing for his life, went to Canterbury Ca- the papal court in Avignon, where, in June thedral, where, on 29 December, the feast of 1323, Pope John XXII, acting contrary to the the murdered archbishop Thomas Becket, royal will, named him bishop of Winchester. he excommunicated several royal officers After a period of disfavor, Stratford was for publicly denouncing him as a traitor. In again employed on diplomatic missions. In February 1341, the king published his at- 1324, he negotiated with CHARLES IV over tack on Stratford’s administration, a wide- Aquitaine and in 1325, after accompanying ranging and angry indictment that the Prince Edward to France, he tried un- archbishop derided as a libellus famosus successfully to persuade Queen Isabella to (infamous libel). In March, the archbishop return to England (see ISABELLA,QUEEN OF issued his Excusaciones, a detailed and dis- ENGLAND [c. 1292–1358]). passionate rebuttal of the king’s charges. When the queen landed in England in Unwilling to go to extremes with an September 1326 to depose her husband, archbishop who appeared willing to court Stratford joined her. In January 1327, he was martyrdom, Edward soon realized the in- a member of the delegation sent to convince effectiveness of his methods. On 3 May 1341, Edward II to abdicate and on 1 February he following an intercession on Stratford’s be- assisted at the coronation of Edward III. Al- half by a delegation of lords and bishops, the though dispatched on other diplomatic mis- king readmitted the archbishop to his favor, sions, Stratford’s increasing association with although he never again appointed Stratford Henry, earl of Lancaster, cost him the favor of to office. The archbishop died on 23 August the queen and her lover, Roger Mortimer, 1348. earl of March. On 28 November 1330, a Further Reading: Haines, Roy M. Archbishop month after Edward III overthrew his mother John Stratford, Political Revolutionary and Champion and March, the king appointed Stratford of the Liberties of the English Church, c. 1275/80– chancellor; in November 1333, Edward also 1348. Toronto: Pontifical Institute of Mediaeval named him archbishop of Canterbury. Studies, 1986; Ormrod, W. M. The Reign of Edward Stratford retained the chancellorship until III: Crown and Political Society in England, 1327– 1334, but later served twice more in that of- 1377. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, fice, from June 1335 to March 1337 and again 1990; Waugh, Scott L. England in the Reign of from December 1339 to April 1340. In Edward III. Cambridge: Cambridge University 1338, Stratford traveled to the Continent, Press, 1991. where he conducted talks with the French, oversaw intelligence efforts in the Low Countries, and acted as guarantor to the SUFFOLK, DUKE OF. See POLE,WILLIAM DE king’s creditors. LA,DUKE OF SUFFOLK

292 T

TACTICS. See STRATEGY AND TACTICS tured at the Battle of PATAY in June. After payment of a heavy RANSOM, Talbot was re- TALBOT, JOHN, EARL OF leased in 1433. He fought briefly under SHREWSBURY (c. 1384–1453) PHILIP THE GOOD, duke of BURGUNDY, and John Talbot, earl of Shrewsbury, was the then served as chief military commander for most feared and famous English comman- a succession of English lords lieutenant in der in France during the last two decades of France. Brave and daring, he excelled at the HUNDRED YEARS WAR. surprise attacks and won such a fearsome Born into a prominent Shropshire family, reputation among the French that mothers Talbot fought in HENRY IV’s campaigns in frightened their children into obedience by WALES, being present at the sieges of Aber- telling then Talbot would take them if they ystwyth and Harlech between 1407 and misbehaved. Credited with many bold ex- 1409. Under HENRY V, he served as lieuten- ploits in the increasingly futile defense of ant of Ireland from 1414 to 1416 and again in Normandy, Talbot received numerous re- 1418–19. His first service in France was wards and honors; he was made count of during the NORMAN CAMPAIGN of 1417–19. Clermont in 1434, marshal of France in 1436, He fought intermittently on the Continent constable of France in 1442, and constable of during the 1420s, participating in the sieges Ireland in 1446. A Knight of the GARTER of MELUN and MEAUX but also returning to since 1425, Talbot was created earl of Wales in 1422 to suppress disorders in the Shrewsbury by HENRY VI in 1442. marches. He became Lord Furnivall by right After the fall of GASCONY in 1451, Shrews- of his wife in 1409 and Lord Talbot on the bury, although almost seventy, was the ob- death of his elder brother in 1421. A quar- vious choice to command the expeditionary relsome man who willingly resorted to vio- force sent to retake the province in 1452. Al- lence to defend his rights or honor, Talbot though Shrewsbury’s initial success in re- was briefly imprisoned in 1413, possibly as a capturing BORDEAUX enhanced his reputation, result of his role in a bitter dispute with CHARLES VII dispatched three armies to the Thomas Fitzalan, earl of Arundel. He also province, and the subsequent campaign re- maintained a long-running feud with the vealed how out of step the earl was with Ormond family in Ireland and involved current military tactics and technology. In himself, on his second wife’s behalf, in the July 1453, Shrewsbury led his army to ruin ongoing Berkeley-Lisle feud. with a suicidal charge against massed French The best-known phase of his military ca- ARTILLERY at the Battle of CASTILLON.Withthe reer began in 1428, when Talbot succeeded earl and his son John dead on the field, the Thomas MONTAGU, earl of Salisbury, as battle marked the end of English Gascony commander of the English forces at the siege and of the Hundred Years War. To com- of ORLE´ANS. Inspired by JOAN OF ARC, the memorate Shrewsbury’s death, the French French broke the siege in May 1429 and raised the Church of Notre-Dame-de-Talbot Talbot was subsequently defeated and cap- near the spot where he fell.

293 TARD-VENUS

Further Reading: Pollard, A. J. John Talbot and In December 1360, John II, in need of the War in France, 1427–1453. London: Royal substantial sums to pay his RANSOM, re- Historical Society, 1983. established three regular indirect taxes, in- cluding the gabelle and impositions on wine TARD-VENUS. See ROUTIERS and various other commodities. These levies were in effect feudal aides imposed upon the TAX REVOLT OF 1382. See TAXATION AND entire kingdom. Until 1367, the gabelle was a WAR FINANCE 20 percent ad valorem tax, but then was changed to a surcharge of 24 francs per TAXATION AND WAR FINANCE muid of salt. The tax on wine grew during The length and scope of the HUNDRED YEARS the war from 8 percent of retail sales to 25 WAR caused military expenditure to rise percent; and the third levy was a general dramatically in both kingdoms. By the fif- value-added tax on the specified items. Un- teenth century, the war accounted for be- accustomed to indirect taxes, Languedoc tween one-half and two-thirds of the funds negotiated in 1362 for permission to pay collected and disbursed by the Crowns of these levies in a lump sum, the collection of France and England. The need to find and which was apportioned among communities tap new sources of revenue also caused a in the region. Known in the 1360s as aides significant expansion in the size and activ- pour la de´livrance, and as ‘‘aids for the war’’ ities of both royal governments. after resumption of the conflict in 1369, these As a feudal overlord, the king of France taxes were collected until the middle of could collect payments known as aides from the FRENCH CIVIL WAR in 1417, when they his vassals on specific occasions, such as the were cancelled by the unpopular ARMAGNAC knighting of the king’s eldest son, and in lieu regime. Thereafter, the dauphinist govern- of military service. During the thirteenth ment obtained irregular grants of new aides century, the term aide was also used for oc- from the Estates-General until 1436, when casional levies imposed, usually for military that assembly restored the aides and gabelle purposes, on subjects who were not royal as regular and permanent features of royal vassals. With the ANGLO-FRENCH WAR OF taxation. 1294–1303, the Crown’s need for greater In December 1363, John II secured a revenue led PHILIP IV to demand new aides hearth tax, known as a fouage, from the Es- with controversial frequency. After the 1330s, tates of Languedoil. Assessed on the basis of aides became virtually synonymous with war households, the fouage was usually paid by subsidies and commonly took the form of towns in an agreed-upon lump sum that indirect taxes levied irregularly on the sale of was raised in any manner the locality chose various commodities. In March 1341, PHILIP to employ. When imposed as a direct tax, it VI regularized collection of an indirect tax on was usually an assessment on the value of salt known as the gabelle. The king ordered real property within the district, exclusive of that salt henceforth be stored in royal ware- ecclesiastical lands. The average payment houses and then sold for the Crown’s profit was 3 francs per household, but the fouage by officials known as gabelliers. Hostility to had a graduated rate of 1 to 9 francs ac- the tax caused Philip to cancel it in 1347 in cording to wealth. Although the fouage fund- return for grants of war subsidies. In De- ed the reformed army that reconquered cember 1355, the Estates-General, reacting to AQUITAINE after 1369, CHARLES V cancelled JOHN II’s highly unpopular attempts to raise the tax on his deathbed in September 1380, war funds by manipulating the currency, an action that caused resistance to the pay- reauthorized the gabelle as one of several new ment of all royal taxes to increase sharply. In indirect taxes, but resistance again caused its March 1381, the minority government of cancellation. However, in 1358–59, the gabelle CHARLES VI secured a new fouage to run for reappeared in PARIS and Languedoc. one year from the Estates of Languedoil, but

294 TAXATION AND WAR FINANCE only on condition that the assembly con- during the years of peace that followed trolled its collection and use. When further conclusion of the Treaty of BRE´ TIGNY in 1360. promises of reform produced no new taxes, Another indirect tax created by war needs nor lessened taxpayer resistance to the col- was tunnage and poundage, a duty first lection of existing levies, tax revolts erupted imposed in 1345 on each barrel (tun) of wine in Paris (the Maillotins), NORMANDY (the and each pound of various other goods. In He´relle), and elsewhere in northern France. 1398, Parliament voted RICHARD II the right These revolts were eventually suppressed to collect customs duties for life, and then and the government thereafter began im- made the same grant to HENRY V in 1415 and posing irregular direct taxes that were HENRY VI in 1453. similar to the fouage, but known as tailles. The most common form of direct taxation Intermittent imposition of these levies ended in England was a levy on movable property. in 1439, when CHARLES VII secured a per- By the fourteenth century, the normal as- manent annual taille from the Estates- sessment was a fifteenth of the value of such General, which also authorized the Crown property in rural areas and a tenth in towns to annually adjust the amount of the tax. and on royal lands. In 1334, tenths and fif- In the fourteenth century, claims by the teenths began to be levied on communities nobility to exemption from taxation were rather than individuals, and by the end of largely denied. However, when the nobility, the century the assessments had become in the persons of the royal uncles, JOHN, fixed sums rather than accurate current val- DUKE OF BERRY, and PHILIP THE BOLD, duke of uations of movable property, a situation the BURGUNDY, controlled the government dur- government tolerated because of the ease of ing Charles VI’s minority, the Crown issued collecting such sums and the difficulties of ordinances exempting the nobility, upon undertaking a new valuation. In 1371, the certain conditions, from payment of the taille government imposed a flat levy on each (1388) and aides (1393). By the mid-fifteenth English parish, but the results were dis- century, the conditions of exemption were appointing, and in 1377 Parliament granted so broad as to effectively free most nobles a poll tax assessed at a flat rate on everyone from taxation. Taxation of the clergy was a over the age of fourteen, save for beggars. A contentious issue from the reign of Philip IV, second poll tax assessed at a variable rate when the king violently opposed Pope Bo- according to wealth was passed in 1379 and niface VIII’s refusal to permit kings to tax a third using a flat rate that promised a their clergy without papal consent. Boni- higher return than tenths and fifteenths was face eventually allowed the French Crown imposed in 1380. The last poll tax was discretionary power to tax the clergy for de- widely evaded and became a direct cause of fense of the realm, a right that the French- the PEASANTS’ REVOLT OF 1381. In the fifteenth dominated Avignon popes interpreted century, Parliament returned to the standard broadly. The Crown also extracted other subsidies, sometimes granting several at a sums from the Church by leaving benefices time, as in 1404 when HENRY IV received vacant and appropriating their incomes. two tenths and fifteenths. In Henry VI’s In England, the wars of EDWARD I had reign, Parliament tried various land taxes, established the right of PARLIAMENT to con- and in 1435 and 1449 war emergencies led to sent to the imposition of taxation. In 1336, another innovation, a graduated income tax. EDWARD III convinced Parliament to grant Early in his reign, Edward III, needing him a subsidy on wool in addition to the huge sums to pay the subsidies promised to customs duties that the Crown had collected members of his ANTI-FRENCH COALITION, bor- on the import and export of various com- rowed heavily both from LONDON merchants modities since the 1270s. Although osten- and Italian bankers. The English merchant sibly a war tax, this subsidy was regularly William de la POLE was instrumental in ar- voted by Parliament after 1355, including ranging loans for the Crown, and was the

295 THIE´ RACHE CAMPAIGN initiator of a scheme to manipulate the wool Countries, marched south from Va- trade, which ultimately failed and resulted lenciennes in Hainault toward the town of in the Crown’s issuance of the DORDRECHT Cambrai, where the bishop, although an BONDS. The government also continued to Imperial vassal, refused Edward passage collect various feudal aids and assessments into France. The allied army invested the and to impose taxes on the clergy, which town, while parties led by Walter MAUNY; was routine practice in England by the start HENRY OF GROSMONT, earl of Derby; and of the war. After the 1340s, the clergy met other English captains stormed local castles regularly in Convocation, which body even- and ravaged the entire Cambre´sis, which, tually won the right to assent to clerical according to Edward, his men ‘‘burned ... taxes in the same way Parliament spoke for for the whole of the following week so that the king’s temporal subjects. The clergy also the whole territory was laid waste and quite paid subsidies based on the tenth and fif- stripped of corn, cattle, and everything else’’ teenth and were subject to such other levies (Sumption, 281). While the surrounding as poll taxes. See also ESTATES,GENERAL AND countryside went up in flames, Cambrai, PROVINCIAL;PAPACY AND THE HUNDRED YEARS defended by a strong French garrison, held WAR;TOWNS AND THE HUNDRED YEARS WAR. out. By the end of September, Edward was Further Reading: Harriss, G. L. King, Parliament in a difficult position; he could not capture and Public Finance in Medieval England to 1369. Cambrai and he could not provoke the Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1975; Henneman, John French to battle. Since his allies were clam- Bell. Royal Taxation in Fourteenth-Century France: oring for payment of their subsidies, and The Captivity and Ransom of John II. Philadelphia: Edward had no money to pay them, he Royal Philosophical Society, 1976; Henneman, needed to win a battle before his army dis- John Bell. Royal Taxation in Fourteenth-Century integrated. Except to avoid the perception of France: The Development of War Financing, 1322– timidity, Philip had no need to fight; dis- 1356. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, sention among Edward’s allies and hunger 1971; Prestwich, Michael. The Three Edwards: War among his troops would soon force him to and State in England, 1272–1377. 2nd ed. London: withdraw. Routledge, 2003. In early October, Edward’s brother-in- law, William, count of Hainault, abandoned THIE´ RACHE CAMPAIGN (1339) the anti-French alliance, leaving to join Conducted in or near the Thie´rache region Philip at Compie`gne, where the French had along France’s northeastern frontier, the amassed an army of over twenty thousand campaign of September–October 1339 was men. Although the count’s uncle and most the first major campaign of the HUNDRED of the nobility of Hainault stayed with Ed- YEARS WAR and the first significant English ward, the defection increased the other al- incursion into the VALOIS realm. The cam- lies’ reluctance to invade France. However, paign saw little fighting, as PHILIP VI, aware on 9 October, with Cambrai untaken, the that EDWARD III lacked the resources to allied army crossed the French frontier. Ed- maintain an army in the field for long, re- ward’s force numbered over ten thousand fused battle. The campaign was thus char- men, but less than half were English, so it acterized not by combat, but by Edward’s was imperative that Edward engage and inability to effectively exploit the ANTI- defeat the enemy before further defections FRENCH COALITION he had so painfully con- weakened his army. Moving in a wide arc so structed, and by the unprecedented suffering as to maximize damage, the army moved visited on French peasants by Edward’s unopposed through the countryside, burn- scorched earth policy. ing everything in its path. The English were The campaign began on 20 September so thorough in their destruction that a year 1339, when Edward, accompanied by most later the region was still devastated, with of his allies from Germany and the Low most villages abandoned and most fields

296 THOMAS, DUKE OF CLARENCE uncultivated. Strongpoints were attacked THIRTY, COMBAT OF THE. See COMBAT and taken wherever possible, but the army OF THE THIRTY needed to keep moving to supply itself and Edward had no siege equipment, so many THOMAS, DUKE OF CLARENCE were simply bypassed (see SIEGE WARFARE). (1389–1421) Sweeping into Picardy, the army, on 14 Oc- Thomas, duke of Clarence, was the second tober, passed within a mile of the new son of HENRY IV and the brother and heir of French position at Pe´ronne. Although his HENRY V. Although an experienced soldier, spies told him the French were preparing to Clarence was also a reckless commander, fight, Edward, fearing that French garrisons whose rash disregard of his captains’ advice in his rear might intercept his line of retreat, led to his death and to the temporary dis- withdrew to the east. comfiture of the English cause. Hearing of the English withdrawal, Philip, Born on 29 September 1389, Thomas was angry that the English had learned his plans, knighted and became steward of England in issued a formal challenge for the two armies October 1399, shortly after his father de- to meet in battle on about 21 October ‘‘at a posed RICHARD II. In July 1401, the king ap- place uncramped by rivers, walls, or earth- pointed Thomas lord lieutenant of Ireland, a works’’ (Sumption, 285). Edward accepted, post he held until 1413, although he spent but, seeking more favorable ground, moved barely a third of that period in Dublin. north into the Thie´rache, stopping on 21 Thomas also acquired military experience October in the open fields between La Ca- in WALES, where he served in Glamorgan in pelle and La Flamengrie. The French halted 1405, and at CALAIS, where he was captain of next day near the village of Buirenfosse, the fortress of Guines. In June 1410, Thomas about four miles to the southwest. Con- and his younger brother JOHN, future duke vinced that the French meant to attack on 23 of Bedford, were involved in serious dis- October, Edward dismounted his men and orders in LONDON, riots that may have placed them in three lines behind a deep formed the basis for stories of youthful ditch, with ARCHERS arrayed on each flank. misbehavior later attributed by William Although completely new to his allies, this Shakespeare and others to Thomas’s elder deployment had defeated the Scots at HALI- brother, Prince Henry. DON HILL and seven years later was to dev- By 1411, the prince’s assumption of the astate the French at CRE´CY. However, next government during the illness of their father morning, the French, who had stood all created tension between Thomas and his night in line of battle, retreated and began to older brother, who had opposed Thomas’s entrench, Philip having decided not to as- marriage to Margaret, widow of their uncle, sault the strong English position. By John Beaufort, earl of Somerset. With the widening the rift between Edward and his government controlled by the prince and his allies, delay might defeat the English as allies, Thomas was also angered by council effectively as battle. Since there was no criticism of the fitful attention he paid to his question of attacking a superior force in an duties in Ireland. However, the real source entrenched position, Edward’s allies de- of trouble between the brothers stemmed clared the campaign a moral victory and from the prince’s dispute with his father, quickly decamped. However, Edward, who who suspected his eldest son of being withdrew to Brabant, knew that the Thie´r- overeager for power and disagreed with him ache Campaign had failed. over French policy. Thomas supported his Further Reading: Perroy, Edouard. The Hun- father’s decision to conclude the Treaty of dred Years War. Trans. W. B. Wells. New York: BOURGES with the ARMAGNAC faction in the Capricorn Books, 1965; Sumption, Jonathan.The FRENCH CIVIL WAR, while the prince favored Hundred Years War. Vol. 1, Trial by Battle. Phila- alliance with the BURGUNDIANS. On 9 July delphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1999. 1412, Henry IV created Thomas duke of

297 THOMAS OF WOODSTOCK, DUKE OF GLOUCESTER

Clarence and gave him command of the Seward, Desmond. Henry V as War Lord. New expeditionary force sent to France under the York: Penguin Books, 2002. treaty. Clarence was also made lieutenant of Aquitaine, an appointment that slighted the THOMAS OF WOODSTOCK, DUKE OF prince, who had been duke of Aquitaine GLOUCESTER (1355–1397) since 1399. Collapse of the Armagnacs dis- Thomas of Woodstock, duke of Gloucester, solved the treaty and turned Clarence’s was the fifth surviving son of EDWARD III campaign into a CHEVAUCHE´ E that ended and PHILIPPA OF HAINAULT. Twenty-five with the duke and his captains extracting a years younger than his eldest brother, ED- large ransom from the French before with- WARD, THE BLACK PRINCE, Gloucester came of drawing to BORDEAUX. age in the reign of his nephew RICHARD II, Clarence returned to England upon his with whom he was frequently at odds over brother’s accession in March 1413. Now heir the conduct of the HUNDRED YEARS WAR. to the throne, the duke became Henry V’s Knighted by his father in April 1377, loyal servant. Although the two brothers Thomas was created earl of Buckingham by were never close, their former ill will faded his nephew in the following July. To main- away. Clarence became constable of En- tain his new estate, Buckingham was given gland and presided over the commission an income of £1,000 a year, which was de- that condemned the Southampton Plot con- rived from the revenues of alien priories. spirators in 1415. In that same year, the duke Because these foreign houses were only in supplied 240 men-at-arms and 720 ARCHERS the possession of the Crown because of the for the army Henry embarked for France. war, the earl had a vested interest in the Clarence served at the siege of HARFLEUR, continuation of hostilities with France. but fell ill and missed the Battle of AGIN- Buckingham saw his first military action in a COURT. One of the chief English commanders series of naval engagements with the Casti- during the conquest of NORMANDY, he was lian fleet in the summer and autumn of 1377. instrumental in the capture of Caen in 1417, In 1380, Buckingham commanded the last of Pont-de-l’Arche in 1418, and of ROUEN great English CHEVAUCHE´ E of the fourteenth and Pontoise in 1419. He was also present century, leading a force of five thousand that when Henry ratified the Treaty of TROYES in raided from CALAIS into BRITTANY. In 1381, 1420. he helped suppress the PEASANTS’ REVOLT Upon his return to England in February and in 1384 he was joint commander with 1421, Henry named Clarence king’s lieuten- his brother, JOHN OF GAUNT, duke of Lan- ant in France. Clarence, who was anxious to caster, of an unsuccessful expedition into atone for his absence at Agincourt, rashly SCOTLAND. Although created duke of Glou- allowed himself to be drawn into battle at cester in 1385, Thomas’s income was still BAUGE´ before his archers could gather. The heavily dependent on royal annuities, which duke and most of his captains were slain, were not always regularly paid. As a result, their bodies being retrieved only with diffi- the duke, an overbearing and ambitious culty by Thomas MONTAGU, earl of Salis- man, believed himself insufficiently en- bury, whose skill in stabilizing the military dowed in lands and offices for a king’s son, situation over the following weeks pre- especially in light of the rewards being given vented Clarence’s foolhardiness from over- to such royal favorites as Robert de Vere, throwing the entire English position in earl of Oxford. Normandy. After the duke’s burial, rumors In 1386, Lancaster, who had a restraining claimed, most improbably, that had Clar- influence on his brother, left England to ence lived, Henry would have executed his pursue his wife’s claim to the Castilian brother for failing to obey orders. Crown. Gloucester now assumed leadership Further Reading: Allmand, Christopher. Henry of those nobles who opposed Richard’s pur- V. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1997; suit of peace with France. In the so-called

298 TOURNAI, SIEGE OF

Wonderful PARLIAMENT of 1386, Gloucester Further Reading: Goodman, Anthony. The and his chief allies, Richard Fitzalan, earl of Loyal Conspiracy: The Lords Appellant under Richard Arundel, and Thomas Beauchamp, earl of II. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1971; Warwick, forced the dismissal of Richard’s Palmer, J. J. N. England, France, and Christendom, ministers and won appointment of a gov- 1377–99. Chapel Hill: University of North Car- erning commission of which Gloucester was olina Press, 1972; Saul, Nigel. Richard II. New a member. The commission ended Richard’s Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1997; Tuck, peace overtures to France and prepared to Anthony. Richard II and the English Nobility. renew the war. In 1387, when Richard sought London: Edward Arnold, 1973. to undo the acts of the 1386 Parliament, Gloucester led an armed revolt against the TOURNAI, SIEGE OF (1340) king. In 1387, Gloucester, Arundel, Warwick, The two-month siege of Tournai, the focus of and others, calling themselves the Lords the English campaign of 1340, was meant Appellant, met a new Parliament—known as to establish a PLANTAGENET bridgehead in the Merciless Parliament—to appeal (accuse) northern France. However, the siege failed the king’s ministers and favorites of treason. and resulted in an unwanted truce that dem- All those appealed were either banished or onstrated the financial inability of the En- executed. glish Crown to support a policy of paying In 1387, the Appellant regime resumed the for allies, and led to a serious political con- war, winning a naval victory at CADZAND, frontation between EDWARD III and his sub- but failing to incite a pro-English uprising in jects. FLANDERS and failing also to stem a Scottish Having, through great diplomatic effort invasion. By 1388, Gloucester was more re- and prodigious expense, crafted an ANTI- ceptive to a cessation of hostilities, and the FRENCH COALITION consisting of England and regime entered into talks that led to con- various states in Germany and the Low clusion of the Truce of LEULINGHEN in June Countries, Edward sought to use the resulting 1389, shortly after Richard resumed control army to carry the HUNDRED YEARS WAR into of the government. Through Lancaster’s the French royal domain. Seeking to wound mediation, Gloucester was reconciled to his VALOIS honor by seizing an important town nephew, and in 1393 the two dukes led the and thereby force the French to fight a pitched English delegation to the Anglo-French battle, Edward chose to invest Tournai, an peace talks at Leulinghen. Gloucester, how- industrial center on the River Scheldt that was ever, remained opposed to the royal peace readily accessible to his forces gathering in policy and to the king’s marriage to Isabella FLANDERS. Edward’s naval victory at SLUYS in of VALOIS (see ISABELLA,QUEEN OF ENGLAND June allowed him to land an English army of [1388–1409]), which sealed a 28-year exten- about two thousand men—mainly ARCHERS— sion of the truce in 1396. in Flanders, where the revolutionary govern- On 10 July 1397, the king suddenly ar- ment of the province, directed by James van rested Gloucester, who was imprisoned at ARTEVELDE, was hastily gathering forces to Calais, where he was likely murdered on the support the coming campaign. The allies king’s orders. The duke’s death was an- decided on a two-pronged attack. ROBERT OF nounced in September, when Gloucester and ARTOIS led a force of a thousand English ar- the other leading Appellants were appealed chers and ten thousand Flemings into Artois, of treason before Parliament. Although while the king, with the bulk of the allied Gloucester was officially condemned for his army, besieged Tournai. However, this plan actions in 1387, rumors suggested that the went awry when the French defeated Robert duke, opposed to the peace, and particularly at SAINT-OMER on 26 July, five days before to the clause calling for the English surrender Edward began operations at Tournai. of Brest, was arrested for devising a new plot Although the allied army was large, in- to depose the king and resume the war. cluding, besides the English and the Flem-

299 TOURS, TRUCE OF ings, contingents under the count of Hai- ESPLECHIN, which halted the war until June nault, the dukes of Brabant and Guelders, 1341 and allowed all parties to keep what- and the Margrave of Juliers, the French had ever they held at the moment. While these almost six thousand men in Tournai. terms worked to Edward’s advantage in Strongly fortified, the city was difficult to SCOTLAND and AQUITAINE, they only em- assault, so the allies settled down around the phasized his failure in northern France. town in hopes that treachery or famine Believing that he had been forced into a would deliver it to them, or that their AR- shameful truce by the failure of his ministers TILLERY could collapse a section of wall. in LONDON to support him financially, an Raiding parties devastated the surrounding angry Edward returned to England in No- countryside trying to provoke PHILIP VI, vember and precipitated the most serious who was approaching with a large army, political crisis of his reign (see CRISIS OF 1340– into engaging the allies. However, Philip 1341). See also SIEGE WARFARE. refused to be drawn and the siege showed Further Reading: Sumption, Jonathan. The no signs of progress, while many allied sol- Hundred Years War. Vol. 1, Trial by Battle. diers began to complain of Edward’s failure Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, to deliver their promised pay. Money ex- 1991. pected from England had not arrived and the king was paying 20 percent interest on TOURS, TRUCE OF (1444) loans to feed his troops. With time against The Truce of Tours, a two-year cessation of them, the allies changed tack on 26 August hostilities negotiated between France and and launched an assault on the walls. Con- England in May 1444, was the first diplo- ducted only by the English and the Flem- matic agreement between the two realms ings, it failed. Angry at the inactivity of the since the Treaty of TROYES in 1420. Although Germans and Brabanters, van Artevelde ac- providing a much needed respite for the cused the duke of Brabant of cowardice. faltering English war effort, and forging a With much difficulty, Edward persuaded marriage link between the rival monarchs, the duke to stay with the army, but the the truce also allowed the French to forestall Brabanters, fighting only for pay, had no any renewal of the ANGLO-BURGUNDIAN AL- enthusiasm for the English cause. Edward LIANCE and to strengthen their armies for a knew that his allies would abandon him if final assault on GASCONY and NORMANDY. he did not quickly take the city or win a By 1444, both parties were willing to talk. battle. The loss of PARIS and other towns in the late On 7 September, Philip reached Bouvines, 1430s, and the failure of the campaign led by ten miles west of Tournai. Deploying be- John BEAUFORT, duke of Somerset, in 1443, tween the city and the enemy, the allies fed a growing war weariness in England launched several small attacks on the French and discredited the war party led by HENRY lines on 8 September, but these were beaten VI’s uncle, HUMPHREY, DUKE OF GLOUCESTER. back and Philip refused a general engage- Encouraged by the king, who was now in ment. Declaring themselves unwilling to his early twenties, the peace party led by fight without being paid, several English Cardinal Henry BEAUFORT, bishop of allies began to negotiate with Philip on their Winchester, and William de la POLE, earl of own account. Realizing that he had no al- Suffolk, signaled its receptiveness to any ternative, Edward overrode his own dis- diplomatic overtures from France. Although appointment, and the protestations of van he had the military initiative, CHARLES VII Artevelde and Robert of Artois, and con- also welcomed peace. Charles hoped to sented to talks, which began in the nearby diplomatically isolate BURGUNDY, preventing village of Esplechin on 23 September. Two Duke PHILIP THE GOOD from aiding the days later, the kings signed the Truce of English and the English from supporting the

300 TOWNS AND THE HUNDRED YEARS WAR duke. Charles also needed a respite to carry TOWNS AND THE HUNDRED out military reforms required to strengthen YEARS WAR his armies for eventual showdowns with The HUNDRED YEARS WAR created enormous both England and Burgundy. economic problems for towns in both France Although it is unclear which side initiated and England. In the former, the effects were discussions, by January 1444 the English more direct—towns could be burned, plun- council decided to open talks with Charles, dered, and depopulated by military action. and on 1 February dispatched Suffolk to In the latter, the effects were usually more France. Negotiations for a permanent peace indirect—towns could be thrown into severe quickly bogged down when the French re- economic decline by wartime disruption of fused any concessions. The English therefore trade and commerce. accepted a truce running until 1 April 1446 At the start of the war, many French and agreed to a marriage between their king towns had no walls, and so were defenseless and MARGARET OF ANJOU, a niece of Charles before the devastating English CHEVAUCHE´ ES, VII, who was unwilling to marry one his own swift campaigns designed to maximize de- daughters to Henry and thereby give the struction of enemy resources. In the THIE´ R- Lancastrians yet another possible claim to the ACHE CAMPAIGN of 1339 and the operations French Crown. On 24 May 1444, with Suffolk surrounding the siege of TOURNAI in 1340, acting as proxy, fifteen-year-old Margaret the English not only burned many towns was formally betrothed to Henry at Tours. and villages, but also desolated the sur- Extended eventually until 1449, the Truce rounding countryside that fed and sup- of Tours temporarily halted the fighting and plied them. The scope of the destruction opened a period of Anglo-French di- was so great that Cardinal Bertrand de plomacy. Although the English offered to Montfavence fainted when an English offi- relinquish Henry’s claim to the French cial took him to the top of a convent Crown in return for full sovereignty in tower at night and showed him the coun- Normandy, Charles rejected the proposal tryside red with flames for miles in all di- and pushed instead for the English surren- rections. der of Maine. Personally inclined toward Even towns with defensive walls were peace and now under the influence of his adversely affected as frightened refugees new wife, Henry secretly agreed to this in from the surrounding area crowded into the December 1445. Although English officers in town, many to stay for years as beggars be- Maine refused to relinquish control until cause they had no homes to return to. Dur- March 1448, Henry’s apparent willingness to ing the fourteenth century, many French make further concessions in the face of ei- towns sunk a large portion of their civic re- ther military or diplomatic pressure con- sources into wall construction and main- vinced Charles to renew the war. In June tenance. ROUEN spent a quarter of its munic- 1449, after charging the English with break- ipal budget in this fashion. However, strong ing the truce by sacking the Breton town of walls acted as magnets drawing both more FOUGE`RES, Charles launched a campaign in refugees from the war-ravaged country- Normandy that led to French reconquest of side and armies intent not on raiding, but the duchy in 1450. See also CHARLES VII, on siege and conquest. Rouen twice stood MILITARY REFORMS OF;MAINE,SURRENDER OF; siege in the fifteenth century. The town NORMAN CAMPAIGN (1449–1450). surrendered to HENRY V in January 1419 Further Reading: Allmand, Christopher. The after a horrendous siege of seven months, Hundred Years War. Cambridge: Cambridge Uni- and again to CHARLES VII after a six-week versity Press, 1988; Griffiths, Ralph A. The Reign of siege in 1449. In southern France, the CHE- Henry VI. Berkeley: University of California Press, VAUCHE´ E OF 1355 led by EDWARD, THE BLACK 1981. PRINCE, caused tremendous destruction

301 TROYES, TREATY OF across a wide area and included the devas- during the reigns of EDWARD III and RICHARD tation of eleven sizable towns. II. LONDON continued to prosper during the Already more susceptible than the coun- war, although costs rose as merchants in tryside to the ravages of the BLACK DEATH, both countries had to spend more for larger towns under siege or simply swollen with crews and to recoup losses to pirates and refugees were always in danger from dis- enemy naval activity, such as the English ease, such as the outbreak of dysentery that capture of a huge French wine fleet at CAD- killed both besiegers and besieged during ZAND in 1387. Other English towns, such as the English investment of HARFLEUR in 1415. Bristol, had to gradually diversify their Even if they did not stand siege, towns trade. As the war in GASCONY caused severe could be seriously harmed by enemy action fluctuations in the wine trade with BOR- in the countryside that supported them. DEAUX, Bristol increased its trade with Spain PARIS, for instance, counted upon the ports and became more involved in fishing ex- of NORMANDY for fish and upon a wide re- peditions to Iceland. By the time the Gascon gion around the capital for grain and other wine trade collapsed following the English foodstuffs. When the forces of Charles VII defeat at CASTILLON in 1453, Bristol had al- captured Chartres, some fifty miles from ready focused its economic activity else- Paris, in 1432, bread prices in the capital rose where. See also NAVAL WARFARE;NORMAN sharply. The resulting dissatisfaction with CAMPAIGN (1417–1419); NORMAN CAMPAIGN the Anglo-Burgundian administration was (1449–1450); SIEGE WARFARE. one reason that PHILIP THE GOOD, duke of Further Reading: Allmand, Christopher. The BURGUNDY, decided to abandon the ANGLO- Hundred Years War. Cambridge: Cambridge Uni- BURGUNDIAN ALLIANCE three years later at the versity Press, 1988; Curry, Anne. The Hundred Congress of ARRAS. Desolating the region Years War. 2nd ed. Houndmills, England: Pal- upon which a town drew for its food was grave Macmillan, 2003. considered the surest way to take the town itself. TROYES, TREATY OF (1420) The war’s damaging effect on trade Concluded in May 1420 at Troyes, a town on harmed many ports on both sides of the the Seine in northeastern France, the Treaty English Channel. The trade of Caen in of Troyes was a historic Anglo-French ac- Normandy fell by more than half between cord whereby became the start of the war and the early fifteenth regent and heir to the throne of France. By century; there was some revival during the creating the prospect of a dual monarchy period of English occupation when Nor- within the English House of PLANTAGENET, mandy was not a battle zone, but the French the treaty promised an end to both the reconquest in 1449–50 caused another Hundred Years War and the FRENCH CIVIL downturn. The needs of war also disrupted WAR. commerce. The huge French fleet destroyed In the spring of 1418, JOHN THE FEARLESS, by the English at SLUYS in 1340 was drawn duke of BURGUNDY, recaptured PARIS, driv- from most of the ports of FLANDERS and ing out Dauphin Charles (see CHARLES VII) northwestern France, and the loss of so and his Armagnac supporters and regaining many vessels and so much of the shipping custody of CHARLES VI. Since the English season seriously harmed the economy of the victory at AGINCOURT in 1415, the civil war whole region. In England, a few ports felt between BURGUNDIANS and ARMAGNACS had the effects of war directly. Winchelsea in divided the French nobility and allowed Sussex never recovered from a devastating Henry to conquer NORMANDY. In September French raid in 1380, and Melcombe Regis in 1419, during a meeting at MONTEREAU to Dorset, once a major shipping center, was in discuss reconciliation, the dauphin’s men rapid decline in the early fifteenth century murdered Duke John, thereby thrusting after twice being burned by the French PHILIP THE GOOD, the new duke of Burgundy,

302 TROYES, TREATY OF into firm alliance with England and allow- similar size. The text of the treaty was read at ing Henry to denounce the dauphin as unfit the high altar, each party giving assent to inherit the Crown of France. thereto, and the seals of each king were af- On 2 December, after a month of nego- fixed to the document, with Henry employ- tiations with the English, Philip announced ing the seal EDWARD III had used to ratify the his willingness to recognize Henry as Treaty of BRE´ TIGNY sixty years earlier. Led by Charles’s rightful heir. Although ambivalent Philip, the nobles present swore to uphold about the prospect of English rule, Philip the treaty (i.e., to recognize Henry as heir to found it preferable to acknowledging his the throne) and to obey Henry as regent. father’s murderer as king. In January 1420, Peace between the two realms was then Henry dispatched representatives to the officially proclaimed in both French and French court in Troyes and authorized them English. Next, Henry and Catherine were to draft a formal agreement. This document solemnly betrothed, with the wedding cere- was ready by early May, when all parties mony following on 2 June at the Church of agreed to meet in Troyes to ratify the treaty. St. John in Troyes. Largely dictated by Henry, the terms of The treaty was widely if not en- the agreement called for his marriage to thusiastically accepted in Paris and most of Charles’s daughter, CATHERINE OF VALOIS, the English and Burgundian regions of whom Henry took without a dowry; his rec- northern France, where war weariness and ognition as Charles’s heir in place of the economic distress made the conclusion of dauphin, who was thereby disinherited; and peace, on whatever terms, a welcome pros- his exercise of the French regency until pect. However, in most of the realm south of Charles’s death. The treaty envisaged a the Loire, loyalty to the dauphin was equally union of Crowns, a dual monarchy, not a widespread, if often equally unenthusiastic, union of kingdoms. France and England and the treaty was repudiated there as a would retain separate administrations, settlement forced upon a captive king. How laws, and institutions, but the dispute over well the treaty would have worked is hard the French Crown and over the status of to say, for, to everyone’s surprise, Henry English territories in France would be re- predeceased his father-in-law, dying at the solved—the king of England and his heirs end of August 1422. When Charles VI died would rule all. in the following October, the Treaty of On 20 May, Philip met Henry outside Troyes made a nine-month-old infant, Troyes and conducted him to a meeting with HENRY VI, ruler of both kingdoms, a cir- Charles, his wife Queen ISABEAU, and their cumstance that reinvigorated both the war daughter Catherine. Next day, Henry ar- and the dauphin’s cause. rived at St. Peter’s Cathedral in Troyes with Further Reading: Allmand, Christopher. Henry a party of about four hundred. Isabeau and V. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1997; Philip, acting as deputies for Charles, who Perroy, Edouard. The Hundred Years War. Trans. was too ill to attend, led a French party of W. B. Wells. New York: Capricorn Books, 1965.

303 U

URBAN V. See PAPACY AND THE HUNDRED URBAN VI. See PAPACY AND THE HUNDRED YEARS WAR YEARS WAR

304 V

VALMONT, BATTLE OF (1416) agreement, the constable’s terms proved The Battle of Valmont encompassed a series unacceptable and the talks ended without of encounters fought in early March 1416 result. along the English army’s line of retreat Under cover of darkness, Dorset’s men through the region northeast of HARFLEUR in slipped away that night, marching west and NORMANDY. The battles illustrate the vital south until they reached the shelter of a importance of Harfleur to HENRY V’s op- wood at Les Loges, just east of Etretat. Upon erations in Normandy and the continuing discovering that the English were gone, Ar- harm done to the French military effort by magnac dispatched a force under Marshal the incompetence and overconfidence of its Louis de Loigny to find the enemy and bar leaders. his path to Harfleur until the constable ar- On 9 March, Thomas BEAUFORT, earl of rived. After lying quiet all day, Dorset set Dorset, commander of the English garrison out again at nightfall, reaching the sea near at Harfleur, led about eleven hundred men Etretat and then marching south along the on a three-day foraging expedition into the coast, where his seaward flank was secure. countryside northeast of the town. Block- At dawn, with the Seine estuary in view, aded by land and sea, the Harfleur garrison and Harfleur just beyond, the English were was in desperate need of supplies. All went spotted from the cliffs by the marshal’s men, well until the raiders turned for home, when who, seeing their enemy strung out along they encountered a large French army near the shore, charged down the slopes. The Valmont, some twenty miles from Harfleur. haste with which the charge was launched Commanded by BERNARD, COUNT OF AR- and the steepness of the incline threw the MAGNAC and constable of France, this army French assault into complete disorder and numbered almost four thousand. Dorset allowed the English to form up and cut their dismounted his men, sending the horses to attackers to pieces. Dorset’s men were still the rear, and hastily formed a long thin line looting the dead when Armagnac arrived. to protect his flanks. Although their charges Without hesitating, the English rearmed and pierced the English line in several places, the charged up the slope, so surprising Arma- French knights, instead of turning to attack gnac’s column that it broke and fled east- their foes in the rear, charged the grooms ward, where the Harfleur garrison, alerted tending the horses and fell to looting the by the sounds of battle, rode out to strike the English baggage. This action gave Dorset the flank of the fleeing army. time he needed to reform his men in a Although the Valmont battles boosted nearby garden, which was protected by English morale and gained Harfleur a much hedges and a ditch. With his enemy now needed respite, Armagnac, currently the deployed in a strong massed formation that dominant figure in the French government, faced out in all directions, Armagnac broke was determined to retake the city. The off the attack and commenced negotiations. French therefore tightened the blockade and Although Dorset was eager to reach an the garrison was in dire straits until JOHN,

305 VALOGNES, TREATY OF

DUKE OF BEDFORD, relieved the city in August ENGLAND [c. 1292–1358]). Because Edward 1416 after his victory at the Battle of the was only fifteen, a foreign ruler, and domi- SEINE. nated by his strong-willed mother, the Further Reading: Burne, Alfred H. The Agin- French nobility accepted the principle that a court War. Ware, England: Wordsworth Editions woman could not transmit a claim to the Ltd., 1999; Jacob, E. F. The Fifteenth Century, 1399– throne to her male heirs. Valois, a mature 1485. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1993. French nobleman with political and military experience, was thus crowned king of VALOGNES, TREATY OF. See CHARLES THE France as Philip VI. BAD,KING OF NAVARRE Despite the decision of 1328, Edward III’s claim to the Crown and that of another Va- VALOIS, HOUSE OF lois cousin in the female line, CHARLES THE A cadet branch of the House of CAPET, the BAD, king of Navarre, attracted the alle- House of VALOIS was the ruling dynasty of giance of discontented nobles and provinces, France from 1328 to 1589. During the HUN- especially after Philip’s 1337 confiscation of DRED YEARS WAR, the first five Valois kings— Plantagenet AQUITAINE led to war between PHILIP VI, JOHN II, CHARLES V, CHARLES VI, the two kingdoms. By 1340, with ROBERT OF and CHARLES VII—contended with the En- ARTOIS, the frustrated claimant to that glish royal Houses of PLANTAGENET and county; John de MONTFORT, the unsuccessful LANCASTER for control of western France and claimant to the duchy of BRITTANY; and for possession of the French Crown itself. James van ARTEVELDE, the leader of rebellion Despite decades of political instability and in FLANDERS, allied with him, Edward for- military defeat, the Valois had by the mid- mally claimed the French Crown. Philip’s fifteenth century secured their Crown, ex- reign ended in 1350, four years after a dis- pelled their English rivals, and expanded astrous defeat at CRE´ CY, and that of his son, the scope of their authority and the size of John II, ended in 1364 with the king in cap- their realm. tivity and his kingdom dismembered by the The family descended from Charles, count Treaty of BRE´ TIGNY, which recognized Plan- of Valois, the second son of Philip III (r. tagenet sovereignty in Aquitaine. 1270–85) and younger brother of PHILIP IV. Valois fortunes revived under Charles V, On his death in 1314, Philip IV left three who, by his death in 1380, had strengthened sons. The eldest, LOUIS X, died in 1316, royal authority and regained lost territory. leaving, after the death of his posthumous However, under Charles VI, a victim of son, John I, only daughters, whose claim to chronic mental illness, the Valois Crown the throne was set aside by their paternal was nearly destroyed by FRENCH CIVIL WAR, uncle PHILIP V. At a great council summoned the rise of an independent APPANAGE in by the new king in 1317, the French nobility BURGUNDY, and the military success of declared that females could not inherit HENRY V, who in 1420 had himself rec- the Crown. When Philip died in 1322, this ognized as heir to the French throne in the principle excluded his daughters from the Treaty of TROYES. Although both Henry V throne in favor of his younger brother and Charles VI died in 1422, leaving only the CHARLES IV. When Charles died without infant HENRY VI as heir to the two thrones, male heirs in 1328, the direct Capetian line Charles’s disinherited son required the in- ended, precipitating the first succession cri- tercession of JOAN OF ARC to finally be sis since 987. Because Valois had died in crowned as Charles VII in 1429, and decades 1325, the next heir in the male line was his of political maturation and military and son, Philip. However, Charles IV’s closest political reform to expel the English for good male heir was not his Valois cousin, but his in 1453. It was Charles’s son and grandson, nephew, EDWARD III of England, the son of Louis XI and Charles VIII, who finally ex- his sister Isabella (see ISABELLA,QUEEN OF tended the dynasty’s authority into Bur-

306 VERNEUIL, BATTLE OF gundy and Brittany and bequeathed to their glish-held towns along the Norman border. sixteenth-century successors a state in which This decision led, on 14 August, to the ca- Valois power was unchallenged. pitulation of Ivry to the English and of Further Reading: Famiglietti, Richard. Royal Verneuil to the French. Intrigue: Crisis at the Court of Charles VI, 1392– Apprised of the situation by Suffolk, who 1420. New York: AMS Press, 1986; Fowler, had been shadowing the allied force, Bed- Kenneth. The Age of Plantagenet and Valois: The ford marched for Verneuil on 16 August. Struggle for Supremacy, 1328–1498. New York: Pressed by the Scots leaders, Archibald G. P. Putnam’s Sons, 1967; Lewis, Peter S. Later DOUGLAS, earl of Douglas, and John STEW- Medieval France: The Polity. London: Macmillan, ART, earl of Buchan, who, according to one 1968. French source, were fanatically determined to engage the hated English, the allied VERNEUIL, BATTLE OF (1424) leaders reversed their earlier decision and Often known as the ‘‘second AGINCOURT,’’ deployed for battle in the plain north of the Battle of Verneuil occurred on 17 August Verneuil on 17 August. Seeing the enemy 1424 outside the town of Verneuil on the arrayed for combat, with the French on the Norman-Angevin border. Fought between allied left and sixty-five hundred Scots on an English army led by JOHN, DUKE OF the right, Bedford, who commanded the BEDFORD, regent of France, and a larger English right while Thomas MONTAGU, earl Franco-Scottish force commanded by Jean of Salisbury, led the left, drew up his nine de Harcourt, count of Aumaˆle, Verneuil was thousand (garrisons having been left at Ivry an overwhelming English victory that ef- and elsewhere) in the traditional English fectively destroyed the dauphinist field formation with men-at-arms in the center army and virtually eliminated the Scots as a and ARCHERS on the flanks. Except for small significant military presence for the rest of detachments of cavalry on the allied flanks the war. and two thousand mounted bowmen held in Determined to carry the war into dau- reserve in the English rear, all the men on phinist Maine and Anjou, Bedford, in the the field were dismounted. early summer of 1424, collected a force of The two armies faced each other for some more than ten thousand by combining time without any movement, a pause that troops recently arrived from England with allowed Douglas to inform Bedford that the men drawn from the garrisons and mobile Scots neither expected nor would give reserves of NORMANDY and northern France. quarter. A about four o’clock, Bedford sent Leaving ROUEN on 11 August, the duke his men forward. On the English right, the marched south to Ivry, which was then French cavalry swept down on the archers under siege by William de la POLE, earl of before the latter could set their traditional Suffolk. At almost the same time, a force of barrier of sharpened stakes. Although this almost fifteen thousand, comprising a con- action exposed it to flank attack, Bedford’s tingent of Scots, the levies of southern division drove forward and engaged the France, and mercenaries hired in Italy, French men-at-arms in their front. The marched north from Le Mans with the in- French cavalry drove into the English rear tention of driving the English from Nor- where they were quickly engaged and dri- mandy. When advance elements of these ven off by Bedford’s mobile reserve. Mean- armies made contact near Ivry on 13 August, while, the duke’s division, after almost an the leaders of the allied force, which was hour of some of the most intense combat of under the overall command of Aumaˆle, held the war, broke the French line and pursued a contentious council of war in which the it toward the town ditch, into which many senior French commanders overruled the men, including Aumaˆle, were driven and Scots and resolved to avoid battle. The army drowned. On the allied right, the Italian ca- would instead concentrate on retaking En- valry flanked Salisbury’s line and overran

307 VIGNOLLES, E´ TIENNE DE the English baggage park, which they pro- again for the dauphin at BAUGE´ in 1421 and ceeded to plunder until dispersed by the at VERNEUIL in 1424, and then joined the English reserve. That force, having already remaining dauphinist garrisons in Cham- broken the French cavalry, was now moving pagne, where he was captured by the En- to reinforce the English left where Salisbury glish when they overran the county after was hard pressed by the Scots. In a fortunate Verneuil. Free by the summer of 1427, La convergence, Bedford’s men reformed after Hire joined John, Bastard of Orle´ans (see theirpursuitofAumaˆle’sdivisionandpitched JOHN,COUNT OF DUNOIS AND LONGUEVILLE), into the Scots’ rear at about the same time in the successful relief of MONTARGIS.In the English reserve hit the Scots’ flank. Sur- 1428, he briefly seized Le Mans, and by the rounded and fighting valiantly, the Scots end of the year had joined his band of were slaughtered almost to the man. mercenaries with the besieged garrison of In a letter written two days later, Bedford ORLE´ ANS, from which he and the Bastard led put the allied dead at more than seventy- a series of unsuccessful sorties against the two hundred. Scottish losses were cata- English. In February 1429, La Hire and strophic, including Douglas, Buchan, and Xaintrailles supported the French retreat more than fifty men of rank. While the loss from the Battle of the HERRINGS; in late April, of nearly a thousand was costly for the La Hire rode to Blois with the Bastard to join English, who suffered chronic manpower the army of Joan of Arc. shortages, Verneuil rewarded the sacrifice According to the Journal of the Siege of by leaving dauphinist France open to attack. Orle´ans, La Hire, a rough and experienced See also SCOTLAND. soldier, became a loyal supporter of the Further Reading: Burne, Alfred H. The Agin- Maid, accepting her military advice and court War. Ware, England: Wordsworth Editions even refraining from swearing in her pre- Ltd., 1999; Williams, E. Carleton. My Lord of sence. He played a leading role in the relief Bedford, 1389–1435. London: Longmans, 1963. of Orle´ans in May and in the subsequent campaign to clear the Loire of English gar- VIGNOLLES, E´ TIENNE DE (c. 1390–1443) risons, being leader of the dauphinist van at Known as ‘‘La Hire’’ (Anger) for his fierce the campaign’s culminating victory at PATAY temper, E´ tienne de Vignolles was a military on 18 June. He took part in the Maid’s companion of JOAN OF ARC and one of the abortive attack on PARIS in September and, most able French captains of the fifteenth using Joan’s tactics of frontal assault, cap- century. Although a mercenary leader tured Chateau-Gaillard in 1430. However, whose raids were often launched on his own by Joan’s death in May 1431, the English had account, his most constant allegiance was to retaken the fortress and captured La Hire. CHARLES VII and his daring exploits and Ransomed by Charles VII, who had association with Joan made him a French named him bailiff of Vermandois in 1429, La national hero, whose likeness still survives Hire resumed his military career. In 1435, La as the jack in a traditional French deck of Hire and Xantrailles led a raid into BUR- playing cards. GUNDY that temporarily disrupted the peace Born in GASCONY, La Hire began his mili- conference at ARRAS. In January 1436, the tary career under BERNARD, COUNT OF AR- two captains invaded NORMANDY, reaching MAGNAC, leader of the ARMAGNAC faction the gates of ROUEN, which they hoped would during the FRENCH CIVIL WAR. In about 1418, be opened to them by sympathizers within La Hire and his frequent companion, Poton the walls. When this failed to occur, they de XAINTRAILLES, entered the service of the withdrew to Ry, where they were defeated dauphin, for whom they seized the castle of in a sharp skirmish by John TALBOT. There- Coucy. The two then campaigned in Lor- after, La Hire participated in the capture of raine, where they fought for a time in the PONTOISE in 1440, undertook an unsuccessful pay of the cardinal of Bar. La Hire fought relief of HARFLEUR in 1441, and assisted

308 THE VOW OF THE HERON

CHARLES, DUKE OF ORLE´ ANS, at the siege of La ing, 2003; Pernoud, Re´gine, and Marie-Ve´ronique Re´ole in 1442. La Hire died at Montauban in Clin. Joan of Arc. Trans. Jeremy Duquesnay 1443 of a fever contracted at La Re´ole. See Adams. New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1999. also LOIRE CAMPAIGN;RANSOM. Further Reading: DeVries, Kelly. Joan of Arc: A THE VOW OF THE HERON. See ROBERT OF Military Leader. Stroud, England: Sutton Publish- ARTOIS

309 W

WALES, PRINCE OF. See EDWARD, THE assembled a fleet of almost fifty vessels at BLACK PRINCE;EDWARD I; EDWARD II; EDWARD Sandwich. With the king commanding from III; HENRY V his cog Thomas, the English fleet set sail on 28 August. Among those commanding squad- WAR OF THE TWO JOANS. See BRETON rons were the king’s eldest son, EDWARD, THE CIVIL WAR BLACK PRINCE;HENRY OF GROSMONT, duke of Lancaster; and Thomas BEAUCHAMP, earl of WARWICK, EARL OF. See BEAUCHAMP,RI- Warwick. JOHN OF GAUNT, Edward’s ten- CHARD,EARL OF WARWICK;BEAUCHAMP,THO- year-old third son, was with his father, while MAS,EARL OF WARWICK John CHANDOS accompanied Prince Edward. On the evening of 29 August, the English WEAPONRY. See ARMOR AND NONMISSILE fleet intercepted a southbound Castilian WEAPONRY squadron of about twenty-four vessels off Dungeness. Although the English had the WHITE COMPANY. See ROUTIERS advantage of numbers, the Castilian vessels were larger, stronger, and higher, allowing WINCHELSEA, BATTLE OF (1350) their crews to sweep the crowded English Fought on 29 August 1350 in the English decks with crossbow bolts and catapult Channel within sight of the English port of missiles. Lacking ARTILLERY, the only way to Winchelsea, the naval battle of Winchelsea engage an enemy at sea was to grapple his (also known as Les-Espagnols-sur-Mer) was vessel with hooks and chains and send a result of EDWARD III’s attempt to clear the boarding parties of men-at-arms to fight an Channel of Castilian raiders. Although the approximation of a land battle on the ship’s bloody encounter was an English victory, decks. This the English did, taking heavy the Castilian fleet remained in existence, casualties until they were close enough to and the threat to English shipping and cross- board, when the advantage turned to them. Channel communications was not elimi- By nightfall, at least seventeen Castilian nated. vessels had been taken, with most of their Despite being included as French allies crews slain and thrown into the sea—few in the June 1350 extension of the Truce of onboard being deemed worthy of capture CALAIS, the seamen of Castile felt no obli- and RANSOM. English losses in both ships gation to honor an undertaking of PHILIP VI and men were high. With the prince’s ship of France. Accordingly, a Castilian fleet of sunk and the Thomas severely damaged, about forty vessels, operating out of Sluys both the king and his son were forced to and other Flemish bases and carrying a large transfer their flags to captured vessels. contingent of Flemish adventurers, launched Although Winchelsea was an impressive attacks on English shipping throughout the naval victory, many Castilian ships either es- summer of 1350. To end this threat to his vital caped or avoided the battle and continued, lines of communication and supply, Edward in concert with French vessels, to prey upon

310 WONDERFUL PARLIAMENT

English shipping. The Castilians might have Vol. 2, Trial by Fire. Philadelphia: University of been reduced in numbers, but their mere Pennsylvania Press, 2001. presence in the Channel disrupted trade and, by the end of the year, forced the WINCHESTER, BISHOP OF. See BEAUFORT, English to organize a convoy system, which HENRY,CARDINAL-BISHOP OF WINCHESTER was costly in men, money, and time, to protect merchant fleets crossing the Chan- WINDSOR, TREATY OF. See LONDON, nel. See also NAVAL WARFARE. FIRST TREATY OF Further Reading: Burne, Alfred H. The Cre´cy War. Ware, England: Wordsworth Editions Ltd., WONDERFUL PARLIAMENT. See RI- 1999; Sumption, Jonathan. The Hundred Years War. CHARD II

311 X

XAINTRAILLES, POTON DE (1400–1461) Exchanged for John TALBOT, a French Like his frequent associate E´ tienne de VIG- captive since Patay, Xaintrailles, although NOLLES, Poton de Xaintrailles (or Saintrailles) receiving a royal appointment as bailiff of was a famous mercenary captain who sup- Bourges, resumed his mercenary career, ported the dauphinist cause and fought joining La Hire on a raid into Burgundy that alongside JOAN OF ARC. Although for much disrupted the peace conference at ARRAS in of his career a leader of the e´corcheur bands 1435 and helping suppress a peasant revolt that pillaged northern France, Xaintrailles in NORMANDY in 1436. On his raids, Xain- rose eventually in royal service to become trailles acquired so much wealth in booty Viscount Bruillois and marshal of France. and ransoms that the king cited him by In 1418, Xaintrailles and Vignoles, known name when he ordered the ROUTIER bands of as ‘‘La Hire,’’ seized the castle of Courcy for Normandy to cease their attacks. In 1444, Dauphin Charles (see CHARLES VII), but in Xaintrailles accompanied Dauphin Louis 1421 both men were captured by the Bur- (the future Louis XI) on his campaign gundians at Mons-en-Vimeau and put to against the Swiss, but used the expedition as RANSOM. In 1424, Xaintrailles was in the Low a further opportunity to pillage on his own Countries in the service of PHILIP THE GOOD, account. However, following conclusion of duke of BURGUNDY. By 1429, he was back in the Truce of TOURS in 1444, Xaintrailles re- the dauphinist camp, having joined La Hire committed himself to royal service and be- and other captains at the siege of ORLE´ ANS. came a leader of the new standing army He participated in the Battle of the HERRINGS created by the king during the cessation of in February, in Joan of Arc’s relief of Orle´ans hostilities (see CHARLES VII, MILITARY RE- in May, and in the Maid’s LOIRE CAMPAIGN FORMS OF). Becoming royal master of horse, in June, during which he and La Hire led the Xaintrailles played an active role in the re- French van at the Battle of PATAY.On11 conquest of Normandy and was allowed to August 1431, during an unsuccessful dau- carry the ceremonial sword Joyeuse before phinist attempt to ambush JOHN, DUKE OF the king on his triumphal entry into Rouen BEDFORD, Richard BEAUCHAMP, earl of War- in November 1449. He was named governor wick, captured Xaintrailles at the Battle of of Falaise in 1450 and took part in the re- the Shepherd, which was so named because conquest of GASCONY in 1452–53. Appointed the English also captured there a French marshal of France in 1454, Xaintrailles be- shepherd boy who claimed to be a divinely came governor of Guienne (the former ordained successor to Joan of Arc. Carried to English AQUITAINE) in 1458. Xaintrailles died ROUEN, Xaintrailles received treatment very in BORDEAUX on 7 October 1461. different from that recently accorded the Further Reading: DeVries, Kelly. Joan of Arc: A Maid; the captive took his meals with War- Military Leader. Stroud, England: Sutton Publish- wick and was even presented to HENRY VI ing, 2003; Pernoud, Re´gine, and Marie-Ve´ronique when the boy-king passed through on his Clin. Joan of Arc. Trans. Jeremy Duquesnay way to his French coronation in PARIS. Adams. New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1999.

312 Y

YORK, DUKE OF. See EDMUND OF LANGLEY, DUKE OF YORK;RICHARD,DUKE OF YORK

313 314 Appendix 1: Genealogies 315 316 317 318 319 320 Appendix 2: Chronological Listing of Major Battles, Sieges, and Campaigns

Although the various phases of the Hundred Years War encompassed innumerable battles, sieges, sacks, skirmishes, assaults, ambushes, combats, and campaigns, only the largest, most important, or best known of these military actions are listed below. Naval battles and en- counters occurring outside France or a French fief are so noted.

Action Date Halidon Hill, Battle of (Scotland) 19 July 1333 Thie´rache Campaign 20 September–24 October 1339 Sluys, Battle of (naval) 24 June 1340 Tournai, Siege of 18 July–25 September 1340 Saint-Omer, Battle of 26 July 1340 Morlaix, Battle of 30 September 1342 Bergerac, Capture of late August 1345 Auberoche, Battle of 21 October 1345 Aiguillon, Siege of 1 April–20 August 1346 Cre´cy, Battle of 26 August 1346 Neville’s Cross, Battle of (Scotland) 17 October 1346 Calais, Siege of 4 September 1346–3 August 1347 La Roche-Derrien, Battle of 20 June 1347 Winchelsea, Battle of (naval)1 29 August 1350 Combat (Battle) of the Thirty 26 March 1351 Saintes, Battle of 1 April 1351 Mauron, Battle of 14 August 1352 Chevauche´e of 1355 5 October–9 December 1355 Poitiers, Battle of 19 September 1356 Nogent-sur-Seine, Battle of 23 June 1359 Rheims Campaign 4 November 1359–10 May 1360 Brignais, Battle of 6 April 1362 Cocherel, Battle of 16 May 1364 Auray, Battle of 29 September 1364 Na´jera, Battle of (Castile)2 3 April 1367 Limoges, Sack of 19 September 1370 La Rochelle, Battle of (naval) 23 June 1372 Chevauche´e of 1373 August 1373–January 1374 Cadzand, Battle of (naval)3 24 March 1387 Harfleur, Siege of 18 August–22 September 1415 Agincourt, Battle of 25 October 1415 Valmont, Battle of March 1416 Seine, Battle of the (naval) 15 August 1416

321 APPENDIX 2

Norman Campaign (English)4 1 August 1417–19 January 1419 Rouen, Siege of5 29 July 1418–19 January 1419 Fresnay, Battle of 3 March 1420 Melun, Siege of 9 July–18 November 1420 Bauge´, Battle of 22 March 1421 Meaux, Siege of 6 October 1421–2 May 1422 Cravant, Battle of 31 July 1423 Verneuil, Battle of 17 August 1424 Montargis, Siege of 15 July–5 September 1427 Orle´ans, Siege of 12 October 1428–8 May 1429 Herrings, Battle of the6 12 February 1429 Loire Campaign7 10–18 June 1429 Patay, Battle of8 18 June 1429 Pontoise, Siege of 6 June–19 September 1441 Fouge`res, Sack of 24 March 1449 Norman Campaign (French)9 12 August 1449–12 August 1450 Formigny, Battle of 15 April 1450 Castillon, Battle of 17 July 1453

1. Also known as the Battle of Les-Espagnols-sur-Mer. 2. Also known as the Battle of Navarrette. 3. Also known as the Battle of Margate. 4. The campaign effectively ended with the fall of Rouen on 19 January 1419, although a few Norman castles held out for several months more. 5. The capitulation of Rouen effectively ended Henry V’s Norman Campaign. 6. Also known as the Battle of Rouvray. 7. Concludes with the Battle of Patay on 18 June 1429. 8. Battle is final action of the French Loire Campaign. 9. Concludes with the fall of Cherbourg on 12 August 1450.

322 Appendix 3: European Monarchs and Rulers, 1250s–1450s

Below are listings of the rulers of the most important kingdoms and states of Western Europe in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries, including Aragon, Burgundy, Castile, England, Flanders, France, the Holy Roman Empire, Navarre, Portugal, and Scotland.

ARAGON CASTILE HOUSE OF CATALONIA HOUSE OF BURGUNDY Jaime I (1213–76) Alfonso X (1252–84) Pedro III (1276–85) Sancho IV 1284–95 Alfonso III (1285–91) Fernando IV (1295–1312) Jaime II (1219–1327) Alfonso XI (1312–50) Alfonso IV (1327–36) Pedro the Cruel (1350–69) Pedro IV (1336–87) Juan I (1387–95) HOUSE OF TRASTA´ MARE Martin the Humane (1395–1410) Henry II (1369–79) John I (1379–90) HOUSE OF TRASTA´ MARE Henry III (1390–1406) Fernando I (1412–16) John II (1406–54) Alfonso V (1416–58) ENGLAND BURGUNDY HOUSE OF PLANTAGENET CAPETIAN LINE OF DUKES Henry III (1216–72) Hugues IV (1218–72) Edward I (1272–1307) Robert II (1272–1305) Edward II (1307–27) Hugues V (1305–15) Edward III (1327–77) Eudes IV (1315–49) Richard II (1377–99) Philip de Rouvre (1349–61) HOUSE OF LANCASTER 1 VALOIS LINE OF DUKES Henry IV (1399–1413) Philip the Bold (1363–1404) Henry V (1413–22) John the Fearless (1404–19) Henry VI (1422–61, 1470–71)1 Philip the Good (1419–67)

1. During the English Wars of the Roses, Henry 1. When Duke Philip de Rouvre died childless in VI was deposed by his Yorkist cousin, Edward 1361, the duchy reverted to the French Crown; John IV, in 1461, briefly restored to the throne in 1470, II established the Valois line of dukes by granting and then deposed again (and eventually mur- Burgundy to his youngest son Philip in 1363. dered) in 1471.

323 APPENDIX 3

FLANDERS DAMPIERRE LINE OF COUNTS Charles IV (1347–78) Guy de Dampierre (1278–1305) Wenceslaus (1378–1400) Robert III de Be´thune (1305–22) Louis I de Nevers (1322–46) HOUSE OF WITTELSBACH Louis II de Maˆle (1346–84) Ruprech III (1400–10)

1 VALOIS LINE OF COUNTS HOUSE OF LUXEMBOURG Philip the Bold (1384–1404) Sigismund (1410–37) John the Fearless (1404–19) Philip the Good (1419–67) HOUSE OF HABSBURG Albert II (1438–39) Frederick III (1440–93) 1. Louis de Maˆle was succeeded by his son-in- law, Philip the Bold, duke of Burgundy; Flanders was thereafter ruled by the Burgundian dukes. NAVARRE HOUSE OF CHAMPAGNE Thibault II (1253–70) FRANCE Henry I (1270–74) HOUSE OF CAPET Jeanne I (1274–1305) and Philip II [Philip IV Louis IX (St. Louis) (1226–70) of France] (1285–1314)1 Philip III the Bold (1270–85) Philip IV the Fair (1285–1314) HOUSE OF CAPET Louis X the Quarrelsome (1314–16) Louis I [Louis X of France] (1314–16) John I (1316) Philip II [Philip V of France] (1316–22) Philip V the Tall (1316–22) Charles I [Charles IV of France] (1322–28) Charles IV the Fair (1322–28) Jeanne II (1328–49) and Philip III of Everux (1328–42)2 HOUSE OF VALOIS Philip VI (1328–50) John II the Good (1350–64) HOUSE OF EVREUX Charles V the Wise (1364–80) Charles II the Bad (1349–87) Charles VI (1380–1422) Charles III (1387–1425) Charles VII (1422–61) Blanca (1425–41) and John I of Trasta´mare [John II of Aragon] (1425–79)3

HOLY ROMAN EMPIRE (GERMANY) 1. Jeanne I, the daughter of Henry I married HOUSE OF HABSBURG Philip IV the Fair of France, who then ruled Na- Rudolf I (1273–91) varre in right of his wife. 2. Jeanne II, daughter of Louis X of France, HOUSE OF NASSAU inherited Navarre on the death of her last Capetian Adolf (1292–98) uncle Charles IV in 1328; Jeanne thereafter ruled Navarre with her husband Philip of Evreux.1 HOUSE OF HABSBURG Albert I (1298–1308) PORTUGAL HOUSE OF BURGUNDY HOUSE OF LUXEMBOURG Afonso III (1248–79) Henry VII (1309–13) Dinis (1279–1325) Afonso IV (1325–57) HOUSE OF WITTELSBACH Pedro (1357–67) Louis IV (1314–47) Fernando (1367–83)

324 APPENDIX 3

HOUSE OF AVIS INTERREGNUM (1296–1306) Joa˜o I (1385–1433) Duarte (1433–38) Afonso V (1438–81) HOUSE OF BRUCE Robert I (1306–29) SCOTLAND David II (1329–71) HOUSE OF DUNKELD Alexander III (1249–86) HOUSE OF STEWART (STUART) Margaret (1286–90) Robert II (1371–90) Robert III (1390–1406) INTERREGNUM (1290–92) James I (1406–37) James II (1437–60) HOUSE OF BALLIOL John (1292–96)

325 Appendix 4: Popes, 1294–1455

Below is a listing of all popes and anti-popes who reigned between 1294 and 1455. An * denotes French pope, while a # denotes those now regarded as anti-popes.

ROMAN POPES Boniface VIII (1294–1303) Benedict XI (1303–4) AVIGNON POPES *Clement V (1305–14) *John XXII (1316–34) #Nicholas V (1328–30)1 *Benedict XII (1334–42) *Clement VI (1342–52) *Innocent VI (1352–62) *Urban V (1362–70) *Gregory XI (1370–78) GREAT SCHISM ROMAN LINE AVIGNON LINE PISA LINE Urban VI (1378–89) Clement VII (1378–94) Boniface IX (1389–1404) Benedict XIII (1394–1417)2 Alexander V (1409–10) Innocent VII (1404–6) Clement VIII (1423–29)3 John XXIII (1410–15)4 Gregory XII (1406–15)5

ROMAN POPES Martin V (1417–31) Eugenius IV (1431–47) #Felix V (1439–49)6 Nicholas V (1447–55)

1. Crowned by Emperor Louis IV, who quarreled with John XXII and declared him deposed, Nicholas V was an Italian cleric whose authority was not recognized outside parts of Italy. 2. Deposed by the Council of Constance in 1415 3. Voluntarily abdicated in favor of Martin V in July 1429. 4. Deposed by the Council of Pisa in 1409 and the Council of Constance in 1415 and formally submitted to Martin V in 1419. 5. Deposed by the Council of Pisa in 1409, but formally resigned to the Council of Constance in July 1415. 6. Selected as pope by the Council of Basle in an irregular election, Felix V, the former Duke Amadeus VIII of Savoy, was never recognized beyond his own duchy and a few small Italian states; he abdicated in favor of Nicholas V in April 1449.

326 Appendix 5: Holders of Selected English, French, and Continental Titles of Nobility during the Hundred Years War

Listed below are the individuals who held the chief titles of nobility under the English and French Crowns, as well as among the principalities of the Low Countries, during the Hundred Years War. Although these men were the chief military and political figures in their respective realms, it is often difficult to know which particular member of a noble family is being dis- cussed since they are usually referred to only by their titles. Note the frequent intermarriage between royal and noble families and the resulting consolidation of territories within families, particularly the accumulation of provinces in the Low Countries by the Valois dukes of Bur- gundy. Note also how many noblemen were slain or captured during major battles of the war.

ENGLISH NOBILITY Gloucester, Dukes of Bedford, Dukes of Thomas of Woodstock (1385–97), son John (1414–35), son of Henry IV; brother of Edward III; uncle of Richard II of Henry V title lapsed on duke’s death; likely title lapsed on duke’s death murdered by orders of Richard II Humphrey (1414–47), son of Henry IV; brother of Henry V Clarence, Dukes of title lapsed on duke’s death Lionel (1362–68), son of Edward III; uncle of Richard II Lancaster, Dukes of title lapsed on duke’s death Henry of Grosmont (1351–61), cousin Thomas (1412–21), son of Henry IV; of Edward III brother of Henry V title lapsed on duke’s death title lapsed on duke’s death at Battle John of Gaunt (1362–99), son of Edward III; of Bauge´ uncle of Richard II granted father-in-law’s title Exeter, Dukes of Henry of Bolingbrook (1399), son of John of Gaunt, duke of Lancaster John Holland (1397–1400) succeeded father; became king as title forfeited upon duke’s execution for Henry IV, 1399 treason by Henry IV Henry of Monmouth (1399–1413), son Thomas Beaufort (1416–26), half-brother of Henry IV of Henry IV succeeded father; became king as title lapsed on duke’s death Henry V and title merged with John Holland (1444–47) Crown, 1413 son of first Holland duke of Exeter; restored to father’s title March, Earls of Henry Holland (1447–75) Roger Mortimer (1328–30) succeeded father; title lapsed on duke’s title forfeited upon earl’s execution for death treason by Edward III

327 APPENDIX 5

Roger Mortimer (1348–60) John Montagu (1397–1400) restored to grandfather’s title succeeded uncle; title forfeited on earl’s Edmund Mortimer (1360–81) execution for treason by Henry IV, succeeded father 1400 Roger Mortimer (1381–98) Thomas Montagu (1421–28) succeeded father; named heir restored to father’s title presumptive to Richard II Richard Neville (1428–60) Edmund Mortimer (1398–1425) granted father-in-law’s title by right succeeded father; briefly heir of his wife, 1428 presumptive to Richard II Richard, duke of York (1425–60) Shrewsbury, Earls of succeeded uncle John Talbot (1442–53) slain at Battle of Castillon, 1453 John Talbot (1453–60) Northampton, Earls of succeeded father William de Bohun (1337–60) Humphrey de Bohun (1360–73) Somerset, Dukes/Earls of succeeded father; title lapsed on earl’s John Beaufort (1397–1409), half brother death of Henry IV Henry of Bolingbroke (1384–99), son of John created earl of Somerset of Gaunt, duke of Lancaster Henry Beaufort (1409–19) granted father-in-law’s title; became succeeded father as earl of king as Henry IV, 1399 Somerset Anne (1399–1438), daughter of Thomas John Beaufort (1419–44) of Woodstock, duke of Gloucester succeeded brother as earl; created succeeded as countess through her duke, 1443 mother, Eleanor de Bohun; title Edmund Beaufort (1444–55) lapsed on countess’s death succeeded brother as earl; created duke, 1448 Princes of Wales Suffolk, Dukes/Earls of Edward (1301–7), son of Edward I became king as Edward II, 1307 Robert de Ufford (1337–69) Edward, the Black Prince (1330–76), son created earl of Suffolk of Edward III; father of Richard II William de Ufford (1369–82) predeceased father, 1376 succeeded father as earl; title lapsed Richard of Bordeaux (1376–77), son of on earl’s death Edward, the Black Prince Michael de la Pole (1385–88) became king as Richard II, 1377 stripped of title by Lords Appellant, Henry of Monmouth (1399–1413), son 1388; died in exile, 1389 of Henry IV Michael de la Pole (1399–1415) became king as Henry V, 1413 restored to father’s earldom by Henry IV; Edward of Lancaster (1453–71), son died at siege of Harfleur of Henry VI Michael de la Pole (1415) predeceased father, 1471 succeeded father as earl; slain at Battle of Agincourt William de la Pole (1415–50) Salisbury, Earls of succeeded brother as earl, 1415; created William Montagu (1337–44) marquis, 1444; created duke, 1448; William Montagu (1344–97) stripped of dukedom and banished, succeeded father 1450

328 APPENDIX 5

Warwick, Earls of John (1415–74) Thomas Beauchamp (1315–69) succeeded father as duke; captured at Thomas Beauchamp (1369–1401) Battle of Verneuil, 1424; fought with succeeded father; stripped of title by Joan of Arc at Orle´ans, 1429; Richard II, 1397–99; restored by stripped of title by Charles VII, Henry IV, 1399 1474 Richard Beauchamp (1401–39) succeeded father Anjou, Dukes/Counts of Henry Beauchamp (1439–45) John (1332–50), son of Philip VI succeeded father; created duke, 1444; title lapsed at count’s accession as title of duke lapsed on duke’s death John II Louis (1356–84), son of John II York, Dukes of created count, 1356; created duke, 1360 Edmund of Langley (1384–1402), son Louis (1384–1417) of Edward III; uncle of Richard II succeeded father as duke Edward (1402–15) Louis (1417–34) slain at Battle of Agincourt; title forfeited succeeded father ´ through treason of duke’s brother, Rene (1434–80) Richard, earl of Cambridge, 1415 succeeded brother Richard (1425–60), son of Richard, earl of Cambridge Armagnac, Counts of restored to uncle’s title John (1319–73) launched ‘‘Appeal of the Gascon Lords,’’ 1368 FRENCH AND CONTINENTAL John (1373–84) NOBILITY succeeded father Albret, Lords of John (1384–91) Bernard-Aiz (1324–59) succeeded father Arnaud-Amanieu (1359–1401) Bernard (1391–1418) succeeded father succeeded brother; leader of Armagnac Charles (1401–15) faction during French civil war; slain by succeeded father; slain at Battle Burgundian mob in Paris of Agincourt, 1415 John (1418–50) Charles (1415–71) succeeded father succeeded father Artois, Counts of Alenc¸on, Dukes/Counts of Jeanne, countess of Burgundy (1330–47) Charles (1325–46), brother of Philip VI succeeded mother as countess succeeded father as count; slain at Battle Eudes, duke of Burgundy (1330–47) of Cre´cy ruled county by right of wife, Jeanne Charles (1346–61) Philip de Rouvre, duke of Burgundy succeeded father (1347–61) Peter (1361–91) succeeded grandmother succeeded brother, who resigned county Margaret of France (1361–82) to enter Church, 1361 succeeded sister’s grandson John (1391–1415) Louis de Male, count of Flanders (1382–84) succeeded father as count; created succeeded mother duke, 1414; slain at Battle of Marguerite de Flanders (1384–1405) Agincourt succeeded father

329 APPENDIX 5

Philip the Bold, duke of Burgundy Charles of Blois (1341–64) (1384–1404) awarded duchy by his uncle, Philip VI; ruled county by right of wife, slain at Battle of Auray Marguerite John IV (1364–99), son of John de Montfort John the Fearless, duke of Burgundy (1405–19) won duchy at Battle of Auray succeeded mother John V (1399–1442) Philip the Good, duke of Burgundy (1419–67) succeeded father succeeded father Francis I (1442–50) succeeded father Berry, Dukes of Peter II (1450–57) John (1360–1416), son of John II succeeded brother Marie (1416–34) Arthur III (1457–58) succeeded father as duchess of Berry; succeeded nephew appanage reverted to the Crown on death of duchess Burgundy, Duke of Eudes IV (1315–49) Philip de Rouvre (1349–61) Bourbon, Dukes of succeeded grandfather Louis (1327–42) John II (1361–63) created duke by Charles IV, 1327 duchy reverted to Crown Peter (1342–56) Philip the Bold (1363–1404) succeeded father; slain at Battle of Poitiers created duke by his father, John II Louis (1356–1410) John the Fearless (1404–19) succeeded father succeeded father John (1410–34) Philip the Good 1419–67 succeeded father; captured at Battle of succeeded father Agincourt, 1415, and died in captivity Charles (1434–56) Dauphins of France succeeded father Charles (future Charles V) (1349–64), son of John II Brabant, Duke of Charles (future Charles VI) (1368–80), son John (1312–55) of Charles V Joan (1355–1404) Charles (1389), son of Charles VI succeeded father as duchess Charles (1392–1401), son of Charles VI Antoine (1404–15), son of Philip the Bold, Louis, duke of Guienne (1401–15), son duke of Burgundy of Charles VI succeeded aunt; among prisoners slain John, duke of Touraine (1415–17), son of at Battle of Agincourt Charles VI John (1415–27) Charles (future Charles VII) (1417–22), son succeeded father of Charles VI Philip (1427–30) Louis (future Louis XI) (1423–61), son succeeded brother of Charles VII Philip the Good, duke of Burgundy (1430–67) succeeded cousin Flanders, Counts of Robert de Be´thune (1305–22) Brittany, Duke of Louis de Nevers (1322–46) John III (1312–41) succeeded grandfather; slain at Battle John de Montfort (1341) of Cre´cy failed in bid to succeed his half brother, Louis de Male (1346–84) 1341 succeeded father

330 APPENDIX 5

Marguerite de Flanders (1384–1405) Albrecht I (1388–1404) succeeded father as countess of succeeded brother Flanders William VI (1404–17) Philip the Bold, duke of Burgundy succeeded father (1384–1404) John III (1418–25) ruled county in wife’s right brother of William VI; disputed John the Fearless, Duke of Burgundy succession with niece (1405–19) Jacqueline (1417–32) succeeded mother daughter of William VI; disputed Philip the Good, Duke of Burgundy succession with uncle; forced to yield (1419–67) county to duke of Burgundy, 1432 succeeded father Philip the Good, duke of Burgundy (1432–67) Hainault, Counts of William III (1304–37) Orle´ans, Duke of married sister of Philip VI Philip (1344–75), son of Philip VI William IV (1337–45), brother of Queen title lapsed upon duke’s death Philippa, wife of Edward III Louis (1392–1407), son of Charles V; brother succeeded father of Charles VI Margaret (1345–56), sister of Queen murdered by agents of John the Fear- Philippa, wife of Edward III less, duke of Burgundy succeeded brother as countess Charles (1407–65) William V (1356–88) succeeded father; captured at Battle of succeeded mother as count Agincourt, 1415

331 Appendix 6: Constables and Marshals of France and England during the Hundred Years War

The offices of constable and marshal were hereditary in England, but not in France, where the holders of both offices, but especially the constables, were particularly active in military command during the Hundred Years War. In England, the office of Lord High Constable was attached to the earldom of Hereford in the early twelfth century and so remained in the Bohun family until it passed through them to the Staffords in the late fourteenth century. In 1521, the office passed to the Crown with the execution of Henry, duke of Buckingham, its last Stafford holder. Since then, constables have only been appointed for coronations. The office of Lord Marshal of England (known as Earl Marshal after 1397) passed by inheritance to the Mowbray dukes of Norfolk in the late fourteenth century.

CONSTABLES OF ENGLAND Thomas Holland, duke of Surrey (1398–99) John de Bohun, fifth earl of Hereford appointed by Richard II after Norfolk’s (1321–35) banishment Humphrey de Bohun, sixth earl of Hereford Ralph Neville, earl of Westmorland (1335–61) (1400–1412) Humphrey de Bohun, seventh earl of appointed by Henry IV after Surrey’s Hereford (1361–72) rebellion Thomas of Woodstock, duke of Gloucester John Mowbray, second duke of Norfolk (1372–97) (1412–32) son of Edward III and son-in-law son of first duke of Norfolk of seventh earl of Hereford John Mowbray, third duke of Norfolk Humphrey, earl of Buckingham (1397–99) (1432–61) son of duke of Gloucester Edmund Stafford, earl of Stafford (1399–1403) CONSTABLES OF FRANCE son-in-law of duke of Gloucester Gaucher de Chatillon (1307–29) Humphrey Stafford, duke of Buckingham Raoul I of Brienne, count of Eu (1329–44) (1403–60) Raoul II of Brienne, count of Eu (1344–50) son of earl of Stafford English prisoner, 1346–50; executed for treason by John II, 1350 MARSHALS OF ENGLAND Charles of Spain (1350–54) Thomas of Brotherton, earl of Norfolk murdered by Charles the Bad, king of (1315–38) Navarre, 1354 half brother of Edward II Jacques, count of La Marche (1354–56) Margaret, duchess of Norfolk (1338–85) Walter VI of Brienne (1356) daughter of earl of Norfolk; only woman slain at the Battle of Poitiers, 1356 ever to hold the office Robert Morean de Fiennes Thomas Mowbray, first duke of Norfolk (1356–70) (1385–98) Bertrand du Guesclin (1370–80) grandson of duchess of Norfolk Olivier IV de Clisson (1380–92)

332 APPENDIX 6

Philip of Artois, count of Eu Jean de Clermont (1352–56) (1392–97) slain at the Battle of Poitiers, 1356 Louis, count of Sancerre (1397–1402) Jean de Boucicaut (1356–67) Charles d’Albret (1403–11) Valeran III of Luxembourg (1411–13) Appointed by Charles V Charles d’Albret (1413–15) Jean de Mauquenchy (1368–91) slain at the Battle of Agincourt, 1415 Louis, count of Sancerre (1369–1402) Bernard VII, count of Armagnac (1415–18) Appointed by Charles VI murdered in Paris by a Burgundian Jean II de Boucicaut (1391–1421) mob, 1418 captured at the Battle of Agincourt, Charles, duke of Lorraine (1418–25) 1415 John Stewart, earl of Buchan, (1421–24) Jean de Rieux (1397–1417) Arthur de Richemont (1425–58) Pierre de Rieux (1417–39) became Arthur III, duke of Claude de Beauvoir (1418–53) Brittany, 1457 Jean de Villiers de L’Isle-Adam (1418–37) Jacques de Montberon (1418–22) MARSHALS OF FRANCE Gilbert Motier de la Fayette (1421–64) Appointed by Philip VI Antoine de Vergy (1422–39) Anseau de Joinville (1339–43) Jean de la Baume (1422–35) Charles de Montmorency (1344–81) Robert de Waurin (1344–60) Appointed by Charles VII Guy de Nesle (1345–52) Amaury de Se´verac (1424–27) Edouard de Beaujeau (1347–51) Jean de Brosse (1426–33) Gilles de Laval-Montmorency (1429–40) Appointed by John II Andre´ de Laval-Montmorency (1439–86) Arnoul d’Audrehem (1351–70) Philippe de Culant (1441–54) Rogues de Hangest (1352) Poton de Xaintrailles (1454–61)

333 Appendix 7: Counties, Duchies, and Regions of Medieval France

Provided below are brief descriptions and to the east, and Saintonge to the west. Its histories for some of the largest and most only sizable town was Angouleˆme on the important French counties, duchies, and Charent. The county was incorporated into regions mentioned in the entries. For Aqui- the duchy of Aquitaine in the eleventh cen- taine, Brittany, Burgundy, Flanders, Gas- tury and passed to the Plantagenets in the cony, and Normandy, see the individual 1150s when Henry II of England married entries for each in the main entry listing. Eleanor, duchess of Aquitaine. In 1200, Please also refer to the map of provinces on Henry’s son John abducted and married page li. Isabella, the heiress of the county, an action that initiated Capetian intervention and led AGENAIS by the 1220s to the French conquest of the Located in southwestern France between the Angoumois and most of the rest of the rivers Dordogne and Garonne, the Agenais Plantagenet holdings in France. In 1314, was a county of shifting and irregular the Angoumois was incorporated into the boundaries centered on the town of Agen. French royal domain, but in 1360 the Treaty Controlled by the dukes of Aquitaine since of Bre´tigny included the county in Plan- the ninth century, the Agenais passed with tagenet Aquitaine. In the 1370s, the county the duchy to the English Crown in the was reconquered by the Valois. twelfth century. Richard I granted the Agenais to the count of Toulouse in 1196, ANJOU and English claims to the country thereafter Anjou was an important medieval princi- lapsed until 1259, when the Treaty of Paris pality located in west-central France and restored Aquitaine to the English Crown centered on the town of Angers, which and allowed Henry III to reassert a claim to stood at the confluence of the rivers Loire the Agenais. Although returned to the and Mayenne. In the early twelfth century, Plantagenets in 1279, the county remained in the county of Maine was permanently at- dispute between the Crowns and from 1293 tached to Anjou through marriage. The was administered by both French and En- English ruling House of Plantagenet des- glish officials. The Agenais saw heavy fight- cended from Count Geoffrey of Anjou, who ing and suffered severe destruction during married Matilda, the daughter of Henry I of the first decades of the Hundred Years War. England, in 1128. On Henry’s death in 1135, The Treaty of Bre´tigny restored the province Geoffrey made good his wife’s claim to the to England in 1360, but the French regained duchy of Normandy, which he conquered in the county for good in the campaign of 1370. 1144, but England, after a long civil war, remained under the rule of Matilda’s cousin, ANGOUMOIS Stephen. On Geoffrey’s death in 1151, his The Angoumois was a small county in west- son Henry became count of Anjou and duke central France bordered by Poitou on the of Normandy, and, in 1152, upon his mar- north, Pe´rigord on the south, the Limousin riage to Eleanor of Aquitaine, ruler of that

334 APPENDIX 7 duchy. After 1154, when Henry succeeded The county finally passed to the French Stephen as King Henry II of England, Anjou Crown in 1589. stood at the heart of an English continental empire that stretched across western France ARTOIS from Normandy to the Pyrenees. An important cloth-producing county of Henry’s son, King John, lost Anjou to the northwestern France, Artois belonged to the French in 1202 and John’s son, Henry III, counts of Flanders until 1180 when it came renounced English claims to the county in to the House of Capet through marriage. the Treaty of Paris in 1259. John II made Louis VIII gave the county as an appanage Anjou the appanage of his second son, to his son Robert, the younger brother of Louis, duke of Anjou. In the fifteenth cen- Louis IX. When Count Robert II died at the tury, Anjou was a key Anglo-French battle- Battle of Courtrai in 1302, succession to the ground, the Battle of Bauge´ being fought county was disputed between his daughter, there in 1421. Although Maine and other Mahaut, countess of Burgundy, and his parts of the duchy fell under English control grandson, Robert of Artois. Philip IV decided in the late 1420s, most of this territory, save in favor of Mahaut, but Robert continued to for Maine, was retaken by the Valois over press his claim with each succeeding mon- the next decade. In 1445, Margaret, the arch, particularly Charles IV and Philip VI, daughter of Re´ne, duke of Anjou, married with whom he was in high favor. However, Henry VI of England. During negotiations because Mahaut’s descendants had married for the match, the English king agreed to Eudes, duke of Burgundy, and Louis de surrender Maine to Charles VII, who finally Nevers, count of Flanders, those two pow- regained possession of that county in 1448. erful noblemen prevailed upon Philip VI to again rule against Robert, who then fled to ARMAGNAC England where he recognized Edward III as Armagnac, a county of southwestern France, king of France. In 1337, Philip cited Ed- was part of the early medieval duchy of ward’s support for Robert as one of his Gascony and as such was incorporated into reasons for confiscating the duchy of Aqui- the duchy of Aquitaine in the 1050s. In the taine. twelfth and thirteenth centuries, the counts In 1382, Louis de Male, count of Flanders, of Armaganc were vassals of the Plantagenet inherited Artois from his mother, a grand- king-dukes of Aquitaine, Count Bernard-Aiz daughter of Mahaut. In 1384, Louis’s death V being especially noted for his service to passed the county to his daughter Mar- Henry III in the 1240s. In the fourteenth guerite, duchess of Burgundy. At Marguer- century, the counts acquired significant new ite’s death in 1405, Artois was inherited by fiefs under French lordship, a circumstance her son, John the Fearless, duke of Bur- that weakened their allegiance to the English gundy, and thus became part of the great Crown. In 1368, John, count of Armagnac, Burgundian principality of the fifteenth unhappy with taxes imposed by his over- century. lord, Edward, the Black Prince, appealed to the Parlement against the prince in defiance AUVERGNE of the Treaty of Bre´tigny, under which Ar- Auvergne was a large region of central magnac was assigned to the sovereign France that in the late ninth century became Plantagenet principality of Aquitaine. This part of the territory of the duke of Aquitaine. appeal of the Gascon lords restarted the Neither the counts of Auvergne nor their Hundred Years War and ended Armagnac’s feudal overlords, the dukes of Aquitaine, connection with the English dynasty. During exercised a strong hold over the region, the French civil war in the 1410s, Bernard which from the tenth through the twelfth VII, count of Armagnac, became constable of centuries witnessed continuous wars be- France and leader of the Armagnac faction. tween various local lords. In the 1150s,

335 APPENDIX 7

Auvergne, with the rest of Aquitaine, be- litically important in the early twelfth cen- came part of the continental empire ruled by tury. In 1135, Stephen, the younger brother the English House of Plantagenet; however, of Count Thibaut of Blois, succeeded his in 1189, Henry II of England recognized the maternal uncle, Henry I, as king of England, suzerainty of Philip II of France over the but was himself followed on the throne by region. In 1225, Louis VIII granted Auvergne his cousin’s son, Henry, count of Anjou. The as a appanage to his son Alphonse of Poi- English dynasty founded by Henry II was tiers, the younger brother of Louis IX. Under thus Angevin, not Bloisian, and Blois never the 1360 Treaty of Bre´tigny, Auvergne was became part of the Plantagenet empire in assigned to John II of France, who gave it as France. During the Hundred Years War, the an appanage to his son John, duke of Berry. counts of Blois supported the House of Va- lois. Count Guy I married a sister of Philip BERRY VI, who made his younger nephew, Charles The region of central France lying south of of Blois, duke of Brittany in 1341. Charles the Loire and west of Burgundy, Berry came was eventually slain at Auray in 1364, thus into the possession of the royal House of ending the Breton civil war. Charles’s elder Capet in 1101. In 1137, Berry was granted to brother, Count Louis, died fighting for the Eleanor of Aquitaine as a dowry upon her French at Cre´cy in 1346. Count Guy II, who marriage to Louis VII of France. Upon the subsidized part of Jean Froissart’s Chronicles, annulment of that marriage, Eleanor sold Blois to Charles VI’s brother, Louis, brought Berry to her new husband, Henry, duke of Orle´ans, in 1391, allowing Blois to count of Anjou, whom she married in 1152. be incorporated into the royal domain in the When the count became Henry II of England late fifteenth century. in 1154, Berry became part of the Plan- tagenet empire in France. In 1200, Henry’s BOURBON/BOURBONNAIS son, King John, returned Berry to the Ca- The Bourbonnais was a lordship of central petians, whose control of the region grew France lying southwest of Burgundy, during the thirteenth century. In 1360, John southeast of Blois, north of Auvergne, and II granted Berry as an appanage to his son east of Poitou. Known for its wines, the John, who, as duke of Berry, used duchy Bourbonnais, centered on the town of revenues to finance his artistic collections. In Moulins, was a fief of the French Crown 1411–12, Berry was a battleground of the from at least the tenth century. In 1327, French civil war, the duke being one of the Charles IV of France traded his county of La leaders of the Armagnac faction. With Paris Marche to Louis, lord of the Bourbonnais, under Anglo-Burgundian control between for his county of Clermont. As part of this 1418 and 1436, Bourges, the capital of Berry, arrangement, Charles also created Louis was the seat of the Valois government under duke of Bourbon. Now peers of France, the Charles VII, who was sometimes derisively dukes of Bourbon frequently married their known as the ‘‘King of Bourges.’’ On the children into the royal House of Valois. death of Duke John’s daughter Marie in Duke Louis’s son married the sister of Philip 1434, Berry was reattached to the French VI, while his granddaughter married Crown. Charles V. Duke Louis II was thus an uncle of Charles VI and a prominent member of BLOIS Charles’s minority government. The Bour- A county in north-central France lying east bonnais suffered severely from the depre- of Anjou and southwest of Paris and Or- dations of routiers in the late fourteenth le´ans, Blois was for a time in the Middle century, and from the weak government that Ages dynastically linked with the counties resulted from the nineteen-year imprison- of Champagne and Chartres. Centered on ment of Duke John I following his capture the Loire town of Blois, the county was po- at Agincourt in 1415. However, the duchy

336 APPENDIX 7 revived in the fifteenth century under John’s France as the wife of Philip IV. Through her son and grandson and by 1500 the Bourbon great-grandmother, Jeanne was also queen territories constituted the largest block of of Navarre. Control of Champagne passed to nonroyal lands in France. The duchy was Jeanne’s son, Louis X, who left it to his finally confiscated by the Crown in the 1520s daughter Jeanne. However, Louis’s brothers, following the rebellion of the last duke. Philip V and Charles IV, dispossessed their niece and Champagne was attached to the BRABANT French Crown. The county was hard hit by Although lying entirely within the Holy the Black Death in the 1340s, the Jacquerie in Roman Empire, the duchy of Brabant, a the 1350s, and routier bands in the 1370s. Low Country principality that is today part Although the first routier incursions were of Belgium, was predominantly French- repelled following the battle of Nogent-sur- speaking. The lord of Brabant took the title Seine in 1359, the English caused much de- of duke in 1086. Like Flanders, Brabant de- struction during the Rheims Campaign and veloped important cloth-making towns, English and Burgundian forces operated in such as Antwerp and Brussels, which were the region in the 1420s, particularly during assimilated into the duchy in the early four- the sieges of Melun and Meaux. The county teenth century through a series of power- thus suffered a severe demographic and sharing arrangements with the duke. The economic decline that was not reversed until dukes supported King John of England the late fifteenth century. against Philip II of France in the early thir- teenth century, but after John’s defeat at DAUPHINE´ (VIENNOIS) Bouvines in 1214, Brabant maintained a The rulers of the Dauphine´, a region of careful neutrality between England and southeastern France lying east of the Rhoˆne, France. In the late 1330s, Duke John III north of Provence, and west of Italy, called briefly reversed this policy by joining Ed- themselves counts of Vienne until the late ward III’s anti-French coalition; although thirteenth century, when they took the title after the breakup of that alliance in the early of dauphin for themselves and Dauphine´ for 1340s, he moved closer to France by marry- their principality. In 1349, Humbert II sold ing his daughter, Jeanne, into the pro-French the Dauphine´ to Philip VI, who bestowed it House of Luxembourg. In 1390, John’s as an appanage on his eldest grandson, daughter designated her niece, Marguerite the future Charles V, who thereby became of Flanders, as her heir. However, when the first royal holder of the title dauphin. Jeanne outlived her niece, the duchy passed Because acquisition of the Dauphine´ rep- to Antoine, a young son of Marguerite and resented the first extension of French sov- her husband, Philip the Bold, duke of Bur- ereignty beyond the Rhoˆne, the title and the gundy. Brabant was incorporated into Bur- appanage were thereafter reserved for the gundy in 1430 when Antoine’s line failed. heir to the throne.

CHAMPAGNE HAINAULT Champagne was a large county lying east of Hainault was a county in the Low Countries Paris and bounded by the rivers Aisne, lying southeast of Flanders and entirely Marne, and Yonne. Occupying a flat, fertile within the Holy Roman Empire. Bound in a plain, Champagne became one of the dynastic union with the wealthiest and most powerful feudal terri- since 1299, Hainault in the late 1320s began a tories of medieval France. In the thirteenth close association with England due to the century, the counts came increasingly under marriage of Philippa, daughter of Count royal influence, with Count Thibaut V mar- William III, to the future Edward III. Ar- rying a daughter of Louis IX and his ranged by Edward’s mother, Queen Isabella, granddaughter, Jeanne, becoming queen of the match gave her the men she needed to

337 APPENDIX 7 overthrow her husband, Edward II, in 1326. cipitated a series of urban revolts across the In the 1330s, many men from Hainault, such region between 1378 and 1382. A revolt of as the queen’s uncle, John of Hainault; Sir the peasantry, known as the rebellion of the Walter Mauny; and Jean le Bel, came to Tuchins, was not suppressed until 1384. England to offer their services, both military Nonetheless, in the 1420s, support for the and literary, to Edward III. Philippa’s Crown revived along with the economy, and brother, Count William IV, joined Edward’s the region provided both men and money anti-French coalition in the late 1330s, but he for the armies of Charles VII. The last great died in 1345 and Hainault thereafter moved independent fiefs in the region, the counties outside the English orbit, despite Edward’s of Armagnac and Foix, were incorporated attempts to push his wife’s claims to the into the Crown in 1589. county. In 1417, the last count was suc- ceeded by his daughter, Jacqueline, who in LANGUEDOIL 1422 left her husband, the duke of Brabant, The term ‘‘Langue d’oı¨l’’ arose in the late to marry Humphrey, duke of Gloucester, the Middle Ages to describe the region north of brother of Henry V. Gloucester’s military the linguistic frontier that divided those intervention in Hainault threatened the areas where Old French was spoken from eventual Burgundian acquisition of the those areas where Occitan was spoken. The county and thus severely strained the Anglo- frontier was defined roughly by the Dor- Burgundian alliance. However, Gloucester dogne River and the Cevennes Mountains in abandoned his wife and Philip the Good, south-central France, with the Languedoil duke of Burgundy, invaded the county, being the northern two-thirds of France, which was formally annexed to the Bur- where people spoke Old French, and the gundian domain in 1433. Languedoc being the southern one-third, where the natives spoke Occitan. During the LANGUEDOC Hundred Years War, the French Crown In its broad linguistic sense, the term ‘‘Lan- based many administrative and fiscal divi- gue d’oc’’ referred to the southern third of sions on these regions. The most important France, roughly the provinces south of the of these concerned the Estates-General, River Dordogne in which the Occitan lan- whose meetings occasionally comprised guage was spoken. Politically, Languedoc only representations from the Languedoil; referred to the block of provinces in extreme historians usually refer to such assemblies as south-central France that in the early thir- the Estates General of Languedoil. teenth century were the heartlands of Catharism, a heretical movement that was LIMOUSIN eradicated during the Albigensian Crusade Comprising the northeastern portion of of the 1210s by crusaders from northern medieval Aquitaine, the Limousin was a France led by Simon de Montfort. In 1224, large, thinly populated county in central Montfort’s descendents ceded their rights in France. Bounded by Poitou to the west, the region to Louis VIII, who thus brought Auvergne to the east, Berry and La Marche Languedoc under royal authority. to the north, and Quercy and Pe´rigord to Languedoc suffered severe destruction the south, the Limousin had only one sizable during the Hundred Years War. Edward, town, its capital, Limoges. From the late ninth the Black Prince, devastated the region century, the county was under the authority during the Chevauche´e of 1355, and routiers of the counts of Poitou and then the dukes of caused serious damage, particularly in Aquitaine. When Henry II of England mar- Quercy, Rouergue, and the Agenais, in the ried Eleanor, duchess of Aquitaine, in the 1360s and 1370s. The region suffered severe 1150s, the county passed to the Plantagenets, famines in 1335, 1351, and 1374–76, and but was conquered by the Capetians in the economic collapse and high taxation pre- early thirteenth century and incorporated

338 APPENDIX 7 into the royal domain. In 1360, the Treaty of nated by the counts of Anjou, who con- Bre´tigny assigned the county to Edward III, tended for paramount influence in the but French encroachments into the area county with the dukes of Normandy, Maine began in 1370, when Edward, the Black became permanently attached to Anjou in Prince, sacked Limoges in retaliation for the the early twelfth century when Count Foul- town’s surrender to John, duke of Berry. The ques V of Anjou married the heiress of county came under Valois control during Maine. The county became part of the the 1370s. Plantagenet empire in 1154 when the son of Geoffrey, the late count of Anjou, became LORRAINE king of England as Henry II. Henry’s son An Imperial duchy on the northeastern King John lost Maine, Anjou, and most of frontier of France, Lorraine centered around the empire to the Capetians in the early the bishoprics of Verdun, Metz, and Toul, thirteenth century. The English retook and the town of Nancy. From the early Maine in the 1420s, making it an important thirteenth century, the duchy developed in- buffer between Lancastrian Normandy and creasingly close ties to France, with the duke the dauphinist lands to the south. In the of Lorraine becoming a vassal of the count of 1440s, Henry VI, as part of his policy to seek Champagne for various territories. Part of a negotiated peace with France, promised to the middle kingdom set up between the surrender Maine to Charles VII. Although realms of the East and West Franks by the implementation of this promise was delayed 843 Treaty of Verdun, Lorraine became a by resistance to it from within the English duchy in 925. Divided into Upper and military establishment in France, the English Lower Lorraine in about 960, the latter be- finally evacuated Maine in 1448. came the Duchy of Brabant while the former came by the thirteenth century to be known NAVARRE simply as Lorraine. In the fourteenth and A small kingdom straddling the frontiers of fifteenth centuries, Lorraine came under in- northeastern Spain and southwestern creasing pressure from the Valois dukes of France, Navarre came into the French orbit Burgundy, who controlled large blocks of in 1284, when Joanna, queen of Navarre, territory lying both north and south of the married the future Philip IV, who took duchy. During the Lancastrian phase of the guardianship of the kingdom upon Joanna’s Hundred Years War, Lorraine’s location death in 1305. The Crowns of France and made it a battleground between Anglo- Navarre remained united during the reigns Burgundian and dauphinist forces and the of Joanna’s sons, Louis X, Philip V, and resulting turmoil gave impetus to the career Charles IV, but separated upon Charles’s of Joan of Arc, a native of Lorraine, who death in 1328 when the Navarrese declared took as her mission the salvation of the themselves independent and offered the dauphinist cause. After 1431, a succession throne to Louis X’s daughter, Joanna II, who dispute allowed the dukes of Burgundy to waived her claim to the French Crown. intervene in the duchy. In 1477, Charles the Ruling in conjunction with her husband, Bold, the last Valois duke of Burgundy, was Philip, count of Evreux (d. 1343), Joanna killed in battle at Nancy. Lorraine was fi- passed the kingdom to her son Charles II nally incorporated into the kingdom of (known in French history as Charles the France in the eighteenth century. Bad) in 1349. Ambitious for power in France, Charles intrigued against his father-in-law, MAINE John II, and engaged in full-scale civil war Centered on the town of Le Mans, Maine, a during the early months of Charles V’s county in west-central France, was strategi- reign. When his forces were defeated by cally located between Normandy to the a royal army at Cocherel in 1364, Charles north and Anjou to the south. Long domi- II withdrew to Navarre, where he was

339 APPENDIX 7 succeeded by his son Charles III in 1387. in Plantagenet Aquitaine, but the region was Ferdinand of Spain annexed Spanish Na- retaken by the Valois in the early 1370s and varre in 1516, while the tiny French portion was part of the dauphinist heartland in the of the kingdom was incorporated into the early fifteenth century. French Crown in 1620, two decades after the last independent king of Navarre succeeded PONTHIEU to the French throne as Henri IV. The county of Ponthieu was a small lordship on the estuary of the Somme in north- PE´ RIGORD western France. Once part of Normandy, A county of southwestern France centered and thus also part of the Plantagenet empire on the town of Pe´rigueux, Pe´rigord formed in France in the twelfth century, Ponthieu the northeastern frontier of the duchy of contained the towns of Abbeville, Le Crotoy, Aquitaine and thus passed to the House of and Montreuil. The county came back into Plantagenet in the 1150s when Eleanor, English possession in 1279 when Edward I duchess of Aquitaine, married Henry II of became count by right of his wife, Eleanor of England. After the collapse of the Plan- Castile, who inherited it from her mother. tagenet empire in the early thirteenth cen- The county remained in English hands tury, control of Pe´rigord remained divided throughout the first decades of the Hundred between French and English until the Treaty Years War, and was the site of the Battle of of Paris assigned the province to the latter in Cre´cy in 1346. In 1360, the Treaty of Bre´tigny 1259, although Pe´rigord remained much in confirmed Plantagenet possession of the contention between the two Crowns. The county, but the armies of Charles V overran county saw heavy fighting and much de- Ponthieu in 1369 at the start of the Caroline struction during the Edwardian phase of the phase of the war. In 1372, Sir Robert Knolles Hundred Years War. In 1360, the Treaty of led an English chevauche´e into the county Bre´tigny gave Pe´rigord to Edward III, but and burned Le Crotoy. In 1435, Charles VII the area suffered much at the hands of rou- offered the county to Philip the Good, duke tiers and in the 1370s Pe´rigueux became the of Burgundy, as part of the Franco-Burgun- main base for Bertrand du Guesclin’s re- dian reconciliation negotiated at the Con- conquest of Plantagenet Aquitaine. gress of Arras.

POITOU PROVENCE A large county in west-central France, Poi- Although sometimes used to describe the tou became part of the huge duchy of entire southern third of France where the Aquitaine in the tenth century. Poitiers, the Occitan language was spoken, the term Poitevin capital, became the capital of the ‘‘Provence’’ more precisely defined the re- duchy and the center of a wealthy court gion of southeastern France lying between known for its patronage of Occitan love the Alps on the east, the Mediterranean on poetry. Upon the marriage of Eleanor, the south, and the Rhoˆne River on the west. duchess of Aquitaine, to the future Henry II Part of the Holy Roman Empire, Provence in of England in 1152, Poitou became part of the twelfth century was disputed between the Plantagenet empire. The region was the counts of Toulouse and Barcelona, who conquered by the Capetians in the early eventually divided control of the region. In thirteenth century, and Henry III of England 1246, the heiress of Provence married renounced his claim to it as part of the Charles of Anjou, the brother of Louis IX of Treaty of Paris in 1259. In the fourteenth France. The resulting Angevin dynasty ruled century, the region saw much fighting, Provence until 1481, when Louis XI in- especially the Battle of Poitiers in 1356, and corporated the region into the French king- much subsequent routier activity. The 1360 dom. In the 1360s, Provence was devastated Treaty of Bre´tigny included most of Poitou by the Great Company and by various other

340 APPENDIX 7 routier bands, and the Provenc¸al economy Saintonge became attached to the duchy of did not revive until the fifteenth century. Aquitaine in the early Middle Ages. Ex- tending from the Gironde on the south to QUERCY Poitou on the north and the Limousin on the Transected by the River Lot, Quercy was a east, the region included the island of large and important county of southwestern Ole´ron in the Bay of Biscay. Its chief town France. The Haut-Quercy region lay north of was the port of La Rochelle in the north. the Lot and included the towns of Gourdon, Saintonge passed, with the rest of Aquitaine, Figeac, and Martel, and the viscounty of under Plantagenet control in the mid-twelfth Turenne. South of the Lot, the Bas-Quercy, century, when Henry II of England married which extended to the Garonne and the new Duchess Eleanor. Lost to the Plantagenets in town of Montauan, included the chief town the early thirteenth century, Saintonge was of the county, Cahors. Despite pressure from restored to English control by the 1360 the dukes of Aquitaine, who, from the Treaty of Bre´tigny. In 1372, following the twelfth century, were also kings of England, English defeat at the naval battle of La Ro- the counts of Toulouse held Quercy from the chelle, the region fell to the Valois and was ninth century until 1249, when the county incorporated into the French Crown. passed to Alphonse of Poitiers, brother of Louis IX of France. The Treaty of Paris gave TOULOUSE the county to the Plantagenets, although the Toulouse, an important county in southern terms of the agreement were never fully France, was centered on the town of Tou- implemented and Edward I returned Bas- louse. Controlling the trade routes into Quercy to the Capetians in 1286. Despite Spain and Italy, the counts of Toulouse being included in the Plantagenet duchy of dominated much of Languedoc between the Aquitaine created by the Treaty of Bre´tigy in Rivers Rhoˆne and Garonne in the eleventh 1360, Quercy remained in dispute through- and twelfth centuries. Implicated in the out the war and was not finally cleared of Cathar heresy, a movement that was de- English troops until 1443. stroyed by the Albigensian crusaders from northern France in the early thirteenth cen- ROUERGUE tury, the counts of Toulouse lost influence Lying east of Quercy, Rouergue was a large and the county came eventually into county of south-central France centered the possession of Alphonse of Poitiers, the upon the town of Rodez and including, on brother of Louis IX of France. From the the east, the viscounty of Millau. Originally 1270s, the region was under royal control, under the authority of the counts of Tou- although the town of Toulouse enjoyed louse, the Rouergue passed to Louis IX’s considerable autonomy. The region was brother, Alphonse of Poitiers, in the mid- particularly hard hit by the English Che- thirteenth century. Thereafter, the county vauche´e of 1355, during which Edward, the was attached to the Crown of France until Black Prince, destroyed many towns and the Treaty of Bre´tigny gave it to the Plan- villages in the county, and by the activities tagenets in 1360. English administration of routiers in the 1360s. In the 1420s, Tou- ended in 1368 when the count of Armagnac, louse was a center of dauphinist support. the chief magnate in the county, became a party to the Appeal of the Gascon Lords, thereby reviving the war and initiating the TOURAINE French conquest of Rouergue. A duchy of west-central France, Touraine, a land of valleys, orchards, and vineyards, SAINTONGE was centered around the town of Tours on A seaboard county of western France lying the Loire. In the twelfth century, the counts north and west of the mouth of the Gironde, of Blois ceded the region to the counts of

341 APPENDIX 7

Anjou, who, upon becoming the Plantagenet most of that principality had been re- kings of England in the 1150s, brought conquered by 1380. In the 1420s, Touraine Touraine into the extensive Plantagenet was the center of the so-called ‘‘kingdom of empire in western France. Conquered by the Bourges,’’ the center of the dauphinist do- Capetians in the early thirteenth century, mains. In 1424, the dauphin (the future Touraine was one of the provinces re- Charles VII) gave the duchy of Touraine as nounced by Henry III of England upon an appanage to Archibald Douglas, earl of conclusion of the Treaty of Paris in 1259. The Douglas, leader of a large Scottish force sent region became the southern frontier of to aid the French. After Douglas’s death at France in 1360 when the Treaty of Bre´tigny Verneuil in August 1424, the duchy returned created Plantagenet Aquitaine, although to the Crown.

342 Appendix 8: Annotated Listing of Selected Sources for the Hundred Years War

Because of the war’s length and scope, many 1346. Known also as the Chronique Anonyme fourteenth- and fifteenth-century chronicles and the Corpus Christi Fragment (being and histories written in numerous lan- contained in MS 370 at Corpus Christi Col- guages and countries bear upon some aspect lege, Cambridge), this Latin diary of the of the Hundred Years War. Listed below is Cre´cy campaign was written by an anon- only a small selection of the more well- ymous member of Edward III’s army. It is known and readily available sources, pri- best known by its opening words, ‘‘Acta marily of English provenance, although a Bellicosa.’’ The single surviving copy of the few of the most famous French and Bur- diary is incomplete, and dates from the late gundian works are also included. For the fourteenth century. Although apparently two best known contemporary chroniclers meant to be an account of the entire cam- of the war—Jean Froissart and Jean le Bel— paign, the extant document describes the see the entries on each man included in the English campaign from the king’s landing main listing. See also the entry on Christine in Normandy on 12 July to 28 July, and de Pizan for her works of history, particu- then resumes on 11 August and continues larly her eulogistic biography of Charles V. until 20 August, when it breaks off in mid- Although not truly a source for the war, al- sentence. though he long was, and sometimes still is, taken for one, William Shakespeare and his Printed Versions view of the war as presented in the plays Life and Campaigns of the Black Prince: From Con- Henry V and 1 Henry VI are discussed in the temporary Letters, Diaries and Chronicles, Includ- entry ‘‘Shakespeare and the Hundred Years ing Chandos Herald’s Life of the Black Prince. War.’’ For more detailed discussion of im- Edited and translated by Richard Barber. portant English and French chronicles and Woodbridge, England: Boydell, 1986. Reprints and translates the Acta Bellicosa. histories of the war period, see Antonia Moisant, J. Le Prince Noir en Aquitaine, 1355–6, Gransden, Historical Writing in England, vol. 1362–70. Paris, 1894. Reprints in Latin. 2, c. 1307 to the Early Sixteenth Century; John Taylor, English Historical Literature in the ANONIMALLE CHRONICLE Fourteenth Century; Charles L. Kingsford, Written in French prose and covering the English Historical Literature in the Fifteenth period from Brutus to the Peasants’ Revolt in Century; and William W. Kibler and Grover 1381, the Anonimalle Chronicle is believed to A. Zinn, eds. Medieval France: An En- have been compiled by someone in the north cyclopedia. of England, although this is uncertain. Until 1333, the chronicle is based on the French Brut, ACTA BELLICOSA but thereafter the chronicler used an un- The Acta Bellicosa is an important eye- known Latin chronicle from London, news- witness account of the movements of the letters, and some oral eyewitness accounts. English army in the weeks before the Battle The chronicle is particularly important be- of Cre´cy, which occurred on 26 August cause it is the only contemporary work to

343 APPENDIX 8 cover military events during the last years of Charles VII, especially during the king’s later Edward III. Patriotic and chivalric in tone, the years. Nonetheless, the work contains much chronicle is particularly valuable for the Battle valuable information on the Anglo-French of Poitiers, the movements of Edward III after war, especially concerning its devastating conclusion of the Treaty of Bre´tigny, and the effect upon the French people and country- 1370 chevauche´e of Sir Robert Knolles. The side. Basin also provides much information chronicler is critical of the Bre´tigny agree- on diplomatic relations, explaining, for in- ment because it meant the surrender of some stance, that Charles VII refused to offer one of hard-won towns and of Charles V, who is his own daughters as a wife for Henry VI, condemned for treachery in eventually re- fearing that the union might only strengthen pudiating the treaty. The chronicler also Lancastrian claims to the French throne. describes the growing disillusionment of the English military with its leadership in the Printed Versions 1370s, particularly during the Knolles ex- Basin, Thomas. Histoire de Charles VII. Edited by pedition and the great Chevauche´e of 1373 led C. Samaran. 2 vols. Paris: Socie´te´ d’Edition by John of Gaunt, duke of Lancaster. ‘‘Les Belles Lettres,’’ 1933, 1944. ———. Histoire des re`gnes de Charles VII et de Louis Printed Version XI. Edited by J. E. J. Quicherat. 4 vols. Paris, The Anonimalle Chronicle, 1333–1381. Edited by 1855–59. V. H. Galbraith. Manchester, 1927. BOUVIER, JACQUES [GILLES]. BASIN, THOMAS (1412–91). HISTOIRE CHRONIQUES DU ROI CHARLES VII. DE CHARLES VII Jacques Bouvier, also known as the Berry Born probably at Caudebec in Normandy, Herald or Berry, Herault du Roy, wrote his Thomas Basin earned his master of arts at the chronicle of the reign of Charles VII in about University of Paris in 1429 and later studied 1455, although it was not finally published law at Louvain and Pavia. He held various until 1661. The chronicle is an important clerical positions in Lancastrian Normandy source for the final French campaigns of the before becoming bishop of Lisieux in 1447. In Anglo-French war. Berry Herald was also August 1449, the bishop and representatives the continuator of the Grandes Chroniques for of the town surrendered Lisieux to John, the period 1402 to 1422. count of Dunois, thus ending Basin’s attach- ment to the English Crown. The bishop next Printed Version became a servant of Charles VII and one of the Bouvier, Jacques. Chroniques du roi Charles VII. instigators of the rehabilitation trial of Joan of Edited by Henri Courteault and Le´once Celier. Arc in the 1450s. He also later wrote a defense Paris, 1979. of Joan, entitled Opinio et consilium super pro- cessu et condemnatione Johanne, dicte Puelle.In BRUT 1464, Basin joined the League of the Public The Brut was one of the most popular and best Weal, an uprising against Charles’s son, known English chronicles of the fourteenth Louis XI, who seized the bishop’s temporal- century. The first version of the chronicle, ities and forced him to flee France. Named running from the supposed founding of Brit- archbishop of Caesarea by the pope in 1474, ain by the legendary Brutus to the thirteenth Basin spent the rest of his life in exile, living century, was written in French prose in the for various lengths of time in Rome, Trier, and early fourteenth century. In the middle of the Utrecht, where he died in December 1491. century, a continuation of the chronicle, done Written during his years of exile, and in- in two versions, was undertaken. The short fused with the bitterness of that circumstance, version ends just before the Battle of Halidon Basin’s Histoire de Charles VII, which was Hill in 1333, but the long version, which is the originally written in Latin, is often critical of most relevant for the Hundred Years War,

344 APPENDIX 8 ends with the Battle of Halidon Hill itself. chronicler came into contact through the Some time between 1350 and 1380, this second archbishop and through the location and im- version was translated into English and con- portance of the Becket shrine at Canterbury, tinued until the death of Edward III. The Brut which drew important figures and forged is patriotic and chivalric in tone and the En- connections with London, Dover, and Calais. glish translation seems meant to be read aloud Among the events depicted are the French to noble and gentle audiences. Like the Cro- attempt to surprise Calais at the end of 1349 niques de London, the Brut had a distinct bias in and the negotiation of the First Treaty of favor of the family of the earls of Lancaster, London in 1358. The Canterbury chronicler whose opposition to Edward II and to the re- also describes the composition of the French gime of Queen Isabella and Roger Mortimer, army at Poitiers in 1356, the casualties at earl of March, is much lauded. Despite the Auray in 1364, the Anglo-Flemish negotia- coverage of the Anglo-French war contained tions for Edmund of Langley’s marriage to in the English continuation to 1377, the Brut is Marguerite of Flanders in 1364, and the particularly valuable for its account of the breaking of parole by Louis, duke of Anjou, in Anglo-Scottish wars in the reigns of Edward II 1363. and Edward III. Printed Versions Printed Version ‘‘Chronicle of Christ Church, Canterbury, 1346– The Brut or Chronicles of London. Edited by F. Brie. 1367.’’ In Chronica Johannis de Readinge et 2 vols. London: Early English Text Society, Anonymi Cantauriensis, 1346–1367, ed. James 1906–8. Tait, 99–186. Manchester, 1914.

CAGNY, PERCEVAL DE. CHRONIQUES CHANDOS HERALD. LA VIE DU PRINCE DES DUCS D’ALENC¸ON. NOIR [LIFE OF THE BLACK PRINCE]. Written in about 1436 by Perceval de Cagny, The unknown herald, or messenger and of- an eyewitness to the 1429 Loire Campaign ficer of arms, of Sir John Chandos is the led by John, duke of Alenc¸on, and Joan of author of La Vie du Prince Noir, a French Arc, the Chroniques des ducs d’Alenc¸on is the verse biography of Edward, the Black prime source for that campaign and for the Prince. Possibly, like Jean Froissart, a native military activities of Joan until her capture in of Valenciennes in Hainault, the herald en- May 1430. tered Chandos’s service in about 1360. The herald is mentioned twice in Froissart’s Printed Version chronicle—in 1366 in a description of Cagny, Perceval de. Chroniques des ducs d’Alenc¸on. Chandos’s negotiations with the Great Edited by H. Moranville. Paris, 1902. Company and in 1369 when the herald car- ried a message from Chandos to the prince. CANTERBURY CHRONICLE It is unlikely that the herald knew the prince Written by an unknown chronicler based at personally, though he certainly met him in Christ Church in Canterbury, the Canterbury the service of Chandos, who is himself a Chronicle contains much unique and im- secondary subject of the work. portant information on the Hundred Years Written in the late 1380s, about a decade War. Some the chronicler’s information for after the prince’s death, the Life is based the period from 1346 to 1367 appears to be upon the author’s own experiences, the in- based on what he himself witnessed, such as formation of other eyewitnesses, and some the welcome accorded the captive John II in newsletters and other contemporary docu- London both on his first arrival in England in ments. The herald praises both the prince 1357 and upon his return in 1364. Other and Chandos as models of chivalry, men of information was apparently gleaned from courage and honor who were always in the high-level sources at court with whom the forefront of battle. Despite its eulogistic tone

345 APPENDIX 8 and the fact that it was written years after the ard and a recreant knight.’’ The chronicle is an death of both its subjects, the Life is an im- important source for the naval battle of Sluys, portant source for the prince’s career, pro- the siege of Tournai, and the events sur- viding numerous details unavailable in other rounding the political crisis of 1340–41, which works. The Life is particularly valuable for is described from the king’s point of view. the campaign and battle of Na´jera in 1367, for which the herald was an eyewitness. Printed Version Croniques de London. Edited by G. J. Aungier. Printed Versions London: Camden Society, 1844. Chandos Herald. La Vie du Prince Noir by Chandos Herald. Edited by D. B. Tyson. Tu¨ bingen: M. ELMHAM, THOMAS (d. c. 1420). Niemeyer, 1975. LIBER METRICUS DE HENRICO ———. The Life of the Black Prince by the Herald of QUINTO [A BOOK IN VERSE ON Sir John Chandos. Edited by M. K. Pope and HENRY THE FIFTH]. E. C. Lodge. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1910. A monk at Canterbury and then chaplain to Henry V, Thomas Elmham accompanied the CHARTIER, JEAN. CHRONIQUE DE king to France in 1415 and was present at the CHARLES VII. Battle of Agincourt. Although he has been Jean Chartier was the brother of Alain suggested as the author of the Gesta Henrici Chartier, who was secretary to both Charles Quinti, this now seems unlikely. He was also VI and Charles VII. The Chronique is par- identified as the author of the Vita et Gesta ticularly valuable for major events at the Henrici Quinti by the eighteenth-century French court during the later stages of the antiquary Thomas Hearne, but this attribu- Hundred Years War. tion has now been proven incorrect and that work is now known as the Pseudo-Elmham. Printed Version Elmham did write a Latin prose life of Chartier, Jean. Chronique de Charles VII. Edited by Henry V, which is now lost, and the Liber,a Auguste Vallet de Viriville. 3 vols. Paris, 1858. Latin verse life of the king. Down to 1416, the Liber is based on the Gesta, which ends in CRONIQUES DE LONDON that year, and thereafter it is believed that Written perhaps by an officer of the city of the Liber largely follows Elmham’s lost prose London, where official documents were biography of the king. Although highly prepared in Norman French, this prose eulogistic and concentrating heavily on re- chronicle covers events between the years ligious affairs, particularly Henry’s sup- 1259 and 1343. A more likely reason for the pression of Lollardy, Elmham’s biography is unknown author’s use of French is his re- a valuable source for the reign. liance on the French Brut for his account of national events prior to 1333. Only after that Printed Version date do the Croniques become an in- Elmham, Thomas. ‘‘Liber Metricus de Henrico dependent source for the Hundred Years Quinto.’’ In Memorials of Henry the Fifth, ed. War. The chronicle’s independent coverage C. A. Cole, 79–106. London: Rolls Series, 1858. of London history begins in 1327, when the chronicler ceased to draw on two uniden- GEOFFREY LE BAKER (d. c. 1360), tified London chronicles for local events. CHRONICLER Despite its coverage of London, the In about 1341, Geoffrey le Baker, a secular chronicle after 1333 focuses mainly on the clerk from Swinbrook in Oxfordshire, began French wars of Edward III. Like Robert of writing a Latin chronicle that eventually Avesbury, the chronicler has a strong royalist covered the period from 1303 to the battle of bias, praising Edward III as brave and chi- Poitiers in 1356. An important source for valrous and denouncing Philip VI as ‘‘a cow- the Edwardian phase of the Anglo-French

346 APPENDIX 8 war, Baker’s chronicle relies on soldiers’ GRANDES CHRONIQUES accounts, newsletters, casualty lists, cam- The Grandes Chroniques de France constitute paign itineraries, and official documents. the official history of the realm of France as Baker had a flair for dramatic narrative, and compiled at the Monastery of Saint-Denis never missed an opportunity to tell a good near Paris from the year 1285. The chronicle story, such as his rousing depiction of the is extremely valuable for events in France single combat that occurred prior to the during the Hundred Years War, since it was Battle of Halidon Hill between Robert de written contemporaneously with the events Benhall and a Scottish champion, whom it describes. A series of clerical continuators Baker described as ‘‘a very Goliath.’’ took the chronicle through the entire period Baker is also very much in the chivalric of the war and provide a French royal per- tradition of fourteenth-century chroniclers, spective on important battles, campaigns, providing, for instance, detailed accounts of treaties, truces, and political and social the founding of the Order of the Garter and movements. From the end of the thirteenth of the heroic death of Sir Thomas Dagworth. century to about 1350, the chronicle was Like other English chroniclers of the period, compiled by a series of anonymous monks he patriotically depicts Edward III and Ed- at Saint-Denis. From then until 1384, the ward, the Black Prince, as chivalrous lead- chronicle was written by Pierre d’Orgemont, ers, while Philip VI (always referred to as the chancellor of France. Juvenal des Ursins, Philip de Valois) is called a ‘‘pseudo-king’’ the archbishop of Rheims, took the work up and denounced, like all Frenchmen, as ar- to 1402; the Berry Herald continued it to rogant and prideful. Baker’s descriptions of 1422; and Jean Chartier, a monk of Saint- battles and campaigns contain many unique Denis, carried it to the death of Charles VII details, with his itineraries for Edward III’s in 1461. army during the Cre´cy campaign in 1346 and the prince’s great chevauche´e in 1355 Printed Version being particularly valuable. Les grandes chroniques de France. Edited by Jules M. E. Viard. 10 vols. Paris: Socie´te´ de l’Histoire Printed Version de France, 1920–58. Geoffrey le Baker. Chronicon Galfridi le Baker de Swynebroke. Edited by E. M. Thompson. Ox- GRAY, SIR THOMAS (d. c. 1370). ford, 1889. SCALACHRONICA. Sir Thomas Gray of Heton was the first GESTA HENRICI QUINTI [THE DEEDS English lay chronicler since Anglo-Saxon OF HENRY THE FIFTH]. times to come from a knightly or noble fam- This Latin prose biography of Henry V was ily. A native of Northumberland, Gray took written by an anonymous author between up his chronicle in part to record the deeds November 1416 and July 1417, and covers of his father, another Sir Thomas, in the Henry’s reign from his accession in March Scottish wars of Edward I and Edward II. 1413 to the end of 1416. Although written to Gray accompanied William Montagu, earl of promote the king’s aggressive policy in France Salisbury, to France in 1338, and was ap- and to stimulate enthusiasm in England for pointed sheriff and constable of Norham in the war, the Gesta is an important source for 1345. He fought at the Anglo-Scottish Battle the first year of the fifteenth-century re- of Neville’s Cross in 1346 and was captured sumption of the Anglo-French war. by the Scots and imprisoned in Edinburgh Castle from 1355 to 1359, the period during Printed Version which he began his chronicle. Upon his re- Gesta Henrici Quinti. Edited with an English lease, Gray participated, as a member of the translation by Frank Taylor and J. S. Roskell. Black Prince’s division, in Edward III’s Oxford: Oxford Medieval Texts, 1975. Rheims Campaign. He died a few years after

347 APPENDIX 8 being named keeper of the Scottish marches counts of the 1367 campaign and battle of in 1367. Na´jera as well as events related to West- The title of Gray’s work, Scalachronica, minster, such the 1346 and 1359 visits by refers to a scaling ladder, which was a Gray Edward III, who stopped at the shrine to family emblem. The chronicle runs from the pray for the success of the forthcoming time of the early Britons to 1363, with much Cre´cy and Rheims Campaigns. of the fourteenth-century material coming from the personal experiences of Gray and Printed Version his father. Unfortunately, the annals for the John of Reading. ‘‘Chronicle of John of Reading.’’ Hundred Years War period are incomplete, In Chronica Johannis de Readinge et Anonymi with Gray’s work for the years 1340 to 1355 Cantauriensis, 1346–1367, ed. James Tait, 187– surviving only in abstracts made of the now 227. Manchester, 1914. missing leaves by the sixteenth-century an- tiquary John Leland. The Scalachronica is LE JOURNAL D’UN BOURGEOIS DE particularly valuable for the hardships faced PARIS by the English (and Gray himself) during the Written between 1405 and 1449 by a resident Rheims Campaign, but also contains de- of Paris who is believed to have been a tailed descriptions of conditions in France in canon of Notre Dame, this diary is an im- the late 1350s, including accounts of the portant source for life in the French capital Jacquerie and of the activities of English at the end of the Hundred Years War. routiers. Written in French, the Journal covers events in Paris relating to the French civil war, the Printed Versions citizens’ reactions to Joan of Arc, and the Gray, Sir Thomas. Scalachronica. Edited by J. Ste- English occupation. venson. Edinburgh: Maitland Club, 1836. ———. The Scalachronica of Sir Thomas Gray. Printed Versions Edited and translated by H. Maxwell. Glasgow, Bourgeois of Paris. Journal d’un bourgeois de Paris, 1907. 1405–49. Edited by A. Teutey. Paris, 1881. Quicherat, Jules, ed. Proce`s de condamnation et JOHN OF READING (d. c. 1369), de rehabilitation de Jeanne d’Arc dite la Pucelle. CHRONICLER 5 vols. Paris: Socie´te´ de l’histoire de France, Beginning in about 1365, only a few years 1841–49. Reprints the Journal in vol. 4, pp. 461– before his death, John of Reading, a monk of 74. Westminster, continued the Flores Histo- riarum chronicle from the years between JOURNAL DU SIE` GE D’ORLE´ ANS 1346 and 1367. Although John’s Latin is poor The Journal du Sie`ge d’Orle´ans is an important and he apologizes in his preface for his ‘‘lack French source for the military career of Joan of education and skill,’’ this chronicle is an of Arc. Although organized in its present important source for the Hundred Years form around the year 1468, the Journal is War precisely because, being no scholar, based on a register of events that was com- John relied on documents and conversation piled in the city of Orle´ans in 1429 during with eyewitnesses, not other chronicles, to the siege and subsequent Loire Campaign. complete his work. The Journal portrays Joan as a miraculous Although especially useful for events in figure and fully accepts the divine origins of London during the period, the chronicle also her mission. For example, after describing pays close attention to the Anglo-French the defeat of the dauphinists at the Battle of wars, English success in which is patri- the Herrings in February 1429, the Journal otically ascribed to the wise and godly lead- explains that Joan, who was then tending ership of Edward III and Edward, the Black her flocks in Lorraine, came to know of the Prince. Particularly valuable are John’s ac- encounter through ‘‘grace divine,’’ and that

348 APPENDIX 8 she used this miraculous knowledge to ward III’s reign to 1395. The last two vol- convince Robert de Baudricourt, the local umes of Knighton’s own work, which begin dauphinist commander, to arrange for her to in 1337, are of great importance for their be sent to the dauphin. The Journal does not description of the effects of the war and the stop with the relief of Orle´ans and the Battle Black Death on fourteenth-century English of Patay, but also describes Joan’s activities society. during the march to Rheims, the coronation of Charles VII, and the abortive attack on Printed Versions Paris in September 1429. Knighton, Henry. Chronicon Henrici Knighton vel Cnitthon Monachi Leycestrensis. Edited by J. R. Printed Versions Lumby. 2 vols. London: Rolls Series, 1889–95. Charpentier, Paul, and Cuissard, Charles, eds. ———. Knighton’s Chronicle, 1337–1396. Edited by Journal du sie`ge d’Orle´ans, 1428–1429: augmente´ G. H. Martin. Oxford: Oxford University Press, de plusieurs documents notamment des comptes de 1995. ville, 1429–1431 Orle´ans: H. Herluison, 1896. Quicherat, Jules, ed. Proce`s de condamnation et de MONSTRELET, ENGUERRAND DE rehabilitation de Jeanne d’Arc dite la Pucelle.5 (c. 1395–1453), CHRONICLER vols. Paris: Socie´te´ de l’histoire de France, The chronicler Enguerrand de Monstrelet 1841–49. Reprints the Journal in vol. 4, pp. 95– held various posts in the service of Philip the 202. Good, duke of Burgundy, and his work thus displays a pro-Burgundian bias and a hos- JUVENAL DES URSINS, JEAN (1388– tility to Charles VII. Viewing himself as a 1473). HISTOIRE DE CHARLES VI. continuator of Jean Froissart, Monstrelet The son of Jean Jouvenal (1360–1431), a takes up his story in 1400, the year Frois- councilor to both Charles VI and Charles VII sart’s chronicle ends, and continues it until as well as chancellor to Louis, duke of Gui- May 1444. Although lacking the literary enne, Jean Juvenal des Ursins (the family merit of Froissart, Monstrelet’s chronicle assumed the new name around 1410) was was popular and influenced later fifteenth- archbishop of Rheims from 1449 until his century writers. Monstrelet was present at death. The Histoire is an important source for Burgundy’s interview with the newly cap- the reign of Charles VI and the French civil tured Joan of Arc in 1430, and he covers war, during which the author’s father was a military events from a Burgundian per- participant in several important events, in- spective, although political developments in cluding the quelling of the Cabochien up- other countries and the great religious rising in 1413. events of the day, such as the Councils of Pisa and Constance, are also covered. Unlike Printed Version Froissart, Monstrelet does not display a Juvenal des Ursins, Jean. Histoire de Charles VI. great fondness for chivalric deeds and feats Edited by J. A. C. Buchon. Paris, 1836. of arms.

KNIGHTON, HENRY (d. c. 1396), Printed Version CHRONICLER Monstrelet, Enguerrand de. Chronique. Edited by An Augustinian canon at the Abbey of St. L. Doue´t-d’Arcq. 6 vols. Paris, 1857–62. Mary of the Meadows in Leicester, Henry Knighton (or Knyghton) wrote a four- MURIMUTH, ADAM (c. 1274–1347), volume history of England that covers the CHRONICLER period from 965 to 1366. When increasing Born into an Oxfordshire family, Adam blindness forced Knighton to give up the Murimuth was a clerical diplomat who work, a fellow canon wrote a fifth volume served Edward II in various causes at the that takes the history from the end of Ed- papal curia in Avignon. He first appeared at

349 APPENDIX 8 the papal court in 1311 as proctor for Oxford ulations of the wool trade in an attempt to University, but by 1314 was the king’s rep- purchase allies in the Low Countries. resentative in a case involving a recent royal appointment to the deanery of St. Printed Versions Paul’s in London. In 1321–22, Murimuth Murimuth, Adam. Adami Murimuthensis Chronica was in Avignon seeking papal assent to a Sui Temporis: Nunc Primum per Decem Annos clerical aid (i.e., a royal demand for money Aucta, (M.CCC.III.–M.CCC.XLVI.) cum Eor- from the English clergy) and in 1323 ex- undem Continuatione (ad M.CCC.LXXX.) a Quo- pressed to the pope Edward’s opposition dam Anonymo. Edited by Thomas Hog. London: English Historical Society, 1846. to the Scots’ request for removal of the in- Murimuth, Adam, and Robert of Avesbury. Adae terdict imposed on their country. For his Murimuth Continuatio Chronicarum. Robertus de services, Murimuth received numerous Avesbury de Gestis Mirabilibus Regis Edwardi ecclesiastical preferments, including a pre- Tertii. Edited by E. M. Thompson. London: bendary (a stipendiary position on the Eyre and Spottiswoode, 1889. clerical staff of a cathedral) at Hereford Cathedral in 1320, prebendaries at St. Paul’s PSEUDO-ELMHAM. VITA ET GESTA in 1325 and 1328, and the rectory at Wrays- HENRICI QUINTI [LIFE AND DEEDS bury in 1337. OF HENRY THE FIFTH]. Murimuth’s brief Latin chronicle covers Because it was once erroneously attributed the last years of Edward II and the first to Thomas Elmham, this anonymous bi- decades of Edward III. Fiercely antipapal ography of Henry V is today known as the and anti-French, Murimuth is primarily in- Pseudo-Elmham. The work exists in two terested in diplomacy, especially Anglo- recensions. The first was written at the papal relations; national politics; and the command of Walter Hungerford, Lord course of the Anglo-French war, which he Hungerford, an important military and po- traces to the English victory over the Scots at litical figure in Henry’s reign who was likely Neville’s Cross in October 1346. He strongly the source for many of the details of the approves of Edward III’s claim to the French work, particularly those relating to the siege Crown, referring to Philip VI only as Philip of Meaux and the king’s death. The second, de Valois, and he provides numerous de- which was completed in about 1446, is scriptions of both large and small military dedicated to John Somerset, who was phy- engagements fought during the 1330s and sician to Henry VI between 1428 and 1432. 1340s. Although generally reliable with Both Hungerford and Somerset had con- names and dates, Murimuth’s style is spare nections to Humphrey, duke of Gloucester, and factual, displaying no talent for narra- the king’s brother, and so the biography re- tive. lies heavily, for events prior to 1420, on Titus Much of Murimuth’s political information Livius’s Vita Henrici Quinti, which was pro- derives from contacts among the royal duced at the duke’s request to promote the clerks, while his military descriptions rely duke’s career and policies. heavily on newsletters; for example, he reprints part of the letter of Michael de Printed Version Northburgh, a royal councilor, to describe [Pseudo-Elmham]. Thomae de Elmham Vita et Gesta the 1346 campaign. For the events of 1332– Henrici Quinti. Edited by Thomas Hearne. Ox- 37, he draws upon the Annales Paulini, which ford, 1727. was also being written at St. Paul’s at the time Murimuth was working there. While ROBERT OF AVESBURY (d. c. 1359), strongly supportive of Edward III’s war CHRONICLER aims, Murimuth is often critical of the king’s Little is known of the life of Robert of methods, condemning his failure to mount a Avesbury beyond what can be gleaned from campaign in 1339 and his financial manip- his chronicle and his will. The former states

350 APPENDIX 8 that he was registrar of the archbishop of king—and a description of an otherwise Canterbury’s court at Lambeth, and the lat- unknown proposal for Henry of Grosmont, ter, which was dated 27 January 1359 and duke of Lancaster, to lead an expedition to entered into the court rolls three weeks later, the aid of Charles the Bad, king of Navarre, indicates that he lived in London, was pre- in 1355. deceased by his wife Milicent, and had two sons, William and John. Printed Version Focusing on military events during the Murimuth, Adam, and Robert of Avesbury. Adae first three decades of Edward III’s reign, the Murimuth Continuatio Chronicarum. Robertus de Latin chronicle of Robert of Avesbury is an Avesbury de Gestis Mirabilibus Regis Edwardi important source for the first campaigns of Tertii. Edited by E. M. Thompson. London: the Hundred Years War. In his preface, Eyre and Spottiswoode, 1889. Avesbury declares his purpose to be re- cording the ‘‘wonderful deeds of the mag- VITA HENRICI QUINTI [LIFE OF HENRY nificent king of England, the Lord Edward THE FIFTH] BY TITUS LIVIUS the third after the Conquest, and of his no- FRULOVISI. bles.’’ Indeed, Avesbury is so biased in favor Written by Titus Livius Frulovisi, a poet and of Edward it seems likely that he wrote literary client of Humphrey, duke of Glou- specifically to curry favor with the king. The cester, the brother of Henry V, the Vita traces chronicler strongly supports Edward’s right Henry’s life from his birth until his death in to the Crown of France and to overlordship 1422. Born in Italy, Titus Livius joined Glou- in both Scotland and Brittany, and he men- cester’s household in about 1436. Seeking to tions all Edward’s victories, which are pa- strengthen his position in the regency gov- triotically ascribed to the intervention of ernment and to promote a more vigorous Christ, ‘‘who is always on the side of jus- prosecution of the war, Gloucester asked tice.’’ Avesbury depicts Edward as brave, Titus Livius to write a biography of Henry V virtuous, and generous, the model of mainly to describe the triumphs of his knightly chivalry, while John II of France is brother’s reign and thereby encourage his condemned as an incestuous lecher capable nephew, Henry VI, to emulate his father’s of ravishing even nuns. policies. The duke plays a prominent part in Despite its bias, Avesbury’s chronicle is the Vita, with his roles at Agincourt and at the valuable because it reproduces many con- fall of Cherbourg being particularly noted. temporary newsletters that are otherwise unknown. For instance, Avesbury is the only Printed Version source for letters by Edward, the Black Titi Livii Foro-Juliensis Vita Henrici Quinti. Edited Prince, describing his great chevauche´e across by Thomas Hearne. Oxford, 1716. southern France in 1355. Avesbury also cop- ies the libellus famosus, the accusations Ed- WALSINGHAM, THOMAS (d. c. 1422), ward leveled at Archbishop John Stratford CHRONICLER during the Crisis of 1340–41, and the news- A monk of St. Albans Abbey in Hert- letter of Richard de Winkley, describing the fortshire, where he was in charge of the Cre´cy campaign of 1346. Avesbury is also scriptorium, or writing room, Thomas Wal- the only or most detailed source for various singham wrote several important chronicles episodes that are likely derived from lost that make him the main authority for events newsletters written by eyewitnesses. For in England during the reigns of Richard II, example, his chronicle provides a detailed Henry IV, and Henry V. His most important account of Edward’s dramatic foiling of a work, the Historia Anglicana, covers the French attempt to surprise Calais in late period from 1272 to 1422, although the per- 1349—an episode much in accord with iod prior to 1377 is drawn largely from Avesbury’s chivalrous depiction of the earlier chronicles. Walsingham’s Chronicon

351 APPENDIX 8

Angliae covers the period 1328–88 and WAVRIN, JEAN DE (1395–1475). overlaps to some degree with the Historia RECUEIL DES CRONIQUES ET Anglicana. Walsingham’s other works are the ANCIENNES ISTOIRES DE LA GRANDE Gesta Abbatun Sancti Albani, a history of the BRETAIGNE, A` PRESENT NOMME´ abbots of St. Albans to 1381, and the Ypo- ENGLETERRE [A COLLECTION OF THE digma Neustriae, a history of the dukes of CHRONICLES AND ANCIENT HISTORIES Normandy that was written in about 1419 to OF GREAT BRITAIN, NOW CALLED justify Henry V’s conquest of the duchy. ENGLAND] Walsingham is particularly valuable for The illegitimate son of a Burgundian noble- the events of Richard’s reign, including the man, Jean de Wavrin fought for the French Peasants’ Revolt of 1381 and the king’s de- at the Battle of Agincourt in 1415. Follow- position in 1399. He is especially hostile to ing creation of the Anglo-Burgundian alli- the king’s uncle, John of Gaunt, duke of ance in 1420, he fought for the English in the Lancaster, and to John Wycliffe and the 1420s and remained pro-English in senti- Lollard movement. ment even after the alliance ended in 1435. His work traces the history of England Printed Versions through 1469 and is an important source for Walsingham, Thomas. Chronicon Angliae, 1328– both Anglo-Burgundian and Franco-Bur- 1388. Edited by E. M. Thompson. London: Rolls gundian relations during the late decades of Series, 1874. ———. Gesta Abbatun Sancti Albani. Edited by H. T. the war. Riley. 3 vols. London: Rolls Series, 1867–69. ———. Historia Anglicana. Edited by H. T. Riley. 2 Printed Version vols. London: Rolls Series, 1863–64. Wavrin, Jean de. Recueil des croniques et anciennes ———. Ypodigma Neustriae a Thoma Walsingham. istoires de la Grande Bretaigne, a` present nomme´ Edited by H. T. Riley. London: Rolls Series, Engleterre. Edited by William Hardy. 5 vols. 1876. London: Rolls Series, 1864–91.

352 Bibliography

This bibliography is a highly selective listing Hooper, Nicholas, and Matthew Bennett, eds. of major books and articles relevant to the Cambridge Illustrated Atlas of Warfare: The Middle study of the Hundred Years War. It contains Ages, 768–1487. Cambridge: Cambridge Uni- mainly works in English, although it con- versity Press, 1996. cludes with a section offering a number of Jacob, E. F. The Fifteenth Century, 1399–1485. Ox- ford History of England. Oxford: Oxford important French-language works. University Press, 1993. Keen, Maurice. England in the Later Middle Ages. GENERAL AND REFERENCE London: Eyre Methuen, 1977. Allmand, Christopher. The Hundred Years War: Kelly, J. N. D. The Oxford Dictionary of Popes. England and France at War, c. 1300–c. 1450. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1988. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1988. Kibler, William W., and Grover A. Zinn, eds. Bak, Ja´nos M. Medieval Narrative Sources: A Medieval France: An Encyclopedia. New York: Chronological Guide. New York: Garland Pub- Garland Publishing, 1995. lishing, 1987. Kingsford, Charles L. English Historical Literature Boyce, Charles. Shakespeare A to Z. New York: in the Fifteenth Century. Reprint, New York: Burt Bantam Doubleday Dell, 1990. Franklin, 1962. Curry, Anne. The Hundred Years War. 2nd ed. Lewis, Peter. Later Medieval France: The Polity. London: Palgrave Macmillan, 2003. London: Macmillan, 1968. Duby, Georges. France in the Middle Ages, 987– Lloyd, Alan. The Hundred Years War. London: 1460. Translated by Jules Vale. Oxford: Black- Hart-Davis, MacGibbon, 1977. well, 1997. McBrien, Richard P. Lives of the Popes. New York: Fowler, Kenneth A. The Age of Plantagenet and HarperCollins, 1997. Valois. Macclesfield, England: Bookthrift, 1980. McKisack, May. The Fourteenth Century, 1307– ———, ed. The Hundred Years War. London: 1399. Oxford History of England. Oxford: Ox- Macmillan, 1971. ford University Press, 1991. Fritze, Ronald H., and William B. Robison, eds. Neillands, Robin. The Hundred Years War. Rev. ed. Historical Dictionary of Late Medieval England, London: Routledge, 2001. 1272–1485. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, Perroy, Edouard. The Hundred Years War. Trans- 2002. lated by W. B. Wells. New York: Capricorn Gransden, Antonia. Historical Writing in England. Books, 1965. Vol. 2, c. 1307 to the Early Sixteenth Century. Rubin, Miri. The Hollow Crown: A History of Britain Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1982. in the Late Middle Ages. New York: Penguin Griffiths, Ralph A., and Roger S. Thomas. The Books. 2005. Making of the Tudor Dynasty. New York: St. Seward, Desmond. The Hundred Years War. New Martin’s Press, 1985. York: Penguin, 1999. Harriss, Gerald. Shaping the Nation: England 1360– Starks, Michael. A Traveller’s History of the Hun- 1461. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 2005. dred Years War in France. New York: Interlink Hicks, Michael. Who’s Who in Late Medieval Books, 2002. England (1272–1485). Who’s Who in British Sumption, Jonathan. The Hundred Years War. Vol. History Series. London: Shepheard-Walwyn, 1, Trial by Battle. Philadelphia: University of 1991. Pennsylvania Press, 1991.

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363

Index

Boldface page references denote full entries, or, in the case of French provinces or major historical sources for the war, a separate description in either Appendix 7 or 8. The abbreviation (illus.) indicates a photograph, genealogy, or other illustration.

Acta Bellicosa, 343 Armies: command of, 19–21; composition of, 21–23; Agen, Process of, 262 recruitment of, 23–24, 54, 165; size of, 24–25; Agenais, 334 supplying of, 25–27 Agincourt, Battle of, 1–3, 2 (illus.) Armor, 27–29 ‘‘Agincourt Carol,’’ 263 Arras: Congress of, 8, 29–30, 133, 254; peace of, 201; Aides, 294, 295 Treaty of, 8 Aides pour la de´livrance, 294 Arrie`re-ban, 23, 30–31, 251 Aiguillon, siege of, 3, 179, 288 Artevelde, James van, 8–9, 31–32, 126, 276 Albret, Arnaud-Amanieu, lord of, 3–4, 5, 14, Artevelde, Philip van, 32–33, 127 225, 275 Arthur de Richemont. See Arthur III, duke of Brittany Albret, Bernard-Aiz, lord of, 4–5, 52, 95 Arthur III, duke of Brittany, 29, 33–34, 63, 196, 261: Albret, Charles, lord of, Constable of France, 1, 2, battle of Formigny and, 127–28; Brittany, 62–63; 5–6 Charles VII and, 90, 91; Duke John V and, 182–83; Alenc¸on, duke of. See John, duke of Alenc¸on Norman Campaign and (1449–1450), 231–32; Treaty Alexander III, king of Scotland, 118 of Amiens and, 6, 7 Alexander V, Antipope, 239 Artillery, 34–35, 64, 65, 285 Alfonso XI, king of Castile, 78 Artois, 335 Amiens, Treaty of: 1279, 118; 1423, 6–7, 8, 183 Auberoche, Battle of, 35–36, 153, 265 Angevin Empire, 15–16 Aubert, E´tienne, 238 Angle, Guichard d’, 192, 193 Aubricourt, Eustache d’, 229–30 Anglo-Burgundian alliance, 6, 7–8, 68, 254, 302–3 Audley, Sir James, 36–37, 51, 117, 258 Anglo-Flemish alliance, 8–9, 121, 126, 177 Audley, Peter, 229 Anglo-French War of 1294–1303, 9–11, 118, 210, 249 Audrehem, Arnoul d’, Marshal of France, 20, 37–38, Angoumois, 334 225, 257–58, 275 Anjou, 334–35 ‘‘Auld Alliance.’’ See Franco-Scottish Alliance Anjou, duke of. See Louis, duke of Anjou Auray, Battle of, 38, 61, 63, 83, 92 Anne, duchess of Brittany, 63 Auvergne, 335–36 Anne of Bohemia, queen of England, 168, 194, 269 Auxerre, Treaty of, 19, 58, 69, 131, 200 Anne of Burgundy, duchess of Bedford, 7, 8, 11–12, 177 Avaugour, Guillaume d’, 89 Anonimalle Chronicle, 343–44 Avignon Peace Conference, 39, 60–61, 100, 110, Anse, as routier base, 40, 140 207, 238 Anti-French coalition, 12–13, 66, 121 Aycelin, Pierre, Cardinal of Laon, 212 Appanage, 13–14 Appeal of the Gascon Lords, 3–4, 87, 14–15, 111, 117 ‘‘Babylonian Captivity,’’ 238–39, 249 Aquitaine, 15–16, 137–38 Badefol, Se´guin de, 40–41, 62, 140, 273 Arbroath, Declaration of, 280 Bal des Ardents,88 Archers, 16–18, 106 Ball, John, 248 Archier, Jean, 41 Balliol, Edward, 144 ‘‘Archpriest.’’ See Cervole, Arnaud de Balliol, John, 109, 118, 129, 280 Armagnac, 335 Bamborough, Robert, 103 Armagnac, count of. See Bernard, count of Armagnac Bannerets, 22 Armagnacs, 18–19, 52–53, 57, 84, 130–33, 212 Bannockburn, Battle of, 119, 222, 280

365 INDEX

Bartholomew, Lord Badlesmere, 65 Bosc, Nicolas de, bishop of Bayeux, 212 Basin, Thomas, 344 Boucicaut, John, marshal of France, 1, 2, 6, 20 Basle, Council of, 29 Bourbon/Bourbonnais, 336–37 Bastides, 41–42, 118 Bourbon, Jean de, count of La Marche, 62 Bataille, Guillaume, 220 Bourges, kingdom of, 90, 219 Battle: Battle cries, 43; casualties during, 80; Bourges, Treaty of, 6, 57–58, 69, 131, 149, 297–98 chronological list of, 321–22; nature of, 42–43 Bouteiller, Guy le, 272 ‘‘Battle of the Golden Spurs.’’ See Courtrai, battle of Bouvier, Jacques, 344 Baudricourt, Robert de, 173 Brabant, 337 Bauge´, Battle of, 43–44, 217, 290, 298 Brembre, Nicholas, mayor of London, 197 Beauchamp, Guy de, earl of Warwick, 45 Bre´tigny, Treaty of, 58–59, 122, 138, 181, 267 Beauchamp, Richard, earl of Warwick, 44–45, 215, 219 Breton Civil War, 38, 55, 59–61, 60 (illus.), 92, 108, 191, Beauchamp, Thomas, earl of Warwick (d. 1401), 207, 214: Brittany, 62–63; Duke John IV and, 181–82; 269, 299 John de Montfort and, 221–22 Beauchamp, Thomas, earl of Warwick (d. 1369), Brienne, Raoul de, count of Eu, 97, 179, 289 44, 45–46, 257 Brignais, Battle of, 82, 61–62, 140 Beauchamp, William, earl of Warwick, 21 Brioude, as routier base, 40, 140 Beaufort, Edmund, duke of Somerset, 46–47, 65, 152, Brittany, 38, 92, 62–63, 108, 128, 191, 207, 214, 246: 170, 209, 231–32 Breton Civil War, 59–61; Duke Arthur III and, 33–34; Beaufort, Henry, Cardinal Bishop of Winchester, Duke John IV and, 181–82; Duke John V and, 182–83; 29–30, 46, 47–48, 157, 260, 300 John de Montfort and, 221–22; Sir Walter Bentley Beaufort, John, duke of Somerset, 44, 46, 48–49 and, 50–51 Beaufort, Margaret, 49, 81 Brittany, duke of. See Arthur III, duke of Brittany; Beaufort, Pierre Roger de, 239 Charles of Blois, duke of Brittany; John IV, duke of Beaufort, Thomas, duke of Exeter, 49–50, 215, 282, 305 Brittany; John V, duke of Brittany Beaumanoir, Jean de, 103 Bruce, Robert. See Robert I, king of Scotland Bedford, duchess of. See Anne of Burgundy, duchess Bruges, 126, 203–5 of Bedford Bruges Peace Conference, 63–64, 110, 184, 204, 238–39 Bedford, duke of. See John, duke of Bedford Brut, 344–45 Be´huchet, Nicholas, 286, 287 Buch, Captal de. See Grailly, Jean de, Captal de Buch Bekynton, John, 111 Buchan, earl of. See Stewart, John, earl of Buchan Benedict XII, Pope, 100, 238 Bureau, John, 20, 35, 79, 64–65, 232, 261, 285 Benoit, Guillaume, 11 Burghersh, Henry, bishop of Lincoln, 12, 65–66, 112 Bentley, Sir Walter, 50–51, 61, 101, 214 Burgundians, 66–68, 130–33, 185, 186 Bergerac, capture of, 51–52, 265 Burgundy, 66, 67, 68–69, 185, 253, 254–55 Bernard, count of Armagnac, 18–19, 52–53, 57, 84, 305 Burgundy, duchess of. See Marguerite de Flanders, Berry, 336 duchess of Burgundy Berry, duke of. See John, duke of Berry Burgundy, duke of. See John the Fearless, duke of Bertrand de l’Isle, 36 Burgundy; Philip the Bold, duke of Burgundy; Philip Bertrand, Robert, lord of Bricquebec, 145 the Good, duke of Burgundy Berwick, Treaty of, 109 Burley, Simon, 269 Biceˆtre, Peace of, 18, 84, 131 Burning Men’s Ball. See Bal des Ardents Black Death, 53–54 Buzanc¸ais, Treaty of, 58, 69, 131 ‘‘Black Monday,’’ 267 Byker family, 35 Blanche d’E´vreux, queen of France, 179 Blanche, duchess of Lancaster, 147 Caboche, Simon, 19, 70–71, 132, 185, 241 Blanche of Bourbon, queen of Castile, 78 Cabochiens, 19, 67, 70–71, 132, 185, 200, 241 Blanchetaque, ford of, 1 Cadzand, Battle of, 71–72, 269, 299 Blois, 336 Cagny, Perceval de, 345 Bohun, Eleanor de, 108 Calais, 72–73 Bohun, Humphrey de, earl of Hereford and Essex, 54 Calais, siege of, 72, 73–74, 121 Bohun, Mary de, countess of Derby, 148 Calais, Treaty of. See Bre´tigny, Treaty of Bohun, William de, earl of Northampton, 54–55, 60, Calais, Truce of, 74–75 108, 222, 286 Cale, Guillaume, 171 Boniface VIII, Pope, 10, 210, 238, 249, 295 Calveley, Sir Hugh, 38, 61, 75–76, 103, 188, 273 Bonne, duchess of Orle´ans, 18, 52 Cambrai, siege of, 296 , queen of France, 179 Campaign of 1475, 163 Bordeaux, 55–56, 79, 117, 137–38; Truce of, 4, 56–57 Canterbury Chronicle, 345 Boroughbridge, battle of, 119 Canterbury, Treaty of, 76, 150

366 INDEX

Caours, Raoul de, 51, 108–9 Chivalry, 97–98, 136–37, 288–89 Capet, House of, 77–78 Christine de Pizan, 86, 98–99 Capet, Hugh, 77 Chronicle of London, 216 Capgrave, John, 157 Chronicles of France, England and the Adjoining Countries. Caroline War (1369–1389), 161–62 See Chroniques de France, d’Angleterre et des pais voisins Cassel, Battle of, 9, 21, 126, 204, 234, 251 (Froissart) Castel, E´ tienne du, 98 Chronique de Charles VII (Chartier), 346 Castilian War of Succession, 78–79, 200, 224–25, 273 Chroniques de France, d’Angleterre et des pais voisins Castillon, Battle of, 65, 79, 152, 293 (Froissart), 133–35 Casualties, 80–81 Chroniques des Ducs d’Alenc¸on (Cagny), 345 Catherine of Valois, queen of England, 45, 46, 81–82, Chroniques du Roi Charles VII (Bouvier), 344 132, 150, 166, 283, 303 Cinque Ports, 228 Cauchon, Pierre, bishop of Beauvais, 174, 175 Clarence, duke of. See Thomas, duke of Clarence Caumont, Alexander de, 3 Clemence of Hungary, queen of France, 203 Cavalry, 21–22 Clement V, Pope, 238 Cervole, Arnaud de, 82–83, 139, 273 Clement VI, Pope, 39, 99–101, 207 C’est Assavoir,59 Clement VII, Antipope, 87, 201, 239 Champagne, 337 Clermont, Treaty of, 37 Chandos Herald, 83, 117, 252, 345–46 Clinton, John, Lord Clinton, 261 Chandos, Sir John, 36, 37, 38, 61, 83, 117, 225 Clinton, William, earl of Huntingdon, 12 Charles, count of Valois, 9–10, 13, 118, 249, 250, 277, 306 Clisson, Olivier, III, 51, 101 Charles, duke of Orle´ans, 83–85, 169, 235 Clisson, Olivier, IV, constable of France, 63, 87, 101–2, Charles IV (‘‘the Fair’’), king of France, 77, 85–86, 182, 212 250, 306 Clos de Gale´es, 228 Charles V (‘‘the Wise’’), king of France, 14–15, 56, 57, Cobham, Sir Reginald, 80 59, 86–87, 142, 180, 181 Cocherel, Battle of, 82, 86, 94, 102–3, 139 Charles VI (‘‘the Well-Beloved’’ or ‘‘the Mad’’), king of Coeur, Jacques, 90 France, 70, 71, 81, 87–89, 152, 166, 202, 216: French Colonna, Oddo, 239 Civil War and, 130–32, 200–201; peace negotiations Combat of the Thirty, 61, 103–4 with Richard II, 168–69; Treaty of Troyes and, 302–3 Companies d’Ordonnance,91 Charles VII (‘‘the Well-Served’’ or ‘‘the Victorious’’), Company of St. George, 147 king of France, 89–91, 89 (illus.), 132, 206, 254, 261, ‘‘Complaint of the Commons of Kent,’’ 170 303, 312: Congress of Arras and, 29–30; Joan of Arc Conan IV, duke of Brittany, 62 and, 174, 175; military reforms of, 24, 91–92, 301; Condulmaro, Gabriele, 239 Montereau Conference and, 219–20; Norman Conseil Prive´,20 Campaign (1449–1450) and, 231–32; Truce of Tours Constables, 19–21: England, listing of, 332; France, and, 301–2 listing of, 332–33 Charles VIII, king of France, 63, 306 Constance, Council of, 48, 76, 239 Charles of Blois, duke of Brittany, 38, 59–61, 63, 92–93, Constanza, duchess of Lancaster, 183, 184 108, 191, 207, 221, 222 Convocation, 296 Charles of Bourbon, count of Clermont, 154 Corbeil Agreement, 186, 219 Charles of Durazzo, 200 Cornwall, Sir John, 215, 265, 266 Charles of Spain, constable of France, 37, 82, 93, Counter-Jacquerie, 171, 172 143, 180 Courtney, Richard, bishop of Norwich, 146 Charles the Bad, king of Navarre, 40, 56, 57, 82, 86, Courtrai, Battle of, 21, 30, 126, 249 93–94, 143, 208: Battle of Cocherel, 102–3; Jacquerie Crabbe, John, 266 and, 171, 172; John II and, 179–80; routiers and, Craon, Pierre, 102 138–39, 140 Cravant, battle of, 104–5 Charles the Bold, duke of Burgundy, 69, 163, 255 Cre´cy, Battle of, 105–6, 105 (illus.), 116, 121, 205 Chartier, Jean, 346 Cresswell, Sir John, 273 Chaˆteau Gaillard, 50, 133, 216, 308 Crisis of 1340–1341 (England), 106–7, 121, 123, 218, Chaˆteauvillain, William de, 265 243–44, 291–92 Chaˆtel, Garciot du, 62 Cromer, William, 170, 171 Chaˆtel, Tanguy du, 89, 220 Croniques de London, 346 Chaucer, Alice, countess of Salisbury, 260 Cros, Jean de, bishop of Limoges, 194 Chaucer, Geoffrey, 134, 226, 260, 267 Crossbow, 17 Chevauche´e, 94–95, 290; of 1355, 95–96, 116; of 1373, 96–97 Dagworth, Sir Thomas, 61, 92, 108–9, 191 Cheverston, Sir John, 4, 275 Dampierre, House of, 203

367 INDEX

Dancaster, John, 289 Estates, general and provincial, 57, 74, 123–24, 156, Dauphine´, 337 208, 294–95 David, duke of Rothesay, 113 Eudes, duke of Burgundy, 250 David II, king of Scotland, 109–10, 129–30, Eugenius IV, Pope, 239 228–29, 266, 281 Evesham, Battle of, 80, 118 Despenser, Hugh, the Elder, 45, 167 Excusaciones (Stratford), 107, 292 Despenser, Hugh, the Younger, 119, 120, 167 Exeter, duke of. See Beaufort, Thomas, duke of Exeter Dietrich, count of Cleves, 12 Eymet, Battle of, 142 Diplomacy, 58, 59, 110–12 Eyton, Fulk, 206 Ditie´ de Jehanne d’Arc (Christine de Pizan), 99 Donald, earl of Mar, 109 ‘‘Fair Maid of Kent.’’ See Holland, Joan Dordrecht Bonds, 66, 112, 259 Falstaff, Sir John, 283 Douglas, Archibald, earl of Douglas, 113–14, 130, Fastolf, Sir John, 125–26, 154, 196, 245 281, 289–90, 307 Felton, Thomas, Seneschal of Aquitaine, 142 Douglas, Sir William, 133 Fitzalan, Richard, earl of Arundel, 71, 72, 269, 299 Douglas, William, earl of Douglas, 130, 257 Fitzalan, Thomas, earl of Arundel, 146 Drury, Rabigot, 229 Flanders, 8–9, 31, 32, 33, 126–27, 203–5, 211, 276 Dunkirk, Treaties of, 203 Flanders, count of. See Louis de Male, count of Dunois, count of. See John, count of Dunois and Flanders; Louis de Nevers, count of Flanders Longueville Fleurs de Lys, Treaty of. See Hostages, Treaty of the Dupplin Muir, Battle of, 109, 287 Formigny, battle of, 127–28, 232 Fouage, 14, 87, 117, 294, 295 E´corcheurs, 91, 273. See also Routiers Fouge`res, sack of, 46, 128–29, 301 Edmund, earl of Kent, 168, 210 Fournier, Jacques, 238 Edmund, earl of Lancaster, 10, 165, 190 Franc-Archers, 92 Edward of Angouleˆme, 269 Francis I, duke of Brittany, 49, 231 Edmund of Langley, duke of York, 87, 115–16, 126, Francis II, duke of Brittany, 63 204, 211, 253 Franco-Scottish alliance, 59, 129–30, 159, 228–29, 280–81 Edward, duke of York, 2 Frederick III, Holy Roman Emperor, 255 Edward, the Black Prince, Prince of Wales, 16, French Civil War, 58, 84, 130–33, 166: Armagnacs and, 78, 87, 106, 116–17, 266, 310: Battle of Na´jera and, 18–19; Bernard, count of Armagnac and, 52–53; 224–25; Battle of Poitiers and, 256–58; sack of Burgundians and, 66–67; Cabochiens and, 70–71; Limoges and, 194–95; Truce of Bordeaux and, Charles VI and, 87–89; Charles VII and, 89–91; Henry 56–57 V and, 149–51; John the Fearless, duke of Burgundy Edwardian War (1337–1360), 161 and, 184–85; Louis, duke of Guienne and, 200–201; Edward I, king of England, 9–11, 117–19, 210, 280 Montereau Conference and, 219–20 Edward II, king of England, 9–10, 119–20, 167, 277, Fresnay, Battle of, 133 280–81 Froissart, Jean, 103, 117, 133–35, 134 (illus.), 145, 169, Edward III, king of England, 77, 112, 120–22, 144, 155, 172, 195, 213, 251, 252, 286 207, 221, 244, 252, 310: anti-French coalition and, 12–13; Avignon Peace Conference and, 39; battle of Gabelle, 294 Cre´cy and, 105–6; battle of Sluys and, 286–87; Breton Galard, John de, lord of Limeuil, 265 Civil War and, 60, 61; Crisis of 1340–1341 Garter, Order of the, 121, 136–37, 288 and, 106–7, 291–92; First and Second Treaties of Gascony, 15–16, 79, 137–38 London and, 198–200; overthrow of Edward II and, Gaston de Foix, count of Foix, 5 167, 168; Rheims Campaign and, 266–67; siege of Gaston Fe´bus, count of Foix, 138 Calais and, 73–74; siege of Tournai and, 299–300; Gaveston, Piers, 119, 167 Thie´rache Campaign and, 296–97; Treaty of Genealogies: Beaufort family, 318 (illus.); Brittany, Bre´tigny and, 58–59; Truce of Calais and, 74, 75 dukes of, 314 (illus.); Burgundy, dukes of, 315 (illus.); Edward IV, king of England, 152, 163, 255 Flanders, counts of, 316 (illus.); French Royal Edward, prince of Wales, 152, 209 Succession in the fourteenth century, 317 (illus.); Eleanor of Aquitaine, 15, 55 Lancaster, house of, 318 (illus.); Plantagenet, house Eleanor of Castile, queen of England, 210 of, 319 (illus.); Valois, house of, 320 (illus.) Elizabeth of York, 163 Geoffrey, count of Anjou, 255 Elmham, Thomas, 346 Geoffrey de Charny, 20, 258 English Political Crisis of 1340–1341. See Crisis of Geoffrey le Baker, 45–46, 80, 346–47 1340–1341 Gesta Henrici Quinti, 347 Ermine, Order of the, 137, 182 Ghent, 31, 32, 33, 126, 203–5 Esplechin, Truce of, 122–23, 300 Gien, League of, 52, 84, 131

368 INDEX

Gilles of Brittany, 128, 183 (1417–19) and, 230–31; Shakespeare’s plays and, Glasdale, William, 236 282–83; Thomas, duke of Clarence and, 297–98; Gloucester, duke of. See Humphrey, duke of Treaty of Troyes and, 302–3 Gloucester; Thomas of Woodstock, duke of Henry V (Shakespeare), 149, 282–83 Gloucester Henry VI, king of England, 151–53, 206, 209–10, 259–60, Godfrey of Harcourt. See Harcourt, Godfrey of 267–68, 300–301 Golden Fleece, Order of the, 137, 255 Henry VI: Part 1 (Shakespeare), 282–83; Part 2 Good Parliament, 117, 184, 244 (Shakespeare), 282; Part 3 (Shakespeare), 282 Got, Bertrand de, 238 Henry VII, king of England, 49, 81, 191, 256 Gough, Sir Matthew, 128, 196, 206 Henry of Bolingbroke. See Henry IV, king of England Gourney, Sir Matthew, 38 Henry of Grosmont, earl of Lancaster, 3, 35–36, 51, 52, Grailly, Jean de, Captal de Buch, 102–3, 105–6, 117, 153–54, 266 138–39, 172, 225, 258 Henry of Trasta´mare, 15, 37, 75, 78, 142, 192, Grandison, Sir Thomas, 142, 188 224–25, 273 Gray, Sir Thomas, 347–48 Herrings, Battle of the, 125, 154, 175 Great Company, 40, 61, 62, 82, 139–41, 147, 273 Histoire de Charles VI (Juvenal des Ursins), 349 ‘‘Great Schism,’’ 238–39 Histoire de Charles VII (Basin), 344 Gregory XI, Pope, 64, 147, 239 Hobelars, 22 Grimoard, Guillaume de, 239 Holland, Joan, 116–17, 136, 154–55, 184 Gue´rande, Treaty of (1365), 61, 63, 92, 141, 181 Holland, John, earl of Huntingdon, 44, 133 Gue´rande, Treaty of (1381), 182 Holland, Robert, Lord Holland, 154 Guesclin, Bertrand du, constable of France, 38, 61, 63, Holland, Thomas, earl of Kent, 154–55 75, 87, 141–42, 224–25 Homildon Hill, Battle of, 113, 289 Guestin, Richard, 196 Hostages, Treaty of the, 155–56, 200 Guienne, duke of. See Louis, duke of Guienne Humphrey, duke of Gloucester, 8, 11, 48, 156–57, 300 Guillon, Treaty of, 267 Hundred Years War: causes of, 157–59; naming of, Guines, Treaty of, 75, 142–43, 180 159–60; phases of, 160–64 Guise, Francis de, duke of Guise, 73 Hungerford, Robert, Lord Hungerford, 280 Guy, count of Blois, 134, 135 Hungerford, Sir Walter, 265 Guy de Dampierre, count of Flanders, 10 Guzman, Leonor de, 78 Indentures, 23, 165–66 Infantry, 22–23 Hainault, 337–38 Ingham, Oliver, Seneschal of Aquitaine, 5 Halberd, 27 Innocent VI, Pope, 82, 238 Hales, Robert, 247–48 Isabeau of Bavaria, queen of France, 81, 87, 88, 89, 99, Halidon Hill, Battle of, 109, 121, 144–45, 280 131–32, 166–67, 201–2, 303 Halle, Sir Frank, 35, 36 Isabella, queen of England (d. 1358), 77, 85, 119–20, 121, Handford, Sir John, 265 153, 167–68, 218, 277, 280, 292 Harcourt, Godfrey of, 145–46, 232 Isabella, queen of England (d. 1409), 84, 148, 168–69, Harfleur, Siege of, 1, 146 168 (illus.), 194, 269–70, 299 Hastings, John, earl of Pembroke, 98, 192, 193 Hastings, Lawrence, earl of Pembroke, 35 Jack Cade’s Rebellion, 152, 170–71, 197, 232, 268, 279 Hawkwood, Sir John, 140, 146–47, 273 Jacqueline of Hainault, 11, 156, 254 Henrician War (1415–1453), 162–63 Jacquerie, 86, 171–72, 208, 229, 241 Henry, count of Vaude´mont, 230 Jacquetta of Luxembourg, 8, 178 Henry, earl of Lancaster, 153 James I, king of Scotland, 113, 130, 216, 281 Henry I, king of England, 234, 255 James II, king of Scotland, 130, 281 Henry II, king of Castile. See Henry of Trasta´mare Jean, count of Eu, 258 Henry II, king of England, 15, 55, 62, 77, 137, 158, 255 Jean de Chalon, 38 Henry III, king of England, 16, 77, 117, 138, 158, Jean de Clermont, marshal of France, 20, 95, 257 241–42, 255 Jean de Harcourt, count of Aumaˆle, 307 Henry IV: king of England, 47, 50, 57, 58, 116, Jean de Poitiers, bishop of Valence, 220 147–49, 270 Jean le Bel, 80, 134, 145, 172–73, 252 Henry IV: Part 1 (Shakespeare), 282; Part 2 Jeanne de Belleville, 51 (Shakespeare), 282, 283 Jeanne de Burgundy, queen of France, 179 Henry V, king of England, 47, 48, 50, 76, 132, 148, Jeanne de Flanders, 60, 92, 221, 222 149–51, 149 (illus.), 272: Battle of Agincourt and, 1–3; Jeanne de Navarre, queen of France, 202, 249 Catherine of Valois and, 81–82; Siege of Meaux, Jeanne de Penthie`vre, 38, 59, 60, 61, 63, 92, 141, 214–15; Siege of Melun, 215–16; Norman Campaign 181, 221, 222

369 INDEX

Jeanne of E´vreaux, queen of France, 85 Laire´, Robert de, 220 Jeanne, queen of Navarre, 93, 203 Lancaster, duke of. See Henry of Grosmont, duke of Joan of Arc, 12, 48, 90, 99, 173–75, 174 (illus.), 245, 254, Lancaster; John of Gaunt, duke of Lancaster 308, 312: John, count of Dunois and, 176; Loire Lancaster, House of, 190–91 Campaign and, 195–96; Nullification Trial of, 91; Lancastrian War (1415–1453), 162–63 Shakespeare’s plays and, 283; Siege of Orleans and, Languedoc, 338 235–36 Languedoil, 338 Joan of Kent. See Holland, Joan La Roche-Derrien, Battle of, 61, 92, 108, 188, 191–92 Joan, queen of Scotland, 110 La Rochelle, Battle of, 192–93, 192 (illus.) John, count of Angouleˆme, 69, 84 Latimer, William, Lord Latimer, 244 John, count of Armagnac, 4, 14, 143 La Tre´moı¨lle, Georges de, 33, 90, 266 John, count of Clermont, 127, 232 Launac, Battle of, 4 John, count of Dunois and Longueville, 65, 84, 174, Laval, Be´atrix de, 102 175–76, 219, 231, 236, 308 La Vie du Prince Noir (Chandos Herald), 83, 117, John, count of Harcourt, 145 345–46 John, duke of Alenc¸on (d. 1415), 2, 176 Legge, John, 248 John, duke of Alenc¸on (d. 1476), 33, 174, 176–77, 195–96, Le Journal d’un Bourgeois de Paris, 348 231, 245 ‘‘Le Margot’’ Company, 40 John, duke of Bedford, 6–8, 11–12, 29–30, 156, 177–78, Lescot, Richard, 279 282, 307 Les-Espagnols-sur-Mer, Battle of. See Winchelsea, John, duke of Berry, 57–58, 155, 178–79, 194, 212 Battle of John, duke of Brabant, 12 Leslie, Sir Walter, 140 John, duke of Normandy. See John II, king of France Les vrayes chroniques (Jean le Bel), 172 John, duke of Touraine, dauphin of France, 19, 88, 166 Letters de Retente,23 John I, king of France, 203, 250, 278, 306 ‘‘Letter to the English’’ (Joan of Arc), 173 John II, king of France, 3, 86, 93, 155, 179–81, 180 (illus.), Leulinghen, Truce of, 88, 148, 193–94, 212, 269, 299 266: Battle of Poitiers and, 256–58; Truce of Bordeaux Lewes, Battle of, 117 and, 56–57; Treaty of Bre´tigny and, 58–59; Treaty of Lex Salica, 278 Guines and, 142–43; First and Second Treaties of Libellus Famosus, 107, 292 London and, 197–99; Order of the Star and, 288–89 Liber Metricus de Henrico Quinto (Elmham), 346 John III, duke of Brittany, 59, 63, 181, 221, 222 Libourne, Treaty of, 117 John IV, duke of Brittany, 38, 61, 63, 101–2, 141, 181–82 Life of the Black Prince. See La Vie du Prince Noir John V, duke of Brittany, 6–7, 8, 33, 63, 182–83 (Chandos Herald) John, king of Bohemia, 106, 218 Limoges, sack of, 117, 194–95, 285 John, king of England, 15, 63, 63, 158 Limousin, 338–39 John of Blois, count of Penthie`vre, 102, 182 Lionel, duke of Clarence, 134, 183, 267, 288 John of Bourbon, constable of France, 95 Lit de Justice,70 John of Chalon, lord of Arlay, 230 Livre de seyntz medicines (Henry of Grosmont), 153 John of Gaunt, duke of Lancaster, 64, 96, 183–84, 194, Livre des fais et bonnes meurs de sage roy Charles V 269–70, 298–99 (Christine de Pizan), 99 John of Hainault, 172, 252 Loire Campaign, 174, 176, 195–96, 245, 312 John of Montreuil, 160 Lollardy, 150 John of Reading, 348 London, 196–97 John the Fearless, duke of Burgundy, 1, 66–68, 70–71, London, First Treaty of, 122, 197–98 88, 131, 184–86, 202, 219–20 London, Second Treaty of, 122, 198–99, 266 John XXII, Pope, 100, 292 Longbow, 17–18 Journal du Sie´ge d’Orle´ans, 348–49 Longueville, count of. See John, count of Dunois Justification of the Duke of Burgundy, 67, 131, 186–87 and Longueville Juvenal des Ursins, Jean, 111, 349 Lords Appellant, 115, 148, 244, 269, 299 Lorraine, 339 Kent, earl of. See Holland, Thomas, earl of Kent Louis, count of Vendoˆme, 104 Kingston, John, 165 Louis, duke of Anjou, 15, 78, 155, 199–200 Knight, 22 Louis, duke of Bourbon, 155 Knighton, Henry, 349 Louis, duke of Guienne, dauphin of France, 1, 70–71, Knolles, Sir Robert, 38, 61, 75, 103, 147, 188–89, 248, 273 88, 131–32, 146, 166, 200–201 Kyriell, Sir Thomas, 127, 232 Louis, duke of Orle´ans, 84, 88, 98, 130, 185, 186, 201–2, 212, 253 Laborers, Statute, 247 Louis VI, king of France, 77, 234, 240 ‘‘La Hire.’’ See Vignolles, E´ tienne de Louis VII, king of France, 15, 77

370 INDEX

Louis VIII, king of France, 270 Monarchs and rulers, listing of, 323–25 Louis IX (St. Louis), king of France, 16, 77, 158, 234, 240, Mons-en-Pe´ve`le, Battle of, 234 241–42, 248, 255, 288 Mons-en-Vimeau, Battle of, 312 Louis X (‘‘the Quarrelsome’’), king of France, 202–3, Monstrelet, Enguerrand de, 12, 349 250, 306 Montagu, John, earl of Salisbury, 217 Louis XI, king of France, 91, 130, 163, 176, 177, 210, 255, Montagu, Thomas, earl of Salisbury, 44, 104, 133, 217, 306, 312 235–36, 307 Louis XII, king of France, 84 Montagu, William, earl of Salisbury, 12, 121, 218–19 Louis de Male, count of Flanders, 64, 87, 115, 126, Montagu, William, Lord Montagu, 218 203–4, 211, 253 Montaigu, John de, 212 Louis de Nevers, count of Flanders, 8–9, 106, 126, 204–5 Montargis, Siege of, 45, 175, 219 Louis of Poitiers, count of Valentinois, 35, 36 Montenay, Guillaume de, 282 Ludwig, Holy Roman Emperor, 12, 66 Montereau Conference, 90, 132, 186, 219–21, 220 (illus.) Ludwig of Bavaria, 70, 252 Montfort, John de, 59, 60, 63, 92, 207, 221–22 Lydgate, John, 157 Montfort, Simon de, earl of Leicester, 80, 117 Montiel, Battle of, 78 Mac¸on, Robert le, Chancellor of France, 200 Montreuil, Process of, 262 Maes Moydog, Battle of, 21 Moray, Sir Andrew, 109 Mahaut, countess of Artois, 270–71 Morlaix, Battle of, 60, 222–23 Maine, 339: surrender of, 46–47, 128, 206–7, 260, 301 Morley, Sir Robert, 286 Malestroit, Truce of, 39, 60, 100, 207–8 Mortimer, Anne, countess of Cambridge, 267 Mantes, Treaty of, 93, 180 Mortimer, Edmund, earl of March, 150, 190, 214 Maps: major duchies, counties, and lordships of Mortimer, Roger, earl of March, 45, 85, 120–21, 153, medieval France, li; major battles and sieges of the 167–68, 218, 280, 292 Hundred Years War, lii; France in 1328, at the Mortimer’s Cross, Battle of, 81 accession of Philip VI, liii; France in 1360, at the Mowbray, Thomas, duke of Norfolk, 148, 269–70 conclusion of the Treaty of Bre´tigny, liv; France in Murdoch, earl of Fife, 113, 289 1429, at the advent of Joan of Arc, lv Murimuth, Adam, 349–50 Marcel, E´ tienne, 56, 57, 86, 93, 171, 180, 208–9, 240–41 Mare, Sir Peter de la, 244 Na´jera, Battle of, 78, 117, 142, 224–25 Margaret of Anjou, queen of England, 47, 152, 206, National consciousness, growth of, 110, 225–27 209–10, 260, 268, 280, 301 Naval warfare, 71, 72, 192–93, 227–28, 282, 286–87, Margaret of France, queen of England, 118, 210 310–11 Margaret of Norway, queen of Scotland, 118 Navarre, 339–40 Margate, Battle of. See Cadzand, Battle of Navarrete, Battle of. See Na´jera, Battle of Marguerite de Flanders, duchess of Burgundy, 68, 87, Nesle, Guy de, 51, 214, 275 115, 126–27, 185, 204, 211, 253 Neville, Cecily, duchess of York, 268 Marie, duchess of Bourbon, 179 Neville, Ralph, earl of Westmorland, 268 Marigny, Enguerran de, 203 Neville, Ralph, Lord Neville of Raby, 228 Marigny, Jean d’, bishop of Beauvais, 56 Neville, Richard, earl of Warwick, 280 Marmousets, 88, 102, 201–2, 211–12 Neville’s Cross, Battle of, 109, 121, 228–29, 281 Marshals, 19–21: England, listing of, 332; France, listing Nicopolis, Battle of, 185 of, 333 Nogaret, Guillaume de, 249 Martin V, Pope, 48, 239 Nogent-sur-Seine, Battle of, 229–30, 273 Mauny, Walter, Lord Mauny, 3, 51, 213–14, 222, 252, Norman Campaign (1417–1419), 150, 230–31, 272; 265, 286 (1449–1450), 65, 176, 231–32 Mauron, Battle of, 51, 61, 214, 289 Normandy, 46, 47, 127, 150, 230–31, 232–33, 272 Meaux, Siege of, 214–15 Northampton, earl of. See Bohun, William de, earl of Meliador (Froissart), 134 Northampton Melun, Jean de, count of Tancarville, 61–62 Northampton, Treaty of, 168 Melun, Siege of, 215–16 Melun, William, count of Tancarville, 212 Offord, John, 39 Men-at-Arms, 22 Oldcastle, Sir John, 150 Menil, Sir Hugh, 3 Olivier, count of Penthie`vre, 182 Mercier, John le, 212 Ordinances of 1311, 119 Merciless Parliament, 148, 244, 270, 299 Ordonnance Cabochienne, 70, 71, 132 Meschin, He´lie, 62 Oriflamme, 73, 75, 234–35 Meun, Jean de, 99 Orle´ans, duke of. See Charles, duke of Orle´ans; Misericord,27 Louis, duke of Orle´ans

371 INDEX

Orle´ans, Siege of, 154, 174, 175, 217, 235–37, 235 (illus.), Pole, William, de la, duke of Suffolk, 46, 47, 206, 236, 279, 308, 312 259–60, 300–301 Oudenaarde, Siege of, 32 Pollaxe, 28–29 Poll Tax, 247, 295 Panetier de roi,26 Ponthieu, 340 Papacy, 238–39 Pontoise, Peace of, 71, 84, 132 Paris, 208, 239–41; Treaty of, 137, 158, 241–42, 255 Pontoise, Siege of, 65, 260–61, 268 Parlement of Paris, 242–43 Pontvallain, Battle of, 96, 142, 188 Parliament, 115, 243–45: crisis of 1340–1341 and, 107; Popes, listing of, 326 Good parliament, 117; Merciless parliament, 148; Praemunire, Statutes of, 239 Wonderful parliament, 71 Praguerie, 90–91, 176 Paston, John, 125 Pre´voˆt des Marchands, 240–41 Paston Letters, 125 Prignano, Bartolomeo, 239 Patay, Battle of, 174, 176, 196, 245–46, 279, 312 Prise,26 Paˆtis, 191, 246 Process, 261–62: of Montreuil, 119; of Pe´rigueux, 119 Peasants’ Revolt of 1381, 197, 246–48, 247 (illus.), Pragmatic Sanction, 90 269 Propaganda, 262–64 Pedro I (‘‘the Cruel’’), king of Castile, 15, 75, 78, 142, Provence, 340–41 183, 224–25, 273 Provisors, Statute of, 239 Pedro IV, king of Aragon, 75 Pseudo-Elmham, 350 Percy, Henry (‘‘Hotspur’’), 113 Purveyance, 26 Percy, Henry, Lord Percy, 228 Pe´rigord, 340 Quercy, 341 Pe´rigueux, Process of, 262 Quie´ret, Hugh, 286 Perrers, Alice, 122, 244, 252 Peter II, duke of Brittany, 34 Radcot Bridge, Battle of, 148 Petit, Jean, 186 Randolph, John, earl of Moray, 229 Philarghi, Pietro, 239 Ransom, 246, 265–66 Philip, count of E´ vreux, 93 Raoul, Sieur de Gaucourt, 146 Philip de Rouvre, duke of Burgundy, 61, 211 Raymond-Bernard, lord of Montpezat, 41, 277 Philip, duke of Orle´ans, 142, 155, 257 Recueil des Croniques et Anciennes Istories de la Grande Philip II (Augustus), king of France, 63, 77, 158, 241, 255 Bretaigne, a` Present Nomme´ Engleterre (Wavrin), 352 Philip III, king of France, 118, 158, 248, 306 Regnault of Chartres, achbishop of Rheims, 29 Philip IV (‘‘the Fair’’), king of France, 9–10, 77, 118, 210, Rene´, duke of Anjou, 209 248–49, 295, 306 Rheims Campaign, 122, 181, 266–67 Philip V (‘‘the Tall’’), king of France, 203, 249–50, 306 Richard, duke of York, 49, 170, 209, 255, 260, Philip VI, king of France, 39, 60, 73–75, 100, 105–6, 121, 261, 267–68 207, 250–52, 271 Richard, earl of Cambridge, 150, 267 Philip of Navarre, 155 Richard I, king of England, 15, 133, 136 Philippa of Hainault, queen of England, 74, 134, 167, Richard II, king of England, 56, 148–49, 168–69, 184, 252 193–94, 247–48, 269–70, 298–99 Philip the Bold, duke of Burgundy, 64, 68, 87, 127, 211, Richard III, king of England, 256 253–54, 257 Richard III (Shakespeare), 282 Philip the Good, duke of Burgundy, 6–8, 11, 29–30, Rieux, Jean de, marshal of France, 133 67–68, 132, 156, 177–78, 254–55, 302–3 Rieux, Pierre de, marshal of France, 20 Picquigny, Treaty of, 163 Rivie`re, Bureau de la, 212 Pierre, count of Alenc¸on, 155 Robert de Be´thune, count of Flanders, 204 Pierre, duke of Bourbon, 258 Robert, duke of Albany, 113, 281, 289 Plague. See Black Death Robert I, king of Scotland, 109, 118, 129, 280, 284 Plantagenet, house of, 255–56 Robert II, , 270 Poitiers, Battle of, 36, 139, 180, 256–58, 257 (illus.) Robert II, king of France, 77 Poitou, 340 Robert II, king of Scotland, 109, 130, 229, 281 Pole, John de la, earl of Lincoln, 259 Robert III, king of Scotland, 113, 130, 281, 289 Pole, Michael de la, earl of Suffolk (d. 1415, second Robert le Coq, bishop of Laon, 56, 57 earl), 146, 259 Robert of Artois, 60, 121, 158, 222, 270–72, 271 (illus.), Pole, Michael de la, earl of Suffolk (d. 1415, third earl), 276, 299 2, 259 Robert of Avesbury, 350–51 Pole, Richard de la, 258 Robert of Geneva, 239 Pole, Sir William de la, 112, 258–59 Robert of Ulm, 285

372 INDEX

Roger-Bernard, count of Pe´rigord, 5 Sudbury, Simon, archbishop of Canterbury, 248 Roger, Pierre. See Clement VI, Pope Suffolk, Duke of. See Pole, William de la, duke of Rolin, Nicholas, chancellor of Burgundy, 8, 29 Suffolk Roman de la Rose (Meun), 99 Surienne, Franc¸ois de, 128 Rondel, 28 Swords, types of, 28 Roosebeke, Battle of, 33, 234, 253 Swynford, Katherine, duchess of Lancaster, 47, 49, Rouen, Siege of, 231, 272, 286 50, 184 Rouergue, 341 Routiers, 40, 61, 62, 82, 139–41, 147, 229–30, 272–74 Tactics, 290–91 Rouvray, Battle of. See Herrings, Battle of Tailles, 295 Talbot, John, earl of Shrewsbury, 79, 236, 245, 261, Sable´, Treaty of, 182 293–94 St. Albans, Battle of, 268 Tard-Venus, 147, 273 St. Cloud Plot, 86 Taxation, 54, 226, 247, 294–96 St. Crispin’s Day, 1 Tenths and fifteenths, 295 Saint-Denis, Monastery of, 234 Thie´rache Campaign, 121, 285, 296–97 Saintes, Battle of, 275 Thomas, duke of Clarence, 43–44, 58,69, 146, 297–98 Saint-Jean-d’Ange´ly, 5, 36, 275 Thomas, earl of Lancaster, 119, 153 Saint-Omer, Battle of, 271, 276–77, 299 Thomas of Brotherton, earl of Norfolk, 55, 210 Saintonge, 341 Thomas of Woodstock, duke of Gloucester, 148, 189, Saint-Sardos, War of, 85, 120, 277–78 193, 244, 269–70, 298–99 Saint-Sauveur-le-Vicomte, Siege of, 34 Titles of nobility, listing of, 327–31 Salic Law of Succession, 278–79 Toulouse, 341 Salisbury, earl of. See Montagu, Thomas, earl of Touraine, 341–42 Salisbury; Montagu, William, earl of Salisbury Tournai, Siege of, 121, 299–300 Saumur, Treaty of, 183 Tours, Truce of, 91, 209, 300–301 Scalachronica (Gray), 347–48 Towns, 301–2 Scales, Thomas, Lord Scales, 171, 236, 245, 279–80 Troyes, Treaty of, 81, 90, 132, 166, 239, 302–3 Scotland, 109, 113, 129–30, 144, 228–29, 280–81, Tudor Henry, earl of Richmond. See Henry VII, 289–90 king of England Scot, Robert, 229 Tudor, Edmund, earl of Richmond, 46, 81 Scrope, Henry, Lord Scrope of Masham, 150 Tudor, Jasper, earl of Pembroke, 81 Seine, Battle of the, 50, 76, 177, 281–82 Tudor, Owen, 46, 81 Shakespeare, William, Hundred Years War plays of, Tudor, Tacina, 81 149, 282–84, 297 Tunnage and poundage, 295 Shepherd, Battle of the, 312 Tyler, Wat, 248 Shrewsbury, Battle of, 44, 113, 149 Shrewsbury, earl of. See Talbot, John, earl of Unigenitus, 101 Shrewsbury Urban V, Pope, 40, 211, 239 Siege Warfare, 284–86, 284 (illus.) Urban VI, Pope, 239 Sigismund, Holy Roman Emperor, 48, 76, 150, 239 Sluys, Battle of, 286–87, 287 (illus.) ‘‘Valley of the Clerks,’’ 80 Somerset, duke of. See Beaufort, Edmund, duke of Valmont, Battle of, 50, 282, 305–6 Somerset; Beaufort, John, duke of Somerset Valognes, Treaty of, 93, 180 Southampton Plot, 150, 298 Valois, House of, 77, 250–51, 306–7 Stafford, Ralph, earl of Stafford, 3, 287–88 Vere, Robert de, earl of Oxford, 184, 269, 298 Star, Order of the, 137, 288–89 Verneuil, Battle of, 114, 177, 281, 290, 307–8 Stephen, duke of Bavaria, 166 Viennois. See Dauphine´ Sterz, Albert, 147 Vignolles, E´tienne de, 175, 195, 219, 245, 261, 273, Stewart, John, earl of Buchan, 43–44, 113, 130, 281, 308–9, 312 289–90, 307 Villandrando, Rodrigo de, 273 Stewart, John, of Darnley, constable of Scotland, Visconti, Valentina, duchess of Orle´ans, 84, 201 104, 154 Vita et Gesta Henrici Quinti (Pseudo-Elmham), 133, 350 Stewart, Margaret, 130 Vita Henrici Quinti (Titus Livius), 351 Stewart, Robert. See Robert II, king of Scotland The Vow of the Heron, 271 Strategy, 290–91 Stratford, John, archbishop of Canterbury, 107, Wakefield, Battle of, 268 243, 291–92 Wales, 118, 149 Stratford, Robert, 292 Wallace, William, 280

373 INDEX

Walsingham, Thomas, 351–52 William X, duke of Aquitaine, 15 Walworth, Sir William, mayor of London, 248 Willoughby, Robert, Lord Willoughby, 104 Warwick, earl of. See Beauchamp, Richard, earl of Winchelsea, Battle of, 74, 310–11 Warwick; Beauchamp, Thomas, earl of Warwick Wonderful Parliament, 71, 115, 269, 299 Wavrin, Jean de, 352 Wycliffe, John, 184 War Finance, 54, 294–96 ‘‘War of the Two Joans,’’ 60 Xaintrailles, Poton de, 175, 195, 245, 261, 308, 312 War publicity, 262–64 Wars of the Roses, 47, 163, 191, 256, 280, 282, 283 Yolande of Sicily, 173 Weaponry, Nonmissile, 27–29 York, duke of. See Edmund of Langley, duke of York; Whittington, Richard, mayor of London, 197 Richard, duke of York William, count of Hainault, 12, 296 York, House of, 256 William, count of Juliers, 12 Ypres, 126, 203–05 William I (‘‘the Conqueror’’), king of England, 157, 230, 255 Zouch, William la, archbishop of York, 228

374 About the Author

JOHN A. WAGNER has taught British and U.S. history at Phoenix College and at Arizona State University. He holds a B.A. from the University of Wisconsin-Oshkosh and an M.A. and Ph.D. from Arizona State University. He is the author of The Devon Gentleman: The Life of Sir Peter Carew (1998); the Historical Dictionary of the Elizabethan World (1999), which was a History Book Club Selection; the Encyclopedia of the Wars of the Roses (2001); and Bosworth Field to Bloody Mary: An Encyclopedia of the Early Tudors (2003). He is also a contributor to the Historical Dictionary of Late Medieval England, 1272–1485 (2002), to Women in the Middles Ages: An En- cyclopedia (2004), and to the Encyclopedia of American Race Riots (2006).