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Food Production During the Late Supervisors: Dr. Nancy J. Turner and Dr. Michael C.R Edgell ABSTRACT This research traces the emergence of wild plant food production during the Late Prehistoric Period (4500 to 200 BP) on the Canadian Plateau. It builds upon ecological-evolutionary perspectives offered by theories of people-plant interactions and models of plant food production. From this, it derives a general model of wild plant food production outlining the components of such systems, the conditions favouring their development, and the consequences and correlates of these activities. This general model is expanded and made specific to the Canadian Plateau through ethnographic, ethnobotanical, ecological and archaeological evidence for root resource use by the Secwepemc (Shuswap) and other Interior Salish peoples. The implications of these findings for reconstructions of Late Prehistoric culture change are discussed. The study has two components. It begins by demonstrating that historically, the Interior Salish peoples were not plant collectors, "adapting to" the environment, but plant food producers who "domesticated" the landscapes of the region. Ethnobotanical evidence indicates the Secwepemc managed, processed and stored a variety of plant resources to increase their productivity and availability. These actions ensured surpluses for ovenvintering, reducing the threat of recurrent seasonal resource stress. Root foods were particulariy important. At least 20 species were regdarly hamested and stored. Practices associated with harvesting were essentially horticultural and acted at the species, population and landscape levels to increase the density and distribution of targeted species. The productivity of root resources was also increased through processing in earth ovens. An experimental reconstruction of an Interior Salish earth oven found pitcooking increased the energy value of balsamroot (Balsarnorhiza sagittata), a former root staple, by 250 percent. Balsamroot contains inulin, a complex carbohydrate indigestible in its raw forrn. The second component of this study traces the beginnings of these wild plant food production systems through the archaeology of earth ovens. The discussion begins with Kornkanetlcwa, a traditional root gathering ground of the Secwepemc located near Kamloops, British Columbia, where investigations identified the remains of 170 earth ovens, 1 1 of which were excavated. Similar data from four additional root processing locales, including the Upper Hat Creek Valley, Oregon Jack Creek and Potato Mountain on the Canadian Plateau and the Calispell Valley on the Columbia Plateau, are also presented. Analysis of site types and distributions, the structure and content of earth ovens and radiocarbon age estimates associated with them reveals root food production began approximately 3 100 years ago on the Canadian Plateau. The broad pattern of root resource use, consistent with ethnographic expectations, is welldeveloped after 2500 BP and persists until histonc times. Radiocarbon age estimates (n=30) indicate a peak in activity developing between 2250 and 1750 BP. A review of the paleoenvironmental and culture-historical context identified the conditions, consequences and correlates of these processes. The catalyst for the development of these strategies was a dramatic decline in temperatures approxirnately 3900 years ago. This ushered in a 2000-year period recognized as the coldest and wettest stage of the Holocene, one characterized by long, cold winters. Under these conditions, wild plant food production represents a risk reduction strategy developed by iii Page Abstract i i Table of Contents List of Tables List of Figures Acknowledgments xiv Chapter 1 : The Research Question 1.1 Introduction 1.2 Current Interpretatioiis 1.3 Research Context and Contributions 1.4 The Orgaiiization of the Study Chapter 2: Theoretical Considexatiotis of People-Plant Interactions 2.1 Introduction 2.2 Models of Plaiit Food Production 2.2.1 Out of the Wildeniess: Perceptioris of Hunter-Gatherers 2.2.2 The Stages and Methods of Plant Food Production 2.2.3 A Coiitinuui~iof People-Plant Iiiteractio~is 2.2.4 Models of Plant Food Production: A Suinmary 2.2.5 The Shift froiii Foraging to Wild Plant Food Production 2.3 Wild Plant Resource Managenient 2.3.1 1~1troductioi-1 2.3.2 The Syecitics of Plaiit Managenient Spccics-lcvcl Mmrngc~tlc~tt Coimtzcltity-level Mmcrgc~neirt Lmldsctrpc-lcvd Mmngc~twrtt 2.3.3 The Ecological Effects of Anthropogenic Disturbaiice Sp~ics-lcrvlEfccts Cmitnznriity-levd Efccts Lnrrd.sctrpc-lcvcl Efccts 2 -3.4 Suinriiary of Wild Plant Resource Management 2.4 Wild Plaiit Food Processiiig 2.4.1 Iiitrodiiction 2.4.2 Plant Food Processing -- An Overview 2.4.3 The Need for Carbohydrates 2.4.4 Creating Carbohydraces 2.3.5 Suiiiiiiary 2.5 Wild Plant Food Storage 2.5. i Introductioii 2.5.2 Food Storage: An Overview 2.5.3 Suiiiinary 2.6 A Geiieral Model of Wild Plant Food Production 2.6.1 In troductioii 2.6.2 DeveloyingA Geiierai Model of Wild Plant Food Production 2.6.3 Ments of the Model Chapter 3: The Land and The People of the Canadian Plateau 3.1 Iritroductiori 3.2 The Landscapes of the Canadiaii Plateau 3.3 The Seaveyemc People 3.4 Suiniiiary Chapter 4: Ethiiobotanical Evidence for Root Resource Mariaveiiie~it- 4.1 Introduction 4.2 Root Resources as Food Staples 4.3 Root Harvesting Techniques 4.4 Root Managenient Practices 4.5. Suininary of Secwepenic Root Harvesting and Management 4.6 The Ecological Effects of Secwepenic Harvesting Regiiiies on Root 4.7 Suniiilary Chapter 5: Ethiiopraphic Evidence for Root Food Processiiig and Storarre 5.1 Introduction 5.2 Root Resource Processiiig: The Ethnographic Evideiice 5.3 Creating Carbohydrates 5.4 Reconstructing Interior SaIisii Pitcooking Practices 5.5 The Need for Stored Carbohydrates 5.6 Suiiiniary Cliapter 6: A Model of Root Food Production for the Caiiadian Plateau 6. I introductioii 6.2 Specifying the Model 6.3 A Model of Root Food Production 6.4 The Search for the Beginnings Chapter 7: The Archaeolo~calEvidence for Root Food Productioii Ititroductioii Pits as Proxies for Root Food Production The Earth Oveiis of Konikanetkwa: A Case Study 7.3.1 Introduction 7.3.2 The Archaeology of I<oriikanetlcwa The Root Processiiig Sites Site EeRb 98: A Multi-Coiiipoiient Base Caiiip EeRb 92: A Processing Site EeRb 79: A Cache Pit Site Lithic Scatters 7.3.3 Sunimary of the Archaeology of I<oiiiIcanetkwa The Regional Evidence for Earth Oveiis 7.4.1 The Uyper Hat Creelc Valley LocaIity 7.4.2 The Oregon Jack Cree Locality 7.4.3 The Potaro Mountaiii Locality 7.4.4 The Botanie Valley Extra-Regional Coiiiparisons: The Calispell Valley Locality Patterns of Root Food Production on the Canadiaii Plateau 7.6.1 The Fit Betweeii Expected and Observed Site Types aiid Distributions Eartli Oveii Morphology Earth Oveii Coiiteiits The Age of Root Coltectirig aiid Processing Activities Suiiiinary Chapter 8: The Eiiviroiiiiiental And Cultural-Historical Context For Root Food Production On The Caiiadiaii Plateau Introduction The Enviroiiineiital Coiitext for Root Food Production The Cultural-Historical Coiitext for Root Food Production The Early Prehistoric Period ( 1 1,000 to 7000 BP) Middle Prehistoric Period (7000 to 4500 BP) The Late Prehistoric Period 1 (4500 to 2500 BP) The Late Preliistoric Period 11 (2500 to 1500 BP) The Late Prehistoric Period 111 (1500 to 200 BP) Suriiii~ii~gup the Sequelice: Patterns of the Late Prehistonc Period Siiniinary: The "Roots" of Root Food Production Chauter 9: The Beeiniiines- of Root Food Production 9.1 Introductioii 9.2. The Mode1 of Root Food Production Revisited 9.3. The Fit betweeri Expeaed and Observed 9.4 A Well-Rooted Explanation: The Eniergence of Root Food 9.5 The Strength of the Interyretation Chavter 10: Coiicludin~Reiiiarlts 1 0.1 Kori-ilaiietl~vaRevisi ted References Cited Avpeiidix 1 Table 1 Table 2 Table 3 Table 4 Lrsr OF TABLES --Table Title Page Ecoiogical effects of Indigenous horticultural niethods on species 50 populations (based on Ford 1985; Harris 1989; Anderson I993a) Plant processing activities (adapted from Stahl 1989) 60 Biogeocliniatic zones in traditional Secwepeiiic territory (adapted 93 froiii Meidinger and Pojar 199 1 ) Cliniatic characteristics of the biogeocliiiiatic zones in traditional 95 Seovepenic territory (adapted froni Meidinger and Pojar 1 99 1) Divisions and bands of the Seavepenic (froni Teit 1909) 100 The Secwepeti-ic calendar (adapted from the Secwepemc Cultiiral 1 OS Education Society, Language Departnient, 1992) Traditionai root foods of the Seavepenic peoples 114 Plant food species rnaiiaged through the use of fire by Interior Salish 120 peoples (based on Turner 199 1) Root foods traditionally pitcoolted by the Interior Salish peoples 143 Balsa~iirootsaiiiples and treatments 150 Macronutrient analysis of raw versus pitcoolced balsaniroot (% dry 154 basis) Energy values of raw versus pitcoolced balsainroot 157 Traditional Secwepenic plant foods and plants iised in food 180 preparation found in the Koiiikanetlwa regioii (froiii Turner and Peacock 1995) Traditional Secwepenic niediciiial plants availa ble in the 182 I<oinkaiietkwa region (froni Turner and Peacock 1 995) Traditional Secwepenic plant niaterials available in the 183 I<onilaiietltwa regioii (froin Turner and Peacoclt 1995) Deiisities of cuiturally iiiiportarit root vegetables in the I~oriilcatietlwa 184 region (froiii Turner and Peacock 1995) Suiimiaty of surface tiieasureriients froiii KoriiIaiie t kava cadi ovens 193 Sunitiiaty data for excavated earth oveiis at Konikaiietltwa
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