Essor Mayer Humi, Advisor Project Number: MH-0140

URN: 02D1071

Project Number: MH-0140-

HUMANITY AND SPACE

An Interactive Qualifying Project Report submitted to the Faculty of WORCESTER POLYTECHNIC INSTITUTE in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the Degree of Bachelor of Science by

Victoria Chaplick

6vCjek Berlinda Fernan ez

Nathaniel Godin

Ian Walton

Date: April 26, 2002

essor Mayer Humi, Advisor Table of Contents

Abstract 4 Executive Summary 5 Introduction 6 1.2 Motivations for and Dangers of Space Travel 16 1.3 Additional Considerations 26 1.3.1 Humanity's Needs in Space 27 1.3.2 The Possibility of Alien Life Forms 30 1.4 Destinations for Space Colonization 34 1.4.1 Space Station Colonization 34 1.4.2 Safety Concerns for Permanently Inhabited Space Stations 35 1.4.3 Economic Possibilities and Social Situations in Space Stations 36 1.4.4 Lunar Colonization 39 1.4.5 Asteroid Colonization 42 1.4.6 Martian Colonization 47 2.1 Stages for the Colonization of Mars 49 2.1.1 Scientific Research 50 2.1.2 Human Exploration and Colonization of Mars 52 2.1.3 Commercialization of Mars 53 2.1.4 Terraforming Mars 54 2.2 The Pros and Cons of Colonizing Mars 55 2.2.1 The Technological and Scientific Benefits of Colonizing Mars 56 2.2.2 The Case Against Colonizing Mars 60 2.3 Historical and Legal Aspects of Colonization 64 2.3.1 Historical Analogies 64 2.3.2 Legal Aspects of Mars Colonization 67 2.4 NASA's Current Preparations for a Mission to Mars 70 2.4.1 Proposed Plans for a Manned Mission to Mars 71 2.4.2 Mars Direct Mission Plan 72 2.4.3 Mars Semi-Direct Mission Plan 74 2.4.4 Transportation to Mars 75 2.4.5 Radiation Hazards of Interplanetary Space Travel 86 2.4.6 Dangers from Martian Dust Storms 89 2.4.7 The Existence of Water on Mars 91 2.5 Biological Considerations for Colonization 93 2.5.1 Physical Effects of Reduced Gravity 93 2.5.2 Physical Effects of Radiation 98 2.5.3 Mental Health 100 2.6 Making Mars Fit for Human Habitation 103 2.6.1 Considerations for Shelter Upon Mars 104 2.6.2 Terraforming Mars 108 2.6.3 Suitable Plant Life for a Terraformed Mars 112 Conclusion and Recommendations 115

2 Bibliography 119 Section 1.1 119 Section 1.2 120 Section 1.3 121 Section 1.4 121 Section 2.1 123 Section 2.2 123 Section 2.3 124 Section 2.4 125 Section 2.5 126 Section 2.6 127 Conclusion 128 Appendices 129 Appendix A: Known Meteor Craters vs The Geologic Time Scale 129 Appendix B: Distribution of Asteroids 133 Appendix C: Probability of a Meteor Impact 134 Appendix D: Pictures of Recent Impact Sites 135 Appendix E: Tunguska: The Cosmic Mystery of the Century 136 Appendix F: Solar Output Models 140 Appendix G: Recent Temperature Trends 143 Appendix H: The Aurora 144 Appendix I: Devon Island 145 Appendix J: Haughton Crater Field Report 148 Appendix L: Threshold Effects of Prompt Radiation Doses 171

3 Abstract

This project examined the perennial desire of humanity to travel through and colonize space. We explored the obstacles that must be overcome and research that has to be performed in order to attain this goal. In particular, a blueprint for establishing a colony on Mars has been developed. Using our findings, it is conceivable for humanity to establish its first colony on Mars within 50 years. We have made recommendations regarding policies and research into space exploration.

4 Executive Summary

The goal of this paper is to explore the possibilities that exist for human colonization of outer space over the next one hundred years. To begin with, the potential worth of space colonization and the motivations behind such are examined. Following that, potential locations for colonization are discussed and contrasted. The details behind actual colonization are then evaluated, wherein the specific obstacles to this project are outlined and potential solutions are offered. Throughout the course of this paper, it is shown that there are many potential benefits to colonizing space, among them a wealth of scientific and applied knowledge, a unifying goal for the people of the world to rally around, and the advancement of the human species as a whole through further adaptation to the universe around us. It is also asserted that Mars is the best available location for a human settlement off of the planet Earth, due to its relative proximity to this planet and its close approximation of the conditions that humans have evolved to live in when compared to the other potential locations. Although space stations and the Moon could have value as way stations and asteroids could be mined for valuable minerals in support of an outer space colony, Mars is by far the preferable location for the colony itself. If the people of Earth wish to colonize Mars within a reasonable time frame, an organized plan must be followed. It is suggested in this paper that the project be split into four main phases. The first phase, which is already under way, would involve research varying from radiation shielding for space shuttles to the effects of a low gravity environment upon various organisms to initial surveys of Mars by non-manned probes sent to locate ideal landing sites and possible sources of water. It is estimated that this phase could be completed in a fully satisfactory manner within a few decades. The second phase would involve manned exploration of the surface of the planet Mars in order to prepare for the eventual construction of a permanent colony. The next phase would call for the start of a colony of limited size. Finally, long-term preparations for the eventual prosperity of the colony would need to be addressed, including economic independence from Earth, a permanent governmental system, and the process of terraforming the planet into a more habitable land.

5 Introduction

When we look up at the stars in the night sky, we know a good amount about what we are looking at due to modern technology. However, there were many generations who didn't yet have the precious knowledge that we have today. Even without that knowledge, our ancestors developed their own ideas and theories to explain the mysteries of the heavens. It is believed now that astronomy is the oldest science in existence. Many different cultures, including the Greeks, Babylonians, Chinese, Egyptians, Celts, Aztecs and Mayans all devised theories simply by looking at the stars. The ancient Greeks studied the sky by creating constellations. They paid close attention to the stars and noticed that several stars appeared to move, and would show up and disappear at various times of the year. They named these stars "wandering stars," or planets, and these planets were named after their Gods. These five planets that can be identified without a telescope are: Mercury, Venus, Jupiter, Mars and Saturn. The Greeks also believed that the God Helios drove a chariot across the sky, what we now call the Sun (Seimens). Ptolemy added his ideas to Aristotle's ideas to come up with the "Geocentric" theory, which is a theory that claimed that the Earth was the center of the universe and that everything else revolved around it. This theory maintained that the sky was a crystal sphere and that as the sphere turned, so did the stars in it (Seimens). Stonehenge is thought to be an intricate calendar that used the stars as a guide. Current estimates list its creation as some time between the years 3000 B.C. and 1500 B.C. By 1200 B.C. the Chinese astrologers had a calendar worked out that had 365.25 days per year, the same that we follow today. The Babylonians created a calendar that was based on the phases of the moon, and they also created the sundial. "The Egyptian calendar was based upon the times when the star, Sirius and the constellation of Osirus (we call it Orion) came into view. Because the earth revolves around the sun, these stars were out of view for about 70 days. They came back into view just before the Nile flooded. The ancient Egyptians believed that [the sun was]... the red disk born from Nut (the god of the sky) and traveled along the length of her body then was swallowed in the evening. The empty sun returned beneath her body at night to begin the cycle again the next morning" (Seimens).

6 Time Line

15,000 B.C.- Humans in the Ice Age start to track the number of moons by scratching marks into bones.

1500B.C.- Stonehenge was built outside of Salisbury, England. It was used to track the movement of the sun and mark the solstice. Only seven stones still stand today. This photo shows it as it would have stood when it was built.

Stonehenge, 1500 B.C.

Stonehenge, 1996 A.D.

7 1200-1000 BC- Babylonians study 'astrology,' the belief that people's lives were influenced by the stars. They invented the 12 signs that are still used today. Around the same time, the Greeks name most of the stars and the constellations (Hercules, Perseus, Cassiopea and Cygnus). They also name the "the wandering stars". We now know these wandering stars as planets. The Greeks named these after their gods, Mercury, Venus, Mars & Jupiter.

332 B.C.- Alexander the Great builds a great museum-library-observatory at the mouth of the Nile in Alexandra.

280 B.C.- Aristarchus (Greek) stated that the Sun was the center of the 'solar system'. It was almost 1800 years later that his theory would be widely accepted.

240 B.C.- Eratosthenes calculated the size of the Earth.

0 B.C.- At the time of Christ, the Egyptians and Chinese were also heavily into the study of the stars.

120 A.D.- Ptolemy, an astronomer & mathematician, again stated that the Sun was the center of the 'solar system' and not the Earth. He plots 1022 stars, divides the heavens into 48 constellations.

1054 A.D.- Oriental astronomers recorded a brief flaring star, now known as a supernova.

1200 A.D.- the mariner's compass with a magnetic needle comes into use.

Nicolaus Copernicus (1473-1543 A.D.) Polish astronomer and mathematician has a book published upon his death due to the theories that went against the common beliefs (the Church) of the time. The book stated that the sun was the center of our solar system. His book was banned until 1835.

(Timeline Provided by: Copyright Aardvark Communications)

8 PAKAL: THE MAYA ASTRONAUT

The above is a picture of what is known as the first Mayan astronaut. This sculpture was discovered in 1949, and it appears Pakal is sitting in a spacecraft at some controls. This sculpture has raised many questions about if the Mayans were visited by outer space beings, if they saw themselves as space travelers, if the idea of space travel existed thousands of years ago. Could this be compared to DaVinci, who imagined flight before it happened? (Johnson) To ancient civilizations before us, the technology we have today seemed impossible, if it was even conceived of. With all of the misconceptions they had about the universe, it makes one wonder what the future will think of our ideas of space, and if they will be ridiculous to them as the ancients' are to us. Even without going so far back as thousands of years, we can go back in time only fifty to one hundred years to see ideas that seem outrageous now. Since the beginning of time man has had a tendency to explore and colonize new terrain. This fascination with what could possibly exist has launched missions across the oceans and across the world. Due to recent technology and science, this fascination no longer needs to be contained to the Earth.

9 However, even without the technology, man has been curious about what exists in the stars above. Earlier in the 1800-1900's it was theorized that the moon was in fact made of cheese. However one man did come up with theories and predictions in his stories that would later become realities. Jules Verne was an author in the late 1800's whose stories such as "Off On a Comet" and "Earth to the Moon" contained such scientific accuracy that they were revolutionary for his time. Here are some of the predictions he made that ended up coming true: that the United States would launch the first vehicle to go to the moon, that the vehicle would launch from Florida near the present location of Kennedy Space Center, plus Verne predicted weightlessness and many other things that are truly surprising (Born). Another pivotal book from 1898 is "War of the Worlds" by H.G. Wells, which is not about space exploration but dances with the idea of interplanetary travel and the invasion of Martians (Petri). Yet another author who continued the fascination with outer space was science fiction author Isaac Asimov. He wrote many novels about this subject in the 1900's, more accurately around the 1940's. During this time, the radio was the wave of technology and people used this as entertainment. Children enjoyed this as well, listening to "Space Patrol" and "Space Adventures of Super Noodle." Adults listened to "Mars is Heaven" and "Dimension X-The Outer Limit" and many other programs. In fact, when H.G.Well's story "War of the Worlds" was played on the air, it has been said that some of these shows were so realistic that listeners actually believed that aliens had invaded Earth (Rosenberg). Soon after the radio, the television became and important aspect to the family household. In 1950 "Space Patrol" became a TV show, and many others were soon to follow. "Tom Corbett, Space Cadet", "Captain Video", "Lost in Space", "Star Trek" (which spawned several sequel series and movies), and "Babylon 5" are just some of the most popular ones dealing with space exploration. There are still many more that deal with aliens on Earth ("Mork and Mindy", "Alien Nation"). In between Jules Verne and "Star Trek" were many films about space exploration. A Trip to the Moon (1902) was based on Jules Verne's book "From the Earth to the Moon." Many other movies were made concerning space such as "Metropolis," "War of the Worlds"

10 (adapted from Wells' book), "When Worlds Collide" and "Invasion of the Body Snatchers." It wasn't until 1977 when "Star Wars: A New Hope" that the science fiction genre was revolutionized. Since then many movies have been made about space exploration and the future, including the Star Wars series. "Independence Day," "Total Recall," "Red Planet," "Mission to Mars" and "Planet of the Apes," the original 1986 version (which spawned a television series) and the 2001 version. The movie "Red Planet" is an excellent example of an exploration movie. it was released in 2000 and had to do with the colonization of Mars, and the steps necessary to prepare it so that it is suitable for human life. It touches upon a process of making the air breathable, which means having algae and other organisms create oxygen, and making the land able to be lived on. It would seem that with the expansion of knowledge and technology the curiosity and fascination of space exploration expanded along with it. The desire and curiosity to see what is out there, and whether or not it is possible to colonize somewhere in outer space is not new, but is also growing as our knowledge and technology expand, thus beginning a new fascination and aspect to science fiction. The colonization of space is a necessary step in human development, both in terms of the survival and growth of our species. Among the multitude of motivations for humanity to attempt to colonize space lays our current troubles involving overpopulation. There are currently over six billion people living on Earth, and this number continues to grow. These people all need food, shelter, land to live upon, and many other limited resources that the planet is running out of capacity to offer. Unless this growth can be naturally curtailed, more people will continue to suffer and die for lack of basic needs. Energy and material shortages on Earth are another factor in the desire to colonize space. We only have a limited amount of crude oils, useful minerals, and other natural resources. In looking to other landmasses beyond Earth, we find the potential to gather additional minerals and better utilize additional forms of energy collection. Another reason for space exploration is the possibility for commercial mining operations on the Moon, asteroids (both near Earth objects and in the main belt), and possibly even Mars. Interestingly enough, Mars would be the perfect home base for mining operations on the Moon as well as operations in the Asteroid Belt.

1 1 As a result of drastic urbanization, the world's sources of food and fresh water are being depleted as demand for them continues to rise. Farms are being destroyed in order to build factories or housing. The natural habitats of animals that serve as food sources are being destroyed, and many species are dying out. Pollution is corrupting our land and our water supplies. The possibility of growing or breeding in land not already taken by urban demands or poisoned by pollutants is another strong motivation for looking to space. In the end, humans must populate worlds other than the Earth in order to guarantee the survival of our species. At some point, the very planet could become unable to sustain human life. Degradation of the ozone is allowing more and more carcinogenic radiation to pass through our atmosphere. Acid rain is causing damage to our water supplies, our buildings, and our animal life. Nuclear waste either from natural production or from disasters at nuclear plants can pose many threats to the health of human beings. Finally, as our sun ages, it will eventually grow hotter, making the Earth a barren wasteland. Along with the gradual problems facing the planet, there are a number of potential dangers that could arise relatively quickly. Long before the Earth becomes inhabitable, it is likely that an asteroid or comet impact could occur. A recently discovered crater in Iraq is theorized to be responsible for the decline of several Middle Eastern cultures around 2300 B.C. More recently, in 1908, a large meteor crashed into a remote area of Siberia, which, luckily, was sparsely populated. A meteor impact in a densely populated area could instantly kill millions, dooming the survivors to a slow death as the changes in climate brought about by the dust and radioactive materials with which such an impact could fill the atmosphere. There is another set of asteroids, called near Earth objects (NEO's). The difference between NEO's and main belt asteroids is that while NEO's present potential for mining, they also present a danger to the Earth. There are tens of thousands of them out there and they cross the orbit of the Earth. We live in a veritable shooting range, and this planet has been hit before. To see the dangers of this solar system, one can just look up at the Moon on a clear night. It is entirely pockmarked with craters. The Earth also bears such scars, but is just better at hiding them. However, with a space faring civilization we may be able to avoid such threats by diverting the danger. As our sun moves through the Milky Way, it periodically passes through the densest known region of the disk. At this point in time, the danger of coming to close to another star is

12 as high as it can be. Even a near miss can still pose a great danger to our planet. As the star passes by, it may disturb the balls of ice and dust in the Oort Cloud (balls of ice and dust that can become comets), sending them in towards the Sun as comets. It takes approximately one million years for these comets to reach the inner solar system, and incidentally, our Sun passed through this disk approximately one million years ago. This sort of catastrophe is the leading theory to explain the mass extinction that killed the dinosaurs 65 billion years ago. Comets are more dangerous than asteroids because they are harder to detect with more than three months warning (when they start showing their tails as they pass the orbit of Jupiter) and they travel approximately three times as fast. If a sizable comet or a meteor hits the earth, even bacteria may not be able to survive. Another potential danger lies in the use of weapons of mass destruction. With the large number of nuclear weapons being produced and held by numerous countries throughout the world, the possibility of a massive nuclear war that could destroy most or the entire world is quite present. During World War II and the Cold War, we created nuclear bombs powerful enough to potentially destroy nearly all life on this planet. If even one country decides to use them, the others may retaliate in a war that will destroy the world. Nuclear weapons could instantly kill thousands, and leave the affected area inhabitable for centuries. Within the area of weapons of mass destruction lie biological weapons. The famous physicist Stephen Hawking recently theorized that humanity would soon destroy itself with an artificially engineered virus. A biologically enhanced strain of anthrax could decimate the population of any country, and, if it infected the soil, contaminate an area for decades Another real danger is the possibility of a disease destroying the entire human race. The bubonic plague killed nearly a third of the population of Europe in the 1300s, and because of the overuse of antibiotics, resistant strains of infectious diseases could threaten world health once again. A certain strain of virus or plague could sweep across the globe in a swift fashion, especially with our increased international travel, and could destroy large numbers of people. Having alternative, separated habitats for humans to live upon could help to ensure the survival of the species as a whole. Scientific exploration, a main factor in today's space exploration, would be another motivation behind the colonization of space. The testing of new physical environments,

13 materials, gravitational conditions, and numerous other subjects could lead to the enhancement of both our industry and our understanding of the universe. The possibilities for space colonization are astounding, though they are limited by our technological knowledge, our relatively low tolerance for varying atmospheric conditions, time, and our current resources. Colonizing a celestial body would require an astronaut to spend extended periods of time in a weightlessness environment. The long-term effects of weightlessness are not fully understood, and the technology does not yet exist to create a space vessel that can produce artificial gravity. Methods of enduring prolonged periods in space must be developed in order to colonize space. One simple solution is to build colonies on massive bodies such as the moon or Mars that would provide enough gravity of their own to prevent some of the health problems related to prolonged weightlessness. In addition to the well being of individual, the well being of colonies must be considered when establishing human settlements in space. A colony, if it is to function independently, must have enough people to maintain a stable population. This means there must be adequate people to maintain the equipment that sustains the colony, as well as enough genetic diversity to perpetuate the species. We have already begun to colonize space stations to a very small extent, sustaining a few people in orbit of the Earth for extended periods of time. The next step would likely be to expand the size and number of these stations in order to get more experience with life outside of the planet. As domes or similar structures would be a likely method for inhabiting a planet, the development of technology that would allow humans to live under water would greatly benefit space colonization in order to provide a testing ground of sorts. The first thing needed for any space colonization is an adaptation to the surrounding environment that would allow it to be hospitable for humans. For a sealed dome or station of some sort, a supply of oxygen would be needed in order to allow people to breathe. Temperature would need to be maintained at a warm enough level to sustain us. Pressure would have to be normalized in order to prevent serious harm. Thick shielding would be required to block out enough radiation to allow for prolonged inhabitance. Were a planet to be suitable for living outside of a bubble, massive terraforming would need to take place. A good amount of carbon dioxide would have to be converted to oxygen,

14 likely by plant intake. Additional carbon dioxide would need to be added to the atmosphere in order to trap enough heat to keep the plants alive, and some additional nitrogen would be needed as well. Due to a lack of phosphorus in the soil, it would need to be brought along and added in order for the plants to grow. Potentially, oceans could be recreated and a whole ecosystem could be put in place. One likely area for expansion would be the Moon, as it is closer to the Earth than any other astral body, thus making transport between the two easier. Colonies placed upon orbiting asteroids would be another possibility. Mars, with a similar schedule of days, its relatively close location, and the possibility of water sources, would be another viable option in the future. As transportation costs would be enormous and shuttles would probably arrive infrequently at best, any colonies would have to be relatively self-sufficient. Farms with easily producible vegetables would likely be the main source of food. Some sort of factories would be necessary to reproduce needed parts for the colony, with materials used from the planet or surrounding areas if possible. Solar panels would be a probable source of power for a long- term colony. Who will go on these first missions to other worlds? The first to arrive will be astronauts, highly trained in their fields. The next wave of colonists may contain some civilians; however, they will all be highly trained and educated. The large cost of getting them into space will make it extremely difficult for them to make the cut. In time, when a world has become more hospitable to human life, ordinary people may be allowed to make this journey. However, the most sizable number of new colonists will most likely be the children who are born there. Humans have always sought to explore their world. The first humans to leave Africa were confronted with a harsh landscape in the grips of an ice age. These early humans learned how to adapt to this new environment, and even thrive in it. They competed against the Neanderthals, who were physically well adapted to this environment, for shelter and food; and they won. Throughout history this pattern of overcoming obstacles and colonizing harsh new environments has continued. Today we have explored, and nearly mastered, our planet. Now we must look to the heavens for new frontiers, "to boldly go where no man has gone before" (Star Trek).

15 1.2 Motivations for and Dangers of Space Travel

One of the primary motivations for the colonization of space is the possibility for advances in the areas of science and technology. Due to the different conditions found outside of Earth, most notably the changes in gravitational pull, scientists and researchers have the opportunity to run experiments in situations that they would be unable to simulate on Earth itself. As we have already learned much beneficial information from our space program, a continued and expanded program involving a larger and steadier presence outside of Earth could only lead to more information and further advances. Current advances have spanned the fields of the biomedical industry, fire prevention, material sciences, agriculture, home products, and many more. Further study that would result from further colonization of space should only serve to introduce technologies such as these provided that the space programs throughout the world continue to share what they have learned with various industries. Some of the most useful and varied applications for technology or scientific information can be found in the medical field. In one instance, equipment used to monitor the effects of weightlessness on the human body has been converted to the more widespread application of heart monitoring on the surface of the planet. The Q-Med monitor was based off of these designs, employing NASA electrodes directly to their product. This monitor, which weighs only 14 ounces, can be easily carried on the person and can effectively measure heart beat and warn of potential heart troubles. Similarly, pacemaker information units have been converted from technology used in space. (Hardersen, 23) The design specifications of an injection valve used to put tiny amounts of fluid into Martian soil samples for analysis for signs of life during the Viking mission to Mars in 1976 were modified to work with automatic internal and external medication injections for humans. This has been of great help to those with diabetes or severe allergies, who can use these transportable devices to travel further outside of their home on a regular basis instead of tying them down to their inconvenient schedules of regular injections. (Hardersen, 23-24) Digital imaging technology developed for space has been converted to CAT scanners, diagnostic radiography systems, and 3-D reconstructive techniques as well as being used to decipher information from cardiologic X-rays. These items can eliminate the need for using a scalpel in some examinations. (Hardersen 25) The alteration of a multi-sensor NASA concept

16 along with new optical sensor technology has been able to aid in the detection of breast cancer, specifically. This will allow doctors to merely insert a small needle into any suspicious tissue instead of requiring surgery. (Ames Research Center News) A cancer drug known as Proleukin, which is used to treat bladder cancer and metastatic melanoma has been designed by collaborative research with NASA's BioServe Space Technologies Commercial Space Center. This drug might also perform as an adjunct treatment for AIDS. (Space Product Development) In 1991, it was determined that the formation of proteins that speed bone production decreased in rats while in orbit, then sped up after landing back on Earth. This may allow for the possibility of finding genes that trigger drug therapy to stimulate bone formation. In a related application, ceramic-metal composites found in space are one possible treatment for bone replacement in humans and, unlike many conventional therapies, are highly porous. (Space Product Development) Technology used in space has even been used more indirectly to assist with physical maladies. Lighter wheelchairs have been based upon graphite/epoxy resin and titanium from left over space shuttle payloads. NASA scientists have developed prosthetic sockets to help replace a lost hand, including multiple attachments for various functions. Other research has led to the development of cool suit technology to reduce body heat and heart rate for those without sweat glands. (Hardersen, 32, 35-37, 38-43) A special optical detector developed by NASA may offer the opportunity of sight to people with a variety of eye problems by converting light into electrical signals which are then picked by the optical nerve and translated into images. (Space Product Development) With advances such as these in the medical field already resulting from our current study of space, it would stand to reason that we should seek further study in order to continue this progress. There remains many diseases and maladies that we do not fully understand and that we do not know how to treat. It would behoove us to continue our exploration in order to provide our medical community with further updates in detection techniques and treatments. Space technology has also been used to further our Earth based needs of fire prevention. A polymide foam used in space shuttles that does not ignite when exposed to flames was marketed later as a product known as Solimide. This product has increased safety in numerous locations by being applied to mass transit systems such as buses and subways

17 where it has served to prevent explosions and protect wiring. Technology used to make less flammable spacecraft interiors was applied to a variety of situations: hyperbaric chambers rich in oxygen used to treat those with carbon monoxide poisoning, chambers for divers to recover after rising too fast, numerous applications in the Navy, and even for fabric for race car drivers to wear to protect from fires in the event of a crash. In the 1970's, rocket motor casings were used as design for light air tanks for firefighters in addition to a modification of space suits that reduced the weight of a firefighter's gear from 60 to 20 pounds as well as allowing for better breathing and vision. In the 1980's, more recent NASA technology was adopting to reduce the weight of the gear to only 12.5 pounds. (Hardersen, 18-22) Experiments in space have been used to benefit the agricultural industry. Tests have been done wherein the soybean growth cycle was reduced from an average of 110 days down to only 62 days. This method is equally applicable to many seeds and could be employed upon Earth to greatly benefit farmers by reducing their growth times. A technology that removes ethylene from the air could increase the shelf life of perishable foods by a week by slowing down the ripening process during packaging. (Space Product Development) Numerous other pieces of information have potential applications in a wide variety of industries. A rose was grown in outer space to see if a microgravity environment would alter the fragrance of the rose, or perhaps produce an entirely new scent. It was indeed found that a new fragrance resulted, a very important finding for the multi-billion dollar a year flavors and fragrance industry. A new technology for the fabrication of High-Temperature Superconducting wires using oxide thin films was developed by the Space Vacuum Epitaxy Center. The Ford Motor Company has used materials data from space to design new, high quality sand molding processes for creating superior automotive parts. ZBLAN Fiber Optic cables, made of the elements zirconium, barium, lanthanum, aluminum, and sodium, again developed using data from space, offer the potential to be more than 100 times more effective than traditional silica fibers, offering large potential gains in data transmission, medical surgery, fiberoptic lasers, optical power transmission, and fiberoptic gyroscopes. (Space Product Development) Hundreds of samples ranging from lubricants to solar cell technologies were flown 220 miles above the Earth and outside of the space station to give insight into developing materials for future spacecraft and making materials last longer on Earth. (Marshall Space Flight Center)

18 Space technology has also been used to improve everyday items. Reebok, among others, converted NASA technology for the astronauts' foot comfort to longer lasting athletic shoes which reduced impact on users' feet. A rigid and flexible midsole design based on space suit technology was also employed. Scratch resistant plastics were borrowed from aerospace equipment to make damage-proof glasses. New lines of UV blocking sunglasses were based upon a welding curtain used by NASA. These serve to eliminate 99% of harmful light. (Hardersen, 26-27) A 3-D audio processor used for space shuttle mission controllers was adjusted to virtual classrooms, making it possible for one to listen to and understand up to seven different voices at the same time. (Ames Research Center News) As has been demonstrated here, the technologies designed for space in addition to the scientific data accumulated there can be applied to a variety of commercial, industrial, and medical spheres. The hope that further exploration and study can yield likewise results is a primary motivation for the colonization of space As we look towards the heavens, it is hard to imagine that anything that happens up there could have any sort of major effect on our planet's biosphere. Extraterrestrial events, however, can and inevitably will change the course of history. This section will deal with two categories of extraterrestrial events: meteors and solar radiation. Our solar system is a cosmic shooting range and our Earth is traveling through it. Meteors and comets careen around on random elliptical orbits, some which cross the paths of other bodies in the solar system, including our Earth. Although the Earth has been hit many times in the past, our planet has a way of covering up such evidence over time through the forces of wind and water so that we have only recently started to seriously consider this danger. However, our closest cosmic companion, the Moon, boldly displays its scars. A view of the Moon on a clear night will show the true nature of our solar system. The universe is constantly evolving; however, cosmic events seem to work in cycles over small periods of time. The same is true of our solar system. So, since history has a way of repeating itself, perhaps it's better to examine our planet's past before we discuss it's future... Appendix A is a list of all known impact craters on Earth along with a geologic time scale. Scientists have put together this time scale based on major changes in the type of life on this planet, which are almost always associated with mass extinctions. Interestingly

19 enough, all but one of the impact major craters (over 60 km in diameter, highlighted in yellow) on the table is dated to within a couple million years of the end of a time period. The most well known example of this is the Chicxulub crater, which is commonly associated with the extinction of the dinosaurs. Another interesting pattern in the data is the fact that many of the impacts happened within the same time period (shown in the blue highlighting). Some of the impacts also seem to be periodic, happening somewhere between 26 and 30 million years apart. There are two theories that have been proposed to explain this phenomenon, both of which are based on the idea that these periodic impact craters are caused by comets. The difficulty in proving this, however, is caused by the fact that it is nearly impossible to tell the difference between an impact crater caused by a comet and one caused by an asteroid. The first of these two theories has to do with gravitational forces on the Oort Cloud (a cloud of ice and dust held at the limits of our sun's gravitational field) in the plane of our galaxy as the sun passes through it every 30 million years or so. The orbits of several comets were analyzed to determine what might have exerted the forces that jostled them free from the Oort Cloud. These forces were found to be the result of both disk tides from the molecular clouds in the plane of the galaxy and distant-matter tides from matter that is close to the center of our galaxy. The disk tides would account for approximately two thirds of all comets, while the distant-matter tides would account for the other third. (Szpir) Berkley physicist Richard Muller has proposed a second theory. He has proposed that the sun may have an unseen companion, which he has dubbed Nemesis, which approaches the sun periodically. As it passes by the sun, it jostles loose some of the bodies in the Oort Cloud, which then fall toward the inner solar system as comets. Both of these theories are highly debated at this time. However, no matter how they reach the inner solar system, comets present a distinct danger to earth. It is ironic that in ancient times comets were seen as harbingers of disaster and it is only recently that we have realized that they don't predict disaster, but rather can be the cause of it. The chances of averting the danger are also very slim since we would not be able to detect a comet on course for Earth until it is just a few months away, which most likely wouldn't be enough time for us to divert it. This is due to the fact that until it starts forming its distinctive tail, around the time that

20 it crosses the orbit of Jupiter, it will be nothing more than a tiny, almost undetectable, speck in the immensity of the night sky. Fortunately, comets only account for about 25% of the objects that impact the Earth. The other 75% of impactors are asteroids (Szpir). Asteroids are very common in the inner solar system and fortunately about 95% of them orbit in the main belt between Mars and Jupiter (Lipanovic). This is illustrated in Appendix B. It is theorized that this asteroid belt is made up of remnants of a "stillborn" planet. When Jupiter formed, its gravity was so great that it gravitationally scattered nearby planetesimals, some of which entered the inner solar system and caused high velocity collisions in the region of the asteroid belt. As a result, collisions became destructive rather than constructive. (Low velocity collisions are what brought about the formation of the planets.) Some of these collisions caused smaller asteroids to fall inwards and take up residence in the inner solar system as Near Earth Objects (NEO's). There are three categories of NEO's which present the greatest dangers to the Earth: Amors, Apollos, and Atens. Amors have a perihelion which is less than that of Mars and greater that the aphelion of the Earth. However, when they do make their closest approaches to the Earth, gravitational forces can change their course appreciably. Because of this, approximately half of all Amors are part-time Earth crossers. The other two categories, Apollos and Atens, cross the Earth's orbit on a regular basis. Apollos have a semimajor axis greater than or equal to 1 AU and cross the orbit of Earth near their perihelion, and Atens cross the Earth's orbit near their aphelion. Like Amors, Apollos and Atens' orbits can also be affected when the make close approaches to Earth. Consequently, any asteroid passing too close to our planet could have its trajectory altered into an eventual collision course with the Earth. The latest estimates indicate that there are approximately 100 Atens, 700 Apollos, and 1000 Amors with a diameter greater than one kilometer, large enough to cause a global catastrophe (Lipanovic). However, an event doesn't have to be global to have catastrophic consequences. The only major impact-like event in recorded history was actually an explosion, which happened in 1908 in Tunguska, a remote area of Siberia. An object, estimated to weigh about 100,000 tons, streaked through the sky and exploded at 7.6 kilometers above the ground with a force of 40 megatons of TNT (2,000 times the force of the Hiroshima nuclear bomb)

21 (Gallant). Note that this event does not appear on the table in Appendix A, since a blast area was formed instead of a crater. The object exploded in the air and never actually hit the ground. However, the best comparison on the table would be the Barringer Crater in Arizona that was formed 49,000 years ago. The force of that explosion is estimated at 20 megatons of TNT. The results of both events are pictured in Appendix D. The Tunguska explosion had several interesting side effects. The most interesting of these were disturbances in the Earth's magnetic field similar to those produced by nuclear bombs, and an increased rate of mutations both in the epicenter and along the object's trajectory (Gallant). Appendix E contains a full account of the explosion. We were very lucky that the Tunguska explosion took place in a remote area of Siberia; it could have just as easily have hit a major city. So what is Earth's probability of being hit? Micrometeors are constantly bombarding our planet. These small rocks burn up in the atmosphere and we see them as shooting stars. However, they could present a great danger to satellites and space stations orbiting the Earth, possibly even knocking them out of orbit. Meteors around one meter in diameter explode in the upper atmosphere with the same force as the nuclear bomb that was dropped on Hiroshima every year. An event like the one that occurred in Tunguska takes place about every 100-300 years. Meteors, which are around 100 meters in diameter, may hit the Earth every 10,000 years causing a regional disaster. One scenario would be an asteroid hitting the ocean causing a massive tsunami. Global catastrophes, with meteors around 1 kilometer in diameter, only strike around once every 100 thousand to 1 millions years. However, even asteroids this size would still allow some life to easily survive. Finally, there are the asteroids large enough to endanger nearly all life on this planet. They are approximately 10 kilometers across and hit our planet approximately every billion years. This is the type of impact that most likely wiped out the dinosaurs (Raminowitz). Appendix C contains graphs that illustrate these chances. What can we do to prevent disasters like these from occurring? If we can track the paths of nearly all the Earth crossing asteroids, we will be able to predict when an asteroid is on a collision course with Earth. It is believed that around 50% of the population of the largest objects has already been discovered, and NASA hopes to increase this to 90% by the year 2010. Unfortunately, these numbers only apply to objects greater to one kilometer in diameter

22 and, as illustrated above, objects too small for us to easily detect with our current technology could cause major disasters. We will need to develop a new system to deal with the medium sized objects (between 100 meters and 1 kilometer), which are estimated to number somewhere between 100,000 and 200,000 (Simoneko). What are the chances of detecting an asteroid on a collision course for Earth? It is estimated that there is a 1 in 1,000 chance that we will detect an asteroid that will hit us within the next hundred years. In this case we would have years to prepare, and eventually send a mission to nudge the asteroid out of our path. One small push may completely alter its course over a hundred-year period, allowing it to miss us. The estimated chances of finding an asteroid that would hit within the next year are 1 in 10,000. Even in this scenario we would probably still be able to avert disaster. Finally, there's the 1 in 100,000 chance that we will find an asteroid that is on course to hit us within a year. In the case of this scenario, there may be nothing that we could do to save ourselves (Raminowitz). Life on this planet depends on the sun and it could not have been created without it. When our sun was young it was extremely erratic, flaring up at random intervals and throwing large amounts of energized solar wind into space and towards the Earth. It also gave off large amounts of energy in the form of x-rays and ultraviolet light. This radiation penetrated deep into the young Earth's atmosphere (there was no protective ozone layer yet) inducing reactions in the mixture of nitrogen, methane, water, ammonia, and residual hydrogen - the primordial soup where life was first formed. The radiation caused the formation of organic compounds that are the building blocks of life: amino acids, sugars, purines, and pyrimidines. The later two chemicals combine with sugars to form nucleotides, the building blocks of DNA and RNA. These nucleotides mixed together with the amino acids, which are the building blocks of proteins, to form the foundation for all life on this planet. Although the Earth itself had its own processes for creating the energy needed for these chemical reactions, it is believed that the sun's radiation out weighted this terrestrial energy by a factor of 30 (Schrijver, "The Impact of Stellar Activity on Humanity"). Today the sun's flaring cycles have evened out into a complex cycle made up of several cyclic components ranging in frequency from thousands of years to just 10 years. It would only seem logical that these cycles would directly relate to the climate on Earth: when the sun is

23 more active the climate is warmer because the planet is receiving more radiation, and visa versa (Perry & Hsu). Why did Leif Eriksson set out to explore the Arctic seas around 1000 A.D.? Why did they decide to name the frozen island they discovered Greenland? This is because it was a lot warmer back then than it is today! When the island was named, Greenland truly was a green land that could sustain a farming colony. Appendix F provides proof of this, showing that the sun can indeed change the course of history (Mostert). Appendix G is a graph of the predicted temperatures, based on solar cycles, vs. the actual temperatures for the past 150 years. The actual temperature lags a few years behind the predicted temperature because of the specific heat of the Earth. This is similar to seasonal lag where the longest day of the year occurs before the hottest part of the year. However, this is not the feature of the graph that stands out the most. Starting around the 1970's the actual temperature started to get significantly warmer than the predicted temperature. This the global warming that has been discussed for years, supposedly caused by greenhouse gasses we have released into the atmosphere ("Solar Activity and Climate"). However, by looking at the solar-output model in Fig. 3 of Appendix F, we can see that global warming may not be as major a problem as we previously thought. Human civilization has survived through both warmer and cooler periods of time. Also, according to the future prediction, the temperature should start cooling off fairly rapidly, countering any global warming effects (Perry & Hsu). What causes a solar flare? Unlike the Earth's magnetic fields, which work like a bar magnet through the center of the planet, the Sun's magnetic fields work like many bar magnets lying sideways on the surface of the sun. The Sun's corona (its atmosphere) is made up of charged plasma particles that can never move perpendicular to the field lines, but rather must always follows them. It is theorized that the sun's rotation and churning can sometimes twist up the magnetic fields, which is similar to twisting up an elastic band; and when they let loose, solar winds will arc away at supersonic speeds (Schrijver, "Images of the Sun, Stars, and Solar-Terrestrial Effects"). What happens when solar winds reach the Earth? The magnetosphere protects us from most of the effects of solar winds; however, they are strong enough to stretch the Earth's magnetic field backwards. The magnetosphere cannot stop all of the particles, though. Some slip down by the poles and later manifest themselves as the auroras, giant magnetic storms in

24 the Polar Regions. During these storms, currents of millions of amps can flow through the upper atmosphere inducing secondary currents on the ground below. These currents can flow through things like power grids and phone lines, causing power failures and communications loss. Radio transmission is also blocked by these storms, isolating research groups at extreme latitudes. Even steel pipelines, which carry oil south, can be corroded and damaged by these electrical fields passing through them. High-energy particles can also damage satellites by destroying the solar panels and creating destructive sparks ("Space Weather). We must learn how to deal with these problems and protect against them. Someday we may even have regular solar weather forecasts to tell us when it's safe for space travel.

25 1.3 Additional Considerations

Before one can take a detailed look at the specifics of how to go about colonizing outer space, one must take into consideration some of the additional concerns that arise when such an undertaking is suggested. One such consideration involves the needs of human beings in space. No matter where humans are eventually sent, they will need to be physically, mentally, and emotionally well cared for if they are to function in a productive fashion. Also, one must at least entertain the possibility of coming into contact with alien life upon any celestial body if one is going to be exploring these bodies.

26 1.3.1 Humanity's Needs in Space

Although humans are a very adaptable species, able to survive in a plethora of environments upon Earth, they need detailed and precise precautionary measures in order to ensure their survival outside of this planet. First and foremost, their physical well being must be taken care of. A steady supply of oxygen, food, water, and exercise must be coupled with protections from extreme temperatures, pressures, or radiation. The mental health of those sent to colonize space must also be taken into consideration. Communication with those back on Earth, companionship at their present location, personal space, and some form of entertainment would all help to boost the morale of those leaving the planet, helping to ensure that they could properly adjust to their new surroundings. Additional concerns, such as those involving energy, needed materials, and the capacity for repairs should also be addressed. One of the main physical concerns for humans in space is where they will get their source of food. As any stations of considerable distance away from Earth itself would not likely have many shuttles traveling back and forth to them, they would need to be able to supply themselves with sustenance. It is theorized that the most likely sources consist of plants and perhaps a few breeds of fish. A study performed at Cornell University tested a number of subjects during consumption of a theoretical space diet for one month. The diet was primarily vegan, with no meats or dairy, and conformed to the following guidelines: low salt (as sodium from recycled urine in a space colony would be bad for crops), low iron content (for space adaptation), not labor intensive (colonists would have other tasks), and the usage of relatively few ingredients which would require time and effort to produce in space. Those who partook in the study fared well, even losing three to seven pounds of unnecessary weight during the time period. Due to worries of the effects of radiation upon plants, hydroponics, the growth of plants in nutrient rich water instead of soil, is an option. Wheat, rice, soybeans and numerous other vegetables can be grown hydroponically in artificially lit, temperature-controlled space farms. (Cosmiverse) Should an attempt be made to use the soil of a planet such as Mars, potassium would need to be shipped to the planet and mixed with the soil in order for plants to grow. (Space Colonization) Another concern of primary importance to the physical well being of space colonists is a supply of breathable air and fresh water. Approximately 20% oxygen, less than one percent

27 carbon dioxide, bits of nitrogen and water vapor, along with a remainder of argon make up the proper concentrations for breathable air. A smaller environment such as a closed station would need to set up some sort of renewable cycle between its air and water that could last for significant periods of time. Larger scale plans, such as terraforming an entire planet, would eventually lead to a permanent solution, but would be extremely difficult to carry through, as the transportation of enough elements and compounds to fill the planet to the point of giving it a moderately large atmosphere would take innumerable trips. It has been suggested that water and carbon dioxide could be melted down from Mars' polar ice caps and perhaps some nitrogen could be found in its soil. If enough plants could be grown upon the surface, they would produce more oxygen after carbon dioxide intake. (Space Colonization) Were one to make an attempt at terraforming Mars, the planets mean temperature would have to be raised a considerable amount in order to properly sustain life. It has been proposed by some that additional carbon dioxide could be used to booster the atmosphere and trap more heat upon the surface (in addition to aiding plants and their oxygen production). (Space Colonization) Although the appropriate prerequisite technologies have not yet been developed, it has been suggested that spreading dark soot on the polar caps to help them absorb more sunlight and melt their stores of frozen carbon dioxide or putting large mirrors in orbit around Mars to reflect sunlight onto the polar regions could aid in this process. Alternatively, it has been suggested that pumping gases such as methane, nitrous oxide, ammonia and perfluorocarbons (PFCs) into the Martian atmosphere would greatly heat up the planet, many times more so than carbon dioxide. These PFCs, believed to be responsible for Earth's global warming, have the potential to raise the average temperature of Mars from -60 to -40 degrees Celsius with only a few parts per million in the atmosphere. This would be enough to trigger the release of carbon dioxide from the polar caps and soil into the atmosphere. The additional carbon dioxide would augment the process even further by warming the planet, which would in turn create more carbon dioxide and water vapor releases. These PFCs would have to be produced locally, likely first through chemical means and later through the use of microorganisms. PFCs such as CF4 and C2F6, and other compounds such as SF6 would be good choices because they absorb thermal radiation efficiently and would last for hundreds of years in the Martian atmosphere. Sulfur, carbon, and fluorine, which make up these compounds, are all found in abundance on Mars. (Scientific American)

28 Other physical concerns are many and scattered. Those who have spent time in low gravity environments have seen their muscles atrophy to the point of need physical training upon return to Earth. Pressure, whether in an enclosed station or upon the surface of a planet, must be within acceptable limits. Radiation shielding is another strong concern. As the only important value for such shielding is mass, it can be made from most anything we find. Taking material from asteroids, the moon, or even from Mars would be cheaper than to import it bulk from Earth. (Scientific American) When considering physical problems for those who would be colonizing space, we should not neglect to pay attention to the potential mental and emotional problems inherent in space travel. Especially when working in small groups, those in space have need of regular companionship and human interaction. In addition to this, space colonists would need somewhat regular communication with family and friends back upon Earth in order to stem depression. Along similar lines, they would need entertainment of numerous forms, including movies and music - things, which along with communication with loved ones, could be sent with proper communication channels. Another need for long-term space habitation is proper personal space. Morale would be increased if those in space would have more room to themselves than current space travelers do now. There are numerous other concerns inherent in space travel, among them being a steady source of energy. Some have speculated that energy harnessed from the sun by way of solar collectors could power an outpost, especially if supplemented by some sort of battery at night. Critical mass plutonium could be used as a thermal heat source during this time, as it has been relatively cheap since the breakup of the Soviet Union. (Space Colonization) Depending upon how far away an outpost would be from Earth, travel between the two might become quite limited, creating the need for a sufficient stash of materials or a local supply, in addition to the ability to repair needed machinery or housing if need be.

29 1.3.2 The Possibility of Alien Life Forms

The possibility of intelligent alien life forms is one factor that deserves some consideration when regarding plans to colonize outer space. The most renowned approximation for this possibility has been quantified into what is known as the Drake Equation, though analysts disagree upon the results that it might yield. SETI (Search for Extraterrestrial Intelligence) began combing radio frequencies in outer space for over forty years in hope of detecting an alien species. This program and others akin to it have assumed that there are life forms out there that we will eventually interact with. In 1961, Dr. Frank Drake proposed an identification for the specific factors thought to play a role in the development of advanced civilizations that later came to be known as the Drake Equation. This equation is generally known as the accepted tool used by the scientific community to examine these factors. The equation, N=R*xfpxnexfIxfixfcxL is subject to a number of disputable variables and thus is prone to a wide variety of error, yet still serves as a useful model. The variable N represents the number of communicative civilizations, in other words, the number of civilizations in the Milky Way Galaxy whose radio emissions are detectable. The variable R* represents the rate of formation of suitable stars - the rate of formation of stars with a habitable area large enough and with a long enough lifetime to be suitable for the development of intelligent life. The variable fp shows the fraction of those stars that have planets. The variable ne represents the number of Earth-like planets per planetary system. In other words, it stands for the number of planets found within a certain habitable zone of a star where a planet would be able to maintain a temperature that would allow liquid water, and thus would have the basic conditions for life as we know it. The variable fl represents the fraction of those planets within the habitable zone where life would actually develop. The variable fi shows the fraction of areas of life where intelligence develops. The variable fc stands for the fraction of planets with intelligent life that develop a technological society, or technology that releases detectable signs of their existence into space. Finally, the variable L gives the length of time that such civilizations release detectable signals into space. (SETI Institute)

30 According to some optimistic analysts, R is approximately equal to one, fp is probably smaller than one as not all stars have planets, and the product of fp and ne is likely one, as a system with stars likely has multiple planets and moons with liquid water and conditions suitable for the origin of life. These individuals claim that life will form wherever it can, that the Darwinian process of natural selection favors the evolution of intelligence, and that an intelligent civilization will form technology, thus setting each of the remaining factors (except for L) to one. This would have the result of reducing the equation to N = L. Were one to assume an L value of 100,000, there would be an equal number of communicative civilizations in this galaxy. That figure would reduce to one radio-emitting civilization right now per 4 million stars. If these were scattered at random throughout the Milky Way, the nearest one would likely be about 500 light-years from the planet Earth. A two-way conversation might require a time period equal to a significant portion of recorded human history, though a one-way broadcast might be audible. (Sky and Telescope) Other approximations for the Drake Equation have R at about three, as astronomers have recently determined that stars formed at a higher rate several billion years ago, when the stars that possibly now bear intelligent life were being born. The variable fi could be quite small as evolution wouldn't necessarily yield higher intelligence, and fc could be much smaller than one as other civilizations wouldn't necessarily send out radio signals. As we have no actual data from which to judge L, that number is merely speculation. Regardless, the N value is thought by some to be drastically lower than L, perhaps low enough to yield no civilizations in our galaxy of a similar nature to our own. (Sky and Telescope) Currently, Project Phoenix is the world's most sensitive and comprehensive search for extraterrestrial intelligence. It is an effort to detect extraterrestrial civilizations by listening for radio signals that are either being deliberately beamed our way, or are inadvertently transmitted from another planet. Phoenix is the successor to the NASA SETI program that was canceled by the US Congress in 1993. Instead of scanning the entire sky, Phoenix examines the vicinities of nearby, sun-like stars, those most likely to host long-lived planets capable of supporting life. There are about one thousand stars targeted for observation by Project Phoenix, all of which are within 200 light-years distance. Phoenix looks for signals between 1,000 and 3,000 MHz, placing signals that are at only one spot on the radio dial, narrow-band signals, as sign of an intelligent transmission. The spectrum searched by

31 Phoenix is broken into very narrow 1 Hz-wide channels, and thus two billion channels are examined for each target star. This project, however, only runs for two three-week periods a year on private funding. By mid-1999, Phoenix had examined about half of the stars they set out to search, and found no signs of extraterrestrial life. (SETI Institute) There is a project known as SET1@home that allows anyone to assist in the search for extraterrestrial life by downloading a small program that in turn retrieves a 350-kilobyte file of data previously recorded by a receiver. The program unobtrusively analyses the data whenever one's computer has nothing else to do. When the work is done, after a time frame of anywhere between six and sixty hours, the results are sent back and the program selects a new piece of data to begin working on. This project allows those working with SETI to attain much needed processor time from all over the world. As of December 2001, 3.4 million people had downloaded this program, with over 2 million having completed one piece of data, and over 1 million having completed over 20 of them. (Sky and Telescope) The greatest weakness in current SETI programs has been the lack of ongoing, nearly full-time, access to very large radio telescopes. There is an extremely large amount of area to cover, and resources for this project have not been fully adequate. (SETI Institute) In order to make them more sensitive, SETI receivers add up the incoming radio waves over a fixed period known as the time constant, which is typically defined at one second. As a result, any variations in the signal that are faster than once per second are smoothed out and lost, meaning they could detect a signal, but wouldn't be able to figure out what it was saying at this time. A boosted signal is needed in order for detection to operate under a smaller time constant. In actuality, that means SETI researchers will have to build far larger telescopes than they have today, with estimates ranges up to ten thousand times larger, a strong impossibility at this point. As such, it is likely realistic to assume that we will comprehend the aliens only if they are broadcasting deliberately, trying to communicate with other worlds as we ourselves are doing. (First Science) The possibility of alien contact holds many implications. Foremost among them are threats to our well-being and possible advances in our understanding and technology. It is possible that were we to meet an alien race which has progressed further than we have along the lines of technology, we could jump ages ahead in numerous fields, a concept both intriguing and frightening in some respects. As we have found no evidence of such life forms

32 to date and our best estimates do not seem to indicate that we will find any soon, the possibility of such is not large, though we should be prepared at least for the eventuality of such an occurrence.

33 1.4 Destinations for Space Colonization

1.4.1 Space Station Colonization

As of May 2001, an eight-day trip into orbit cost $20 million (AP) paid allegedly by Dennis Tito to be the first space tourist. This should give us a rough idea as to how expensive it is right now for humans to travel to space. Along these lines is the International Space Station, which is scheduled to be complete in 2006. It is expected to have a life of 10 years and is projected to cost almost $35 to $37 billion. It will house 7 people (Freudenrich). These are the components needed for this particular space station. • Control Module (Zarya) or Functional Cargo Block - contains propulsion (two rocket engines), command and control systems • Nodes (three) - connect major portions of the ISS • Service Module (Zvezda) - contains living quarters and life support for early parts of the ISS, docking ports for Progress resupply ships and rocket engines for attitude control and re-boost • Scientific Laboratories (six) - contain scientific equipment and a robotic arm to move payload on an outside platform • Laboratory Module - shirt-sleeve environment facility for research on microgravity, life sciences, Earth sciences and space sciences • Truss - long, tower-like spine for attaching modules, payloads and systems equipment • Mobile Servicing System - robotic system that will move along the truss; equipped with remote arm for assembly and maintenance activities • Transfer Vehicles - a Soyuz capsule and a Crew Return Vehicle (X-38) for emergency evacuation • Electrical Power System - solar panels and equipment for generating, storing, managing and distributing electrical power List provided by Craig Freudenrich, Ph.D

34 1.4.2 Safety Concerns for Permanently Inhabited Space Stations

There are several concerns about safety on a space station, including meteors hitting the space station. "Space is not as densely populated with large meteors as "Lost In Space" has led us to believe. Even the largest model, Island Three, might have to wait a million years for a one-ton meteor to impact, and even that may not completely destroy the habitat. The odds of dying in this way would be 1/60th those of dying in an automobile accident. Island Three could expect to be hit by a meteor the weight of a tennis ball roughly every three years. Even if the hull were punctured, it would still take several years for the air to leak out; plenty of time to implement repairs" (Combs). Another concern is cosmic radiation. Anything beyond Earth's magnetic field will be destroyed by radiation. The best solution is a shield about 2 meters thick of the slag left over from the ore-smelting operation. This would make radiation levels safe for everyone, including infants and pregnant women (Combs). Along these lines is the lack of gravity. The space station will need to be designed to have artificial gravity, whether it is spun or a new method is made, in order to prevent the health problems that can occur in low gravity. Terrorism is also a concern, however any bombs that are made would most likely not be able to penetrate the metal, and if the windows were blown out, it would be routine repairs because it would take a long time for the air to leak out (Combs).

35 1.4.3 Economic Possibilities and Social Situations in Space Stations

In seeking to design a plan for the colonization of space using space stations, many factors must be evaluated in depth in order to develop a feasible model. One such factor is the economic possibilities that could be available should a number of these space colonies be set up. It goes without saying that such attempts would be extremely costly, and thus viable strategies for revenue collection must first be set in place. Another factor involves the standard of living for those who would come to live at these stations. Adequate living quarters, a diverse set of social environments, and a variety of forms of entertainment would be required in order to keep the colonists' mental health sound. In the past, the governments of the world were the motivating forces behind the space sector of the economy. Most analysts agree that new business models are required which would necessitate private industry to take the lead. Currently, numerous commercial systems are being developed where the primary customers are businesses or consumers. This trend can be seen most visibly in the Geostationary Earth Orbit communications market. An FCC auction for spectrums to be used in communications from space involved $23.6 billion by over 750 bidders with well over 1400 total submitted bids. Many commercial satellites have been launched in the past few years, and private spaceports from which to launch these satellites are popping up in numerous locations (ISS Commercial Development). Currently, the International Space Station (ISS) is economically focused through the research it is performing. The ISS, at its completion, will provide more room for research, with greater resources and flexibility than any spacecraft ever built. It provides unprecedented, long-term access to the microgravity and ultra-vacuum environment of space, a flexible vantage point for observational research and a test bed for new technologies. Similar experimentation in the past upon shuttles has yielded a plethora of economically viable technologies and discoveries that have made their way into our economy for decades now, and this increased capability should only speed up that process. NASA is allotting approximately 30 percent of the US share of the ISS's research capacity for economic development (Innovation). One major inhibitor towards both current and future economic plans in space is the cost of transporting material. Currently, the cost of space access is roughly $10,000 per pound of

36 payload delivered to low-Earth orbit. This extraordinarily high cost strongly curbs the space commerce market. The X-33 and X-34 models were designed to prove the technologies needed for a full-scale, commercially developed reusable launch vehicle (RLV). The overall goals of NASA's RLV technology demonstrators were to reduce the cost of putting a pound of payload into space from $10,000 to $1,000 and to enable private industry to participate more competitively in the commercial space market. Unfortunately, these models fell into disfavor due to a lack of proper funding and various failures in testing (NASA-FAA). A boom in demand for launches to low Earth orbit is predicted sometime in the near future. These companies also expect to serve new markets such as passenger service, fast package delivery, space station resupply, and commercial microgravity missions. In addition, over a dozen RLV designs have been proposed specifically to foster a market for space tourism (NASA-FAA). According to various market research, there is an enormous amount of interest in space tourism. Setting up colonies to orbit either the moon or various asteroids would allow for large scale mining processes to be set in place, using the space stations as way points and perhaps even as markets, provided that shipping costs could be reasonably reduced. (Think Quest) Currently, living conditions upon the ISS are far from ideal, though they are only meant to house astronauts for three-month increments. Health and safety regulations require that all food items are precooked or otherwise processed, somewhat limiting their choices. NASA uses different condiments to spice up the food, however, in order to help make up for the lack of preparation choices. Since crewmembers' sinuses fill with fluid as the body fluids reach equistatic pressure, their senses of taste and smell are reduced. Thus, astronauts in orbit always prefer food to be highly seasoned in order to fit their usual tastes. Fresh fruits and vegetables are only available whenever resupply vehicles arrive, and beverages are limited to squeeze bottles like today's sport bottles. (NASA Human Spaceflight) (NASA Office of Space Flight) Beds consist of either upright enclosures or drawer-like constructs. Showering in space has to be contained inside a special enclosure, some flexible curtain-like structure that can be pulled shut around the person on all sides. A normal showerhead is used, which is attached to a flexible hose. The floating water forms a foggy mist of droplets that can be drawn off with a suction device like a vacuum cleaner, except where it adheres to the one's skin. Due to the

37 absence of gravity in the continuing presence of surface tension, water droplets first have to be literally smeared on the skin, but the water tends to cling to it rather tightly and has to be wiped off with towels or even scraped off. The astronauts have to position themselves on the toilet seat, using leg-restraints and thigh-bars. The toilet basically works like a vacuum cleaner with fans that suck air and waste into the commode. Each astronaut has a personal urinal funnel, which has to be attached to the hose's adapter. Fans suck air and urine through the funnel and hose into the wastewater tank. (NASA Human Spaceflight) (NASA Office of Space Flight) In terms of entertainment, astronauts currently read or write e-mails home on their laptops, while others listen to music or play games. Some speak with others on the ground via ham radio or with other crewmembers. During the early stages of a mission, the most preferred pastime is hanging around the windows, looking out into space and watching the Earth roll by underneath. For exercise, equipment includes a stationary bicycle, in addition to the occasional race through the station. (NASA Office of Space Flight) Although there are some comforts and conveniences upon the current space station, they could stand to be improved considerably before permanent homes are made upon similar stations. The implementation of artificial gravity upon a station would eliminate the need for many of the inconveniences listed above, such as those involved in sleeping and showering. The addition of some measure of farming upon a station would help to alleviate the monotony of a limited food supply. Depending upon how far out the stations are set, improved communication pathways would be needed for regular communication with those back on Earth both for practical and recreational/personal needs. A vast storage of music, movies, fiction and nonfiction books, as well as numerous other sources of entertainment and information should be included on CDs or other storage devices in order to meet the intellectual and recreational needs of those upon a space station as well. Ideally, space stations would also be large enough to give individuals more of their own personal space and more room to move about.

38 1.4.4 Lunar Colonization

The moon is the first and currently only extraterrestrial body that has been explored by humans. Beginning with Neil Armstrong and Buzz Aldrin's historic moon landing on July 20, 1969, NASA's Apollo project has successfully completed six manned missions on the moon. The final manned trip to the moon was Apollo 17, launched on December 7, 1972.

The success of the Apollo project can be largely attributed to the fierce competition the United States space program was facing from the Soviet Union. The Soviets were the first to launch an artificial satellite, as well as put a man in space. Putting a man on the moon was a major milestone in the space race. However, the USSR sent several unmanned probes and rovers to the moon, successfully returning lunar rock samples.

Since the end of the Apollo project, interest in manned missions to the moon has waned. However, the Clementine and Lunar Prospector probes, sent to the moon in 1994 and 1998 respectively, have gathered a wealth of data about the moon and its composition, giving planners of future moon missions information about what resources are available there. Japan currently plans to send two probes into the surface of the Moon in the year 2003, and China has declared exploration of the Moon to be a priority. (New Scientist)

Unlike Earth, the moon is, according to Lon L. Hood of the University of Arizona, extremely depleted of metals. For example, while Earth has an iron core which accounts for approximately one third of its mass, the moon's iron core only makes up 3% of its total mass. This data supports the theory that the moon was formed when a Mars-sized body collided into a newly formed Earth billions of years ago, knocking a large chunk of Earth's crust and mantle into orbit. Because the moon was formed from the outer layers of our planet, it is poor in heavy metals, which were concentrated near Earth's core and not dislodged during the collision.

Because of the lack of heavy metals and other dense materials on the moon, it has very weak magnetic and gravitational fields. The moon's gravity is approximately one sixth of Earth's, posing a serious challenge to the possibility of human habitation. Currently, very little

39 is known about the physiological risks associated with long-term exposure to reduced gravity, but loss of bone density has already proven to be a real threat to the health of astronauts and cosmonauts spending extended periods of time in space. People living on the moon would not be able to return to Earth without an extended regimen of physical therapy to adjust their body to the change in gravity, making travel between the moon and Earth even more problematic. Additionally, the moon's thin atmosphere provides little protection from solar radiation during the lunar day, when temperatures soar to 100C, and cannot trap heat during the lunar night, when temperatures drop to -173C. Any human inhabitants of the moon would have to be able to deal with these high daytime temperatures and radiation levels, and the extremely cold nights.

While there are many features of the moon that make it undesirable for human habitation, it has some resources that could facilitate colonization. The surface of the moon is composed of light-colored, heavily cratered highlands, and darker, smoother maria, or seas. The first moon landing took place in Mare Tranquilatis, the "Sea of Tranquility". These regions are relatively rich in the few heavy metals found on the moon, such as iron, manganese, and titanium. The moon's highlands are covered with anorthosite, a mineral rich in aluminum. If an efficient method of gathering and refining these metals could be developed, it could be used for construction on the lunar surface. If spacecraft and fuel could be built and refined on the moon, it would make an excellent spaceport, from which missions to Mars and beyond could be launched. The moon's low gravity also means that it has a much lower escape velocity than Earth, making it much more efficient to launch spaceships from the moon than here on Earth.

Water is also a vital resource for sustaining life. The Lunar Prospector, which ended its moon exploration mission by crash-landing in a crater near the moon's south pole. Scientists had hoped to detect water vapor in the plume of debris sent into the moon's thin atmosphere, however, no water was found. It is possible, however, that ice exists in craters in the polar regions of the moon, left over from icy comets that impacted the surface.

Certain individuals have already assumed that colonization of the moon will take place. A man by the name of Dennis Hope is selling land upon the moon for the price of $15.99 per

40 acre. His company, the Lunar Embassy, exploited a loophole in the 1967 United Nations Treaty on Outer Space whereby governments were forbidden to own property on other planets or land masses, but which not prevent individuals from doing so. Despite having no clear claim to this land (though he does have his claim on file with the US Patent Office), numerous companies such as the Hilton and Mariott hotel chains, as well as former Presidents Carter and Reagan have purchased property there. (Financial Times)

41 1.4.5 Asteroid Colonization

When considering the possibilities of human colonization outside of this planet within the next century or so, asteroids deserve some attention. Among the hundreds of thousands known asteroids within relatively close proximity, there exist numerous possibilities. Due to their location and unique compositions, many asteroids could be mined for usage both in space and on Earth. Numerous possibilities exist should we want to bring asteroids into orbit around the Earth. Solar collectors set up on asteroids could send energy back to Earth as a non-harmful source. Although there are a multitude of problems with setting up permanent residence upon an asteroid, including gravity, energy supplies, and breathable air, there are a number of proposed solutions. There are several hundred thousand asteroids that have been discovered to date and thousands more are discovered each year. It is theorized that there are thousands more that are too small to be seen from Earth. There are 26 known asteroids larger than 200 km in diameter. A recent census of the largest ones is now fairly complete: we know what is thought to be 99% of the asteroids larger than 100 km in diameter. Of those in the 10 to 100 km range, over half are cataloged. However, we know very few of the smaller ones; perhaps as many as a million 1 km sized asteroids may exist. This stated, the total mass of all of the asteroids is less than that of the moon. The largest asteroid by far is known as 1 Ceres. It is 933 km in diameter and contains about 25% of the mass of all the asteroids combined. The next largest are 2 Pallas, 4 Vesta and 10 Hygiea, which are between 400 and 525 km in diameter. All other known asteroids are less than 340 km across. (SEDS) There are three major classifications of asteroids: main belt asteroids (between Mars and Jupiter), near Earth asteroids, and Trojans (near Jupiter). (SEDS) The near Earth asteroids are split into three categories: Amor, Apollo, and Aten asteroids. Amor asteroids approach, but do not cross Earth's orbit. Apollo asteroids cross Earth's orbit, but spend most of their time outside it. Aten asteroids cross Earth's orbit and spend most of their time inside it. Recent estimates state that only 40% of the near Earth asteroids are captured comets, and the rest came from the main belt. Calculations performed by various astrophysicists have led to the conclusion that over the next 100 million years, most near-Earth asteroids will have been thrown back out by close gravitational encounters with the inner planets or will collide with the

42 inner planets. A new supply will be constantly generated by the main belt and incoming comets. (PERMANENT) Many scientists view asteroids as potential mining areas, especially carbonaceous chondrite asteroids. Of the roughly 40,000 asteroids in the main belt, many of them can be mined for minerals. Ceres especially presents a nice target, as it is roughly half the size of the planet Pluto. The first asteroids likely to be colonized or mined will be the Aten and Apollo asteroids, due to their proximity to Earth. (Astrobiology) Most all of the asteroids contain water, rock, iron, and rare and expensive metals like platinum, nickel and others. (Mars Terraforming) Asteroidal material in general is exceptionally good ore, requiring a minimum of processing, since it has free metal already. Only basic ore processing is needed at the asteroid, producing free metal and volatiles (usually stored as ices), and possibly certain minerals, glasses, and ceramics. The required equipment is relatively simple. (PERMANENT) Were asteroids to be colonized, as stated above, the Aten or Apollo asteroids would be the likely first choice. Colonies could be set up to use the large quantities of water and organic chemicals that are frozen in the asteroids - an added benefit as such large bodies of valuable chemicals are unknown on either the Moon or Mars. Obviously, asteroids located further away from the Sun are more likely to contain deposits of water (as ice) than those that are closer to it. As the gravity on asteroids is mostly negligible, numerous physical problems arise both in humans and in any structures one might desire to build there. One proposal thought to combat this problem involves hollowing out asteroids by machines, then spinning them by fusion powered rockets to produce artificial gravity so that humans could live inside the hollowed out asteroid. Fusion reactors or giant solar collectors could power the colony. The hollowed out material could be sorted for valuable minerals. We do not yet have the capability to perform this method as of yet, however. (Astrobiology) Some studies have called for stopping the rotation of smaller asteroids so as to allow solar processing equipment to always face the sun. This could theoretically be accomplished by anchoring a cable, wrapping it around the asteroid, and having a rocket-powered space jeep slow down and stop its rotation. However, this would involve the consumption of great amounts of fuel and might damage fragile asteroids. (PERMANENT) Should we wish to mine or colonize asteroids, it may be advantageous to bring them into orbit around the Earth. One possibility would involve select placement of nuclear

43 explosives in order to propel an asteroid towards the desired path. Such a plan would likely be met with strong objection, however, as people would fear the possibilities of nuclear explosives landing upon the Earth should something go wrong. (Space.com ) Another possibility involves solar redirection. It involves using sunlight to deflect asteroids or comets by bringing a large concave mirror made of aluminum to a position relatively close to them. The mirror would act as a solar collector, focusing sunlight on the asteroid, along with the help of a secondary mirror. The focused beam of light would then heat a small spot on the asteroid and the resulting vaporized rock would shoot into space, propelling the asteroid in the opposite direction. This would involve applying a constant pressure, as opposed to the single push used by nuclear devices. It has been calculated that a collector about one half of a mile wide could deflect asteroids of up to two miles in diameter if it operated for a year. (Popular Mechanics) Should an asteroid be misdirected or no longer of use, a scheme known as the cosmic billiard shot could be employed wherein a smaller asteroid could be used to destroy a larger one. A rocket would be crashed into the smaller asteroid, deflecting it toward the larger. The collision of the two massive bodies at such high speeds would likely destroy both of them. Another deflection scheme calls for using super powerful Earth-based lasers to deflect smaller asteroids out of their paths. (Popular Mechanics) Another possibility for asteroids is setting them up as solar collector stations with the purpose of redirecting energy to the Earth. It is estimated that there is enough fossil fuel on Earth to last us at best for 100 years. Plenty of uranium and breeder reactors can use it both for power and to make plutonium in breeder reactors for further use as a fission fuel. Once this runs out, however, we will need to find another major source of energy. Solar energy is fully renewable and nonpolluting, but Earth-based solar power requires the devotion of a few percent of land area in order to generate energy for the world. In fact, it has been estimated that 3.2 percent of the land area on Earth would need to be devoted to solar power in order to provide the world with equivalent energy consumption to the U.S. (Distant Star) Solar Powered Satellites (SPS's) would use solar energy that does not now hit Earth. In total, such energy is a billion times more than the entire solar energy that does hit Earth. In practice, a tiny fraction of this extra energy would supply the entire world with its required

44 levels. Should we find a way to adequately move asteroids closer to Earth, they could be used to house a large number of these solar panels. (Distant Star) There are numerous different methods for collecting and storing energy collected by solar collectors. A dark absorber can absorb the radiation of the sun, which can transform solar energy into thermal energy, but only with large heat loss. That thermal energy could be stored as chemical production (in bonds formed by the addition of that thermal energy to various chemicals) or as heat in materials such as water. Solar energy can be converted into electrical energy, though currently the best retention rate is around 20%. This type of energy is most often placed into storage batteries, which are not very efficient. Solar energy can also be converted into hydrogen energy through water decomposition or other approaches, among them electrolysis, which ranges from 75-85% efficiency. This hydrogen is stored in the liquid or gaseous phase. Through the photosynthesis of plants, carbon dioxide and water are composed to be organic (biomass energy) with oxygen emission. The photosynthesis is the largest scale process in the conversion of solar energy in the earth, though it has not yet managed an energy conversion efficiency of 10%. (New Energy) These solar collectors currently need research on self-healing solar panels, thin film manufacture, large-scale demonstration of radio frequency power transmission, and development of lower cost. The use of asteroid materials to create them could help reduce the cost of making solar power available, to the point where prices would fall below current fossil fuel prices. (Distant Star) One of the most direct proposals involves collected solar energy being converted into electricity, then into microwaves. The microwaves would be beamed to the Earth's surface, where they would be received and converted back into electricity by a large array of devices known as a rectifying antenna. Asteroids could be set at a geostationary orbit, where they would constantly hover over the same spot on the equator and can keep its beam fixed on a position at a higher latitude. This would allow sunlight to be blocked only for a period of about an hour each night within a few weeks of the equinoxes throughout the year. (Space Future) There remains some question about whether asteroids themselves would be as beneficial as free-floating SPS's themselves. In an interesting branch of research, there have been claims that diamond films could withstand the high levels of radiation typical of the space environment. By contrast, the performance of silicon cells degrades by about 50 percent after 10 years in orbit. These

45 diamond film collectors could operate at very high temperature. As a result, they can be used with low-weight inflatable solar collectors resulting in an energy system that produces more electricity per pound, a critical factor in space applications. They also have a potential conversion efficiency of 50% as compared to 10-15% for silicon solar cells. As polycrystalline diamond films can be made artificially from methane, diamond solar converters would not be much more expensive to mass-produce than silicon solar cells. It has been estimated that in large volumes, this material should be able to be produced at $1 per square centimeter. This converter would not convert light directly into energy, but would transfer it first to heat, and then to electricity. (Spaceflight Now) While there are numerous possibilities for the usage of asteroids in the future, their main purpose would seem to be serving as mining areas. Due to the extraordinary measures needed to maintain proper conditions for even a small asteroid to become inhabitable, options such as colonizing Mars or setting up a number of space stations to serve as homes seem much more viable. Asteroids could be used to house solar collectors, but satellites could serve the same purpose. The abundance of useful minerals likely to be found in asteroids would be served best as building material or fuel for spacecraft, or for a variety of structures and instruments needed to colonize other areas.

46 1.4.6 Martian Colonization

Mars is unique among possible destinations for colonization. Aside from the Moon, it is our closest cosmic neighbor, and it is very similar to the Earth in many ways. In fact, at one time Mars and Earth might have been very similar in that they both had large primordial oceans. This water may even still exist on Mars today, locked away in ice reservoirs below the surface. Mars also has a geologic history similar to that of Earth. This may mean that it has enough raw ores to support the needs of a colony. This is not the only reason why Mars is the best destination for colonization. With a 24- hour long day and a little less than half the gravity of Earth, humans and other terrestrial life forms should be able to adapt to life on Mars. The planet also has a thin atmosphere that provides some protection from solar flares. A Martian colony could become self sufficient by using the planet's available resources. Although the first missions will probably have to be self sufficient, bringing all their own supplies and fuel for the journey home; eventually, colonists could start producing their own food with Martian nutrients and water supplies and even fuel for both rovers and launch vehicles. Considerable interest in the planet Mars can already be seen around the Earth. Beyond the current exploration already completed, the French have recently agreed to cooperate with the United States on a number of survey missions to Mars, beginning in 2007. The Russians are also seeking similar cooperation, but are prevented by U.S. law from merely selling launch vehicles to the U.S. unless a broader scientific arrangement is made. (Aviation Week & Space Technology) In Australia, the Mars Society is planning to build a prototype Martian habitat based upon information gathered from previous Mars landers. There, they hope to test technology that can be later perfected and used to survey the actual planet and to sustain life there in years to come. A habitat found on Devon Island in the Canadian Arctic is already built, and habitats are planned for Alaska, the southwestern part of the United States, and Iceland. (Herald Sun) Many economically based plans have already been drafted concerning the planet Mars, including the proposal made by Buzz Aldrin and a group of researchers from MIT, Purdue, and

47 the University of Texas. This proposal calls for a chain of hotels that travel back and forth between Mars and Earth, drawing potentially large fees from those wishing to embark on such a unique trip. (The Straits Times)

48 2.1 Stages for the Colonization of Mars

It has been said that we are far better prepared to travel to Mars today than we were to travel to the Moon in 1969. However, with the loss of the two most recent Mars missions, the Mars Climate Orbiter (12/11/98) and the Mars Polar Lander/Deep Space 2 (1/3/99) (NASA's Jet Propulsion Laboratory), it does not seem likely that a manned mission will be attempted in the near future. Yet new evidence that there was once standing water on Mars has rekindled the search for life, even if it may only be fossil evidence. However, there is only so much we can discover by sending unmanned probes; there is only so much we can learn about a planet without setting foot on it. There are several major factors that would be involved in the colonization of Mars: scientific research, exploration, colonization, and terraforming. These factors are listed below in detail.

49 2.1.1 Scientific Research

Before we can send any manned mission to mars we must first study the planet so that we can know what to expect when we arrive. This stage is currently in full swing with the public anxiously awaiting new news about what it's like on Mars, and whether life may have ever existed there.

Recent discoveries/accomplishments: • The highest quality global topographic model created for any planet, including Earth, has been created from data produced by the Mars Orbiter Laser Altimeter (MOLA), which reveals an extreme hemispheric dichotomy. The northern hemisphere is lower, flatter, and younger than the mountainous southern hemisphere, which may point to the existence of an ancient ocean. • Evidence of a complex, continuing history of dust erosion. • It has been conclusively established that Mars currently has no global magnetic field. However, remnant magnetism in the planet's crust indicates that in the planet's early history, a global magnetic field did exist. • Gullies created in the geologically recent past that may indicate that liquid water may still exist below the surface of the planet in aquifers. Ice may protect the water from evaporation as it seeps towards the surface until enough pressure builds up to release it. • There has been a significant improvement in the understanding of Martian atmospheric dynamics and weather patterns. Image Credit: NASA's Jet Propulsion Laborotory, Malin Space Science Systems

Taken by the Mars Global Surveyor in March 2001

50 • The most successful of all recent Mars missions in the eyes of the general public has to be the Mars Pathfinder mission (landing 7/4/97, last transmission 7/27/97) which sent back some of the most spectacular pictures of the Martian surface the world has ever seen.

Image Credit: "Big Crater" by Dr. Timothy Parker of NASA's Jet Propulsion Laboratory. Taken by the Mars Pathfinder

51 2.1.2 Human Exploration and Colonization of Mars

Are we ready to send a manned mission to Mars? Many people wonder why plans for a manned mission have not already been made. As will be seen in the following sections, we are not yet ready to pursue this goal. This is because it will be more than just plant the flag and go home. The astronauts would be away from home for two years with no hope of help from Earth should something go wrong. After exploration, some point may be reached where some people feel confident to make a permanent home on Mars. One question that remains to be answered is whether this daring move would benefit humanity in any way.

52 2.1.3 Commercialization of Mars

Currently Mars has no known resources to offer humanity; however, colonization could change this. Since Mars' gravity is only about .38 times that of Earth, supplies produced there could be transported into space at a significantly reduced cost compared to those produced on Earth. This makes Mars a perfect refueling and supply station for ships en route to mining colonies in the asteroid belt. Food would be especially important out there since sunlight in the asteroid belt is too weak for efficient food production. This could form a triangle trade similar to that, which once existed here on Earth between Europe, Africa, and North America. Earth would ship high tech supplies to Mars, Mars would supply ships with food and fuel to make their trip to the asteroid belt and back, and the ships would travel back to Earth carrying with them the minerals mined from the asteroids (Zubrin, "The Economic Viability of Mars Colonization," pg. 2).

53 2.1.4 Terraforming Mars

Recent research indicates that Mars was once very similar to the primordial Earth with large amounts of surface water forming lakes and oceans; but with it's reduced gravity, increased distance from the sun, and quickly cooling core, Mars fell into an everlasting ice-age. However, some scientists believe that this can be reversed, and Mars can again become a watery world. Most of the current plans involve releasing greenhouse gases into the atmosphere, which would warm up the planet enough to cause a chain reaction where the naturally occurring CO2 and water (which are both greenhouse gases themselves) would be unfrozen and released into the atmosphere further warming the planet and thickening the atmosphere. This may eventually bring the planet to a point where humans could walk outside their colonies wearing warm clothing and oxygen masks instead of full space suits. The process would not end here, however. Once plants could survive in the open atmosphere, they could start converting the CO2 atmosphere into an atmosphere that contains enough oxygen for humans to breath without the aid of a respirator. Mars would become a truly Earth- like planet. (Haynes)

Illustration: Alfred T. Karnajian, Scientific American

54 2.2 The Pros and Cons of Colonizing Mars

As with the colonization of space in general, the proposal for the colonization of the planet Mars has many potential benefits and drawbacks. The primary argument for building a colony upon Mars surrounds the potential for learning a wealth of information from this environment that varies so widely from that upon the Earth. Both hard science and applied technology could quite likely be advanced in numerous areas from prolonged study of various conditions and interactions upon Mars. Conversely, there are numerous arguments that can be given in opposition to any such planned colonization. The lack of solid data about the planet coupled with the natural risks inherent in such a plan would result in a very dangerous mission with uncertain benefits.

55 2.2.1 The Technological and Scientific Benefits of Colonizing Mars

One of the primary benefits to colonizing the planet Mars would be the gains in scientific understanding and the technological advances which one would expect to result from research performed on the planet, and more importantly, on nearby stations orbiting Mars or found upon asteroids in the area. In outer space, one finds conditions wherein experimental variation due to gravity, vibration, and atmospheric conditions are removed while a vacuum environment and unique magnetic and thermal systems are found - all of which cannot be properly replicated upon Earth. These conditions can lead to any number of advances, including the formation of more perfect crystal growth, which has numerous commercial applications. This environment can also be used for the study of biochemical and biophysical processes and to create products of a biological nature. Studies of combustion and fire prevention can be made; and knowledge of various materials, including ceramics and porous substances, can also be found. One of the areas in which research in outer space is thought to be beneficial is materials synthesis. Researchers can control the fluid dynamics as well as the corresponding mass and heat transfer conditions that determine crystal growth when conducting materials synthesis experiments under microgravity conditions. This can allow for the growth of larger crystals with a reduced number of defects, controlled morphologies, and narrower size distributions. (CAAMP) One branch of materials synthesis research that can benefit from research in space is the formation of zeolite structures. Zeolites are crystalline aluminosilicates with complex framework structures that have a variety of applications. When one seeks to determine the structure of these zeolites by conventional diffraction techniques, it is paramount that there are large, single crystal specimens available for study. As such, the gathering of reliable structural information on zeolites is greatly facilitated by research and experimentation in outer space. Zeolites have been put to good use in environmental applications, serving in radioactive waste disposal, sewage effluent cleanup, agricultural wastewater purification, stack gas cleanup, and oxygen enrichment as molecular sieves. In addition, they can be used as environmentally safe fertilizers, herbicide and pesticide carriers, and animal nutrition and waste treatment. Zeolites have also found use in energy control and conservation in the areas of coal gasification, natural gas purification, solar energy use, and petroleum production. Zeolites and particular

56 types of carbon can be placed into structures that result in remarkably large internal pore volumes per unit mass of solid. This feature could be put to use in the storage of gases with low molecular weights, which involves incorporation into the pore structure of microporous solids such as described above. (CAAMP) Microgravity crystal growth also offers an alternative method for investigating the crystallization behavior and structure, in addition to the innate physical properties, of materials that show ferric phenomena. These materials have great value in the electroceramics industry, where magnetic metals, ferroelectrics, antiferroelectrics, and ferroelastics are of use. The unique physical properties found in the ferroic instabilities of these materials, such as unusual dielectric or elastic softening, abrupt discontinuities within unit cell dimensions, or dramatic changes in electrical conductivity, are employed in numerous solid state devices. The commercial applications of these materials include capacitor dielectrics, electro- mechanical transducers, thermal imaging devices, actuators, optoelectronic devices, piezoresistors, sensors, and thin-film memory devices. (CAMMP) Weightless experimentation can lead to a greater understanding of the production of sinterable non-oxide ceramic powders in flames. The process is influenced by convective flows in a variety of ways. Therefore, experiments done in the absence of gravity can provide greater insight into how to reduce or employ the effects of gravity in similar manufacturing processes on the surface of a planet. Ideally, the process can be further studied to determine how the flame chemistry and geometry can be optimized to produce improved ceramic powders. As the primary obstacle to widespread usage of ceramics is high pricing, a reduction in cost resulting from this study would improve the value of such material. (CCACS) Microgravity can again be put to good purpose in the process of self-propagating high temperature synthesis (SHS), an alternative to conventional methods of producing ceramics, glass-ceramics, ceramic-composites and intermetallic compounds. In this process, premixed powders are formed into a pellet and ignited. Due to the absence of convection currents, the formation of microcrystals is inhibited, resulting in larger amorphous areas and thus allowing for high quality porous material that is both strong and lightweight. This material has a variety of potential uses, including bone-replacement applications and use in bonding diamond thin films to SiC substrates for use in drill bits. (CCACS)

57 Valuable information regarding fire suppression systems can also be gathered by conducting experiments in microgravity, where interference from convection currents is minimized. It is thought that a replacement for bromine based chemical fire suppression agents, known as halons, could be found by extensively studying the effects of droplet size and concentration on the speed of the flame front of water mist. (CCACS) Experimentation in space can take advantage of the lack of gravity driven buoyancy convection and metallostatic pressures in order to study transport phenomena. One branch of this would involve improved understanding of the formation and growth of vapor bubbles in the mushy zone of a casting, which would lead to improved processes and reduced porosity in castings. Detailed investigation of the interaction of bulk liquid flows with the segregated liquid in this mushy zone would lead to the control of unwanted grain defects in complex single crystal alloys. (Auburn University) The weightless environment provided by space can also be put to use in biological areas, being used to better understand, accelerate, or retard biophysical and biochemical processes, to create new biologically based products or to improve existing ones by route of process oriented applied research. One application that lies along these lines involves genomic research on model plant organisms. Long duration microgravity tree and plant research can involve monitoring the subjects at various growth intervals in order to preserve the genetic material for later analysis of their genetic and metabolic control mechanisms. This could serve in the characterization of particular genes that regulate various biosynthetic processes. (BioServe) The conditions in outer space can also be employed in the creation of unique biomaterials as well as specifically engineered non-uniformly porous biomaterials through the process of combustion synthesis. Biomaterials created by this process have shown promise in better emulating the morphological and mechanical features of natural tissue and bone in particular, working to recreate entire bone cross sections. This particular testing process takes about a sixth as long to complete as testing upon the surface of Earth. (BioServe) Research in space can be applied to processes such as antibiotic fermentation, where conditions have led to a possible antibiotic production rate of up to three times that upon Earth. Examination into the cause of this increase could lead to an increase of the fermentation

58 process on Earth, where even a small improvement could save upwards of millions of dollars in production costs. (BioServe) Space flight can also provide a unique opportunity in the subjects of tissue engineering and cell culture. The low shear fluid environment that the cells and tissues encounter in microgravity is thought to allow for the retention or development of differentiated cell functions that are necessary for the production of certain proteins and compounds within genetically engineered simple organisms. As sedimentation, buoyancy, and density driven convection is taken out of the picture, cells can be grown in a moderately calm fluid environment where interactions between cells can take place amongst only minor disruption, an ideal situation for research involving tissue engineering. (BioServe) Research in space can help to improve the effectiveness of antibiotics through the study of a bacterial ability to proliferate in the presence of normally inhibitory levels of numerous antibiotics. While there is some uncertainty over whether this is due to an increase in the cell's resistance to the effects of the drugs or a decline in the effectiveness of the antibiotics as the result of a declining uptake rate, further information would be of great benefit. Were a correlation to be established between gravity dependent mass transport phenomena and antibiotic effectiveness, possible causal mechanisms involved in microbial drug resistance could be determined, allowing for the development of more effective countermeasures in preventing the spread of multi-drug resistant pathogens. (BioServe)

59 2.2.2 The Case Against Colonizing Mars

Although the colonization of Mars could potentially bring us great gain, there are a number of reasons that might cause one to oppose such an undertaking. These reasons, while quite varied, mostly stem from the fact that there is a great deal of information that we do not have about Mars, space in general, and the adaptation of life to either. There are numerous concerns about the safety of humans and any other life forms sent to colonize Mars for what will have to be an extended period of time. There are also concerns regarding the makeup of Mars itself and surrounding bodies - the land might be nearly impossible to terraform and there may be few minerals of any actual use. Although there is talk of potential gains in research, no gains can with certainty offset the good deal of time, funding, and research that would need to be put into the colonization of the planet. In addition, although the colonization of Mars would have an even greater symbolic impact than landing upon the Moon, there are questions as to what the practical gains would be outside of potential research. Numerous ethical concerns arise when one considers the safety of colonists who would be sent to Mars. They would be sent much farther than any human who has ever left the planet, and thus would face risks that we cannot fully be prepared for, prior to actually sending people on such a mission. Were equipment to malfunction, they would be much too far away to receive outside assistance or rescue - they would in effect be left to their own devices. Concerns over mathematical calculations have arisen in the recent past, when probes sent to Mars crashed due to error on the part of those planning the mission. Should such a thing happen when humans are involved, much more than a mechanical device or two would be lost. As colonists would need immense amounts of power in order to sustain themselves, a nuclear reactor might need to be sent with them. Should their shuttle explode when attempting to leave our atmosphere, nuclear rainfall could land over significant portions of the planet. As any colony would more or less seek to be a permanent one, there are concerns regarding permanent physical deformation or mutation of the colonists, their offspring, and other life forms they choose to bring with them. We do know that prolonged periods of time spent in space will cause bone loss, muscle atrophy, and many other potentially serious physical alterations. We do not know how a gravitational environment different than our own would effect the human reproductive cycle. The fetus is in a very vulnerable position during its

60 stages of growth, and varying environmental conditions could cause any number of unforeseen deformations, which could in turn lead to a tortured existence once the child was born. Similar questions can be raised for most life forms, which would also run the risk of leading mutated and potentially painful existences. There is concern that once a human being's body has adjusted to the Martian environment, it would no longer be able to support itself upon Earth, thus potentially banishing all colonists from their home planet forever, even should an emergency arise that would require them to return. Beyond the danger to life forms brought over to Mars, there remains the possibility that there is some form of life already inhabiting the planet that might be damaged by our arrival and subsequent alteration of the planet. Although it would seem unlikely that any life could exist on its own under the current conditions of Mars, the process of evolution can lead creatures to adapt in startling ways. It is theorized that Mars once possessed conditions similar to Earth, and thus was suitable for life. The possibility remains that some life could have existed and later evolved into a form which was able to thrive upon the current planet, even if that evolved form became unrecognizable or unidentifiable as life by our current standards. Beyond physical concerns, there are mental and emotional hurdles set before colonists who would seek to colonize Mars. These individuals would have to leave their homes, their family, and most everything that is familiar to them. They would be put in a strenuous and alien situation, which would be like nothing they had ever experienced. Their normal forms of entertainment, relaxation, and social interaction would be drastically changed. Were children to be born to this colony, their experiences would certainly lack many of the luxuries that could be found upon Earth such as a variety of foods, outdoor playgrounds, many toys, and perhaps movies and television. While none of these could be considered vital, they would likely lead to a bleak daily routine, and thus a more difficult life. Children would also need adequate schooling, although textbook material could never teach direct experiences upon Earth. After a few generations of separation from Earth, these colonists would be an entirely different group of people, vastly set apart by societal conditions not shared between members of either community. As we do not yet have sufficient data on the composition of material on many asteroids and upon Mars itself, their value as sources of valuable minerals or metals is purely

61 speculative. Numerous plans have called for a colony to support itself partially through such means. If those materials could not be found, the colony could find itself in considerable trouble once established. In addition, although extraordinary measures could in theory be used to overcome the obstacles in terraforming presented by a Mars with less carbon dioxide, nitrogen, water, and numerous other desired components, such procedures would likely be costly and quite time consuming. Current models for terraforming are based upon estimates which themselves are not derived from enough actual data. Due to the potential costs in both time and resources coupled with our general ignorance regarding the details of conditions upon Mars and in space and how they affect us, there is considerable doubt as to the value of a program designed to colonize Mars. Perhaps this time and money could be better spent upon other important areas such as medicinal fields, environmental protection, and agriculture which would have more direct benefit to the human race without the level of risk involved. In addition, this would be a long-term investment of funds, as any proposed colony would be more or less permanent in nature. Those responsible for helping to fund it would need to do so until the colony could become self-sufficient (which would take a long time) or else they would be indirectly responsible for the eventual deaths of those involved. All potential gains in research cannot be evaluated before they are found, and no one has of yet provided a fully rational explanation as to why a constant expansion of the human race would benefit us, or anything as a whole. More humans in the universe would merely lead to increased demands for consumption and increased potential for destructive conflict. Were the program to be found desirable despite these risks, there is a question as to whether it should perhaps be delayed until our technology has advanced enough to reduce some of these risks. Costs for transportation could drastically decrease upon discovery of reusable launch vehicles and general advances in materials and propulsion. A further study of humans on space stations orbiting the Earth could provide increased data on biological concerns as well as mental and emotional ones for those set apart from Earth for increased periods of time. Further advances in the studies of ecosystems, small-scale terraforming, and farming could help overcome a number of the potential problems in managing the planet itself.

62 Without a pressing need to attempt to colonize the planet Mars right now, it would seem prudent to allow for further study, as more time, research and discovery would only make the attempt easier.

63 2.3 Historical and Legal Aspects of Colonization

2.3.1 Historical Analogies

In the essay "The Economic Viability of Mars Colonization", Robert Zubrin of Lockheed Martin Astronautics makes several analogies between the colonization of Mars in the 21st century and the European colonization of the New World in the 17th and 18th centuries. Just as the Americas were hundreds of years ago, Mars has been regarded as distant, difficult to access, and hostile, with no apparent resources of economic value. However, as technology improves and more is learned about the planet Mars, these arguments become increasingly irrelevant. Today, historical hindsight allows us to see the folly of Napoleon's sale of the Louisiana Territory for 2 million dollars in 1802, and Russia's sale of Alaska for a similar sum in 1867. Zubrin points out that "two hundred years from now, the current apathy of governments toward Mars will be viewed in a similar light" (Zubrin, p. 2). While attempting to find a westward route to Asia in 1492, the Italian navigator Christopher Columbus sailed across the Atlantic Ocean, landing at what he thought was an island in the East Indies. In reality, he was in the Bahamas, most likely making landfall on San Salvador, and continuing on to Cuba and Haiti, which he believed to be China and Japan. On Christmas Eve, the flagship Santa Maria grounded on a reef near Hispaniola, and sunk the next day. Due to the limited amount of space aboard Columbus' two other ships, the Pinta and Nina, some of the crew had to be left behind while Columbus returned to Spain in the two remaining ships. Forty of Columbus' men founded a small settlement at La Navidad. so called because the fort was built from the wreckage of the Santa Maria. The following year, Columbus returned to the New World with 1300 men in 17 ships, ready to settle the colony founded at La Navidad. Unfortunately, Columbus returned to find La Navidad destroyed, and the settlers dead. Columbus established more fortified settlements, and declared himself governor of Hispaniola. A bloody campaign of violence was lead against the natives by Columbus' men as revenge for the destruction of La Navidad. This is particularly ironic because the original settlers were most likely the instigators of the conflict with the natives, who were rightfully defending themselves from the plundering Spaniards. Throughout the next two years, the colonists continued their conquest and colonization of the island of Hispaniola.

64 In March of 1946, Columbus returned to Spain, leaving his two brothers in charge of the colony. He returned two years later to find a revolt mounting against his brother, who had exploited the natives and unfairly favored certain colonists in his reorganization of the gold production process. Although Columbus tried to restore order, so many complaints against his administration had been filed with the Spanish government that he was arrested and sent back to Spain, along with his brothers. Though he was released and, due to his extraordinary navigation abilities, allowed to return to the New World, he was no longer allowed to govern the Spanish colonies (Pickering). By looking at the problems Christopher Columbus faced in the New World, it is possible to draw analogies to modern plans to explore and settle Mars five centuries later. Like Columbus' first expedition, the first men to travel to Mars will most likely be a small crew whose primary mission is exploration. Thanks to data from space probes and robotic landers such as Viking and the Sojourner, we will have a much more complete knowledge of the place to which we are traveling than Columbus did. If the ship were to be damaged and the crew forced to stay on Mars until a rescue party could be sent, it is highly likely that they could suffer a similar fate as the forty original colonists at La Navidad. Like the ships of Columbus' first voyage, the first manned mission to Mars is likely to be a vessel designed for exploration, not colonization, and may not have the supplies necessary to sustain the crew long enough to be rescued. It seems, then, that in order to assure the safety of exploratory missions, that the first mission to Mars have a fairly small crew, but enough food, water, shelters, and other supplies for a small colony. In this manner, it is possible to provide for the astronauts should they not be able to return to Earth. This will also mean that the following missions will be able to bring more people and fewer supplies, much as Columbus' second voyage did. However, there is another lesson to learn from the mistakes Columbus made. Though he was an excellent navigator, he was blamed for the failure of the early colonies and was generally considered to be a negligent leader. While astronauts are traditionally scientists and Air Force pilots, it will also become necessary to establish competent leaders on the Martian colonies. Given that colonies on Mars may be either established by NASA, an international space effort, or perhaps even a private company or corporation, it is unclear how a government will be established on Mars. It is clear, however, that if the political order cannot be maintained on Mars, there will be a great risk of conflict, which could cause serious

65 problems in the confined space the colonists will have to share in the early years of Mars settlement. In addition to a government, Mars will need a steady stream of supplies from Earth, until it grows large enough to be more self-sufficient. Eventually, trade will be possible, and Mars will develop its own unique economy. In order to understand how Mars can be of economic value, one can again look back to the colonial history of America. In the "Triangle Trade" economy of the colonial period, Britain exported manufactured goods to America, which exported food staples and craft goods to the West Indies, which in turn supplied Britain with sugar and spices. The same trade cycle also developed among Britain, Australia, and the Spice Islands two centuries later. The "Triangle Trade" can be extrapolated into a viable economic model to suit the needs of Martian colonization; Earth exports high-tech goods to settlements on Mars, which in turn exports food and low-tech goods to mining bases in the asteroid belt, which would export metals back to Earth (Zubrin). The early stages of Mars exploration will probably be very similar to the first attempts at reaching the South Pole in Antarctica nearly a century ago. Both are also international territories, which no nation may claim individually. The main difference is that outposts on Antarctica are scientific research stations, with no long-term plans to alter the environment to make the continent suitable for human habitation. While the initial stages of Mars settlement may be limited to scientific research, Mars will eventually be settled and terraformed by large numbers of humans. Both Mars and Antarctica are cold, barren wastelands with very little in terms of natural resources that human explorers could use. Since changing the climate of Mars is a long-term goal, the first settlers must be able to adapt to this environment, and deal with the dangers of space travel.

66 2.3.2 Legal Aspects of Mars Colonization

History also shows that an important part of founding a colony is establishing laws. People must be governed fairly and justly. With the possibility of colonizing Mars approaching, many things need to be determined before settlement can begin. It is likely that people from different countries will be residing there, representing different cultures and forms of government, each having different laws. Beginning in 1967, basic laws were made in respects to outer space. These laws are, as stated by Lewis Winkler from Pennsylvania State University:

To conduct space activity with a spirit of international cooperation for the benefit of all and to use outer space for peaceful purposes.

The official titles of the laws of Outer Space appear below with abbreviated titles and their year of adoption at the

United Nations in parentheses:

1. Treaty on Principles Governing the Activities of States in the Exploration of Outer Space, Including the

Moon and Other Celestial Bodies (Outer Space Treaty of 1967)

2. Agreement on the Rescue of Astronauts, the Return of Astronauts and the Return of Objects Launched

into Outer Space (Rescue and Return Agreement of 1968)

3. Convention on International Liability for Damage Caused by Space Objects (Liability Convention of 1972)

4. Convention on Registration of Objects Launched into Outer Space (Registration Convention of 1975)

5. Agreement Governing the Activities of States on the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies (Moon Agreement

of 1979)

The only other legal instruments widely adopted at the United Nations that affect the conduct of space

astronomy are those involving military use of outer space:

67 6. Treaty Banning Nuclear Weapons Tests in the Atmosphere, in Outer Space and Under Water (Test Ban

Treaty of 1963)

7. Convention on the Prohibition of Military or any other Hostile use of Environmental Modification

Techniques (ENMOD Convention of 1977) (Winkler)

These seven international instruments officially recognize the awesome ramifications of our ability to explore, use, and modify the solar system (Winkler). In respects to Mars, it cannot be claimed in sovereignty. If the first group to land there plants a flag in Martian soil, it will be considered an act done in commemoration by the first country (Winkler). These laws are already in existence and have been ratified several times. But there are no laws that touch upon colonizing an outer space body, specifically Mars. There are however several theories and opinions as to how this should proceed (Winkler). One theory, developed by the authors of Mars: The Home Away From Home, gives several consequences for people's wrong actions. For example if someone were to steal, they would be sent to prison. One interesting idea they have is that if someone murders someone else they will be punished by "spacing," which is being sent out of the colony without a space suit (Mars: The Home Away From Home). The laws and punishments of course would depend on the type of government was in place. The governments being considered here are: Colonialism - A policy by which a nation maintains or extends its control over foreign dependencies; could include testing of several procedures, and experiments. • Feudalism - A system by which the holding of estates in land is made dependent upon an obligation to render military service to the kind or feudal superior; feudal principles and usages.; would resemble a military structure. • Plato's Republic-a "Big Brother" type system, one watches over everyone, no freedom of speech; perhaps a computer could watch over • Dictotorship - Absolute or despotic control or power; would leave no room for argument, but a poor leader could ruin colony.

68 • Communism - A system of government in which the state plans and controls the economy and a single, often authoritarian party holds power, claiming to make progress toward a higher social order in which all goods are equally shared by the people; people on Mars would work for each other, but greed could take over • Democracy - Government by popular representation; a form of government in which the supreme power is retained by the people, but is indirectly exercised through a system of representation and delegated authority periodically renewed; a constitutional representative government; a republic; Economic system similar to that of the US and Earth. o Representative Democracy - people exercise votes through representatives o Direct Democracy - no representative (Mars: The Home Away From Home)

With many different countries most likely combining to colonize Mars, all of the legal and social (government) aspects should be settled prior to actual colonizing. If this doesn't occur, trouble can arise between the settlers, which could possibly prove fatal.

69 2.4 NASA's Current Preparations for a Mission to Mars

It is interesting to note that if you look at NASA's Missions to Mars website, you will not find a single mention of plans for a manned mission to the red planet. Despite this, NASA is currently leading an international field research program, which is studying the Naughton impact crater, located on Devon Island in Northern Canada, as a Mars analog. As described in Appendix I, the Naughton impact crater is very similar to the frozen deserts of Mars; although nowhere on Earth can we find such extreme minimum temperatures, extreme dryness, low atmospheric pressure, and harsh amounts of solar radiation as is found on the surface of Mars. The Haughton-Mars Project (HMP) is helping scientists to develop exploration strategies and equipment that will be used for exploring the surface of Mars. By living in a simulated Martian habitat, called the Flashline Mars Artic Research Station, and exploring the crater wearing the latest concept suits for space exploration, the scientists are learning what types of challenges they may run into on the surface of the red planet, including those caused by human factors. See Appendix J for a field report and photographs.

70 2.4.1 Proposed Plans for a Manned Mission to Mars

Most of the proposed plans for manned missions to Mars have involved large spacecraft that would have to be built in low Earth orbit. These designs also have a severe weakness: a crew would have to stay on board the mother ship while the landing party descends to the surface, exposing these astronauts to unneeded doses of solar and cosmic radiation. These plans also have another problem: cost. Such a ship would be nearly as large as the International Space Station, and would be far more expensive since it would also have to have a propulsion system. This is what has led some people to believe that no manned mission to Mars will be attempted anytime in the near future. However, what if a means could be found to use the same class of transportation systems as the ones that were used for the Apollo missions? In 1990 Martin Marietta Astronautics proposed a plan, called "Mars Direct," which would use the leverage offered by propellants manufactured on the Martian surface to reduce the size of the ships required enough that they could be launched from Earth. This inspired some scientists at NASA's Johnson Space Center to produce an alternative plan, called "Mars Semi-Direct." Below are summaries of the Mars Direct and Semi-Direct mission plans. The full text is available in Appendix K.

71 2.4.2 Mars Direct Mission Plan

At an early launch opportunity a single, unmanned, heavy lift launch vehicle (HLV), with a substantial upper stage, would lift off and take a direct course for Mars. The payload would consist of an unfueled methane/oxygen driven two stage ascent Earth Return Vehicle (ERV), several tons of liquid hydrogen, a 50 kWe nuclear reactor mounted in the back of a methane/oxygen driven light truck, a small set of compressors and an automated chemical processing unit, and a few small scientific rovers. The payload would aerobrake into orbit and land with the help of a parachute. Upon landing, the truck would be telerobotically driven a few hundred meters away from the lander where the reactor would be deployed. This would provide power to the compressors and chemical processing unit. This processing unit would work by catalytically reacting the hydrogen brought from Earth with Martian CO2 to produce methane and water. This would reduce the need to store cryogenic hydrogen, which tends to leak out over time, on the Martian surface. The methane would then be liquefied and stored for future use as fuel. The water would then be electrolyzed to produce oxygen, which would also be stored for future use, and hydrogen, which would also be recycled through a device known as a methanator. This process would be repeated until all of the hydrogen has been converted to methane. Eventually enough propellant would be produced to fuel the ERV for the journey home. However, an extra 12 tons of propellant would also be produced to support the use of high power, chemically fueled, long range ground vehicles, which would be used for exploration during the astronauts' stay. Two years later, two more HLV's would lift off from Earth. One of them would contain the same payload as the previous vehicle did, and one would contain a crew. The manned vehicle would be a habitation module containing a crew of four, provisions for three years, and a pressurized methane/oxygen driven ground rover. The vehicle would also contain an aerobreaking assembly that would be used to land them at the previous site where a fully fueled ERV would await them at a characterized and beaconed landing site. In the eventuality that the ERV was not functioning properly, the crew would have a safety net — the other unmanned vehicle. If they needed to, they could land it near their base

72 camp so that the second ERV could be fueled for the journey home. Otherwise, they could land it at a different site so that the next team to arrive could explore a different area of the planet's surface. After staying on Mars for a year and a half, taking advantage of the methane/oxygen powered rovers to explore an area roughly the size of Texas, the crew would use the ERV to make the journey home. In this way, all the crewmembers would spend their entire stay on the Martian surface where they would have natural gravity and could be shielded from cosmic radiation.

73 2.4.3 Mars Semi-Direct Mission Plan

This mission plan is very similar to the Mars Direct mission plan. However, this plan differs in declaring which return vehicles are carried to Mars by the first HLV. Instead of bringing an ERV to the planet's surface, it would bring an unfueled Mars Ascent Vehicle (MAV) along with the other cargo described above. The fully fueled ERV, which would also be brought on this first ship, would be left in a highly elliptical Mars orbit. The second launches would proceed two years after the first one, as described above, and the crew would carry out a year and a half of research and exploration on the planet's surface. After this time they would lift off the Martian surface in the MAV, rendezvous with the ERV, and start their journey home. Once they reach Earth they would use the MAV as an Apollo-type Earth Crew Capture Vehicle. On one hand, the Direct mission has the advantage, since the crew would be able to use the ERV for extra living space during their year and a half stay on the surface. However, the Semi-Direct plan has the advantage in that it only requires about one third of the propellant manufacturing required for the Direct plan. This would mean a reduction in the surface power requirements for producing the propellant from 50 kWe down to 15kWe, which is about what is needed to run the base life support. The ERV habitat can also be made significantly larger since it does not have to ascend from the Martian surface, which could possibly allow for a larger crew size. The Semi-Direct plan also has another advantage. Although the crews in both the Direct and Semi-Direct would not be endangered by the failure of the first mission to produce propellant on the in-situ, the Semi-Direct mission would have the advantage that they would not have to redesign the mission, but could simply have a wet MAV delivered on a designated cargo flight.

74 2.4.4 Transportation to Mars

As far back as fifty years ago, there were already theories about how to transport humans to the planet Mars. With the rapid advance of technology, these ideas have been modified or completely voided. Here we will compare and contrast several different ideas for transportation and select characteristics to create an ideal model. In April of 1954, Wernher von Braun asked the question, "Can We Get To Mars?" He discussed a plan requiring an eight-month trip that includes assembling flotillas that would contain ten 4000-ton ships near an orbiting space station. The spacecraft are assembled in Earth orbit from parts launched by three-stage ferry rockets. Nine hundred fifty ferry flights are required to assemble the Mars "flotilla" in Earth orbit. No Earth-orbiting space station assembly base is assumed. Von Braun estimated that each ferry rocket needs 5,583 tons of propellants to place about 40 tons of cargo into orbit, so 5,320,000 tons will be needed to launch all the Mars flotilla parts. Von Braun pointed out that "about 10 per cent of an equivalent quantity of high octane aviation gasoline was burned during the six months' operation of the Berlin Airlift." Total propellant cost is $500 million (David S. F. Portree). Seven of the vessels are actual ships designed for the voyage to Mars, but they don't have landing gear. To allow landing, three of the ships are one-way ships that have winged landing gliders (Portree).

75 "After the second and third gliders land on the Martian equatorial runway, the explorers dismantle them and hoist their fuselages upright to prepare for return to Mars orbit (Portree)." Image (c) Bonestell Space Art.

In 1960, Philip Bono presented his idea for a manned transportation unit. His design included a 125-foot-long delta-winged glider, 95-foot wingspan, a nose-mounted nuclear reactor for electrical power, a cylindrical living module 45 feet long and 18 feet in diameter with attached rocket stage which contains a cluster of 20,000-pound-thrust Pratt & Whitney Centaur engines where the glider's tail rests on the living module. There are seven cryogenic liquid hydrogen/liquid oxygen boosters with 1.5-million-pound-thrust plug-nozzle engines, six boosters clustered around the central, seventh booster, which is shorter than the others. The living module sits on top of the central booster. The gliders' aerodynamic performance is based on an estimate of 8% of Earth's atmosphere, which we now know is actually less than 1%. The entire being would end up 248 feet tall, 82 feet wide, and would weigh 8.3 million pounds (Portree). The beginning of the voyage is outlined below:

76 • "First-stage operation: The seven plug-nozzle engines ignite at the same time and power up to 10 million pounds of thrust. Four of the outer boosters supply propellant to all seven engines. The Mars expedition ship lifts off and climbs to 200,000 feet, where it casts off the four expended boosters. • Second-stage operation: The three remaining engines continue to fire. The two remaining outer boosters supplying all propellant. They push the vehicle to an altitude of 352,000 feet before expending their fuel, then detach. • Third-stage operation: The shorter central booster places the glider and living module with attached rocket stage on a trans-Mars trajectory. • Coast to Mars: The living module deploys a 50-foot inflatable parabolic antenna for radio communications with Earth. During the 259-day Mars voyage the crew breathes a 40 percent oxygen/60 percent helium atmosphere. They point the glider's nose at the Sun to shield the living module rocket stage from solar heating. • Mars landing: On January 17, 1972, the expedition reaches Mars. The entire crew straps into the glider. A 20,700-pound capsule containing body waste is ejected and the glider separates from the living module. The unmanned living module automatically performs a Mars orbit-insertion burn using its attached rocket stage while the glider carries the 8-man crew directly into Mars' atmosphere. It uses a drag parachute to reduce speed. At an altitude of 2000 feet ("adequate to clear the highest mountain of Mars") three landing engines fire to slow the glider to a hover. It touches down on skids with its nose pointed 15 degrees above the horizon."

(David S. F. Portree).

77 Arriving at Mars - the living module (left) uses its rocket engine to enter Mars orbit while the glider (right) positions itself for direct Mars atmosphere entry. Meanwhile, the ejected waste container (center) tumbles free (Portree).

"Removing the glider's nose-mounted nuclear reactor at the Mars base camp" (Portree).

78 In 1961 S. C. Himmel, J. F. Dugan, R. W. Luidens, and R. J. Weber proposed an idea for a manned Mars mission.

The mission begins with the vehicle system in an orbit about the Earth. Depending on the weight required for the mission, it can be inferred that the system has been delivered as a unit to orbit - or that it has been assembled in the orbit from its major constituents ... the vehicle containing a crew of seven men is accelerated by a high-thrust nuclear rocket engine onto the transfer trajectory to Mars. Upon arrival at Mars, the vehicle is decelerated to establish an orbit about the planet. During a specified wait period [that is, while the crew waits for the launch window for flight back to Earth to open], a Mars Landing Vehicle containing two men descends to the Martian surface ... After a period of exploration these men take off from Mars using chemical-rocket power and effect a rendezvous with the orbit party. The return vehicle then accelerates onto the return trajectory; and, upon reaching Earth, an Earth Landing Vehicle separates and ... decelerates to return the entire crew to the surface. (David S. F. Portree)

They also state that fast voyages to Mars require more propulsion, which for a nuclear rocket would be hydrogen. However, for a long trip it would require more supplies for the crew. These researchers decided on a 420 day round trip, with 40 of those days being on Mars. Their proposal date was May 19, 1971, because the Earth to Mars transfer would require a total propulsive velocity change (AV) of 12.29 miles per second, assuming the engine performs

as planned. The higher the LW, the more propellant is required since it is supplied by ejecting propellant from the rocket nozzle. Aerobraking, or using a planet's atmosphere, can greatly reduce AV. They determined that short trips are more economical than long trips, because a longer trip would require more radiation protection (Portree). "They estimate that a 420-day round trip in 1971 with a maximum allowable total radiation dose of 100 REM will yield a Mars ship weight of 1.35 million pounds at Earth-orbit launch" (David S. F. Portree).

79 RETURNS TO ORBIT

REMAINS ON SURFACE -

"Cross-section of LeRC's Mars lander. A = control capsule. B = propellants. C = ascent rocket motor. D = landing gear (compressed). E = descent rocket motor. F = aerodynamic control surfaces (in landing position). The lower level contains a tracked rover (G) for Mars surface exploration" Portree).

In 1963 Ernst Stuhlinger and Joseph C. King developed a plan that was set for the 1980's.

• "Multiple spacecraft for redundancy: The expedition includes five 150-meter-long Mars ships of two types ("A" and "B") with three astronauts each. The expedition can continue if as many as two ships are lost, provided they are not of the same type. One ship can return the entire 15-person expedition to Earth "under crowded conditions." The three "A" ships carry one 70-ton Mars lander each. At Mars, an unmanned cargo lander detaches; if it lands successfully, explorers land in the second lander. If the cargo lander fails, the second lander becomes the unmanned cargo lander, and the third lander delivers the surface team. If the crew lander ascent stage will not operate, the explorers can return to Mars orbit in the cargo lander ascent stage.

80 • Nuclear electric propulsion for propellant savings: Electric (ion) propulsion provides constant low-thrust acceleration while expending much less propellant per ton of spacecraft than chemical or nuclear-thermal propulsion. Less propellant means fewer rocket launches to place the ship and its propellant into low-Earth orbit (LEO). Three ships carry 120 tons of cesium propellant each; the two "B" ships each carry 190 tons. The extra propellant carried by the "B" ships is distributed evenly among the "A" ships before the expedition leaves Mars orbit to return to Earth. A nuclear reactor producing 115 megawatts of heat energy heats a working fluid that drives a turbine. The turbine must operate for nearly 2 years at 1450 degrees Kelvin - "a formidable problem," the authors note. The turbine drives a generator supplying 40 megawatts of electricity to two ion engines. To reject the 75 megawatts of heat it retains after leaving the turbine, the working fluid circulates through radiator panels with a total area of 4300 square meters. The ship moves through space with its radiators edge-on to the Sun. Radiator tubes can be individually closed off to prevent a micrometeoroid puncture from releasing all of the ship's working fluid into space. • The 50-ton radiation shelter in each ship's crew compartment is a 2.8-meter-diameter, 1.9-meter-high metal cylinder clad in graphite. Drinking water, propellant, oxygen cylinders, and equipment arranged around the shelter provide additional shielding. Each shelter holds a 3-person ship's complement comfortably and can protect the entire expedition in an emergency. • Artificial gravity: The ship spins 1.3 times per minute to produce one-tenth Earth gravity in the crew cabin. The reactor, located at the opposite end of the ship from the crew cabin, acts as counterweight. The ion engines, mounted on stalks at the ship's center of rotation, counter-rotate to remain pointing in one direction. In addition to aiding the crew, artificial gravity prevents gas pockets from forming in the working fluid. Solid rocket motors start, trim, and stop rotation."

(David S. Portree)

81 "Stuhlinger & King's revolving nuclear-electric Mars ship (Portree)"

In 1990, K. J. Hack, J. A. George, J. P. Riehl, and J. H. Gilland proposed a nuclear electric propulsion evolution program that would eventually end up as a piloted Mars craft using electric power. The electricity in their proposal is created by nuclear power. Portree describes the nuclear reactors as:

1. "Ion rockets use electricity to generate positive ions (that is, to knock an electron off an atom, giving it an electrical charge) and eject them at high speeds. In effect, the charge gives the atom a "handle" the ion thruster can "grip" electrostatically and use to "throw" it. According to the authors, current thrusters ionize inert gases such as xenon, krypton, and argon; other elements used as ion thruster propellant include mercury and cesium. 2. Magnetoplasmadynamic (MPD) rockets use electrodes to turn hydrogen into plasma (ionized gas) and eject it at high speeds. Theoretically any chemical element can serve as propellant. (David Portree)"

NEP thrusters must work for hundreds of days at a time in order to achieve the speeds necessary to travel to Mars, but only a small amount is used in hundreds of days, which will cut down on space crafts and the number of launches needed (Portree).

82 "Lewis nuclear-electric spacecraft. Right to left - nose-mounted nuclear reactor and turbine

system for generating electricity, fin-like radiators for disposing of waste heat, conical Mars

lander and cylindrical crew module, spherical propellant tanks, and aft-mounted electric

propulsion units" (Portree).

In 1999, Leon P. Gefert, Kurt J. Hack, and Thomas W. Kerslake proposed Solar-Electric Propulsion to cut down on the amount of spacecrafts that need to be launched. First, one would need five rockets capable of launching 80 metric tons into low Earth orbit. A Solar Electric Transfer Vehicle (SETV) is crucial to this design. It would weigh 123 tons and measure 194.6 meters across. This would contain 16 panels that constantly provided a low thrust by ionizing xenon, krypton-xenon, or krypton propellant. Since this propellant would be ion based, less would be required of it (Portree).

83 "After the Mars cargo ship separates from SETV (top right), the TMI stage ignites to push it out of HEEPO on a course toward Mars (Portree)."

As of June 13, 2000, NASA has a rocket design that they say could cut flight time in half. The engine uses magnetic fields to produce an enormous amount of thrust by guiding tremendously hot plasma out an engine nozzle. The shorter trip time would prevent the crew from spending prolonged periods of time in microgravity, which can cause health problems (Cowing).

84 Variable Specific Impulse Magnetoplasma Rocket Concept

LIQUID HYDROGEN RADIATIVE COOLING PANEL SUPERCONDUCTING ELECTROMAGNETS

PRIMARY GAS CONO E EXP.

∎uulD PARATOu muuiii

GAS PUECTION SYSTEU

FWO ENO CE -1 POWER CORO sumo,

HELICON ANTENNA ION CYCLOTRON RADIO FREQUENCY SECONDARY GAS ANTENNA SPRAY IMRE COMO MX.*

CENTRAL CELL POWER CONO,SUPPtY

AFT ENO POWER CORO/SUPPLY

RADIO L-RECIGE4CY ELECTRICAL POWER POWER CORO =0,ER SiPPLy EQUIP I

With all of these ideas that have evolved, several things jump out as being needed. The trip should last as short a time as possible. The longer the crew is in space, the more radiation protection is needed, which is more costly than propellant. An ion-based propellant is more ideal than a nuclear one, since less of it is used. Also the fewer spacecrafts used the better, since it will reduce mass and propellant needed to get into orbit. Although there is no one idea that is perfect with the rapid advance of technology, an ideal method of transporting humans to Mars is surely underway.

85 2.4.5 Radiation Hazards of Interplanetary Space Travel

Our home, the Earth, affords us a great deal of protection from the radiation that constantly bombards this planet. This radiation comes from two sources, the fuzz of background radiation that floods our galaxy, known as galactic cosmic rays (GCR), and from our sun, in the form of solar particle events (SPE). Both radiation levels are reduced to nothing within the protective bubble created by the Earth's magnetosphere. Each type of radiation presents a different danger to the interplanetary traveler. SPE's are most common during the period known as solar max in our sun's 10-12 year cycle. The danger from SPE's is that a small fraction of them may produce large doses of radiation over a fairly short period of time, which could result in radiation sickness if adequate shelter is not provided. Luckily, the particles that comprise solar flares have energies in the million-volt range. This means that a relatively small amount of shielding could provide adequate shelter to weather out a storm (Zubrin, "The Case for Mars", p. 117). Galactic cosmic radiation (GCR), on the other hand, is comprised of highly ionizing heavy ions, neutrons, and other particles with energies in the billion-volt range. The amount of GCR present in our solar system varies from year to year depending on where the sun is in its 10-12 year cycle. During the period known as solar max, the sun's magnetic field expands and shelters the inner planets from cosmic rays (Zubrin, "The Case for Mars" p. 118). Cosmic rays have the power to penetrate both shielding and tissue and are unlike any types of radiation we are exposed to in large doses on Earth. There are three major uncertainties in physical factors which scientists are studying to better understand this form of radiation: the composition and energy spectra of GCR, the physical process by which particles travel through cells and tissues, and knowledge of how much material surrounds each tissue site within the body (Cucinotta, Shimmerling, Wilson, Badhwar, Saganti, Dicello). It takes about a meter of shielding to stop GCR, which is a completely impractical amount for use in any mission to Mars planned for the near future. However, it has been shown that sometimes too little shielding can be worse that no shielding at all due to a high incidence of secondary particles and projectile fragmentation. Using materials with a low atomic mass, such as hydrogen and carbon, for shielding can reduce this risk. Low atomic mass materials also seem to be more effective per unit mass of material in both slowing down and stopping heavy ions (Cucinotta, Shimmerling, Wilson, Badhwar, Saganti, Dicello).

86 As heavy ion radiation does not naturally exist in terrestrial environments, we have very little data about what types of tissue damage it can cause at different exposure levels. Both the National Academy of Sciences and the National Council of Radiation Protection have recommended that the definition of exposure limits for interplanetary exploration be postponed until more information on the latent effects caused by heavy ion radiation is obtained. Biological uncertainties will continue to hinder the selection of shielding materials until we can understand the effects of the different primary and secondary particles involved. NASA approaches radiation exposure by determining what constitutes a "safe" and acceptable risk to its astronauts, but can this ever be taken too far? Does caution ever present an overwhelming roadblock standing in the way of progress? Robert Zubrin, author of "The Case for Mars," believes that NASA is spending an unnecessary amount of money on radiation research. He believes that the information in Appendix L is conclusive enough and that the risk is acceptable. Using his own "Mars Direct" plan, Zubrin explains his logic (Zubrin, "The Case for Mars" p. 114-121). Using the example of the three largest solar flares in recorded history (February 1956, November 1960, and August 1972), Zubrin explains that an astronaut living in his habitation module, where there is an average of 5 grams per square centimeter of mass spread around it's periphery to shield it's occupants, would have received a dose of about 38 rem during one of these storms. By looking at table 1, we see that such a dose would not have caused any immediate detrimental effects. If the astronaut had taken shelter in the pantry, where there is about 35 grams per square centimeter of shielding, the dose would have been reduced to 8 rem. It should be noted that there is still a probably of latent damage with either of these radiation doses (Shielding Strategies). Zubrin also explains why the long-term risks of his mission plan are acceptable, even with no shielding provided against galactic cosmic radiation. He states that the radiation dose that an astronaut could expect to receive during his mission would be around 52 rem (on a conjunction trajectory, with variation between 41 rem at solar max and 62 rem at solar min). This breaks down into 31.8 rem from cosmic rays in transit (using an average of 35 rem per year from the variation between 20 and 50 rem per year), 5.5 rem from solar flares in transit, 10.6 rem from cosmic rays on Mars (shielding is provided from below from the planet itself with additional shielding provided by the atmosphere), and 4.1 rem from solar flares on mars.

87 Using table 2, Zubrin states that astronauts would have a 0.905% chance of getting cancer within 30 years of the mission (50 rem dose during mission / 100 rem dose from the table *

1.81%) . Is NASA being over cautious or is Zubrin ignoring all the facts? NASA's radiation limits for past missions have been 25 rem per mission and 75 rem per year. According to Zubrin's numbers, his plan exceeds the radiation allowance for a single mission, but stays well below the allowance per year. If standards stay the same, this may be fine since the time for a mission to Mars far exceeds that of any other mission that has been undertaken. However, a mission to Mars would involve leaving Earth's magnetosphere for a long period of time, something that past missions that had to conform to this standard never did. Zubrin has also decided to treat all radiation the same way, even though some studies show that some types of particles seem to cause a faster growing, more malignant cancer than others. His plan does not call for any protection from GCR shielding or even take into consideration the secondary particles that may be caused from cosmic rays interacting with aluminum in the walls of the habitation module (most spacecraft today are built with aluminum). Is Zubrin correct in believing that the dose of radiation an astronaut would receive on an interplanetary flight to Mars is acceptable, or is NASA correct in saying that such a risk cannot yet be calculated with acceptable accuracy?

88 2.4.6 Dangers from Martian Dust Storms

Most people think of Mars as a dry, barren desert similar to the Moon, but with a little more gravity and atmosphere. However, unlike the Moon, any manned mission there will have to deal with the local weather. Winds on the surface can reach speed up to 60 mph, which is enough to cause huge dust storms that can, at times, engulf the entire planet. Large storms usually form during the summer months in the southern hemisphere. This is caused by the planet's slightly elliptical orbit that varies from 1.64AU to 1.36AU, a difference of 36 million miles. During the summer months, this causes the southern hemisphere to receive 40% more sunlight, increasing the temperature by 35°F. As the temperature rises, CO2 frozen in the soil is released, carrying some dust up along with it. Since the heating occurs on the surface, convection occurs causing winds to develop in the circulation of warm and cold air. As dust fills the atmosphere and absorbs sunlight, the temperature increases by a further 30-50°F. The storm is further amplified when sunlight heats the cloud during the day, then it cools off at night. This increases circulation and wind speed. As the wind speed increases, more dust is picked up, causing the cloud to absorb even more heat during the day. This process creates a positive feedback loop, strengthening the storm even more. The cycle finally ends when the planet moves far enough away from the sun to cool the planet back down. Water-ice clouds start forming around dust particles, causing them to freeze and fall to the ground. In his book, "The Case for Mars," Robert Zubrin states that dust storms are not a problem, especially for manned missions. Here is his solution to the problem: "If a solar panel becomes covered with dust the solution is simple; send someone outside with a broom." This may seem like a simple solution, but the problem is that dust may do more than just coat solar panels. The dust, which contains microscopic particles, could get into machinery and wreak havoc within sensitive electronic equipment. This could be a very serious problem for those who are entirely reliant on this equipment for survival. The dust could also cause problems by destroying delicate equipment from static buildup in the extremely dry atmosphere.

89 Although we have some idea of how the large, seasonal dust storms form, we do not fully understand what happens on the surface. We do not know the exact effect of Martian dust storms on equipment because the only real surface data we have is from the touchdown locations of probes we sent. More data will be required before a manned mission can be sent to Mars. Currently an equipment malfunction only means a loss of money and data. However, if humans are depending on that equipment for their survival, more than just money and data could be at stake.

90 2.4.7 The Existence of Water on Mars

The presence of water on Mars is a crucial factor in the success of future manned missions. Despite the large number of probes sent to the planet, from the Viking landers in the 1970s to the Odyssey spacecraft which surveyed the planet in 2001, it is still unclear how much water is present on Mars, if any.

Humanity has speculated about the presence of water on Mars since 1877, when an Italian astronomer named Giovanni Schiaparelli discovered "canals" on the surface of Mars. American astronomer Percival Lowell speculated that Martians used these for irrigation. These speculations may have inspired H. G. Wells' 1898 novel War of the Worlds, which portrayed an invasion of Earth by technologically superior Martians desperate for water. In the early 1900s novelist Edgar Rice Burroughs, known for the Tarzan series, also entertained young readers with tales of adventures among the exotic inhabitants of Mars, which he called Barsoom.

Fact began to replace fiction in the 1960s when the first space probes to fly by Mars sent back images of a barren planet. The Viking landers, which reached Mars in 1975, sent back the first images and data from the surface of the planet. The Viking missions revealed further details of volcanoes, lava plains, huge canyons, and the effects of wind and water. Trace amounts of water vapor were measured in the atmosphere; these results were confirmed by the 1996 Mars Pathfinder mission.

The Odyssey spacecraft, which used its gamma ray (neutron) spectrometer to do a preliminary scan of the Martian surface in 2001, found large concentrations of hydrogen on the planet's surface. These concentrations, say Bill Feldman of Los Alamos National Laboratory, indicate that a large amount of water may be present on Mars. If water does exist on Mars, it is in vapor form, or frozen ice just below the surface. In June 2000, the Mars Orbital Camera, part of the Mars Global Surveyor, observed crater walls where liquid water, presumably melted by the heat of an impact, seeped out of the crater walls and ran down its sides. These gullies may have been created as long as 2 billion years ago. More recent data shows much newer signs of water, as little as 10 million years ago. Signs of a "deluge, the equivalent of one and a

91 quarter times the water found in Lake Erie" were found in the Cerberus Plains region near Mars' equator. These formations appear to be geothermal in nature, suggesting that water may exist deep below the surface of Mars, where temperatures and pressures are high enough to sustain it in a liquid state (NASA JPL). Future missions may focus on these formations to determine whether water currently exists on Mars. So far, most of the data obtained have been from orbital spacecraft. It will be necessary to send robotic probes to the surface to analyze these fissures so that their age and composition may be determined. Subterranean probes will also be necessary to determine if water exists below the surface of the planet, and if it does, where.

92 2.5 Biological Considerations for Colonization

2.5.1 Physical Effects of Reduced Gravity

If life were to ever exist on Mars, many different and interesting things would occur due to the different conditions found there compared to those upon Earth. Mars has significantly lower gravity than Earth, lower pressure and lower temperatures. These differences could potentially cause problems for colonizing the planet. In order to make long- term human colonization of Mars possible, methods of acclimating the human body to a Martian environment must be developed. Although Mars is not free of gravity, its gravity is only about 38% that found on Earth (Davis). Although the effects of microgravity on the body will not be exactly the same as the effects of low gravity on Mars, living on Mars should give a human being similar effects, even though it is not to such an extreme. The force exerted on the body when it meets the ground is what keeps muscles and bones in the lower body strong. If muscles and bones aren't used, they become significantly weaker, a problem encountered by astronauts during space flight, particularly by astronauts who do not exercise vigorously in space. "Maintaining muscles and bones during long duration space flight is primarily a biomechanical problem," said Robert Whalen, head of the Musculoskeletal Biomechanics Laboratory in the Gravitational Research Branch at Ames. "With current in-flight exercise devices, it is difficult to achieve force levels equivalent to levels achieved during normal daily activity on Earth. We are investigating new ways to counteract these changes with devices capable of imposing Earth-equivalent levels of force on the body in space" (ASGSB).

EYES BECOME MAIN WAY TO SENSE MOTION OTOLITHS IN INNER EAR RESPOND DIFFERENTLY TO MOTION FLUID REDISTRIBUTION CAUSES HEAD CONGESTION • CHANGED SENSORY AND PUFFY FACE INPUT CONFUSES BRAIN, CAUSING occasional DISORIENTATION

HKIHER RAD1A 710N DOSES MAY INCREASE LOSS OF BLOOD PLASMA CANCER RtSK CREATES TEMPORARY ANEMIA ON RETURN TO EARTH

WEIGHT-BEARING BONES AND MUSCLES DETERIORATE KIDNEY FILTRATION RATE INCREASES: BONE LOSS MAY CAUSE KIDNEY STONES

FLUID REINS TR:MUM.. SHRINKS LEAS

TOUCH AND PRESSURE SENSORS REGISTER NO DOWNWARD FORCE Image: Daniels & Daniels (Scientific American)

On Earth, gravity assists many bodily functions, such as circulation and digestion. The heart and blood vessels do not have to pump blood to the legs, because gravity helps blood travel down the large arteries to these lower extremities. In space, there is no gravity to draw blood downwards. The result is that astronauts experience poor circulation in their legs and feet, and increased blood pressure in the upper chest, neck, and head. Their faces take on a puffy appearance, and symptoms such as nasal congestion and headaches are common. More severe effects include dizziness, nausea, gastrointestinal distress, malaise, and fatigue. The onset of these more severe symptoms is known as space adaptation syndrome, or space motion sickness (SMS). These effects occur in approximately 40-50% of astronauts. However, the effects of SMS typically subside within a few days, as the body purges the extra fluids. This, in turn, results in a lower volume of plasma and red blood cells in the bloodstream. This decrease in blood volume is called space anemia, and can cause health problems upon the astronaut's return to Earth. Although some symptoms can be severe, SMS poses a short-term

94 risk to astronauts' health. In addition, there are more serious long-term effects of exposure to microgravity. As it does not have to support the body's weight, the spine becomes elongated and straightens out. The muscles and ligaments of the back become relaxed and atrophied, and astronauts often complain of backaches (Mars Academy). Another effect of low gravity that is a big concern is bone loss. Bones in space atrophy at a rate of about 1% a month. Some immediate effects are back pains and vertigo (Miller). However, there are others that can take time to recognize and diagnose. Loss of bone mass seems to be caused by a lack of stress on the bones which slows down the formation of osteoblast cells, which build bones. If low gravity causes bone loss and inhibits the growth of new bone mass, this is a concern to anyone considering going to space. Also, this causes more calcium to flow in the bloodstream, which can increase the risk of kidney stones (Hullander, Barry). Muscle atrophy is another problem. Gravity tells muscles how hard they have to work, and thus muscles atrophy quickly in zero gravity. Astronauts can counter these effects with nutritional supplements and exercise, but humans on extended space missions can still suffer as much as a 1.5% decrease in bone density per month. Since a trip to Mars would take 2 to 3 years, this level of bone loss would be unacceptable (Mars Academy). The heart is included in the list of muscles that can atrophy. On Earth, blood pools at the feet, and the blood pressure is higher there (200 mmHg) and in the brain it is 60-80 mmHg. When there is no gravity, the blood pressure equalizes to about 100 mmHg throughout the whole body. This causes puffiness in the face, and thinning in the legs. However, this is a signal to the brain and body that there is too much blood in the system, and within two or three days of weightlessness the body can lose up to 22% of its blood volume. With less blood, the heart doesn't have to work as hard, causing it to atrophy. (Miller).

95 I mmed i atel y On ground Initial _tare After adapted

to miorogra)Jity. after return in spa:e trcm spaop

"The Bone"(Vol. 11 No.2 1997.6) Medical View Co., Ltd. (Space Medicine)

Some other concerns that are not fully researched are coming into light as well. The calcium crystals that form in the inner ear that determine what is up and what is down form differently in space. Bodies that are developing in space are more sensitive to zero or low gravity than adult bodies. There may be a key moment where gravity needs to be present for the inner ear and connections to develop normally (ASGSB). One solution to the problem of adaptation to microgravity is to generate artificial gravity on the spacecraft. The only way to approach this problem with current technology is to create a spacecraft which rotates, like a centrifuge, with astronauts living on the inside surface. Extensive tests were conducted at the U.S. Naval School of Aviation Medicine in the 1960s to determine the effects of centripetal acceleration on human subjects. These subjects lived on a rotating platform for a period of several weeks, rotating at various speeds. It was concluded that a speed of 2 RPM has negligible effects, while 6 RPM caused nearly all subjects to exhibit signs of motion sickness. So, a rotational speed of 2 RPM would be acceptable for a spacecraft. Using the formula for centripetal acceleration, a=w^2*R, where a = acceleration, w = rotation speed in radians per second, and R = rotation radius, we find that to get an acceleration of 1 G (9.8 m/s/s) at 2 RPM (0.21 rad/s), the spacecraft must have a radius of 223 m. An advantage of this approach is that the angular speed of the ship could be gradually reduced during the trip to Mars, allowing the astronauts to prepare themselves for the lower Martian gravity. A baby born in space (that is to state that the fetus was developed on Earth) would grow differently than a child would on Earth. The child would not have gravity as a stress on its

96 body. Their bones would be much weaker, as would its heart. If a baby were to be born in space, it is likely that it would not be able to ever travel to Earth due to its physiological differences (Currier). This is something that needs to be explored further prior to colonization. Perhaps humans would evolve differently on Mars to adapt to their environment, according to Darwin's theory of natural selection, in which case there would be two different species of human beings. "Natural selection says that the organisms best equipped to cope with their environments are those most likely to survive and produce the most successful progeny... The different conditions present on different planets will lead extraterrestrial life down different evolutionary pathways, so to speak. But while life elsewhere in the universe is probably drastically and even unrecognizably different from life on Earth, the same concepts and mechanisms that direct evolution, such as natural selection, will apply. On Earth and beyond, it is a matter of the survival of the fittest" (Astrobiology). The Martian year is almost twice as long as that of Earth, and the gravity on Mars is about one-third that of Earth (McKay). The atmospheric pressure of Mars varies from 7.4 to 10 mbar. Pressure this low can affect how DNA is repaired and can damage organisms. The temperature on Mars varies from 170K to 268K. This temperature causes several problems for organisms trying to survive on Mars. "First, the temperatures would completely freeze any organism and depending on the freezing process would cause cellular damage through the formation of ice crystals. Second, such low temperatures would raise the activation energy for enzyme catalyzed processes and thus inhibit biochemical/metabolic reactions. Third, biochemical reactions occur in solution and the transport of metabolites would not occur efficiently in a ice crystals" (Hiscox). The amount of energy needed to defrost Mars is the equivalent of ten years of Martian sunlight (five megajoules per square centimeter of planetary surface) (McKay). The liquid water found on Mars is unstable due to the atmosphere. Since water is necessary for life, this would cause dehydration and all the effects that come along with it, which could include death (Hiscox).

97 2.5.2 Physical Effects of Radiation

The radiation on Mars is ultraviolet and is between the wavelengths of 190 and 300nm. It is absorbed by DNA and can inhibit replication of DNA. Since there is no ozone layer, organisms would have to live in protected environments. Due to the radiation levels, there are no organic materials on the surface of Mars. Also, because of this the highest layer of regolith is thought to have strong oxidants, which are damaging to components of cells. Since the major component of the atmosphere is carbon dioxide it will cause a low intracellular pH, which is damaging to cells and metabolism (Hiscox).

Table 1. Mars-atmospheric composition and partial pressure of the most abundant gases. (Data from Fogg 1995c, Hiscox 1995 and references therein).

Species Abundance by Volume Partial Pressure

CO2 0.9532 7 mbar

N2 0.027 0.2 mbar

Ar 0.016 minor

02 0.0013 minor

CO 0.0007 minor

H2O 0.0003 minor

Ne 2.5 ppm very minor

Kr 0.3 ppm very minor

Xe 0.8 ppm very minor

03 0.04 to 0.2 ppm extremely minor

(Hiscox http://spot.colorado.edut-marscase/cfm/articlesibiorev3.htm)

98 The Essential Ingredients for Life on Mars Water Carbon dioxide Nitrogen surface !ocean surface pressure pressure depth* (atmospheres) (atmospheres) (meters)

Amount needed for plant and 2 0.01 500 microbe habitability

Amount needed for breathable 0.2 0.3 500 atmosphere

Amount in the present Mars 0.01 0.00027 0.000001 atmosphere

Range of estimates for amount on Mars 0.1-20 0.002-0.3 6-1,000 at planet's formation

*Amount of water is measured in terms of the depth of an ocean i covering the entire surface of Mars.

Christopher McKay

(McKay http://www.sciam.com/1999/0399space/0399mckay.html)

99 2.5.3 Mental Health

The rigors of space travel pose a threat to the mental as well as physiological health of astronauts. One of these threats is the possibility that someone could suffer from cabin fever and begin to lose their sanity. General Yuri Glaskov, a first deputy at the Gagarin Training Center, said, "When the crew is three people or more that becomes even more difficult. Every person has his own personality. We even noticed that a certain thing happens when two people unite against the third one... [Furthermore,] we have to bear in mind [that] we're people of the same country ... the same cultural background ... [the] former Soviet Union..." (NASA.gov). Wernher Von Braun discussed the psychological problems of a long Mars voyage: "at the end of a few months . . . someone is likely to go berserk. Little mannerisms - the way a man cracks his knuckles, blows his nose, the way he grins, talks or gestures - create tension and hatred which could lead to murder . . . [i]f somebody does crack, you can't call off the expedition and return to Earth. You'll have to take him with you." He proposed censoring radio communication to avoid telling the crew about bad news. This can prevent the crew from hearing about something happening on Earth that would make them go insane. Peter Suedfeld of British Columbia said, "When something bad happens at home, a few decades ago, you wouldn't have heard about it. Now you hear almost immediately, but in many cases there's nothing you can do to help. It just makes the voyager feel anxious, sad, frustrated and inadequate" (Tenebaum). Another factor is boredom. Explorer Frederick Cook, who was stuck on a ship off of the coast of Antarctica, wrote in his journal in 1898, "We are as tired of each other's company as we are of the cold monotony of the black night and of the unpalatable sameness of our food. Physically, mentally, and perhaps morally, then, we are depressed, and from my past experience I know that this depression will increase" (Weed). The people who travel to Mars will be in a confined area with a consistent group of people. Their best stories are told early on, which will leave nothing for them to speak about later (Tenebaum). A lack of new experiences to share will greatly affect the dynamics of the group. David Tenebaum of the Why Files gives a list of measures that can be taken to prevent boredom that includes: stages operas, plays, sporting events, surprise packages during re-supply, or even hiding the

100 packages and bringing them out at different intervals, redecorating, and other ideas that seem small, but to these astronauts who are extremely bored could make a big difference in their lives. Insomnia also poses a serious threat to astronauts. High stress and physical discomfort lead to difficulty in sleeping, which in turn can cause more serious problems such as fatigue and decreased concentration. Valentin Lebedev wrote a book titled "Diary of a Cosmonaut: 211 Days in Space." In his book he describes the oath he took before leaving:

I will always remember:

1. In any difficult situation that may occur on board, I must follow my head, not my heart. 2. I won't speak or act hastily. 3. If Tolia (the other cosmonaut) is in the wrong, I will find it in myself to hold out my hand to him; if I'm in the wrong, I will be strong enough to admit it. 4. I will remember that my crewmate also deserves respect because of his hard work. He has a good family, friends, and people who believe in him. 5. In any circumstance I will keep my self-control; I will not speak or act harshly. 6. The success of the mission depends on us, and only by the work we both do will they judge me as a cosmonaut and as a man. 7. I believe that I am a strong-willed, intelligent person and can properly complete this mission - I've come a long way to get here. (Lebedev)

In addition to this oath, psychological tests are done to determine which team will work best together. For example, the Russians place teams together whose personalities complement each other, rather than placing two people of similar personalities (Graham). Also, psychological tests are done to determine how people react to different situations and crises, and to see if they are predisposed to an emotional disorder under these situations (stemnet.nf.ca ). With all of these tests in place, it is still impossible to prevent problems among crewmembers, but hopefully these problems will be minimal and not terribly damaging to the

101 mission or to anyone involved. Separation from friends of family and the high-pressure environment can cause anxiety and depression. Lack of privacy can also create problems, since privacy is essential to one's sense of identity. Conversely, prolonged isolation can lead to a decline in motivation. Astronauts most often occupy themselves with time-marking games such as solitaire rather than engaging in creative endeavors. Provided that humans can provide for all of our needs on Mars and that we can successfully live there, several new aspects to living on Mars would be introduced. Genetic engineering could make plants ready to live on Mars, by making them able to live in atmospheres with high carbon dioxide content. Once these plants are living on Mars, worms and insects could evolve that would be able to live in such high carbon dioxide environments.

102 2.6 Making Mars Fit for Human Habitation

Upon initial landing on the planet Mars with a group of colonists, a semi-permanent structure will need to be available for use in protecting said colonists from the harsh environment unsuitable for sustaining human life. Although attempts to model such a project upon Earth have been met with limited success, there are a number of viable options for means of habitation upon the planet Mars. The possibility of terraforming Mars over many decades and even centuries would provide an encouraging environment in the future where colonists could walk upon the surface without space suits and potentially without oxygen tanks, thus giving them broader range over where they can live and travel. Following an alteration of the atmosphere, suitable plant and even animal life could be introduced to the planet in order to help provide it with a more human-friendly environment.

103 2.6.1 Considerations for Shelter Upon Mars

Once we reach Mars, we will need some form of habitation to protect us from the planet's harsh environment. On Earth, numerous attempts have been made to enclose humans in primarily self-sufficient environments to varying success. The Biosphere project and bases set up in Antarctica provide two good examples. A variety of proposals have been set forth for potential habitation on Mars, varying from using spacecraft or local materials to construct the shelter, placing the base above or below ground, and using solid materials or expansive ones. Although the conditions at Antarctica are less extreme than those found on Mars, many believe that the same principles that have gone into designing stations at the pole can be later applied to designing habitation for Mars. The recent rebuilding of the South Pole station in Antarctica involves outfitting a 80,000 square foot structure with the ability to raise itself up on hydraulic lifts, is covered in complex solar paneling, and has telescopes which can look into space and which won't freeze at temperatures reaching minus 120 degrees Fahrenheit. It is hoped that this new station will have a longer life span than its predecessor, since its raised position is designed to redirect winds to blow under the structure rather than against it. As the level of snow increases, the structure has the capability to raise itself higher in order to provide more clearance. Currently, tractors must be used to dig out the station to be certain that snowdrifts don't block the entrance. Although there is not much snow on Mars, it does have sand storms, which might provide similar difficulties. In addition, despite the snow, Antarctica models a desert as it receives less than four inches of precipitation each year. (ABC News) In the late 1980s, a giant enclosure known as the Biosphere 2 was built the foothills of Arizona's Santa Catalina for approximately $200 million for use as a sealed replica of Earth's environment (known as Biosphere 1). This 7,200,000 cubic-foot structure made primarily of sealed glass contained a total of five biomes, including a 900,000 gallon ocean, a rain forest, a desert, some agricultural areas, and a habitat suited for humans spread over 250 acres of what was solely desert land. As many of the early managers and designers of the project were interested in the possibility of colonization upon Mars or the Moon, they sought to seal people inside to learn of the problems that would arise from living in such a closed system. With this in mind, in late 1991 a group of eight people set about to live within Biosphere 2 for two years.

104 The first crew of people sent inside Biosphere 2 consisted of four men and four women. These individuals remained in the enclosure for a full two years, despite a number of problems, the most substantial of which was limited agricultural productivity. Six months after the first crew left, a second crew comprised of five men and two women entered Biosphere 2. The project was suspended in about a year after a number of physical and social problems arose. One of the major problems found therein was an exotic species of ant named Paratrechina longicomus that somehow managed to kill off all the other ants over the years, as well as the crickets and grasshoppers. In 1996, Columbia University took control of the facilities and turned them into research and educational centers, with no plans for future human habitation. (Biosphere 2 Center) (Access Excellence) Many differing structures have been proposed for the planned initial habitation of the planet Mars. One plan calls for the use of natural resources found upon the surface of the planet in conjunction with very lightweight material brought from Earth in order to allow for a larger habitat. Another suggestion involves construction of a cylindrical habitation module with a view from each level to improve spatial depth in the environment, and to appease colonists. Proposals involving inflatable habitats which would include space for research, medical, and work areas have also been presented, as they would be easily transported and constructed, minimizing the risk to colonists by the harsh environment. (Space Daily) If the habitation were to be designed in a hemispherical shape so as to best hold in the pressurized atmosphere, any large habitations would have to be very tall. As this could pose difficulties in both construction and functioning, it has been proposed that numerous smaller hemispheres be set up upon the surface. Not only would these be easier to construct, but also should one of the hemispheres become damaged, colonists could escape to the remaining ones. (NASA Human Spaceflight) Others have suggested that the first building material on Mars will be brick, which should be easy to make from the Martian soil. This brick could be used to build a barrel-vault, as such structures have lasted over 2,000 years on Earth. A barrel-vault would involve building a square of lines of vaults before constructing a dome to stretch across the structure and pressurizing it. (Nags Head Dolphin Watch) Another idea for habitation upon Mars involves the usage of lava tubes. Lava tubes are caves formed by the flow of lava, a stream of molten rock flowing from an eruption source, either a volcano or a fissure. As this flow progresses, its tops and sides solidify. If the lava

105 source is cut out, a hollow tube of rock is left behind. Many of the lava flows that have been located upon Mars have the same characteristics as those found upon Earth, including lava tubes. The primary difference between the two is their size. Martian tubes are many times larger than those found upon Earth. It would be feasible to build a colony in one of these Martian lava tubes, as it would be airtight and would offer excellent radiation shielding. In addition, it is quite possible that frozen water could be formed at the ends of these tubes, providing a key resource for the colony. The Mars Global Surveyor has found many lava tubes and indications of lava tubes all throughout the planet. As an added bonus, certain lava tubes have large holes, classified as hornitos, which are breaches in the solid roofs of an active lava flow, which results in lava spattering out of the holes. The lava builds up a cone around the opening and can result in a chimney of sorts to the main tube once the lava flow gives out. A hornito habitat could present us with a sheltered habitation, which would include a natural light source and would only require short excavation times. (Martian Journal) The suggested model for setting up habitation in lava tubes first involves finding likely tubes from orbit. A series of pits that would suggest hornitos set along a linear pattern would strongly suggest the location of a suitable lava tube. Upon detection, an initial ground search to determine the suitability of the tubes would be required. After the best choice has been found, a deflated balloon made of a tough, insulated material should be set in place with a translucent section set before the holes to allow sunlight through. Compressed air supplied by the spacecraft would be needed to inflate it. After the balloon is inflated, an airlock would be needed, as well as interior walls. Communications antenna and solar power collectors would need to be set up on the surface with cables running between them and the tubes. (Martian Journal) One of the benefits to using the lava tube system would be a very short setup time, potentially not much more than a day using compressed air. Another would be an excellent natural radiation shield with the potential for water stores in its depths. If need be, the balloon could be deflated and moved to another tube in a reasonable amount of time. One of the drawbacks to this system is that it is very location specific. In addition, the hornitos might not be able to provide enough light for the colony. (Martian Journal)

106 Many varying proposals have been set forth for the planned habitation of Mars. They widely vary, and the best choice may have to wait for more exploration of the planet, although the lava tube plan would appear to be the quickest proper solution if available. Models set up on Earth have not met with long term success, suggesting that more testing might be needed before people were sent to live on Mars for extended periods of time.

107 2.6.2 Terraforming Mars

It is believed that Mars once contained a climate that was both wet and warm due to a greenhouse effect caused by a thick carbon dioxide (CO2) atmosphere. This climate disappeared when the carbon dioxide became fixed into the form of carbonate rock. This rock, combined with frozen concentrates at the South Pole, is believed to still contain enough carbon dioxide to form an atmosphere of 300 to 600 mbar, enough to bring Mars back to a climate mirroring its previous state. In order to trigger a process that will pull the carbon dioxide out of the land, significant warming must be induced by an outside force. One method to begin the warming of Mars would involve stationing orbital mirrors so as to vaporize the carbon dioxide at the south polar cap. Another method would employ sending large asteroids consisting of ammonia (NH3) directly into the planet itself, thus providing the needed greenhouse gases. A third tactic calls for producing halocarbons upon the planet itself and sending them into the atmosphere. Should one or a mixture of these methods prove successful, the estimated 55 Kelvin increase needed to restore the planet to a habitable state could be attained. (McKay and Zubrin) While Mars is currently inhabitable, it does likely contain water, carbon, nitrogen, and oxygen (in carbon dioxide) - the basic elements needed to support life. Its gravity, axial tilt, rotational rate, and distance from the Sun are all near enough Earth values to be made habitable. Although Mars currently has a carbon dioxide atmosphere of one percent that of Earth's at sea level, it is believed that enough carbon dioxide can be released from the planet's surface to allow it to reach thirty percent of Earth's atmosphere. (McKay and Zubrin) It has been proposed that an estimation of mean temperature on the surface of Mars due to carbon dioxide atmospheric pressure and the solar constant is: Tmean=S0.25TBB+20(1+5)P0.5

where Tmean is the mean planetary temperature expressed in Kelvin, S is the solar constant known today to equal 1, TBB represents the current black body temperature of Mars in Kelvin (213.5K), and the carbon dioxide atmospheric pressure P is expressed in units of bar. As the black body temperature and the solar constant are for the most part fixed, mean temperature of the planet is a direct function of carbon dioxide atmospheric pressure, and thus

108 concentration of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere. Should the concentration of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere increase, the mean temperature of the planet would also rise. (McKay and Zubrin) The temperature at the south pole of Mars is expressed as:

Tpole=Tmean-DT/(1 +5P)

Where DT is the approximate temperature difference between the mean value and the pole if there were no atmosphere present. This value would equal 75 K for a solar constant of one. This equation indicates that should the mean temperature of the planet increase, the temperatures at the poles would increase as well. (McKay and Zubrin) Just as the temperature of the planet is dependent upon carbon dioxide pressure, it in turn is dependent upon the temperature of the planet. For as long as carbon dioxide remains at the polar cap, the following represents the vapor pressure of carbon dioxide:

P = 1.23 x 107{exp(-3168/Tpole)}

Should the cap be exhausted of its stores, carbon dioxide vapor pressure will become dependent upon the following:

P={CMaexp(TfTd)}1/g

Where Ma is the amount of gas absorbed in unit bar, g=0.275, C is a constant based upon known Martian values, and Td is the characteristic energy required for the release of gas into the soil, a value which cannot yet be determined without more data on the planet, but which likely holds a value between 10 and 60 K. These two equations demonstrate the self- propagating process wherein an increase in planetary temperature will lead to a release of carbon dioxide, which in turn warms the planet, which releases even more carbon dioxide. (McKay and Zubrin) According to data performed using the previously listed equations, a temperature increase of 4 K upon the planet would lead to a self-perpetuating greenhouse effect which

109 would result in an elimination of the polar cap, thus releasing carbon dioxide. Under the assumption of a Td value of 20, polar reserves of 100 mb, and soil reserves of 394 mb, it has been equated that an atmosphere with a total pressure of 300 mbar by the time of a stabilization of this process. If Td values of either 25 or 30 were assumed, the eventual atmospheric estimates would be only 31 mbar and 16 mbar, respectively. However, if artificial greenhouse methods could later be used to maintain the planet's temperature at 10 K above that produced by the emitted carbon dioxide gas itself, a resulting atmosphere of several hundred mbar will evolve. Even were Td to have a value as high as 40, a sustained increase of 20 K above conditions created by the gas would produce a reasonable atmosphere. (McKay and Zubrin) Should large portions of the planet rise above water's freezing point for at least a portion of the year, considerable amounts of water currently frozen within the soil would melt and flow into the currently dry riverbeds. Water vapor would then naturally form, which would further increase the rate at which the temperature of the planet would rise. (McKay and Zubrin) One of the proposed methods for inducing the 4 K increase would involve aligning orbital mirrors to direct additional solar energy to the planet. A mirror capable of performing a 5 K increase in the southern polar region of Mars would require an estimated radius of 125 km. Were this mirror to be made of aluminum, it would have a mass of 200,000 tonnes. This is far too heavy to launch from Earth, but could feasibly be constructed from material gathered from asteroids or Martian moons. Current generators considered for modern spacecraft would be sufficient to power such mirrors. This would be everything needed to begin the greenhouse cycle if the value of Td were under 20. If not, it would need to be supplemented by the production of greenhouse gases upon the planet itself. (McKay and Zubrin) Another method of gaining the required temperature raise would involve crashing large asteroids comprised mainly of ammonia into the planet, and thus releasing this powerful greenhouse gas into the realm. Due to the specifics of orbital mechanics, it would be easier to pull asteroids from the outer system rather than from the Main Belt. It is, however, unknown how many large-scale asteroids are to be found in this region, and the compositions of any such asteroids would also be unknown. Given average estimated asteroidal diameters of 2.6 km, yearly collisions for about fifty years would yield a temperate climate and enough water to cover one fourth of the planet 1 m deep. With a Td value of greater than 20, a steady

110 greenhouse effect would need to be implemented as an ammonia molecule would only have an expected lifetime of 100 years. This would require bringing in more asteroids, though at a slower rate. However, as such asteroids would yield an energy comparable to 70,000 1 megaton hydrogen bombs, this would be inadvisable should humans seek to live there. It has been theorized that the importation of bacteria that would metabolize nitrogen and water to produce ammonia, and thus replace the lost concentrations, could be substituted for long-term needs. (McKay and Zubrin) Another method for increasing Mars' temperature would be to produce halocarbons (CFC's) upon the planet itself. Although such an operation is estimated to cost several hundred billion dollars and require several thousand humans to support, it would allow for the transformation of the planet to a warm and slightly moist state in several decades. The air present would not be breathable by humans, but it would allow for them to travel outdoors without a space suit. Simple breathing gear could make up for the lack of oxygen in the atmosphere. With such levels of carbon dioxide in place, a multitude of plants could grow, spread, and produce oxygen on their own, provided that the lost carbon dioxide could be replaced or that a proper substitute could be found. (McKay and Zubrin)

111 2.6.3 Suitable Plant Life for a Terraformed Mars

If humans seek to terraform the planet Mars, they will need to bring with them a variety of life forms in order to create an ecosphere conducive to continuing life for all species involved. During the initial phases, very little carbon dioxide will be available upon the planet, and thus particular plants would need to be selected or engineered in order to fit this situation. Extreme conditions upon Earth can be used to simulate the conditions upon Mars and thus lend insight into what strategies would be most likely to thrive upon the planet. In addition, genetically engineered plants can be of great use in collecting data upon Mars before it is terraformed once sent there. Our best estimates as to the conditions upon Mars can be made from areas of Earth that most resemble them. It has been suggested that the dry valleys of Antarctica would best serve this purpose, and that the simple microbial ecosystems that can be found under the surface of sandstones in these valleys could serve as the first of their kind upon Mars. Studies have indicated that numerous insects can survive at pressures as low as 20 times less than the sea level pressure found on Earth. Although Mars today has pressures 120 times less, after some amount of terraforming, conditions could be suitable to introduce plants and insects together as part of one system. As trees produce considerably more biomass and emit much more oxygen than microbial ecosystems, it is also beneficial to determine the bare conditions in which they could be introduced. It has been suggested that the conditions that determine the treeline on tropical mountains would be the best indicators of this information. The highest treeline in the world, which occurs on Pico de Orizaba in Mexico, is under current study. (MIT) There are numerous proposed criteria regarding desirable traits for plants to be grown upon Mars. Plants that spread quickly and stabilize the soil surface will both allow for more immediate results and will provide protection for species with longer life spans. Certain grasses and traditional weeds are most likely to fit into this category. Ideally, an attempt should be made to create vegetation systems that mimic nature, meaning that species which are known to thrive together upon Earth should be more likely to do the same upon Mars. Those that are nitrogen fixing and introduce nitrogen into the system would be greatly beneficial for long term growth plans, as current usable quantities upon Mars are of

112 questionable amount. (Agriculture Western Australia) An ideal plant for initial use would have short stalks to save room in man-made greenhouses, would be primarily edible, would need little light to grow, and would be resistant to microbial diseases. Research is underway to choose varieties of wheat, rice, lettuce, potatoes, and other plants that meet these demands. Plants that could be engineered to secrete chemicals that protect them from the increased radiation found on planets with thin atmospheres would be valuable. It has also been suggested that adding nanotech devices into plant cells could lead to more direct routes for transferring light to vital areas within a plant. Some plants on Earth have been found to adapt well to low oxygen environments by changing their metabolism to generate energy anaerobically. This is not their ideal route, but it is functional. This sort of adaptation would be necessary for growth upon Mars. (Science @ NASA) At the University of Florida, progress is underway in a plan to bioengineer small mustard plants to add genes that will report messages back to Earth regarding their condition once placed upon Mars. These genes are part plant, part glowing jellyfish, and can be altered to glow with a light green aura upon encountering difficulties. Alterations could be made to report back low oxygen levels, low water, or an undesirable mix of nutrients in their soil. Thriving plants wouldn't glow in any way. They would look like normal mustard. However, plants struggling to survive would emit a soft green light, a signal to researchers that something is amiss. Cameras placed onboard the lander would record any glowing and then relay the signal back to Earth, and would not need any direct human maintenance. Techniques such as these will be required to gather the necessary data on chemical and environmental conditions before final decisions can be made regarding which plants we should attempt to grow there. (Science @ NASA) Even before plants and insects will be able to inhabit Mars, certain species of bacteria will be able to live there, thus providing us with further information on the entire process. Three types of bacteria have been suggested as suitable candidates. Chroococcidiopsis sp is capable of surviving in a number of conditions, including those involving exceptional aridity, salinity, and both high and low temperature extremes. It is often found in desert-like areas where it hides under translucent rocks in order to shield UV rays and trap moisture. Matteia sp can dissolve and bore through carbonate rock and has the ability to fix nitrogen when no nitrogen compounds are available. It is thought that this bacterium could assist in the release

113 of carbon dioxide throughout the planet. Deinococcus radiodurans has exceptional resistance to UV and ionizing radiation, due to its DNA repair mechanisms, carotenoid pigments, and a multilayered cell wall. Study of this species is thought to lead to an understanding of how to protect later life on Mars from solar radiation before the atmospheric shielding is in place. (The Terraforming Information Pages) Given an adequate amount of research and modeling, it seems reasonable that the proliferation of plant life upon Mars could begin during some of the more early stages of terraforming. As simple plants were to begin to thrive, conditions in the atmosphere and in the soil would improve the likelihood that more advanced plants could then be successfully introduced. As most plants respond to increased carbon dioxide levels by producing more fruit, seeds, stems, leaves, roots, etc., the process would only get easier as it progresses. (Smithsonian Environmental Research Center)

114 Conclusion and Recommendations

After analysing the prospects of colonizing space in great detail, it is the opinion of the authors that humankind is not ready for such a task at this time or at any time in the near future. A long term, detailed plan needs to be put into place if we wish to safely and effectively colonize outer space. However, if the proper preparations are carried out during that time interval, such a plan should show significant progress within a few decades. In general, there are four separate steps involved in colonizing outer space. The first step encompasses research performed upon Earth, upon the space stations that we currently have in operation, and upon the desired colonization locale (in this case Mars) by probes and non-manned survey equipment. This phase is currently underway and is far from completion. The second step is to follow through with manned exploration and research upon the planet Mars itself. Only after the previous two steps are completed would we be ready for the third, which would be the beginning of limited colonization of Mars. Finally, there would need to be preparations in place to ensure the long-term success of the colony and its future improvement and expansion. Of our current options for colonizing space, Mars presents the best location when one considers the feasibility of the proposal and the potential prosperity of the colony over a long period of time. As humans have evolved to live in an environment containing a certain amount of gravity and tend to have negative biological responses to drastically different levels, it would be wise to vary one's exposure to these different levels as little as possible. Although space stations, asteroids, the Moon, and Mars all have considerably less gravity than the Earth, Mars is the closest of the four with one third of Earth's gravity compared to one sixth on the Moon and effectively no gravity on the others (although space stations could theoretically simulate the gravitational effects of a planet, they could do so only with great difficulty). Although asteroids and Mars have not been surveyed extensively to date, it is believed that both potentially have many metals and minerals of use to a potential settlement. The Moon is known to have a few metals, but many materials would need to be brought there from Earth or other locations. Space stations would need all of their necessary materials brought from off- station. This would severely limit the size of the colony, a strong drawback compared to the

115 other locations where an abundance of land mass is available. Mars, unlike the three other choices, also brings with it a sizable possibility of native water supplies. The dangers of radiation are much greater on the Moon than on Mars or on most asteroids, as the former is closer to the Sun, although space stations with proper shielding would face the least amount of danger. On Mars, however, suitable protection in former lava tubes can be easily found, and the possibility of eventual terraforming would solve most, if not all, of this problem. The first step of planning towards colonization involves research upon Earth and space stations, as well as surveys of Mars by non-manned equipment. More testing pertaining to biology is needed to determine the long-term effects of taking Earth-based life off of Earth. More data could be taken from the space station regarding long-term exposure to a low gravity environment for human, plant, and animal life. In addition, further study relating to the selection of suitable crops for a Martian farming system would be beneficial. Additional observation of individuals who are isolated from the rest of society over lengthy intervals needs to take place before we can be certain of how to deal with the resulting emotional and mental strain upon future colonists. Reusable launch vehicles will need to be properly designed in order to avoid the costs of rebuilding vehicles for each trip between Earth and Mars. Such vehicles will need to be outfitted with ionic propulsion instead of nuclear propulsion. These vehicles will also need proper radiation shielding that is lighter than what is available now, as the current shielding is too heavy to launch into space. Due to the hazards of sending nuclear reactors up into space, an alternative source of power for the colony should be looked into, as nuclear power is the best method available at present. Initial scanning of the surface of Mars will be useful in determining good landing sites and potential sources of water. The second step towards colonizing the planet Mars will be to send manned missions there in order to gain more detailed information that is needed before actual colonization begins. One of the goals of human explorers on Mars should be to pinpoint accessible water supplies, if they exist. Another would be to find acceptable sites for future habitation. Were one to follow the recommendations given here, large lava tunnels near a good landing site and a source of water would be ideal. In addition, testing to determine the composition of the Martian soil and various deposits found upon the planet is vital for most every aspect of future planning for the colony, dictating farming, building, and terraforming conditions in the years to

116 come. The search for past or present life upon Mars, while considered by many to be a fruitless attempt, could provide extremely valuable information should it result in any finds. Once enough information has been gathered about the planet itself and once enough research has been performed to ensure that colonists could live safely for many years upon the planet Mars, the initial steps of colonization could begin. Proper supplies to cover nourishment, protection from the elements, research, and everyday living would need to be sent along, the exact specifications of which being determined with data from the first two stages of this process. Definite goals for research upon Mars will need to be drawn out before colonization begins, ideally balancing potential benefits to the colony, to people on Earth, and to scientific knowledge in general. Initially, colony leaders would probably be appointed by their counterparts on Earth and by those who planned out the colony, but as the colony were to age and grow in population, more permanent plans would need to be ready in order to avoid potentially troublesome disputes. After the colony has started, plans for improvement and expansion would need to go into place. As the colony would likely be expected to potentially last for many generations if all went well, a system will need to be devised to determine the governmental structure and leadership upon the colony, as well as agreements with groups back on Earth. The colony will eventually need to become economically independent of Earth, either by trading materials or scientific knowledge so that it can progress in a peaceful and mutually beneficial manner. Colonists would also likely wish to begin the process of terraforming the planet (or continue the process if it was begun earlier) so that their descendants would be able to live in a rich and vibrant world with unrestrictive travel. Over the past few decades, the United States government has spent less than one percent of its Gross National Product upon NASA and space related research. The current estimate for NASA's final 2002 budget is $2.9 billion, with $1 billion of that heading to the International Space Station and up to $4 billion being spent in later years. For reference, the International Space Station was originally estimated to cost $60 billion dollars by the time of its completion. (U.S. Office of Management and Budget) Assuming that NASA's budget will continue to grow at a rate equivalent to the increase of research and exploration costs, and assuming that the various countries throughout the world will be able to cooperate and pool their resources together in order to further work on a project seeking to colonize the planet

117 Mars, it would seem feasible that the first stage listed above could be satisfactorily completed within a few decades and that the second stage could begin shortly afterwards. Although it cannot be properly attempted at this point and will need a significant amount of planning, the colonization of Mars would be a momentous step in humankind's history. The drive to explore and conquer such an obstacle would allow humanity to focus its efforts towards something productive as it has in the past and would further this avenue for cooperation among current countries on Earth who are all too often in competition with one another. The scientific advances that would be all but assured by this undertaking, as well as the vast amount of potentially applied knowledge in the areas of biology and human health, materials processing, and product design in addition to the fulfilment of a motivation to explore and conquer new situations would more than justify any difficulties in carrying out this project.

118 Bibliography

Section 1.1

Siemens, Greg. AstroHistory. 03/2002 "The Early Astronomers" A Practical Guide to Astronomy Johnson, Charles. Pakal, The Maya Astronaut . 03/2002 Zubrin, Robert. Entering Space: Creating a Spacefaring Civilization. New York: Tarcher/Putnam, 1999. Hyperspace. Narr. Sam Neil. TLC Special Henbest, Nigel. The Universe: A Voyage through Space and Time. London: Weidenseld and Nicolson, 1992. Life on Mars. NASA. 15 August 1996 Hamilton, Rosanna. The Oort Cloud. Views of the Solar System. Woodfill,Jerry THE MAN WHO INVENTED THE FUTURE: JULES VERNE by Franz Born 03/02/2002 Maas,AJ The Catholic Encyclopedia Encyclopedia of Greek Mythology

119 Jennifer Rosenberg. "War of the Worlds Radio Broadcast Causes Panic" About.corn Stonehenge Picture 1 Liukkonen, Petri. Author's Calendar

Section 1.2

Kushnir, Victoria NASA SMART SURGICAL PROBE TO BEGIN CLINICAL TESTS Bluck, John NEW NASA SUPERCOMPUTER MODELS EARTH CLIMATE AT WARP SPEED Kushnir, Victoria NASA TECHNOLOGY TO HELP COMMERCIAL VENTURES "LISTEN UP" -- AND DOWN Hardersen, Paul S. The Case for Space. ATL Press: Shrewsbury, Ma; 1997. "International Space Station Expedition Three: Science Operations Overview" NASA "International Space Station Expedition Two: Science Operations Overview" NASA Space Product Development < http://spd.nasa.gov > Section 1.3

Staff Writer. Cosmiverse. 03/2002 McKay, Christopher. "Bringing Life to Mars" Scientific American Sunkara, Kanna Curtis, Victor, Marquis, Dustin Considerations and Rationale of Space Exploration Shostak, Seth. First Science Drake, Frank. Contemporary Radio Searches for Extraterrestrial Intelligence Drake, Frank The Drake Equation Project Phoenix General Information Skypub

Section 1.4

Rothenberg, Joseph "Commercial Opportunities Aboard the ISS Innovation" Aerospace Technology Innovation 8.6 (November/December 2000) < http ://nctn. hq . nasa .gov/in novation/I nnovation_86/welcome. html> ISS Commercial Development Palac, Donald T., Lyles, Garry M. "Space Transportation" NASA-FAA Industry Roundtable "Living in Space." NASA Human Space flight "Space Flight Questions and Answers" NASA Headquarters "Colony Economics and Construction." ThinkQuest

121 Williams, Dr. David R. Lunar Exploration Timeline Moon Mining Sparks, Heather. The Moon: What Lies Beneath Silber, Kenneth. Magnetic Data Hint at Moon's Unique Origin Astrobiology: The Living Universe "Energy for the World" Distant Star 15.May.2000 Burger, Christopher. The Interplanetary Commerce "Science and Technology." China New Energy Prado, Mark "High Temperature Solar Ovens" PERMANENT (Projects to Employ Resources of the Moon and Asteroids Near Earth in the Near Term) Alpert, Mark. "KILLING ASTEROIDS" Popular Mechanics Space.com "Turning diamond film into solar cells." Spaceflight Now Potter, Seth. SOLAR POWER SATELLITES: AN IDEA WHOSE TIME HAS COME

122 "Asteroids." Students for the Exploration and Development of Space (SEDS)

Section 2.1

Zubrin, Robert. Entering Space: Creating a Spacefaring Civilization. New York: Tarcher/Putnam, 1999.

The Global Magnetic Field of Mars and Implications for Crustal Evolution http://mgs- mangergsfc.nasa.gov/publications/grl_28_connerney/grl_28_connerney_paper.html

Mars Global Surveyor http://mars.jp1/nasa/gov/mgs/sci/sig-achieve-fp.html

The Global Topography of Mars and Implications for Surface Evolution http://ltpwww.gsfc.nasa.gov/tharsis/mola.global.pdf

The Crust and Mantle of mars http://ltpwwvv.gsfc.nasa.gov/tharsis/zuber.insight.pdf

Terraforming Mars using self replicating molecular machines http://wvvw.aleph.sefTrans/Tech/Space/terra.txt

Bringing Life to Mars http://www.sciam.com/1999/0399space/0399mckay.html

How Might Mars Become a Home for Humans? http://www.users.globalnet.co.uk/-mfogg/hayness.htm

Pioneer Organisms Nominated for Terraforming http://www.users.globalnet.co.uk/-mfogg/pioneer.htm

Terraforming Mars: A Review of Research http://www.users.globalnet.co.uk/-mfogg/paper1.htm

Section 2.2

Space Station Experiments and Hardware Development Auburn University

123 BioServe Space Technologies Sacco, Dr. Albert Jr. The Center for Advanced Microgravity Materials Processing The Center for Commercial Applications of Combustion in Space

Section 2.3

Starsearch: Christopher Columbus Pickering, Keith A. The First Voyage of Columbus Zubrin, Robert, The Economic Viability of Mars Colonization "Types of Government" Mars: The Home Away From Home

Winkler, Lewis. "Legal Aspects of Astronomy" Griffith Observer VOL. 54, NO. 8, 1990, PP. 2-9

124 Section 2.4 Canals on Mars "The Case of the Missing Mars Water." Science @ NASA CNN Red Colony News Archive December 2001 Stenger, Richard. "New Mars Satellite Begins Search for Water" CNN.com "GRS: The Gamma Ray Spectrometer" NASA JPL "Mars, Water, and Life." Mars Polar Lander Fox, Maggie. Water Gushed Recently On Mars Portree, David S.F. Can We Go To Mars? Portree, David S.F. A Conceptual Design for a Manned Mars Vehicle Portree, David S.F. A Study of Manned Nuclear-Rocket Missions to Mars" Portree, David S.F. Evolutionary Use of Nuclear Electric Propulsion Portree, David S.F. Options for the Human Exploration of Mars Using Solar Electric Propulsion David S. F. Portree Concept for a Manned Mars Expedition with Electrically Propelled Vehicles Cowing, Keith NASA Rocket Design Could Cut Mars Trip Time by 50%

125 Section 2.5

Ilyin, Ye. A., Gushin, V.I., Kholin, S.F., Ivanovsky, Yu.R. "Human Factor in Manned Mars Mission" Adv. Space Research. 1992. 12.1 pp. 271 - 279 Lanzerotti, Louis J. "On the Space Station and Prerequisites for the Human Exploration Program" The National Academies March 19, 1993, Hon, Adrian, Harris, Katherine, Sewell, David. Psychological Effects of Space Exploration Rshaid, Gabriel F. "Space Medicine" Mars Academy Hullander, Doug, Barry, Patrick. Space Bones Barry, Patrick , Phillips, Dr.Tony. Mixed Up in Space Miller, Karen. Gravity Hurts (so Good) "Human Life Sciences" NASA Human Space Flight ASGSB Fact Sheets" American Society for Gravitational and Space Biology P.Davis. Solar System Bodies: Mars Lujan, Barbara, White, Ronald Human Physiology in Space Tenebaum, David. Psychos In Space "Glaskov on Psychological Factors" Portree, David S.F. Can We Go To Mars?

126 Graham, John SPACE EXPLORATION FROM TALISMAN OF THE PAST TO GATEWAY FOR THE FUTURE 1995 Space Medicine: "Effects on Cardiovascular System" NASDA Space Station "NASA Technology May Help Assess Risk of Bone Problems in Humans" ASGSB McKay, Christopher. "Bringing Life To Mars" Scientific American Hiscox, Julian. Biology and the Planetary Engineering of Mars "Biological Evolution." Astrobioloqy: The Living Universe Weed, William Speed. Can We Go to Mars Without Going Crazy? DISCOVER Vol. 22 No. 5 (May 2001)

Section 2.6

ABCNews Biosphere 2 Today, A New Dynamic for Ecosystem Study and Education Access Excellence Columbia University's Biosphere 2 Center Mars Project Renderings Dismukes, Kim. HUMAN MARS EXPLORATION Fayetteville - Dec. 12, 2000 Arkansas Outlines Long-Term Habitation of Mars Space Daily Frederick, R. D. "Gus". Martian Lava Tubes Revisited

127 Conclusion

"Fiscal Year 2003 Budget" Office of Management and Budget Appendices

Appendix A: Known Meteor Craters vs. The Geologic Time Scale

Diameter End Crater Name (km) Age Notes Eon Era Period Epoch Date Kgagodi 3.5 ? Neugrund 8 ? Paasselka 10 ? Amguid 0.45 0 " Phanerzoic Cenozoic Quaternary Holocene Present Sikhote_Alin 0.03 0 * Haviland 0.02 0.001 * Sobolev 0.05 0.001 * Ilumetsa 0.08 0.002 * Campo_del_Cielo 0.05 0.004 * Kaalijarvi 0.11 0.004 * Henbury 0.16 0.005 * Wabar 0.1 0.006 * Macha 0.3 0.007 * Morasko 0.1 0.01 * Pleistocene 0.01 Dalgaranga 0.02 0.027 Boxhole 0.17 0.03 * Barringer 1.19 0.049 * Odessa 0.17 0.05 * Lonar 1.83 0.052 * Rio_Cuarto 4.5 0.1 * Tswaing 1.13 0.22 * Kalkkop 0.64 0.25 Wolfe Creek 0.88 0.3 * Zhamanshin 13.5 0.9 * Monturaqui 0.46 1 * Veevers 0.08 1 * Bosumtwi 10.5 1.03 * New_Quebec 3.44 1.4 * Tertiary Pliocene 1.6 Tenoumer 1.9 2.5 * (Neogene) Sinamwenda 0.2 3 (max) Tabun-Khara-Obo 1.3 3 * Talemzane 1.75 3 * Aouelloul 0.39 3.1 * EI'gygytgyn 18 3.5 * Roter_Kamm 2.5 3.7 * Bigach 7 6 * Miocene 5.',..' Karla 12 10 * Shunak 3.1 12 * Steinheim 3.8 14.8 *

129 Ries 24 15.1 * Haughton 24 23.4 (Paleogene) Oligocene 23.7 Kara-Kul 52 25 * Logancha 20 25 * Popigai 100 35 * Chesapeake_Bay 85 35.5 * Eocene 36.6 Wanapitei_Lake 7.5 37 * Mistastin 28 38 * Logoisk 17 40 * Chiyli 5.5 46 * Goat Paddock 5.1 50 (max) Montagnais 45 50.5 * Ragozinka 9 55 * Marquez 22 58 * Paleocene 57.8 Connolly Basin 9 60 (max) Chicxulub 240 64.98 * Mesozoic Cretacious 65

Beyenchime-Salaatin 8 65 (max) Eagle Butte 19 65 (max) Goyder 3 65 (min) Gusev 3.5 65 * Kamensk 25 65 * Upheaval_Dome 10 65 (max) Quarkziz 3.5 70 (max) Tin_Bider 6 70 (max) Vargeao_Dome 12 70 (max) Kara 65 73 Ust-Kara 25 73 * Manson 35 74.4 * Maple Creek 6 75 (max) Lappajarvi 23 77.3 * Wetumpka 6.5 82 Boltysh 24 88 * Dellen 15 89 * Steen River 25 95 * Avak 12 100 * Deep Bay 13 100 Sierra_Madera 13 100 (max) West_Hawk_Lake 2.44 100 Carswell 39 115 * Zapadnaya 4 115 * BP_Structure 2.8 120 (max) Oasis 11.5 120 (max) Zeleny Gai 2.5 120 Mien 9 121 * Tookoonooka 55 128 * Azuara 30 130 (max)

130 Rotmistrovka 2.7 140 * Gosses Bluff 22 142.5 * Mjo/Inir 40 143 * Morokweng 70 145 * Jurassic Liverpool 1.6 150 Vepriaj 8 160 * Rochechouart 23 186 * Viewfield 2.5 190 Red_Wing 9 200 * Riachao_Ring 4.5 200 (max) Wells_Creek 12 200 Manicouagan 100 214 * Triassic Obolon' 15 215 * Saint Martin 40 219.5 * Puchezh-Katunki 80 220 * Araguainha_Dome 40 249 * Paleozoic Permian Gow Lake 5 250 (max) Kursk 5.5 250 Des Plaines 8 280 (max) Pennsylvanian Ternovka 12 280 * Woodleigh 120 280 (max)

Clearwater Lake East 26 290 * Clearwater Lake West 36 290 * Decaturville 6 300 Dobele 4.5 300 * Ile Rouleau 4 300 (max) Kentland 13 300 (max) Middlesboro 6 300

Serra_de_Cangalha 12 300 (max) Crooked Creek 7 320 Mississippian Serpent_Mound 8 320 (max) Aorounga 13 350 (max) Devonian Gweni Fada 14 350 (max) Slate_Islands 30 350 (max) Charlevoix 54 357 * Flynn Creek 3.55 360 * Mishina Gora 4 360 (max) Piccaninny 7 360 (max) Siljan 55 368 * Kaluga 15 380 * Elbow 8 395 Ilyinets 4.5 395 * Misarai 5 395 Nicholson_Lake 12.5 400 (max) Silurian

131 Glasford 4 430 (max) Lac Couture 8 430 Drdovician 438 Pilot Lake 6 445 * Brent 2.9 450 Kardla 4 455 Lockne 7 455 * Tvaren 2 455 Ames 16 470 * Strangways 25 470 (max) Gardnos 5 500 * Cambrian 505 Glover Bluff 3 500 (max) Lac La Moinere 8 500 Newporte 3.2 500 (max) Presqu'ile 12 500 (max) Lawn Hill 18 515 (min) Holleford 2.35 550 * Kelly West 10 550 (min) Soderfjarden 6 550 Saaksjarvi 5 560 * Acraman 90 570 (min) Proterzoic 570 Spider 13 570 (max) Beaverhead 60 600 Janisjarvi 14 698 * Iso-Naakkima 3 1000 (max) Lumparn 9 1000 Suvasvesi_N 4 1000 (max) Highbury 15 1800 (max) Karrikkoselka 1.5 1800 (max) Sudbury 200 1850 * Teague 30 1865 * Vredefort 140 2023

Dates in Millions of Years Denotes a major crater 70 km or greater in diameter

* Denotes Reliable Age Denotes a crater 40 km or greater in diameter (min) Denotes Minimum Age (max) Denotes Maximum Age

From the Global Impact Studies Project "Craterbase" A-Z Listing

132 Appendix B: Distribution of Asteroids

0 0 _ 0

CI) -1--, 0 (1) -0 0 4- 0 S- O E z= 8 _ kr)

0 , —T..... 4.• e- , -4 ilk , 0 1 2 3 4 Semimajor axis/AU

Source: "Asteroid Introduction" by Zeljko Lipanovic

133

Appendix C: Probability of a Meteor Impact

All World's Nu clear Bombs

Nuclear Wint e Barnnger's O

7 nguska • e y

e on

2 li y 10. - i l illion 00 m

Revelstoke 1

m ry 27' ry Eve w Eve 1,1 10' 10' 10 -- Frequency Frequency of Impacts vs. Impact Energy Source: National Resources Canada

106

10 kilometer diameter - every 100,000,000 years

)

rs 100 meter diameter

te (l? - t every 10,000 years

(me 1 meter diameter r each year te me 10 - 1 rnilimeter diameter Dia every 30 seconds -4 10 — micron diameter

T 1 I I I I I I I I I I i

10 - 1 Cl ." 1 Cl/. 1 ic' lob Average time between Impacts with Earth (years)

Source: NASA's Liftoff to Space Exploration, Impact Herd Appendix D: Pictures of Recent Impact Sites

Barringer Crater, Arizona: This crater was created when a meteor hit the earth 49,000 years ago. The crater is 210 meters deep and 1,190 meters in diameter. New England Meteoritical Services — http://www.meteorlab.com/metcratr.htm

Tunguska region in 1938: Portion of one of the photos from Kulik's aerial photographic survey (1938) of the Tunguska region. The parallel fallen trees indicate the direction of the blast wave. University of Bologna (Italy), Department of Physics — http://Www-th.bo.infn.it/tunguska/

135 Appendix E: Tunguska: The Cosmic Mystery of the Century

TUNGUSKA: The Cosmic Mystery of the Century

by Planetarium Director, Roy A. Gallant

The explosions were heard in the early morning hours of June 30, 1908. It was a drama that has occurred countless times in Earth's history, and one that is sure to play again.

Those Tungus tribesmen and Russian fur traders who happened to glance into the southeastern Siberian sky that fateful morning must have been startled to see a fireball streaking through the atmosphere toward their trading post of Vanavara and leaving a trail of light some 800 kilometers long. The object, whatever it was, approached from an azimuth of 115 degrees and was descending at an entry angle of 30 to 35 degrees above the horizon. Their gaze followed the bright fireball as it continued along a northwestward trajectory until it seemed about to disappear over the horizon. Then it shattered in a rapid series of cataclysmic explosions.

The site was centered on 101 E by 62 N near the Stony Tunguska River 92 kilometers north of Vanavara. The object shattered at an altitude of 7.6 kilometers and became the largest known such cosmic event in the history of civilization.

What was this cosmic visitor?

Explanations have ranged from the ridiculous to the credible. Some have suggested it was a black hole. Others have wondered if it was a piece of anti-matter. A Japanese UFO group (Sakura), headed by Kozo Kowai, are convinced that it was the explosion of the nuclear power plant of an errant space vehicle belonging to extraterrestrials. Today most scientists point to a comet or a stony asteroid being the cosmic culprit.

What has been learned since the first organized investigation in 1927? And what is the current thinking?

To this day the vast Tunguska region remains a desolate area of mosquito-infested bogs and swamps amid the beautiful hilly taiga. To reach the epicenter you are dropped off by helicopter. Or you walk in.

For a trained eye, evidence of the blast is not difficult to identify, even after 90 years. The power of the blast felled trees outward in a radial pattern over an area of 2,150 square kilometers, more than half the size of Rhode Island. In the hot central region of the epicenter the forest flashed into an ascending column of flame visible several hundred kilometers away.

136 The fires burned for weeks, destroying an area of 1,000 square kilometers. Ash and powdered tundra fragments sucked skyward by the fiery vortex were caught up in the global air circulation and carried around the world. Meanwhile, bursts of thunder echoed across the land to a distance of some 800 kilometers.

The mass of the object has been estimated at about 100,000 tons and the force of the explosion at 40 megatons of TNT, 2,000 times the force of the atomic bomb exploded over Hiroshima in 1945. By comparison, the explosive force of the Arizona asteroid that struck some 50,000 years ago, has been estimated at 3.5 megatons.

Following the Tunguska explosion, unusually colorful sunsets and sunrises were reported from many countries, including Western Europe, Scandinavia, and Russia. The climax of visual displays occurred on the night of June 30th. Although they continued, they weakened exponentially over several weeks until they died away.

These "optical fireworks" and "light nights" were most prominent over Eastern Siberia and Middle Asia. They included a night sky bright enough to read a watch or newspaper by. Dust in the air at heights of from 40 to 70 kilometers caused high-altitude noctiluscent, or "night- shining," clouds that illuminated much of the visible sky. And there were halos around the Sun. A marked decrease of the air's transparency was recorded in the United States by the Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory and California's Mount Wilson Observatory.

Disturbances in earth's magnetic field were reported 900 kilometers southeast of the epicenter by the Irkutsk Observatory. These were magnetic "storms" similar to the ones produced by nuclear test explosions in the atmosphere. The seismograph station some 4,000 kilometers west in St. Petersburg recorded tremors produced by the blast, as did more distant stations around the world.

But no one, except observers in Central Siberia, was aware that an enormous explosion of a cosmic body had occurred. It was generally believed that an earthquake, somewhere, had taken place. And little more was thought about the matter in scientific circles.

...Except for a dedicated Russian scientist named Leonid Kulik, the founder of meteorite science in Russia. But it wasn't until 19 years after the event that Kulik managed to organize the first expedition in search of the site, and cause of the event. There had been reports from Tungus nomads of a vast area of fallen trees and evidence of much burning. Kulik suspected that a large meteorite had fallen, and he was determined to find it.

The shaman-chief of the Tungus people, or Evenks, had for years virtually sealed off the region, proclaiming it "enchanted." The Evenk people had long been fearful of further enraging the gods whose wrath they believed had been responsible for 1908 explosion. Funded by the then Soviet Academy of Sciences, Kulik and his group penetrated the "enchanted" region in June. His party was to hack its way through some 100 kilometers of taiga, cross rivers and streams, and plod through bogs and swamps. Perhaps worst of all, they had to endure endless and dense swarms--"walls" is more descriptive--of mosquitoes.

137 During my 1992 expedition, we were lucky enough to be hiking across the epicenter region during an unusually dry spell. The ground was firm enough for ordinary hiking shoes rather than the traditional Wellington rubber boots. And the mosquitoes were not in full force, although much of the time I found it necessary to wear a head net and gloves. During my work in Tunguska, I spent part of a day at the Churgim Creek site, most likely camping at the very spot where Vasiliy Dzhenkoul's tepees of poles overla in with thick sheets of Siberian cedar bark were located. It was here that the 1908 explosion instantly incinerated his 600 to 700 reindeer. His hunting dogs, stores, furs, and tepees also were reduced to ashes. Kulik found the epicenter and mapped the area of fallen trees. He then puzzled over several neat oval areas which he presumed to be old meteorite craters that had been filled in by time. He supposed that the bulk of the meteorite lay embedded somewhere within the nearby Great Southern Swamp in the central epicenter. But magnetic probes and drilling over the years failed to detect a single gram of metal either in the Great Southern Swamp or in those neat oval patches of tundra. Subsequent searches for a meteoric body also have failed, right up through our 1992 expedition.

What, then, was the Tunguska object?

World War II interrupted further expeditions. It wasn't until 1958 that expeditions headed by Kirill Florensky were resumed and carried out by the Committee on Meteorites of the Soviet Academy of Sciences. In 1959 Tomsk University joined research efforts under the guidance of Gennadiy Plekhanov. In 1963 the scientific investigations probing the Tunguska event gained new vigor under the scientific leadership of Academician Nickolai Vasiliev, of the Russian Academy of Sciences.

It wasn't until 1989 that foreign scientists were invited to join Russian investigators. I became the first American to take part in the ongoing expeditions. My associates were mostly Russians, although German, Japanese, and British investigators also were part of our group of about 20.

What has been learned about the Tunguska event? And why is it important that investigations continue?

There have been a series of interesting biological consequences of the explosion. Following the blast there was accelerated growth of biomass in the region of the epicenter, and the accelerated growth has continued. There also was an increase in the rate of biological mutations, not only within the epicenter but along the trajectory of the object over Tunguska. For example, abnormalities in the Rh blood factor of local Evenk groups have been found. Genetic variation in certain local ant species is now being studied. And genetic abnormalities in the seeds and needle clusters of at least one species of pine have been discovered.

An Italian group of scientists led by M. Galli analyzed the resin of trees felled by the explosion. Galli suspected that cosmic matter embedded in the trees from the force of the blast might help identify the Tunguska object. Preliminary findings indeed did identify such cosmic matter-- among which were particles of calcium, iron-nickel, silicates, cobalt-wolfram, and lead. Since certain asteroids contain such matter, Galli has breathed new life into the old asteroid theory.

138 C. Chyba has recently constructed a computer model also suggesting that the object was a stony asteroid. Unfortunately, his model quickly gained much highly biased publicity proclaiming that the Tunguska mystery finally had been solved, and that the possiblility of the object's identity being of cometary origin could be categorically ruled out. Research astronomer Duncan Steel, and a number of Russian investigators, have come down hard on Chyba, and regard his model with more skepticism than enthusiasm.

If the object was an asteroid, where's the crater and large asteroid fragments? It has been suggested that part of the asteroid might have been pulverized on exploding while a portion remaining intact skipped off in a new direction and back out of the atmosphere.

To complicate matters, investigators of the 1960s identified four smaller epicenters within the larger one of a 60-kilometer diameter. Each of the smaller epicenters has its own radial tree- fall pattern, and each presumably was caused by individual explosions during the chain of bursts.

A number of scientists favor a comet theory. The leading investigator in this area is the cosmic geochemist Yevgeniy Kolesnikov, of Moscow University. Over the years he has dug out large blocks of peat samples from various locations over the epicenter and analyzed them for isotopic anomalies. The 1908 layer in his many peat samples contains high concentrations of a number of volatiles that also occur in the upper atmosphere and are presumed to be comet dust. One of the difficulties of isotopic anomalies research, however, is positively identifying the presumed cosmic matter as truly cosmic and not terrestrial in origin. For the present, Kolesnikov and Galli are the leading investigators in this area.

At this stage of the Tunguska investigations the comet and asteroid theories appear to be the most promising, but the matter is far from being closed, and annual expeditions to the Tunguska site will most likely continue.

Why is it important to find the answer?

According to Academician Vasiliev, "Had such a cosmic body exploded over Europe instead of the desolate region of Siberia, the number of human victims would have been 500,000 or more, not to mention the ensuing ecological catastrophe. The Tunguska episode marks the only event in the history of civilization when Earth has collided with a truly large celestial object, although innumerable such collisions have occurred in the geological past. And many more are bound to occur."

Vasiliev stresses that is why continued investigations of the Tunguska event are important-- because it will happen again, sometime. Only by knowing what the object was, and by knowing its devastating biological consequences, will the scientific and medical communities be in a position to deal with such a 40-megaton, or greater, cataclysm in the future.

http://vvww.usm.maine.edul-planet/tung.html

139

Appendix F: Solar Output Models

Fig. 1

I 1 1 I I I I Basic model cycle is 12 years Basic model cycle is 10 years

0.3 C 0 C Altithermal .z.- 0) LC-., "a:.) 0 ..... J 0.2 c __.0 Cu 0 0

U. ej Interglacial -,..= CD 0 L 0 U 'g .... tg, < - - (13 F 0 • C...).... • ,,,•-•• Cool 6. C..) Q. 0) Interglacial r.79 < A -20 c Gi 0 . et \ Sea-level deviation Warm Glacial G2 G3 -40 >, Glacial 0) -60 '4,, E Full Glacial a) DP ,., 0 c, 6..,.... -0.3 B ,..) 2- ._ 1.-,,,..7,- . 17, 7z Q ,.., Solar-output r...,. C c.) •— 6. bb (1.) 0 model 1::: CI > 77 = ct 77.4 ."0 O 0 4r... 1,1 < U 5 t I I I I I I P 1 >-. i 1 1 1 1 I 1 40,000 BP 30,000 BP 20,000 BP 10,000 BP 0 10,000 AP

United States Geological Survey

Modeled solar output (luminosity) from 40,000 years BP to 10,000 years AP compared with glacial, sea-level-deviation (24), and archaeological information during the late Pleistocene and Holocene.

The solar-output model was modified to allow the basic cycle to vary from a 12-year basic cycle during the last 30,000 years of the last glacial cycle up to the Pleistocene/Holocene boundary [approximately 9,000 years before present (BP)] to a 10-year basic cycle onward for another 19,000 years [to 10,000 years after present (AP)]. This 50,000-year period includes both the full glacial and altithermal interglacial periods in the approximate 90,000-yearcycle. The two modeled time periods were spliced together at the point where the change in solar output was 0% from the 90,000-year average. This figure shows the resultant solar-output model variations of luminosity compared with selected events deduced from the geophysical records and archaeological evidence during the late Pleistocene and Holocene.

140 Fig. 2

0.3 Basic model cycle is 12 years I Basic model cycle is 10 years Solar-output ,h, a. co model Of

Warming ) S Pb! 0.2 (m t en T Cooling s

0 Pre k 0.1 to E L -10 ive t la -20 Re

0 2 ion

-30 t

8 ia v -40 De

-0.1 l

T -50 ve Le - a l -60 Se B

-0.2 Globa e

Sea-level deviations (24) locen 1 1 1 -0.3 i t_ 1 1 Ho

14,000 BP 12,000 BP 10,000 BP 8,000 BP 6,000 BP 4,000 BP 2,000 BP 0 BP 2000 AP 12,000 B.C. 10,000 B.C. 8,000 B.C. 6,000 B.C. 4,000 B.C. 2,000 B.C. 1 B.C. 2000 A.D. 4000 A.D.

United States Geological Survey

Modeled solar output (luminosity) from 40,000 years BP to 10,000 years AP compared with glacial, sea-level-deviation, and archaeological information during the late Pleistocene and Holocene.

The solar-output model can be evaluated more accurately with dated events in the Holocene. Fig. 2 is a more detailed depiction of the solar-output model representing the period 14,000 years BP to 2,000 years AP.

141 Fig. 3

Solar-output T3 model U N2 T1

T2 N1 M t.4 N3

Carbon-14 production

„ I „ 400 B.C. 1 BC. 500 A.D. 1000 A.D. 1500 A.D. 2000 A.D. 2500 A.D. 2,000 BP 0 BP

United States Geological Survey

Solar-output model from Gregorian calendar dates 400 B.C. to A.D. 2500 compared with carbon-14 production and selected events.

The solar-output model and selected events are expanded in Fig. 3 for the period after about 2,300 years BP. The initial time calibration remains the same, only the resolution of the solar- output model and the selected events is increased. To avoid confusion of dates, the Gregorian calendar system will be used for the next section where 2,000 years BP coincides with 1 B.C.

Source: Hsu, Kenneth J. and Perry, Charles A. Geophysical, Archaeological, and Historical Evidence Support A Solar Output Model for Climate Change

142 Appendix G: Recent Temperature Trends

Actual Temperature vs. Predicted Temperature

Actual teniperature

41/1) Predicted temperature

I-

0 0 '200-11.) Yea r

Source: Danmarks Meterologiske Institut Appendix H: The Aurora

SOHO/LASCO image of the outer solar corona. The exposure (made on 22 May 1999) shows the so-called streamers in the corona, extending out to many solar radii (the white circle shows the position of the edge of the Sun). The SOHO/LASCO data shown here are produced by a consortium of the Naval Research Laboratory (USA), Max- Planck-Institut fuer Aeronomie (Germany), Laboratoire d'Astronomie (France), and the University of Birmingham (UK). SOHO is a project of international cooperation between ESA and NASA.

A view of the Aurora Australis -- the Southern Lights -- taken from the Space Shuttle Discovery in 1991. This display of light is caused by the solar-wind particles that, after becoming entangled in the Earth's magnetic field, impinge on the upper reaches of the Earth's atmosphere. Photo courtesy of NASA; Nasa Photo ID: STS039-23-020. From the Space Weather pages http://www.spacescience.org/SWOP/About SW/1.html

Aurora Over Alaska. Image from Aurora Over Alaska. Credit & Copyright: D.

SkySkapes Hutchinson. Image from Astronomy Picture of the http://www.skyscapes.com/ Day http://antwrp.gsfc.nasa.gov/apod/ap980304.html

144 Appendix I: Devon Island

The Haughton-Mars Projec

Devon Island

Devon Island is located in the Territory of Nunavut in Canada. The expedition base camp will be located just outside the northwest area of the Haughton impact crater, which is located at 75°22'N latitude and 89°41'W longitude.

Devon Island is the largest uninhabited island on Earth, with a surface area of approximately 66,800 km2. Its geology presents two major provinces: a thick (presently — 1.3 km) subhorizontal sequence of Paleozoic (Cambrian to Devonian) marine sedimentary rocks dominated by carbonates (dolomite and limestone) forming part of the Arctic Platform; and a Precambrian crystalline (gneissic) basement lying unconformably under the stack of marine sediments, forming part of the Canadian Shield. The Paleozoic sediments present a gentle dip of approximately 4° towards the west. The flat-topped plateau characterizing much of Devon Island's surface is an old erosional surface (peneplain) exposing sediments of increasing age towards the east.

The coastal areas of the island present steep sea cliffs and deep glacial trough valleys and fjords, many of which were likely last occupied by ice during the Last Glacial Maximum which ended approximately 10,000 to 8,000 years ago. A substantial ice cap representing a remnant of the Laurentide/Inuitian ice sheet system still occupies the easternmost third of the island. The rest of Devon Island presents a barren rocky surface incised by sinuous glacial trough valleys, dendritic meltwater channel networks, and clusters of small lakes.

)evon Island and the Naughton crater are located in Detail of topographic map sheet 58H/7 at 1/50,0000 the Territory of Nunavut in Canada, about 180 KM scale (Haughton Dome) showing an area along the Perspective sketch of the Base Camp area. north-east of Resolute Bay. northwestern rim of the crater. A safe Twin Otter Indicated also is the Mars Society's FMARS landing strip has been identified nearby and tested habitat. Power and water lines are indicated out in 1999. Local features have been named in red and blue, respectively. Access trails informally for reference only. Water for the Base are indicated in green. Camp will be pumped from the Lowell Canal. The Exploration Office Valley provides convenient access routes to areas of geologic interest.

145 What is the Naughton Crater?

The Haughton meteorite impact crater, on Devon Island, Nunavut, in the Canadian high arctic, is 20 km in diameter and formed 23 million years ago. It is one of the highest-latitude terrestrial impact craters known on land (75°22'N, 89°41'IN). It lies in the "frost rubble zone" of the Earth, i.e., in a polar desert environment and is the only crater known to lie in such an environment. Airborne synthetic apeture radar image of Haughton Crater acquired in 1998 by the Intera STAR X-band Although Haughton Crater has undergone substantial erosion, many radar system. The width of the scene is 36 km. Image courtesy Geological of its surviving geologic features are exceptionally well preserved. Survey of Canada. The good state of preservation is due mostly to the crater's geographic setting. Erosional processes in the polar desert of the high Arctic are particularly sluggish due to the extreme seasonality in the availability of liquid water and the presence of continuous permafrost. The absence of any substantial vegetation cover also limits the weathering of surface materials, while it optimizes the Impact on Devon Island. site's exposure for geologic surveys from the ground and by remote-sensing.

A complex diversity of lithologies are exposed at Haughton, reflecting the fact that the impact event punched through the entire stack of Paleozoic sediments present at the time and Aftermath of impact. excavated material from a depth of over 1.7 km, biting into the Paintings by Michael Carroll, courtesy of National Geographic. gneissic basement. Some shocked formations at Haughton have retained their integrity and are now exposed as tilted or downfaulted magablocks within the structure and at its periphery. However, particularly distinctive at Haughton is the crater's allochthonous impact breccia formation, a rubble deposit resulting from the launching, airborne mixing, fallback and weak rewelding of impact-shattered fragments derived from the entire stack of excavated rocks. Thus at Haughton, (shocked) basement crystalline rocks can be now found in abundance at the surface.

146 The Haughton-Mars Project

The Haughton-Mars Project (HMP) is a NASA-led international field research program centered on the scientific study of the Naughton impact crater and its surroundings, Devon Island, Nunavut, Canadian high arctic, viewed as a Mars analog.

The rocky polar desert setting, geologic features and biological attributes of the site offer unique insights into the evolution of Mars, the effects of impacts on Earth, and the possibilities of life in extreme environments. The opportunity of scientific field studies at Naughton is also used to support studies in exploration research, to investigate the technologies, strategies, humans factors and hardware designs relevant to the future exploration of Mars by robots and humans. HMP-2001 is the 5th field season of the HMP and will run through the second week of August.

Mars Analogs

Mars analogs are sites on the Earth where environmental conditions, geologic features, biological attributes, or combinations thereof approximate in some specific way those possibly encountered on Mars at present or earlier in that planet's history.

No place on Earth is truly like Mars. Although Mars can be characterized at present as a cold desert, not even the polar deserts of the Earth achieve the extremes in minimum temperature, dryness, low atmospheric pressure and harsh radiation conditions that the surface of Mars currently experiences. Many aspects of the geologic and potential biologic evolution of Mars are likely to have been different or remain uncertain enough that any comparison with the Earth must be conducted with caution. The Earth, however, is our home planet and a world presenting a broad diversity of environments, geologic features and biology. It provides an important reference for studying other planets, a basis for conducting comparative studies critically. "Mars analogs", therefore, are not to be equated to any counterpart on Mars, but are to be viewed instead as an opportunity on our planet for possible approximations.

From the Haughton-Mars Homepage: http://wwwmarsonearth.org

147 Appendix J: Haughton Crater Field Report

August 8, 2001 - Haughton Crater

Report Number: HMP-2001-0808

By: Dr. Pascal Lee

This afternoon our information systems field integration tests with the Hamilton-Sundstrand concept spacesuit were taken one step further. The focus was on securing a short-range wireless communications link between a suited explorer and other supporting explorers, say crewmembers in a nearby pressurized rover. The supporting crewmembers would help the explorer view maps, position information or any other data requested by the suited explorer to help him/her carry out the task at hand successfully.

Mike Boucher and Sean Murray put me once again in the upper torso of the Hamilton-Sundstrand concept suit for advanced space exploration outfitted with the powerful Xybernaut MA IV wearable PC-compatible computing system. I then wandered off into the rock fields near the HMP Base Camp and began doing some field geology. Using the wireless radio network established by Steve Braham and Trish Garner, I was able to view as I hiked just about any information I needed. Maps I called up were displayed, GPS positioning data was also made available. The field test was a brilliant success.

Then I rejoined the Hab and began preparations with Crew 5 on our planned EVA. Charlie Cockell, Jaret Matthews, Kelly Snook and I suited up (this time with the Mars Society simulated spacesuits) with help from Samson Ootoovak who served as IVA for the event. Samson positioned SpaceRef.com's webcam #2 (dedicated to the memory of Gerry Soffen) on the lower deck so that our suiting up could be viewed. We were off to "Site 7", a promising location where the Science Operations team gathered at NASA Ames Research Center last week had lined up specific observations of gullies and patterned ground for us to perform.

I headed out in the Purmacat with Jaret. Charlie and Kelly drove along on Kawasaki ATVs. Jaret's rover is allowing us to investigate the pros and cons of a two-person vehicle in planetary exploration as compared to each explorer driving his/her own ATV. On the one hand it seems that there is reduced vehicle redundancy when two explorers have to rely on a common vehicle. On the other hand the passenger in the two-person rover may be able to focus more on the terrain and the landscape, on navigation and on science. Jaret will announce the results of this research when the data is analyzed.

The drive to and from Site 7 and the site itself proved to be beautiful. Site 7 is located at approximately 75*27.9'N, 89"56.7'W, towards the northern end of Von Braun Planitia. On our way there, we established an imaginary cache of oxygen at Marine Peak, the highest point along Battleherc Ridge. At Site 7, a stepped limestone mesa butte, we saw interesting gullies and well-developed patterned ground in the form of meter-wide rock polygons with raised fine-grained central sections. Jaret positioned himself at the very top of the butte to capture our activities on video while Kelly shadowed Charlie and me in various locations to compare our findings with conclusions we had reached a few days earlier via the simulated robot teleoperation activity.

We were back at the Hab by 8:30 pm local. After dinner, Charlie went to conduct some critical initial field tests of the "Bob" (Buoyant OBserver) balloon surface drifter. Built by Dr Dale Stokes of the Scripps Institution for Oceanography, the vehicle is elegant and simple in design but very effective at handling difficult terrain. One day such as system might be deployed on Mars. It could help explore vast tracks of territory both reliably and at low cost.

Amazingly Phase 5 is already coming to an end. Tomorrow will be our last day. Before we even part ways, we already know that our memories of living and working together, the teleoperation activities and the EVAs to distant and beautiful places will forever stay with us.

148 Haughton-Mars Project Mars exploration research vehicles parked outside

the Mars Society's Flashline Mars Arctic Research Station on Haynes Ridge,

Haughton Crater: Jaret Matthew's Purmacat (foreground) and Kawasaki 220

"Bayou" ATVs (background). Note also the external webcam (far right)

sponsored by SpaceRef.com and dedicated to the memory of astronaut

David Walker

(http://www.spaceref.com/focuson/marsonearth/dedication.html).

(Photo Pascal Lee 010806-1971).

George James, Tam Czarnik (#7) and Eric Tilenius (#3) during their EVA on

the rim of Naughton Crater on Haynes Ridge.

(Photo by Pascal Lee 010812-094)

Pascal on a field geology foot traverse at Haughton Crater, Devon Island,

wearing the upper torso of the Hamilton-Sundstrand advanced space

exploration concept suit equipped with a Xybernaut MA IV wearable

computer and a wireless radio networking system developed Dr Steve

Braham at Simon Fraser University.

(Photo NASA Haughton-Mars Project / Pascal Lee 010808-0014 / Mars-like

color enhancement)

On the road, Von Braun Planitia, Haughton Crater, Devon Island, Arctic

Canada.

(Photo by Pascal Lee 010808-0161 / Mars-like color enhancement)

From the Haughton-Mars Homepage: http://wwwmarsonearth.org

149

Copyrighted materials removed from scanned project

Original may be viewed at Gordon Library

IQP/MQP SCANNING PROJECT

Appendix L: Threshold Effects of Prompt Radiation Doses

Table 1:

Threshold Effects of Prompt Radiation Doses

The threshold effects listed below occur when radiation doses are hundreds of times higher than normal background levels and usually when the exposure occurs over a short period of time, such as a few minutes.

Dose Effects No apparent effects, possible latent effects such as cancer or 5-50 rem aberrations in chromosomes >50 rem Temporary sterility in males Radiation sickness in between 5% and 50% of individuals with percentages increasing with dosage 75-200 rem Effects of radiation sickness: vomiting, diarrhea, reduction in resistance to infections 100 rem Double the normal incidents of genetic defects 200-300 Radiation sickness is universal with some fatalities rem >300 rem Permanent sterility in females 300-400 Destruction of bone marrow and intestines rem 450 rem 50% fatality rate 600 rem 80% fatality rate 1000 rem Nearly a 100% fatality rate

Zubrin, "The Case for Mars," pg. 115 Fentiman, Smith, & Meredith, "What are the Health Effects of Ionizing Radiation?"

171 Table 2:

Probability of Fatal Cancer within 30 years After Type of Cancer Receiving a Chronic 100 rem Dose of Ionizing Radiation Leukemia 0.30% Brest 0.45% Lung 0.40% GI, including 0.30% stomach Bone 0.06% All other 0.30% Total 1.81%

Released by the National Academy of Sciences-National Research Council study known as the Biological Effects of Ionizing Radiation.

For reference, people who live near sea-level receive a dose of about 150 millirem per year, and people who live at high elevation, such as Aspen, CO, receive a dose of about 300 millirem per year.

172