THE UNIVERSITY OF NEW SOUTH WALES FACULTY OF ARTS & SOCIAL SCIENCES
A Comparative Study of Primary/ Elementary School Music Curricula in Australia (NSW), in the UK (England), in the Russian Federation and in the United States of America
Student Name: Irina Petrova Student ID: 3089016 Course Name: Master of Music Education (Research) Year of submission: 2005 Program: 2396 Supervisor: Assoc. Prof. Robert Walker Research Topic: Comparative Study of Music Curricula Ethics approval: No. 04 2 080 THE UNIVERSITY OF NEW SOUTH WALES Thesis/Dissertation Sheet Surname or Family name: Petrova First name: Irina Abbreviation for degree as given in the University calendar: MMusEd School: Music and Music Education Faculty of Arts and Social Sciences Title: A Comparative Study of Primary/ Elementary School Music Curricula in Australia (NSW), in the UK (England), in the Russian Federation and in the United States of America
Abstract 350 words maximum: In different countries, the music curricula for primary/ elementary school children has been influenced by many diverse factors including a number of progressive educational practices and a variety of psychological theories. This research gives a detailed analysis of a number of primary/ elementary school programs for general music in Australia (New South Wales, i.e. NSW), in the UK (England), in the Russian Federation and in the United States of America. The research aims to find out to what extent music education in different countries is based on or follows psychological theories of child development and progressive educational practices. Firstly, to acquire an adequate understanding of child education this research examines the philosophical roots of primary/ elementary education and a set of psychological ideas of Piaget and Vigotsky about the nature of children and the nature of knowledge. This provides insight of how children learn (the nature of learning) and the role of the teacher in learning music. Secondly, the research examines the musical content of the syllabae (the nature of subject). It critically compares the following components of curricula and syllabae: philosophy, objectives and contents including musical concepts, activities and music repertoire. This is then subjected to further analysis examining these contents in relation to theories of child development (Piaget and Vigotsky) and traditional and progressive educational practices (where it is applicable). Finally, a questionnaire is aimed at primary school teachers in NSW. These teachers are generalist teachers, there are no specialist music teachers employed as such in public primary schools in NSW. Music is taught in the NSW primary schools by class teachers. The problem is that NSW university faculties of education do not train music teachers as specialists at primary level. They only train generalist teachers. In other countries the situation is different. There are music specialists in the USA, UK and Russia teaching in primary schools. There are also such teachers in primary schools in Queensland, SA, Victoria, and WA and there are some in NSW. The questionnaire was, therefore, designed to enquire into the specific situation in NSW. Finally, issues of further investigation and research of curricula and syllabae in the primary/ elementary school are outlined.
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I also authorise University Microfilms to use the 350 word abstract of my thesis in dissertation Abstracts International (this is applicable to doctoral theses only).
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FOR OFFICE USE ONLY Date of completion of requirements for Award:
Registrar and Deputy Principal THIS SHEET IS TO BE GLUED TO THE INSIDE FRONT COVER OF THE THESIS Contents of Research
Statement of topic …………………………………………………………. 3
Aims of the thesis …………………………………………………………... 4
Chapter 1 Philosophical roots to primary education ………………………… 5 Child cognitive development …………………………………….. 16 Traditional and progressive approaches to education ……………. 27
Chapter 2 Curricula and syllabae in the primary/ elementary school • Brief description and summary of research findings in tables and figures …………………………………………………………… 36
Chapter 3 Curricula and syllabae in the primary/ elementary school
• Discussion - the primary/ elementary school music curriculum (discussion includes an examination of the primary/ elementary school contents in relation to theories of child development (Piaget and Vygotsky) and progressive educational practises ….. 106
• A comparison of the components of curricula and syllabae
Philosophy …………………………………………………… 119 Objectives ……………………………………………………. 132 Content 1. Musical concepts ………………………………. 145 2. Activities and techniques ……………………… 153 3. Musical content/ repertoire ……………………. 178
Chapter 4 Introduction to the statistical analysis of Survey of Primary School Teachers in the NSW ………………………………………………... 191
Chapter 5 Analysis of the primary school teachers’ survey ……………………... 201
Chapter 6 Issues of further investigation and research of curricula and syllabae in the primary/ elementary school …………………………………….. 249
Bibliography ………………………………………………………………….. 256
Appendix A …………………………………………………………………... 267
2 Statement of topic In different countries, the music curricula for primary/ elementary school children has been influenced by many diverse factors including a number of progressive educational practices and a variety of psychological theories. This research will attempt to give a detailed analysis of a number of primary/ elementary school programs for general music in Australia (New South Wales, i.e. NSW), in the UK (England), in the Russian Federation and in the United States of America. The research aims to find out to what extent music education in different countries is based on or follows psychological theories of child development and progressive educational practices. The research will provide insight into three aspects of music education. These are: how children learn (the nature of learning); whether or not music education should be based on the structure of music (the nature of subject); and the role of the teacher in learning music.
The syllabae of many countries are based on the belief that music has a significant place and purpose in primary education because music is a part of cultural heritage. As part of culture, music can make its own contributions to enrich the life of the home, the school and the community. Music is a vehicle that helps to develop children’s emotional and aesthetic interests. It fulfils a deep emotional need and caters for a variety of moods. One of the aims of school curricula should be to provide those experiences and activities that will help to nourish the child’s emotional needs. Music is a source of activity which allows the child to enjoy life and become a happier and more complete person. Through performing, listening and composing, or a combination of these activities, music is a medium for self-expression. Music provides a field of action which needs a curriculum suited to the child’s cognitive and physical capacities (Elkind, 1976, p.218). Moreover, a variety of musical instruments may accommodate a variety of individual differences and interests. Thus, general musical abilities include the development of knowledge and understanding of music, and the child’s emotional and aesthetic interests. They also include skills in all spheres of music creation as performers, listeners, composers or conductors.
By comparing the general music syllabae from the listed countries, this research will reveal the aspects each country emphasises or regards as a priority for the
3 development of a comprehensive music curriculum. It will also study their foundations and influences and their strengths and weaknesses.
Aims of the thesis Barrow (1984) states that for curriculum research, non-empirical issues, such as “examination of what ought to go on in schools”, and empirical issues, such as “what does go on, why it does, and how it does” are equally important (p.7). Therefore, the non-empirical part of this research is an examination of the musical content of primary/ elementary school syllabae from the NSW, UK (England), Russian Federation and USA and their critical comparison. This is then subjected to further analysis examining the contents in relation to Piaget’s and Vygotsky’s theories of child development and traditional and progressive educational practices. For the empirical part of the research, there is a questionnaire, which is designed to inquire into the specific situation in the NSW and is aimed at primary school teachers. I investigated the existing position of musically trained and untrained teachers involved in the teaching of music in NSW and the teachers’ perception of the importance of pre-service and in-service training. As well I investigate the different problems related to repertoire suggestions.
4 Chapter 1
Philosophical roots of primary/ elementary education
In the West, our modern thinking about education derives from Plato’s The Republic. Plato believed that children possess original impulses and energy and that these impulses need to be trained or educated in the right way (Annas, 1981, p.127). Musical training, in his thought, is an essential part of the right education. He asserted that musical training is a more potent instrument than any other, because rhythm and harmony find their way into the inward places of the soul, on which they mightily fasten, imparting grace, and making the soul of him who is rightly educated graceful, or of him who is ill-educated ungraceful; and also because he who has received this true education of the inner being will most shrewdly perceive omissions or faults in art and nature, and with a true taste, while he praises and rejoices over and receives into his soul the good, and becomes noble and good, he will justly blame and hate the bad, now in the days of his youth, even before he is able to know the reason why; and when reason comes he will recognize and salute the friend with whom his education has made him long familiar (Plato, 1901, #399). For many centuries little interest was shown in the development of children because they were regarded as miniature adults (Ackland, 1995, p.26). Prior to the 20th century developmental psychologists there was the apparent lack of interest in child development as a series of stages.
To acquire an adequate understanding of child education it will be necessary to examine a set of ideas about the nature of children and the nature of knowledge. It seems important, to scrutinise the philosophical roots of primary/ elementary education and the complex issue of child development. During the last three centuries, child psychologists and educators have attempted to explain the similarities and differences among children and to describe their behaviour and development. Many theories and ideas about primary/ elementary education are rooted in works by Rousseau and his followers Froebel, Pestalozzi and Montessori. Before analysing primary/ elementary school curricula, I will present the development of educational thought as a series of different
5 and perhaps unconnected points. This will lead then into examination of the Piaget’s and Vygotsky’s theories of child cognitive development followed by discussion about the traditional and progressive approaches to education.
In the 18th century, Jean Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778), a French philosopher, social and political theorist, musician, botanist, and one of the most eloquent writers of the Age of Enlightenment, expounded a new approach to education emphasising the importance of expression rather than repression to produce a well-balanced, freethinking child in his influential novel Emile (1762). Children, in his opinion, should not be subjected to punishments because one never knows how long a child may live and it is questionable to discipline them for their future good when they, possibly, may never reach adulthood. “As soon as they are aware of the joy of life, let them rejoice in it, so that whenever God calls them they may not die without having tasted the joy of life” (p.43).
Drawing differences between the child and the adult, Rousseau revealed that naturally children’s thought is limited in understanding. He wrote that “childhood has its own ways of seeing, thinking, and feeling; nothing is more foolish than to try and substitute our ways” (Rousseau, 1963, p. 54). He believed that everything that is in the human mind came through the senses. Since every thing that comes into the human mind enters through the gates of sense, man’s first reason is a reason of sense-experience. It is this that serves as a foundation for the reason of the intelligence; our first teachers in natural philosophy are our feet, hands and eyes (p. 90). Thus, the growing child must not learn by rote what they cannot understand, but they must learn by experience what they can understand because they can make judgements only on what is within their own experience.
Rousseau expressed his fundamental principle of education acknowledging that the child “should remain in complete ignorance of those ideas which are beyond his grasp” (p.141). In other words, Rousseau’s approach to education led to a delay in the teaching of knowledge and skills until the child is ready. The teaching should be more permissive and more psychologically oriented. These methods of child care would prevent children from making errors.
6 Until the time is ripe for the appearance of reason, that guide of selfishness, the main thing is that the child shall do nothing because you are watching him or listening to him; in a word, nothing because of other people, but only what nature asks of him; then he will never do wrong (pp. 56-57). His view suggested that normal development occurs best in a non restrictive, supportive environment.
Rousseau, however, did not ignore the fact that sometimes children behave in a mischievous way. He attributed any behaviour of this kind to circumstances which made the children act or react in an inappropriate way (p. 9). Yet, he pointed out the power of environmental influence in the development of children. “We are born sensitive and from our birth onwards we are affected in various ways by our environment” (p. 7).
The next theme in Emile concerns the individual differences in children and that “every mind has its own form” (p. 58) and “countless differences of character” (p.187). As a result, education needs to be individualised and it should study students by observing their expressions. While the young man has not learnt to pretend, while he does not even know the meaning of pretence, you see by his look, his manner, his gestures, the impression he has received from any object presented to him; you read in his countenance every impulse of his heart; by watching his expression you learn to protect his impulses and actually to control them (pp. 187-188).
Rousseau believed the child had a fundamental impulse to activity. He wrote that children are curious and are always doing “anything that keeps them moving freely” (p. 105). This occurs when mental activity is naturally reinforced by physical activity (p.105). He believed that “the bodily activity, which seeks an outlet for its energies, is succeeded by the mental activity which seeks for knowledge” (p. 130). Natural desire and certain instincts including “all their own activities . . . of the body for its growth in strength” (p. 50) to find out about the world that affects oneself, rather than the desire for learning for the sake of learning, should be considered as the underlay of educational programs. These programs should include only those things in which children have a natural interest and involve moving around freely, playing and
7 exploring (p. 130). Thus, he strongly recommended distinguishing between “natural and acquired tendencies” and omitting “from our early studies such knowledge as has no natural attraction for us, and confine ourselves to such things as instinct impels us to study” (p. 130).
Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi (1746-1827) was a Swiss educational reformer, who was influenced by the works of Rousseau. Pestalozzi’s theories laid the groundwork for modern primary/ elementary education. He began his experiments in education by opening a school for the children of the poor on his estate near Zurich. From those experiments he formulated his theories and wrote two books, The Evening Hours of a Hermit (1781), a series of aphoristic observations on education and life; and Leonard and Gertrude (1781-1785), a didactic novel expounding his theories on social reform through education. In Pestalozzi’s eyes, Rousseau snapped our mental chains and became “the turning point between the old world and the new in educational matters” (Quoted in Darling, 1994, p. 17).
Like Rousseau, he distinguishes between the natural and artificial in teaching and considers that the child should learn through activity instead of dealing with words. The child in the Pestalozzian system is guided to learn through practice and observation and through the natural employment of the senses. They should be free to pursue their own interests and draw their own conclusions (Green, 1912, p. 19). Pestalozzi stressed the individuality of the child and the necessity for teachers to be taught how to develop rather than to try to implant knowledge.
He strongly emphasised the value of observation in relation to consciousness, speech and the higher forms of reasoning. In every subject, he stressed the need for children to acquire information through simple sensory activity then through memory and imagination (p. 208). He also gave some ideas of how this should be implemented. For instance, before teaching a child reading and spelling, he argued, the child must have appropriate experience and a good spoken vocabulary (Green, 1912, p. 87).
Friedrich Froebel (1782-1852) accepted many of Pestalozzi’s views on education, but criticised him for the absence of a connection between the subjects of instruction (Lilley, 1967, p. 36). He developed a number of new ideas. He admired the concept of
8 education as development and the attempt to base eduction on the nature of the child “with a strong mystical flavour” (Lawson and Petersen, 1972, p. 13). Froebel believed that young children were to be regarded and tended essentially like plants. “Why, then, do we observe the human child far less than the seed corn or the germ of a plant in the totality of his development?” (Lawson and Petersen, 1972, p. 13). In 1836 he evolved the idea of the kindergarten for the education of preschool children aged three to seven. He stressed the education of the child, basically through activities, to develop his or her potential.
His principles amounted to a belief in the innate creativity of children and in the concept of all aspects of growth as purely natural functions (p. 114). He believed the divine feature in human nature was the capacity to be productive and creative. He stressed the importance of creating an educational environment that involved practical work as the best way to achieve knowledge. He thought play was an activity of great symbolic significance and was crucial to the development of the child’s awareness (p. 167). He also thought singing and playing in a play-circle was the ideal setting for social activities (p. 167).
Froebel’s methods involved the use of “gifts”. By gifts Froebel meant blocks and other solid materials (cylinders, cubes and spheres), which the child could dismantle. They were used to help the child become acquainted with numbers or to allow him or her to build various objects. The other gifts were things like clay, paints, coloured pencils and paper which the child could use as his or her creative sense dictated (p. 167).
Progressive education was to find its most representative twentieth century expression in the works of Maria Montessori (1870-1952), an Italian educator and physician, best known for developing the Montessori Method of teaching young children from birth to six years. She indicated that the learning ability of a young child is fundamentally different from that of an adult. Unlike the adult, the child appears able to absorb through activity and without effort, a number of complete and precise abilities and skills. Language is an example. She called this unique early learning capacity of “combining into itself” the young child’s “absorbent mind” (Montessori, 1967, pp.5-6). But what is the fundamental difference? Is it that the children are small and the adults big? Or is it
9 that the children are ignorant whereas grown ups are experienced? Or, probably, that children understand concrete things better, and mature people can operate with ideas? Montessori found the essential difference is that “the child is in a continual state of growth and metamorphosis, whereas the adult has reached the norm of the species” (Quoted in Standing, 1957, p.87). This thesis will attempt to reveal Montessori’s views on education. It will concentrate on stages of child development and sensitive periods. It will also discuss specific childhood characteristics, child play and activities, role of the teacher and the method of instruction.
Montessori considers that the aim of education concerns biological and social concepts. From the biological point of view education provides the natural development of the person. Montessori defined her method as the education of the senses that is “a pedagogical experiment with a didactic object and awaiting the spontaneous reaction of the child” (Montessori, 1964, p.167). She revealed that didactic material plays a key role in the child’s mental development. For example, the phenomenon of concentration, which will be described later in this chapter, always comes when the child is occupied with the material but never without (Standing, 1957, p.224). The didactic materials are “adapted to cause the child to exercise the senses” (pp. 168-169). Froebel’s gifts are credited with a mystical and symbolic significance and have no real relation to the child’s reactions, while Montessori’s materials are based on clearly defined psychological principles, such as identity, contrast and gradation.
From the social standpoint the aim of education is to prepare the child for independence (Montessori, 1964, p.216). What does independence do for the child? Montessori fostered independence in two ways. First, she provided freedom and independence in learning. She taught children the value of dignity of the individual. She thought that through freedom, children built trust in their own judgement. She cultivated a number of skills and knowledge, such as reading, writing, maths, geography, social courtesy, physical grace and household skills. These skills will help a child live competently. Thus, Montessori characterised the child’s gradual growth towards independence as continual progress into adult society.
10 In life, bodily and mental changes take place at the same time. Montessori divided the child’s mental development into stages and described their sensitive periods. She described the child’s mental development as a series of metamorphoses. She insisted that the important thing is that the child has what he or she needs at each stage. The roots of this idea go back to Rousseau, who has ascribed all the defects of body and mind in pupils to the “desire to make men of them before their time” (Quoted in Standing, 1957, p. 305). She separated the child’s mental growth into stages of development starting from the unconscious period going to the conscious in the first six years. She revealed that the transition from unconscious to conscious happens through the experience of objects in child’s environment, through movement or by means of doing things (Standing, 1957, pp.89-90).
Following Froebel’s notion of indispensable periods of “budding points”, when a child is “to be taught with profit and success” (Quoted in Standing, 1957, p. 306), Montessori pointed out a number of sensitive periods or psychic aptitudes. These are when conditions for the development of a certain skill or knowledge are extremely favourable at one stage, but at a different time they may become ineffective. For example, she says there is a special sensibility for the development of language, order, refinement of the senses and for learning good manners. Connecting the mental development with educational procedure, Montessori argued that it was usually considered that a thing was easier or more difficult to learn according to the age of the children. She emphasised that the ease of acquisition of any new skill depended on whether or not the child was in a “sensitive period” for that particular skill (pp. 99- 116).
Studying child development through the method of external observation, namely, “carefully recorded observation of the subject”, Montessori discovered that all children possess different and higher qualities than those usually attributed to them (Montessori, 1964, p. 72). What were these hidden valuable things that were revealed to Montessori? They included profound spontaneous mental concentration (Montessori, 1967, pp. 216-217). This concentration is a biological “phenomenon of growth” that isolates the child from his or her environment (Standing, 1957, p. 154). Montessori emphasised that this mental state is based on internally derived motivation rather than external control of behaviour, and mental growth that resulted from
11 spontaneous activity. Yet, action, to her, is prior to thought and thought is internalised action (Gettman, 1987, pp. x-xi).
Children also have sense of order. They show “sensitiveness to the orderly arrangement of things to their relative positions” (Montessori, 1967, p.190). She believed that “the little child’s need for order is one of the most powerful incentives to dominate his early life” (p. 190). Montessori emphasised that it is worth remembering that the child seeks and finds order not only in the general aspect of the environment, but also in the variety of activities which are to be found within it. This is because the intellect is based on the principle of order (Standing, 1957, p.153). But how does the sense of order connect external experiences with internal development? The external order in daily experiences allows the child to build an understanding of life on the foundations of the perceived patterns. Then, external order will help the development of an internal sense of order (Gettman, 1987, p. 8).
Another feature of child psychology revealed by Montessori is the need for repetition. She observed that children repeat the same thing over and over again. This repetition is a child’s psychological need to develop their senses. Unlike adults, children enjoy and seek repetition of the same stimulus many times. Each time the same stimulus appears with a slightly different impression (Montessori, 1964, pp.173-175). She sees the aim of repetition as the child’s refining of his or her senses through the exercise of attention, comparison and judgment (p. 360).
It is a commonly held view that repetition aids learning. However, learning does not consist entirely of repetition. What is learning? How then does learning take place? How does repetition facilitate the process of learning? The word “learn” usually refers to operations that install new skill or knowledge in the individual. When an individual lacks this skill at first and then exhibits it, it is said that the individual has “learned”. Montessori, however, considered that the act of learning did not involve anything new (Montessori, 1967, p. 26). For her “learning” itself is the act of joining or connecting previous acquisitions absorbed from the world. They are then tied together by use or meaning, creating a larger system of uses or meanings. Thus, repetition takes on an important role in the process of learning. After absorbing many separate elements of knowledge or skill, the child needs to act repeatedly on the connections between the
12 absorbed materials. This usually involves physical activity. Through repetition, the child establishes all the different ways that the elements fit together into a unified concept. After that, the child consciously finds the purpose of this concept in his or her daily life (Gettman, 1987, p. 12).
There is a common notion of work as something which has been imposed and play as the natural spontaneous expression of the child’s personality. Montessori maintains that play is something, which satisfies only a part of child’s nature, but that work brings satisfaction to the whole being (Standing, 1957, p.324). Montessori also stated that children prefer work (“environmental experience”) to play because it satisfies the subconscious need to grow and develop into a harmonious personality (Montessori, 1967, p. 88). This discovery led to one of the main differences in practice between the Froebel Kindergarten and the Montessori School. Froebel wrote that “play is the purest, most spiritual activity of man at this stage and at the same time typical of human life as a whole” (Quoted in Standing, 1957, p. 325). In contrast, Montessori states that “the child’s aptitude for work represents a vital instinct” and that when working the child organises his personality” (p. 326). However, it would be a mistake to conclude then that Montessori suppressed make-believe activities. They are important for child development especially if they do not arise from the suggestion of adults or they occur due to a lack of suitable opportunities given to the child to expend his or her energies in real activities (p.327).
The next natural feature of childhood involves spontaneous self-discipline, which is not affected by the absence of the directress for long periods of time. (This is another feature of children’s behaviour revealed by Montessori). This kind of discipline is in fact the result of freedom. Montessori wrote that “the pedagogical method of observation has for its base the liberty of the child and liberty is activity” and that “discipline must come through liberty” (Montessori, 1964, p. 86). However, the concept of discipline in Montessori’s classes is very different from that commonly known, whereby “an individual is disciplined only when he has been rendered as artificially silent as a mute and as immovable as a paralytic”. She emphasised that discipline, which is based on liberty, must be active. In other words, a child is disciplined when he or she can occupy himself or herself following some rules of life (p. 86).
13
Having described the role of action in children’s mental and physical development, that is children learn by doing things and children concentrate and are disciplined when doing things, it is worth examining how Montessori organised activities. She developed a number of activities for children to engage in. She divided them into five disciplines or subjects, such as practical, sensory, linguistic, mathematical and cultural. For example, one subject area consisted of the practical activities which target the development of basic personal skills used in daily living. These include being polite, dressing oneself and cleaning things (Gettman, 1987, p. 39). The purpose of the sensory activities is to help the child classify the variety of impressions given by the senses. The sensory activities involve physical challenges, such as applying the senses acutely and accurately and manipulating materials. The mental challenges include exercising both memory and judgement when matching, grouping and ordering the materials (p. 67). Presuming that speaking is a natural human activity and the child will spontaneously begin to speak with meaning, Montessori’s language activities aim to promote writing and reading (p.132). Nourishing the absorbent mind and following the process of three stage learning (physical, mental and sensory), these activities provide the child with stimuli and experiences that fulfil the needs of the sensitive periods and child’s inner intellectual structure.
Montessori based her educational method on giving children freedom in a specially prepared environment, under the guidance of a trained director. She stressed that leaders of the classroom be called directors rather than teachers because their main work was to direct the interests of children and advance their development. Montessori stressed that the teacher must bring not only the capacity, but also the desire, to observe natural phenomena. In our system, she must become a passive, much more than an active, influence, and her passivity shall be composed of anxious scientific curiosity, and absolute respect for the phenomenon that she wishes to observe. The teacher must understand and feel her position of observer; the activity must lie in the phenomenon (Montessori, 1964, p.87). This is also Froebel’s claim to the teacher. He wrote that “education, in instruction and training in its first principles, should necessarily be a passive following – only
14 guarding and protecting – not prescriptive, categorical, interfering” (Quoted in Standing, 1957, p.303). However, unlike the Froebelian system, where the teacher stands in front of the children doing her best to hold their attention pleasantly, to interest and vitalise them, Montessori’s directress moves quietly among children, helping them to amuse, to interest and vitalise themselves. Strictly speaking, the teacher does not teach the children, but she gives them endless opportunities and abundant facilities for teaching themselves, for “the idea of self-education is the Alpha and Omega of her system” (Board of Education, 1912, p. 8). The Montessori Method aims to bring up the man who, through his own efforts, is able to perform all the actions necessary for his comfort and development in life, conquers himself, and in doing so multiplies his abilities and perfects himself as an individual (Montessori, 1964, p.101). Viewing the uniqueness and complexity of individuals, Montessori stressed the importance of individualised instruction rather than instructing a group of children. In the Froebelian system, the unit of teaching is a group of eight to ten children, but in the Montessori school the unit of teaching is the individual child. She pointed out the directress needed to observe each child in order to obtain the idea how to instruct this child (Martin, 1992, p.37). According to her, when a child is ready to learn new and more difficult tasks, the director should guide the child from the outset so that the child does not waste effort or learn wrong habits.
Thus, Montessori viewed the person as an integrated whole, stressing the individual as well as the universal aspects of human nature. The notion of the individual as self- creating, self-actualising and self-enhancing was central in her method. She emphasised that children have a mind able to absorb knowledge. Children develop themselves with their hands, using them as the instruments of human intelligence. Montessori provided children with mental stimulation, meaningful activities, and opportunities for development through the method of individualised instruction. The role of the teacher, a directress, must be of servant rather than master. It must include scientific detachment, informed observation and mediation of the prepared environments.
15 In conclusion, children are different from adults. They think, learn and work differently. Many of the ideas and implications of progressive education are rooted in the belief that the child is inherently good, not sinful and should develop in his or her own way. This type of education would lead to perfection in mankind. Among the most significant educators are Rousseau and his followers Froebel, Pestalozzi and Montessori. Stressing the development of initiative and self-reliance in children, they revealed that children learn better by experiencing things. Progressive experiments with individuals show that learning occurs essentially by oneself. The learning must be done by the child, as no one else can do his or her learning for him or her.
Child cognitive development
To understand child learning it is necessary to consider the complex issue of child development. There are a number of general and specific aspects to this, among them cognitive development.
According to Barrow (1984), when considering curricula “education . . . is essentially about developing mind” (p. 7). The development of the mind is cognitive. This pertains to the mental processes distinct from the emotional and volitional. There are two major factors that compose and influence children’s cognitive development. They are cognition and environment. Cognition encapsulates all the mental activities in which a person engages, such as perception, categorisation, understanding, inference drawing, logical reasoning, problem solving, imagination and memory. These processes evolve and change during childhood and adolescence. The brain undergoes a number of related genetically controlled changes which allow sophisticated thinking processes. Cognitive development, to some extent, is a function of physiological maturation. Informal experiences, for example play activities with peers and encounters with new objects, as well as formal, planned interventions, namely classroom lessons, form environmental factors. They also play a key role in the development of children’s and adolescents’ cognitive capabilities.
A number of psychological theories and their practical application have had a major impact on the study of cognitive development and education. Among them, there are
16 Piaget’s and Vygotsky’s theories of child cognitive development. Their theories are focussed on the close connection between cognitive development and the social development of the child. Addressing the fundamental issues of child cognitive development and learning, this research attempts to examine and compare Piaget’s and Vygotsky’s views on a variety of aspects of child cognitive development.
In the early 1960s the attention of psychologists was focussed on the work of the Swiss psychologist Jean Piaget (1896-1980), who since the 1920s had been writing about children’s responses to a wide variety of problems (Piaget, 1928, 1952a, 1959, 1970; Piaget and Inhelder, 1969). For the present study it is worth mentioning the educational conceptual forerunners of his theory. Clearly, there are parallels with the educational concepts of Rousseau, whose insights into learning and education were achieved by means of observation and intuition. Like Rousseau, Piaget investigates these areas of study through empirical experiments and their theoretical analysis. These include the principle of teaching children who have the capacity to understand at their level of development and the importance of the coordination of perceptual and motor activity in the learning process. Piaget’s theory also echoes the Pestalozzian theoretical emphasis upon the importance of direct experience (Elkind, 1976, p. 45). To obtain a better understanding of Piaget’s theory, it is necessary to have a close look at his approach to the study of child cognitive development, the notion of child ego- centrism, structural regulations of child thinking and children’s stages of development.
Piaget’s approach to studying child development is known as individual constructivism, where the child increasingly constructs knowledge within a single person (internally). His study involves both experimental and observational methods and, with behaviour, integrates biological and environmental variables. He pioneered the use of the clinical method procedure, where he offered children a variety of tasks and asked a series of questions about each one. This approach enabled him to examine the specific reasoning processes that the children were using and provided many insights about children’s thinking and learning. Yet, Donaldson (1978), who observed Piaget’s procedures, carried out in the Institut des Sciences de l’Education in Geneva, concluded that during the experiments, the children often gave answers to questions that were not the ones asked by the teacher. The children interpreted the questions in
17 ways that were different to that of the teachers’ (Donaldson, 1978, pp. 49, 60-75). As a result, she states that Piaget is wrong in assuming that children are unable to take account of another person’s point of view (pp. 30-31). Donaldson then concluded that situations set by Piaget did not make sense to the child. To put it differently, the statement of the problem was not appropriate for the child’s understanding. Entwistle (1970) also argues that Piaget’s approach may not be suitable for formal schooling situations. In the Piagetian situations, children were working either in small groups or in a one-to-one position with and adult observer. As a result, Piagetian inferences derived from the observation of children in non-educational learning situations may not be applicable to formal schooling where there are twenty to thirty children participating in a class room at once (p. 197).
One of the most important and inseparable parts of cognitive development in Piaget’s psychology is ego-centrism. Piaget stresses the influence of ego-centrism. It becomes apparent when the child is under the age of six or seven and encounters systematic difficulties in taking the point of view of another individual (Piaget and Inhelder, 1956, p. 220). Piaget also viewed a number of new structures that appear at each stage of development. They release the child from the ego-centrism of the previous stage and at the same time involve him or her in a new type of ego-centrism (Elkind, 1976, p. 102).
Piaget’s study is concerned with the explanation of structural regularities and processes in thinking. Piaget’s first recognisable structure is the schemas1 (schemata). This is the term used to describe his idea that the things that children learn from their experiences, they then organise into groups of similar actions or thoughts. They then reuse them in both familiar and new situations. While repeating and refining their schemes, children begin to use them in different combinations that lead to the creation of a larger system of mental processes (operations). Thus, a child’s cognitive structure increases in sophistication with development, moving from a few innate reflexes such as crying and sucking to highly complex mental activities.
1 The term schema appeared earlier in Kant’s Critique of Pure Reason (1781, 1958) referring to mental structures (Elkind, 1976, pp. 27-28).
18 Piaget describes the process of thinking and points out a number of states of mind, such as assimilation, accommodation and equilibration. He proves the importance of interaction with the physical environment for cognitive development. Piaget reveals that the process of thinking aims and enables children to adapt to their environment by means of assimilation and accommodation. Assimilation is the cognitive process by which the person integrates new perceptual matter or stimulus into existing schemata or patterns of behaviour. Assimilation does not result in the change of schemata. It does affect its growth accounting for its quantitative change. Piaget thinks schemata changes with accommodation. Thus, accommodation is the creation of a new schemata or the modification of the old schemata. This accounts for its qualitative change.
The results of these two tightly bound processes (assimilation and accommodation) are revealed in the developmental process of adaptation, when children develop schemes which permit them to respond to their environment. For example, children interpret any new situation within the set of their existing knowledge (assimilation), but at the same time may change their knowledge as a result of the new event (accommodation) (Wadsworth, 1971, pp. 14-15). Piaget also proposed that there is a certain state of mental equilibrium, which children intrinsically desire to achieve for the development of more complicated thought and knowledge (p. 17). According to Hargreaves and Zimmerman (1992), Swanwick and Tillman (1986) applied this notion to the learning of music and showed that the material for the conceptual structure of music (musical schema) is positioned within the elements of music (p.378). They developed a spiral model of music cognition. In their model, the process of the formation of the concept includes labelling, categorising and organising perception into meaningful concepts that will provide the base for later study and the enjoyment of more complex music. However, Hargreaves and Zimmerman argue that the phases of Swanwick and Tillman’s spiral model are not applicable outside the realm of music and cannot be considered as general or universal mechanisms that underlie cognitive development. Piagetian stages, however, involve general cognitive structures that influence children’s activities across all areas of mental life. Therefore, Hargreaves concludes that Swanwick and Tillman’s notion does not relate to Piaget as it was claimed (p. 381).
19 Piaget emphasised that the modification of schemes through accommodation may occur only with new experiences (Wadsworth, 1971, p.10). This is why interaction with the physical environment and other people is critical for cognitive development. Piaget stressed the importance of interaction with peers. Interaction with peers develops some mental processes when children’s arguments help them to discover that there may be several points of view concerning any single event. By internalising the arguing process, children develop the capacity to look at an event from different points of view. Piaget views this as people in a child’s life bringing information that causes disequilibrium. This then promotes greater development (McDevitt and Ormrod and Ormrod, 2004, p.179). Thus, the process of thinking occurs when the child experiences his or her environment using mental maps, which he or she has constructed so far. If the experience is a repeated one, it is assimilated into the child’s cognitive structure so that he or she maintains mental balance. If the experience is different or new, the child loses balance, and alters his or her cognitive structure to accommodate the new conditions. In this way the child erects more and more useful cognitive structures. However, his study does not give an answer to the question, why does a cognitive process motivate a search for equilibrium?
Piaget proposed that, as a result of both neurological maturation and the increasing integration of knowledge and thought processes, the child’s mental development continues through certain universal and invariable stages. Piaget identified four stages of mental growth. In his view, children proceed through stages of cognitive development having qualitatively different thinking and reasoning processes at each one. For instance, in the sensorimotor stage, occurring from birth to age two, the child is concerned with gaining motor control and learning about physical objects. In the preoperational stage, from age two to seven, the child is preoccupied with verbal skills. At this point the child can name objects and reason intuitively. In the concrete operational stage, from age seven to twelve, the child begins to deal with abstract concepts such as numbers and relationships. Finally, in the formal operational stage, ages twelve to fifteen, the child begins to reason logically and systematically (Saettler, 1990, p. 331). Thus, Piaget’s theory of perception and cognition, a theory of development, reflects an attempt to relate behavioural change to chronological age. That is, diverse behavioural characteristics should be related to specific stages of growth.
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Piaget supposed that his stages were universally applicable to children (Cole, 1990, pp. 2-7). According to Atkinson (1983), Piaget also insists that his stage system must involve the sequence of developmental levels and he stresses necessity for each individual to go through each of the stages. There is no possibility that the stages may occur in a different order or that one may miss a stage. However, Atkinson stated that the two highest stages of moral thought were absent in illiterate or partly literate village cultures (p. 17).
Many theorists agree with Piaget that child cognitive development is stage-like. For example, Petzold (1966) investigated the auditory perception of musical sounds made by children in grades one to six. He revealed that it takes a child at least two years to produce significant differences between grades. Without reporting a developmental progression, he also found that the ability to respond rhythmically was attained by second grade. Zimmerman and Sechrest (1968) attempted to translate Piaget’s conservation experiments with volume and weight into an equivalent set of auditory tasks. They designed tasks to measure musical conservation and proved that developmental levels exist. Taebel (1972), Hufstader (1977) and O’Hearn (1984) reported an improvement in the tasks that require children to listen and respond, in various ways, to musical changes. Each of these studies supports developmental music-listening ability. The differences between the younger and older subjects in rhythmic representation were described by Hildebrandt (1985) and Upitis (1985), and in the area of children’s singing voice development by Davidson, McKernon and Gardner (1981), Hattwick (1933), and Jersild and Bienstock (1934).
Can cognitive development be accelerated? This question equally concerns both the teaching process and the role of the teacher in this process. This process is derived from Piaget’s observations and his belief that from birth humans are active learners who do not require external incentives because they are naturally curious about their world and actively engage in searching for information to help them understand it (Piaget, 1952b). The teacher’s role, as he sees it, is to provide support for children’s initiatives. Training, in Piaget’s scheme, does not affect the child as a whole because his theory is based on stages of development, which involve maturation and experience. It is impossible to speed them up (Elkind, 1976, p.255).
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By explaining human development as the interaction of biological determinants and environmental events, Piaget believed that people do not simply absorb knowledge but increasingly construct it within themselves. Piaget believed that children are active and motivated learners, who learn from their experiences by adapting to their environment through the processes of assimilation and accommodation. The process of equilibration, however, promotes proceeding gradually toward a compound structure of thought. Having been equally influenced by their physical environment and other people, children think in qualitatively distinct ways at different age levels.
In contrast to Piaget’s individual constructivism, Lev Semionovich Vygotsky (1896– 1934), a Soviet psychologist, investigated the issue of child cognitive development from a socio-cultural perspective. His work is based on the supposition that higher cognitive processes are a product of social development (McDevitt and Ormrod and Ormrod, 2004, p. 164). Vygotsky values the time when children are allowed to make discoveries themselves, but he also holds in high esteem adults’ descriptions of the discoveries of previous generations (Karpov and Haywood, 1998, pp. 27-36). Vygotsky’s works were not translated into English until the 1970s so Piaget was interpreted and accepted without knowledge of Vygotsky. Vygotsky hypothesised the existence of the process of internalisation when social activities evolve into internal mental activities. Children begin to use these complex mental processes of social activities independently. In other words, as children discuss things with adults, they gradually begin to use the words, concepts and other representations that are typical of their culture. Vygotsky states: Every function in the child's cultural development appears twice: first, on the social level, and later, on the individual level; first, between people (interpsychological) and then inside the child (intrapsychological). This applies equally to voluntary attention, to logical memory, and to the formation of concepts. All these higher functions originate as actual relationships between individuals (Vygotsky, 1978, p. 57). Thus, Vygotsky’s view focuses on the supreme importance of culture in settling specific acquired thinking skills, whereas Piaget asserts that the nature of logical thinking skills and their progression over time do not depend on cultural context (Elkind, 1976, p.131).
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Vygotsky (1962) believes that adults convey to children the path in which their culture interprets and responds to the world through both informal and formal schooling interactions. Teachers systematically impart the ideas, concepts and terminology of different academic disciplines. There are a number of researchers (Damon, 1984; Webb and Palincsar, 1996), who proposed that interactions with adults play different roles in the child’s development compared with the role of their peers. Other theorists acknowledge that interaction with adults and children of the same age are equally important (Gauvain, 2001). However, according to Radziszewska and B. Rogoff (1991), Vygotsky writes that the guidance of a competent adult is more advantageous when children are learning new skills and that children can fulfil more complex tasks when assisted by more competent people (pp. 381-389). Thus, Vygotsky’s approach gives the teacher an active role, whereas Piaget sees the teacher as reactive.
The idea of the importance of interaction with adults is extended in Vygotsky’s notion that the potential for cognitive development depends upon the “zone of proximal development” (ZPD). This is a level of development attained when children engage in social behaviour. Even though the child’s ZPD naturally changes over time, full development of the “zone of proximal development” depends upon full social interaction. The range of skills that can be developed with adult guidance or peer collaboration exceeds what can be attained alone. In other words, there is a difference between what the child can do alone and what the child can do with help. Vygotsky believes that when completing tasks independently, children learn very little, but performance of tasks within their zone of proximal development with an adult’s assistance promotes the child’s cognitive development. Vygotsky’s concept, which arises from the notion of ZPD, postulates that challenging tasks promote maximum cognitive growth (McDevitt and Ormrod, 2004, p.166). This notion of two kinds of abilities that children may have at any point in their development, contains a child’s actual development (the upper limit of an assignment that a child can carry out without help) and a child’s level of potential development (the upper limit of an assignment that a child can fulfil with the help of a competent person). Thus, Vygotsky proposed that to obtain a true sense of children’s cognitive development, their capabilities should be assessed not only when performing alone but also when
23 performing with support. As a result of this deduction Vygotsky and Piaget have distinctly different approaches to the assessment of children’s learning.
Vygotsky’s and Piaget’s theories regarding the assessment of child’s progress in learning differ. Vygotsky states that learning potential, rather than actual performance levels are indicative of the future success or failure of learning (Vygotsky, 1987, p. 187). On the contrary, Piaget, stressing a present displayed (“manifest”) level of the child’s performance, considers that the ideal test of a child’s learning occurs when the child is faced with unfamiliar, new and more difficult tasks. Reasoning must be free from adult logic. Intellectual development of the child should be defined by this manifest level (Kozulin, 1994, p. 273).
Vygotsky’s vision of child cognitive development differs from Piaget’s when considering the impact of language on mental processes. Vygotsky considers language as an absolutely critical component for cognitive development because children’s thought processes are mostly verbal in nature (Vygotsky, 1987, p. 72). According to Piaget, language provides verbal labels for many of the schemes that children have previously developed and is the means through which children interact with others. Despite this, Piaget states that language for the most part does not influence cognitive development. Vygotsky suggests that children begin to talk to themselves aloud (self- talks) and learn to direct their own behaviours in the way that adults have taught them. The process of inner speech where children talk to themselves mentally, derives from self-talks (pp. 71-73). Piaget likens self-talks to the egocentric speech when children do not take into account the listener’s perspective. In contrast to Piaget’s concept of human thought developing from the individual to the social, Vygotsky states: The earliest speech of the child is ... essentially social. ... At a certain age the social speech of the child is quite sharply divided into egocentric and communicative speech ... Egocentric speech emerges when the child transfers social, collaborative forms of behaviour to the sphere of inner-personal psychic functions ... Egocentric speech, splintered off from general social speech, in time leads to inner speech, which serves both autistic and logical thinking. ... the true direction of the development of thinking is not from the individual to the socialised, but from the social to the individual (Vygotsky, 1962, pp. 19-20).
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Thus, one of the central ideas of Vygotsky is that adults, in their interaction with children, share the meanings of objects, events and their experiences. They convey to children the ways in which their culture interprets and responds to the world by a variety of means to transmit these meanings. These means include language (spoken and written), symbols, art, mathematics, music, literature and so forth. What kinds of social interactions are most valuable? As independent and self-motivated explorers of the physical world, children, in Piaget’s opinion, have brains that are able to form the basis for developing schemes. Only a little guidance from others may be involved. Vygotsky, in contrast, argued for assistance of the process of facilitation and interpretation of children’s activities by more competent persons. He did not deny children’s intrinsic power to explore things themselves but he postulated that this power may be awakened by way of instruction.
Considering the issue of cognition from different points of view, Vygotsky and Piaget, nevertheless, agree on a number of points. Acknowledging Rousseau’s idea that a child is not a miniature adult, Piaget’s view on education resembles that of Vygotsky in pointing out the relationship between action and thought. Similar to Piaget, Vygotsky stressed that children learn by doing things themselves. The important aspect in cognitive development and the educational process, as Vygotsky sees it, is to provide children with many opportunities to play. This leads to more satisfactory development. He writes that “in play, a child is always above his average age, above his daily behaviour; in play it is as though he were a head taller than himself” (Vygotsky, 1978, p. 102). When children play, they put trust in their imagination and learn to use their thoughts to direct their behaviours. Substituting one object for another, they begin to make distinctions between objects and their meanings. For example, acting as a “mummy” or “daddy”, the preschool and early primary/ elementary school children limit their behaviours in accordance with characters they have chosen. They learn a number of skills for later participation in the adult sphere, for instance to think before they act and to plan ahead.
Another idea of Vygotsky, that at any particular stage children are ready to learn something new, is also similar to Piaget. He (Piaget) writes that there are some overlapping processes between the new and the old objects and events which children
25 accommodate and assimilate into existing schemas at the same time (McDevitt and Ormrod, 2004, p.179).
Resembling Vygotsky, Piaget also points out the importance of challenge for development. In his theory, children develop sophisticated thought processes only when they meet the unfamiliar they cannot adequately understand it using existing schemes (Atkinson, 1983, p.61).
Thus, it is worth comparing Vygotsky’s and Piaget’s theories because their focus is on the child’s cognitive development. Together they provide a more complete picture of the child’s cognitive characteristics. They portray the systematic explanation of cognitive development. They represent a clear picture of how a child’s learning capabilities change over time. Placing the child as the object of their research, they share a number of common themes, such as the emphasis on action in the formation of thought, and the importance of social interaction, readiness and challenge. Differences in their positions are reflected in their views on the influence of culture, the kinds of experiences that promote development, the kind and value of social interaction, the role of teacher, attitudes to assessment of development, and the importance of language for cognitive development. For Piaget, learning occurs in an unassisted interaction between the child’s mental schemes and the outer world. When practising his or her schemas, the child’s learning requires a sufficient number of objects and processes. From Vygotsky’s point of view, learning occurs through the cooperation between the child and adults who introduce symbols to the child and who also teach the child how to form and regulate his or her natural psychological function through these cultural means. He acknowledged that biological factors play a role in children’s development, but his focus was on the role of nurture when the child’s social and cultural experiences accelerate cognitive growth. He proposed that adults, engaging children in meaningful and challenging activities, helping and instructing them to act successfully and discussing with children about their experiences, promote children’s cognitive development. Then the natural psychological functions change becoming culturally and socially instructive and systematic. Piaget’s and Vygotsky’s theories address the fundamental questions of child cognitive development and learning.
26 What does this mean for the child’s musical development? Educators might be able to develop curricula which will open up a child’s potential in music when they have an understanding of the theories of cognitive development.
Traditional and progressive approaches to education
Nowadays, the education systems are rich in methods, aims and social outcomes. There are many different educational methods officially used in different countries. Among them, the most distinct ones are the traditional, teacher-centred, and child-centred approaches.
To understand the traditional, teacher-centred, approach, it is worth looking into the theological context, when human nature was explained by the doctrine of the inheritance of original sin. This theological notion prompted a strictly disciplined approach to education is based on biblical text: “Thou shalt beat him with the rod, and shalt deliver his soul from hell” (Proverbs 23:14) because the inclination of nature, as it was seen, was placed the wrong way around and education was designed to put it right (Body, 1936, p.56). According to Liebschner (1991), the sombre picture of the traditional schools may be found in the book, entitled What is and what might be, by Edmond Holmes, a Chief Inspector of Elementary Schools in England from 1874-1905. He gave a very critical account of the school system when he wrote: …the aim of the teacher is to do everything for the child; to feed him with semi- digested food, to hold him by the hand, or rather by the shoulders, when he tries to walk or run; to keep him under close and constant supervision; to tell him in precise detail what he is to think, to feel, to wish, to do, to show in precise detail how he is to do whatever may have to be done; to lay thin veneers of information on the surface of his mind; never to allow him a minute of independent study; never to trust him with a handbook, a note book, or a sketch-book; in fine, to do all in his power to prevent the child from doing anything whatever for himself … (Liebschner, 1991, p.2).
At the beginning of 20th century, Holmes also witnessed the Froebelian school of a different type:
27 And the activity of the Utopian child is his own activity. It is a fountain which springs up in himself. Unlike the ordinary school-child, he can do things on his own account. He does not wait, in the helplessness of passive obedience, for this teacher to tell him what he is to do and how he is to do it… If a new situation arises, he deals with it with promptitude and decision… His initiative has evidently been developed with his intelligence; and the result of this is that he can think things out for himself … (Liebschner, 1991, p.2). This example illustrates an opposing view to the traditional way of teaching and learning, namely a progressive method or a child-centred approach.
A philosophical doctrine of progressive education was developed by John Dewey (1859-1952). He rejected a psychology based on mind sets and introspection that is observation or examination of one’s own mental and emotional state and mental processes. He wrote that Education may be defined as a process of continuous reconstruction of experience with the purpose of widening and deepening its social content, while, at the same time, the individual gains control of the methods involved (Dewey, 1911, p. 400). His definition emphasises two points. First, education is a process, and it never ends. Second, Dewey never posed the individual against society or vice versa. The blend of individual thought and group sanction he called a “critical engagement” (Dewey, 1911, p. 400). He saw the perfect community that is established by people who think independently and relate themselves to the group. Child-centred education also inherits a collection of moral theoretical statements about childhood which derive from works by Rousseau, Froebel and Pestalozzi. They state that children learn by doing things, and, based upon empirical evidence of the psychological theory by Piaget, include his notion that each child constructs his or her knowledge within himself or herself.
Kneller and George (1963) points out a number of basic principles of progressivism, which differ from teacher-centred principles in many ways. First, progressivism welcomes the two-fold notion that education should be “active and built around the child as he or she really is, and, education should be related to his or her interests” (p. 101). The first part of this notion is based on the idea that to be active is the nature of
28 a child. Whenever the child is expected to learn something, he or she should do so because he or she is stimulated by his own curiosity or need to discover. The child should learn, declares the progressive approach, because he or she needs and wants to learn, not necessarily because “someone else thinks that he or she should” (p. 101). In the Primary Education in Scotland (the Primary Memorandum, knowledge is said to be best acquired through “activity and experience, both physical and mental” (SED, 1965, p. 195). For example, doing artwork, teachers of progressive education expect children’s paintings to be “spontaneous” rather than created by the conscious application of taught technique reflecting each child’s talents (Darling, 1994, p.3). On the contrary, in the traditional education system, being active is neglected and children remain seated at their desks for most of the school day (p. 3). Regarding the purely academic school, Dewey writes that the child cannot pour his instinctive powers into his work, where he cannot express himself in his work, instead he learns to provide the exact amount of attention required by the teacher and to reserve a part of his mental energy to follow the lines dictated by his own innate need (Quoted in Lawson, 1972, p. 115). This seems to suggest that children are considered mentally inactive. Therefore they receive passively the knowledge provided by teachers.
The traditional, teacher-centred, approach in pedagogical terms, involves the teacher explaining the subject and instructing the whole class at once. The lesson is conducted in silence. The only voice that is heard is that of the teacher. However, there are two forcible arguments for valuing this method pointed out by Kneller and George (1963). First, professional teachers know more about their subjects than children do. Second, their training in pedagogy and child psychology gives them knowledge of what is good for children and what they should know (Kneller, 1963, p.107). Nevertheless, the second principle of the progressive approach that differs from the traditional approach is in giving an active rather than reactive role to the teacher.
Third, in the traditional, teacher-centred approach, the child’s educational development is understood in terms of what adult characteristics ought to be adopted (Darling, 1994, p. 3). Unlike in traditional approach, the focus of progressive education is more on what
29 each child already is and less on what each might become. Education should be concerned with the child’s life itself rather than a preparation for adult life. Primarily, the concentration of attention upon the child was a moral protest against the abuse of childhood. The protest was against education as preparation for the future omitting the child’s right to be treated as an intrinsically valuable human being (Entwistle, 1970, p.12). For instance, in 1967, the Plowden Report, which was a landmark in the development of child-centred education in Britain (Darling, 1994, p. 41) endorsed an approach to primary school that became “a community in which children learn to live first and foremost as children and not as future adults” (CACE, 1967, p. 187).
Progressive educators also believe that education should take place through problem-solving projects rather than the absorption of subject matter. To provide exploration-based learning, the traditional categorisation of knowledge into different subject areas was reduced by many primary/ elementary schools. However, Entwistle (1970) argues that learning at school is artificial per se and it is impossible to create a “natural” curriculum. There is only choice between one form of curriculum which has distinctive subjects and other types which have a combination of subject, subject interrelationship, integrated studies, and subjects linked to the other subject areas. Both are artificial (p. 101). For example, arts cannot be picked up naturally in the ordinary business of life because playing any musical instrument, for example, requires the development of certain skills and the knowledge of certain rules. Nevertheless, in 1965, the Scottish Education Department determined in the Primary Memorandum that “the curriculum is not to be thought of as a number of discrete subjects, each requiring a specific allocation of time each week or each month. Indeed, it is quite impossible to treat the subjects of the curriculum in isolation from one another if education is to be meaningful to the child” (SED, 1965, p. 43); and “children’s learning does not fit into subject categories” (p. 203). According to McMurray (1959), Dewey, however, did not intended that learning should remain indefinitely at the level of problem solving as he wrote …A good school program is one which leads pupils from an early interest in solving problems of an immediately localised and concrete sort to a more mature interest in solving problems which arise through intellectual curiosity and a desire for abstract knowledge (pp. 14-15).
30 Dewey’s vision was that characteristic activities of daily life are psychologically useful starting points for leading the student to the abstract meanings rather than to practical daily use. If subject scope is ignored, is there a new principle for shaping the curriculum? To answer this question, some practical problems need consideration. One is how to support and monitor individual interests if there are thirty children in classroom.
Phenix (1965) argued that the traditional subject curriculum is not a device for alienating the school from life, but a means towards a sensitive and intelligent awareness of the child and the environment By extending and elaborating the use of symbols (which characterise the forms of knowledge) and by means of these it has become possible for the personal experience of individuals to become more fully structured, more fully understood… authentic disciplines are at one and the same time approximations to the given orders of reality and disclosures of the paths by which persons may come to realise truth in their own being (p. 65). Moreover, Entwistle (1970) writes that asking spontaneous questions, children often reveal their curiosity about their environment which can only be satisfied by scientific explanations. At the time when they ask their questions they may be incapable of understanding the scientific answers. However, the fact of their constant questioning is an insistent demand to acquire skills and concepts which can only be developed by an acquaintance with a particular field of knowledge (p. 87).
The psychological foundation for the negation of the academic disciplines in progressive education go to the Piagetian assumption that academic disciplines can only exist and be explored at the level of formal-operations. This is the period of human life from twelve to fifteen years old. On the contrary, Bruner (1963) states “any subject can be taught effectively in some intellectually honest form to any child at any stage of developments” (p. 12). His assumption is based on his conviction that “basic ideas that lie at the heart of all science and mathematics and the basic themes that give form to life and literature are as
31 simple as they are powerful” (p. 33). These key concepts and principles are intimated even in the behaviour of very young children (Entwistle, 1970, p.91).
Having said that, education is more a matter of beginning with simple but important ideas and using these ideas in the analysis of materials of increasing difficulty. It is not about beginning with complex material and asking how it may be diluted to engage the understanding of the young. Pestalozzi was one of the earlier educators who said that the beginning of learning was “from the familiar to the unfamiliar”, “from the near to the remote”, “from the simple to the complex”, and “from the concrete to the abstract” (Kneller, 1963, p.27). Nowadays, for example, Russian musicologists stress the special role of a song, dance and march (Kabalevsky, 2001, p.15). However, these were seen as separate and primary genre along with other more complex genres, such as sonata, symphony, opera, oratorio and so forth. Kabalevsky, using his concept of Three Whales points out three main spheres of music, song, dance and marching. Each of them may be defined by a number of broad definitions, including genre, form, type, character, and image (Kabalevsky, 2001, p.16). Kabalevsky explained that A specific concept of this song, this dance, this march naturally fits in a broad concept of songs, dances, marches generally. Perception of music by children becomes actively creative and analytical because a teacher offers them to listen to music in general rather than a song, a dance or a march. Children must (and can!) hear and define character of this music and its characteristic to one of three areas of (Kabalevsky, 2001, p.17).
Another distinct principle of progressive education concerns children’s motivation for learning that is based on cooperation. Progressivism advocates that there are audible signs of activity and discussion in classrooms with children sitting round tables or having their desks pushed together in order to promote communication (Darling, 1994, p. 1). A skill of “working together”, which tends to be neglected by many traditional forms of schooling, allows the teacher to view students’ interaction as an educationally profitable model of learning. This approach was confirmed, for example, in the 1960s of Scotland’s Primary Memorandum. It states that the benefits that derive from group methods entirely justify the effort. Many teachers have proved that in the permissive yet controlled
32 atmosphere of the classroom where there is a flexible organisation and group methods skilfully employed, the pupils can realise their potential, and all can achieve success at appropriate levels (SED, 1965, p. 26). Yet, progressive education fosters and encourages a spirit of cooperation, whereas in traditional education, motivation of the students depends on competition.
On first sight it might seem plausible to argue that this kind of teaching provides more beneficial learning experiences to children, however, on closer inspection many very important questions concerning teachers and curriculum may derive from it. Are teachers necessary if discovering and creating is happening naturally? Because teachers do not need to bring a fixed amount of knowledge, their role is reduced to research consultant, to manager of resources. In reality, however, there may be a mismatch between what children want to discover and what teachers think they have to learn. Moreover, many children simply do not display eagerness to learn.
There are many implications of progressive education. They include the emphasis upon the individual learner and the problems this raises for social education. They also include the insistence upon freedom, and the sense in which learning might be said to be self-activated. The question of who defines the curriculum and its relationship to the life of the learner, the problem of justifying the teacher’s authority and the very activity of teaching itself also need consideration. They are pertinent to the question of how child-centred education really is. These points are also pertinent when discussing what is really happening in schools today. Evidence on the question of how far schools have become child-centred is difficult to investigate.
It is arguable whether or not progressive education was fully or partly implemented in schools. The development of the child-centred education challenged traditional practice in the British primary school and was signalled by the Plowden Report in 1965. Darling (1994) reveals in the issue of the Oxford Review of Education in 1987 that Plowden had a dramatic effect on primary education while Gammage, at the same time, claimed that there were no primary radical changes (Darling, 1984, p. 46).
33
According to Galton, Simon and Croll (1980), there are some studies (Devlin and Warnock, 1977) in UK schools which show that few teachers were actually using progressive methods (p. 7). Galton, Simon and Croll also showed that Bennett’s earlier research which was published under the title Teaching Styles and Pupil Progress (1976) was based on questionnaire data and was incorrect (Ibid.). They sat in classrooms and observed teachers. They found that little progressive teaching was going on. Those teachers who did use this approach were the most competent and confident teachers (Ibid.). The research findings by Galton, Simon and Croll also showed that teachers used progressive approach only in subjects like music, art, etc rather than in the “basic subjects”, language and mathematics (p.78).
Just as approval for progressive education has been indicated through the Plowden Report, banishment was signalled by the Department of Education and Science in England in 1992 (Darling, 1984, p.108). It recommended more subject-based lessons. “Over the last few decades the progress of primary pupils had been hampered by the influence of highly questionable dogmas which have led to excessively complex practices and devalued the place of subjects in the curriculum” (Alexander at al., 1992, p.1). It also advised a move toward subject specialisation among primary teachers as well as more whole-class teaching and the provision of order, control, purpose and concentration (Darling, 1984, p.108).
In conclusion, psychologists and educators play an important role in the development of the science of education. The development of a psychological approach to teaching children may have an impact on the main methods of teaching and learning, curriculum and instruction, in other words what and how to teach children at schools. Historically, schools have been organised around recitation teaching. This is where the teacher disseminates knowledge to be memorised by the students, who in turn recite the information back to the teacher. However, Rousseau was one of the first educators who stressed that education needed to be redesigned along more rational lines to make it accord better with the nature of the learner. Influenced by Rousseau, Pestalozzi developed a system where children were guided to learn through practice and observation and through the natural employment of the senses. Later, Froebel also postulated that learning become apparent through experience rather than analysis.
34
Psychological research reveals central concepts and principles related to the nature of cognitive development. What kinds of experiences promote development? What kinds of social interactions are most valuable? These questions are the most central in the works by Piaget and Vygotsky. Although they have similar views on children’s development such as the importance social interaction, readiness and challenge, Piaget and Vygotsky also have many differences. According to Piaget, cognitive development is moved by intrinsic motivation. Children actively construct their own knowledge and understanding and benefit only from experiences that they can relate to what they already know. Thinking and reasoning processes change qualitatively with age. Stages provide a rough idea of when new abilities are likely to emerge. Since much of what a child learns comes from the culture around him or her, in Vygotsky’s opinion, and much of the child’s problem solving is mediated through an adult’s help, it is wrong to focus on a child in isolation. Such focus does not reveal the processes by which children acquire new skills. He believes that culture teaches children both what to think and how to think. Cognitive development results from a dialectical process whereby a child learns through problem-solving experiences shared with someone else, usually a parent or teacher but sometimes a sibling or peer. Interaction with surrounding culture and social agents, such as teachers, parents and more competent peers, contribute significantly to a child’s intellectual development.
What is also attempted in the introduction to the research is neither an apologia for child-centred education nor an attack upon this tradition, but, rather, an attempt to discuss the dilemmas into which education may be forced. The intention is to separate the arguments and clarify the issues when educators bring the learner or the teacher into centre of education. The research also attempts to examine concepts and the historical roots of some educational theories and approaches. Yet, still based on a curriculum, or a timetable, education is often far removed from the reality of human development and the process of child’s growth. Nowadays, some of the principles of progressive education appear in many of the educational practices of different countries. The traces of progressive and traditional approaches will be discussed later in this research.
35 Chapter 2
Curricula and syllabae in the primary/ elementary school
The focus of this chapter is on the curriculum and syllabus for the primary/ elementary school. The years of the primary/ elementary school contain the important early stages of the child’s development. These stages are explained variously by psychologists (Piaget and Vygotsky) and progressives (Pestalozzi, Froebel and Montessori). Their works reveal that a great many determinants influence patterns of development and change including the child’s total development, physical, cognitive and social, and emotional factors. It also would be wrong to suggest that progressive education belongs only to the past. Despite the questions surrounding progressivism, it has continued to exercise considerable influence on general music education, not as a distinct movement, but through the separate views and writings of contemporary experimentalists and through some elements of curricula. Many progressive educators target a number of desirable qualities for the education of children. These qualities are variety, experimentation, individualism and self-expression.
Concerning the conditions necessary for effective learning, it is important to understand the power and limits of the physical development of children. Young children need a rich musical environment in which to grow. A balanced, comprehensive, and sequential program of instruction in music is critical for the children’s musical development. This research will show how psychological theories and progressive approaches and methods are adapted into music syllabae for primary/ elementary school in different countries.
Brief description and summary of research findings in tables and figures
The overall aim of this research is to compare different types of curricula from a variety of countries. This involves detailed qualitative analysis and complex statistical modelling techniques. I begin with a summary of my research findings and supplementary materials represented by a number of tables and figures. The details are complex and somewhat diffuse, and so I describe them first in terms of the Tables
36 and Figures which form my summary. Table sets out correlations between age and different models of curricula. Different countries use distinct structural systems for modelling their school curricula. These are reflected in the different number of structural elements of education and in their names. Children start and finish school at different ages and there is also a difference in the number of years spend at school. Overall school years are separated into “schools”. For example, in NSW, Australia, and in the UK there are primary2 and high schools.3 In the USA, the structure of schooling comprises the elementary,4 middle5 and secondary schools.6 The Russian Federation uses the primary,7 middle8 and senior schools.9 As well some countries separate curricula into stages of development, whereas some do not. For instance, the NSW primary school music curriculum is divided into four stages. There is the early stage (5-6 year olds), stage 1 (7-8 year olds), stage 2 (9-10 year olds), and stage 3 (11-12 year olds), whereas the UK primary school curriculum contains key stages. They are Key Stage 1 (5-6 years olds) and Key Stage 2 (7-11 years olds). Then, regarding years of learning at school, the educational progression of the different countries is divided into grades (NSW and USA), years (the UK), or classes (Russian Federation). In NSW, including the kindergarten year, school education offers children thirteen years of study with the first eleven compulsory. Children start school when they are five years old. In the UK (ENGLAND) the situation is the same. The number of school years in the Russian Federation depends on whether an earlier start has been adopted. Prior to the introduction of compulsory schooling starting at age 6, about ten years ago, children started school at age seven. Some schools have not yet made this change. Consequently, both starting ages are still available, and primary education may comprise either three or four years, resulting in a total of ten or eleven years with eight or nine being compulsory.
To make this analysis precise, it is worth comparing the elements of the music
2 Primary schools are for children from 5 to 12 years old in Australia and from 5 to 11 in the UK. 3 High schools are for children from 13 to 18 years old in Australia and from 12 to 18 in the UK. 4 Elementary schools are for children from 5 to 9 years old in the USA. 5 Middle schools are for children from 10 to13 years old in the USA. 6 Secondary schools are for children from 14 to 18 years old in the USA. 7 There are two types of the primary schools in Russia. First is a three-year type for children from 7 to 9. Second is a four-year type for children from 6 to 9 years old. 8 Middle schools are for children from 10 to 14 years old in Russia. 9 Senior schools are for children from 15 to 17 years old in Russia.
37 curricula according to children’s ages. Table No. 2.1 (Correlation of Child Age with Different Models of Curricula) represents the nine music syllabae from four countries: Australia (New South Wales); the United Kingdom (England); the Russian Federation; and the United States of America.
Australia (NSW) The second column in the table represents the Creative Arts K-6 (children from five to twelve years old) syllabus of New South Wales (Australia) that was developed by the Board of Studies in 1984 and revised in 2000 (http://www.boardofstudies.nsw.au). The shaded area shows that the music syllabus covers primary school children from five to twelve years old.
The United Kingdom (England) The third column displays Key Stage 1 and 2 (KS1&2 for children from five to eleven years old) of the syllabus of the United Kingdom (England) generated by the Department for Education and Skills (http://www.standards.dfes.gov.uk/schemes3/). All shaded areas indicate where the syllabus caters for children from three years old. The light shaded areas are titled Foundation and Reception. This means that before primary school some children, who participated in government preschool programs by attending early childhood official institutions, may have been previously educated and already have had some formal musical training. The dark shaded area includes primary school children from five to eleven years old.
The Russian Federation The fourth column shows the variety of day nursery and kindergarten music programs for children from one to six years old that are approved by Department of Education of The Russian Federation. Because the vast majority of children in the Russian Federation participate in day nursery and kindergarten institutions, it is important to mention them.
The fifth column shows D. Kabalevsky’s general music system for children from seven to nine years old. Since 1974 this has been encompassed within the three-year primary school. The two next columns distinguish the Russian music programs for the four-year primary school. These were described by E. D. Kritskaya (2001) and by L.
38 V. Zankov (2000). Their syllabae cater for children from six to nine years old.
The last Russian syllabus listed is now common to whole country and was developed by Kabalevsky. In the table it is shown by a portion of dark shaded space in the eighth column. It includes the middle school children from ten to thirteen years old.
The United States of America The next column (No.9) shows The School Music Program: A New Vision which was developed by The National Association for Music Education (MENC) in1994 (http://www.menc.org/publication/books/prek12st.html). The whole shaded sector takes in pre-kindergarten age children from two years, kindergarten and elementary school students from five years old and middle school children from eleven to fifteen years old. The syllabus for three years of pre-kindergarten age needs to be mentioned because of its possible effects on further music education. The darkened area shows the music syllabus for all elementary and part of middle school students from five to thirteen years.
The last couple of columns show Interaction and Synthesis by The Manhattanville Music Curriculum Project (MMCP) headed by Ronald B. Thomas (1979a, 1979b). These programs were implemented from 1965 to1970 in the USA and did not necessarily represent the official Office of Education position or policy. The second last column displays the setting of the Interaction syllabus. This table excludes analysis of four-year-olds. The dark space indicates children from five to seven years old.
The last column represents Synthesis which targets children and adolescents from eight to seventeen years old. As this chapter is concerned with music syllabae for children of elementary school age, the table is shaded to indicate children from eight to thirteen years old.
39
Table 2.1 Correlation of child age with different models of curricula
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 Child NSW UK KS1&2 Russia Russia Russia Russia Russia USA USA USA age Creative arts National Day Nursery The The The The MENC MMCP MMCP K-6 Standards and Kabalevsky Kritskaya Zankov Kabalevsky The School Interaction Synthesis 5-12 for music Kindergarten system System system system Music 4-7 8-12 education music 7-9 6-9 6-9 10-12 Program: A Years old Years old Years old 5-11 programs Years old Years old Years old Years old New Vision Years old 5-12 Years old 1-2 First Junior 2-3 Second Pre- Junior kindergarten 3-4 Medium Pre- kindergarten 4-5 Senior Pre- kindergarten 5-6 School Preparatory 6-7 7-8 8-9 9-10 10-11 11-12 12-13 13-14 14-15 15-16 16-17
Legend. Dark coloured areas represent the parts of the curriculums that are under examining by the present research study. Light coloured areas represent the parts of the curriculums that are not included in analysis of the present research study, but they are articulated in the syllabae. 41 Table No. 2.2 shows ccomponents of curriculum models that are based on the pattern of music curricula by Runfola and Rutkowski (1992). It includes six component parts, including philosophy (why?), objectives and content (what?), nature of the student (who?), context (when? and where?), techniques, activities and materials (how?), and evaluation. They are shown in the top row. All curricula find their place in the rows of the table. They are in the same order that appear in the introduction to this chapter, viz., the syllabae of Australia (NSW), the UK (England), the Russian Federation and the USA. Each row represents a particular model of curriculum with its components. All differences and similarities as well as a number of inferences will be discussed later in this chapter.
42 Table 2.2 Components of Curriculum Models
Why? What? Who? When/Where? How? Evaluatio Philosophy Objectives Nature of Context Techniques, n and the Student Activities content and Materials NSW Rationale Behaviour Nil Nil Activities Nil Creative type of (performing, arts K-6 objectives singing, 5-12 moving, Years old Content of composing, activities listening and discussing) UK KS1&2 Purpose Behaviour Nil Nil Activities Nil National type of (performing, Standards objectives singing, for music moving, education Content of composing, 5-11 activities listening and Years old discussing) Russia Philosophy Expressive Nil Nil Techniques Nil The type of of Kabalevsky objectives instruction system and 7-9 Fixed principles Years old Musical of teaching content and and learning criteria for literary and Activities visual (performing, content singing, dancing, improvising, perceiving and discussing) Russia Philosophy Expressive Nil Nil Techniques Nil The type of of Kritskaya objectives instruction System and 6-9 Fixed principles Years old musical, of teaching literary and and learning visual content Activities (performing, singing, dancing, improvising, perceiving and discussing) Russia Purpose Expressive Nil Nil Techniques Nil The type of of Zankov objectives instruction system and 6-9 Fixed principles Years old Musical of teaching content and learning Activities
43 (performing, singing, dancing, improvising, perceiving and discussing) Russia Philosophy Expressive Nil Nil Techniques Nil The type of of Kabalevsky objectives instruction system and 10-13 Fixed principles Years old musical, of teaching literary and and learning visual content Activities (performing, singing, improvising, perceiving and discussing)) USA Reasons for Behaviour Nil Nil Activities Nil MENC goals and and (performing, The School priorities in expressive singing, Music teaching objectives moving, Program: and learning composing, A New Content of listening and Vision activities discussing) 5-13 Years old USA Rationale Behaviour Nil Nil Activities Nil MMCP and (performing, Interaction expressive singing, 4-7 objectives moving, Years old composing, Musical listening and content is discussing) defined by children exploration of the sound on each lesson
Content of sound organising and making activities USA Rationale Synthesis of Nil Nil Activities Nil MMCP objectives (performing, Synthesis singing, 8-13 Fixed moving, Years old musical composing, content listening and (Discography) discussing)
44 Table No. 2.3a presents a Curricula Objectives Matrix.10 All music syllabae are represented with letters of the alphabet and are arranged into the top row. For the sake of visual convenience the place of the USA syllabus which is designed by MENC, has been shifted to the position after the UK (England) syllabus. There are two dark shaded rows that divide all objectives into Behavioural and Expressive types in accordance with Eisner’s (1985) notion. The expressive types of objectives, in turn, are divided into three groups. These are attitudinal, aesthetic and cognitive. Each objective has an ordinal number. In the matrix, each “Yes” indicates the possession of a particular objective by each syllabus.
Table 2.3b is a supplementary table that shows all reference sources for each “Yes” that are articulated in Curricula Objectives Matrix (Table 2.3a) and arranged in alphabetical order.
10 Translations from Russian language are mine.
45 Table 2.3a. Curricula Objectives Matrix A B C D E F G H I J NSW UK USA Russia Russia Russia Russia USA USA Creative KS1&2 MENC The The The The MMCP MMCP arts K-6 National The Kabalevsk Kritskaya Zankov Kabalevsky Interaction Synthesis 5-12 Standards School y system System system system 4-7 8-17 for music Music 7-9 6-9 6-9 10-13 Years old Years old Years old education Program: Years old Years old Years Years old 5-11 A New old Years old Vision 5-10 Students will develop knowledge, skills and understanding in: Behavioural type of objectives
1. Singing Yes 2. Performing Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes 3. Creating/Making music/Organising Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes sound/Improvising 4. Reading music/Using of notation/Musical Yes Yes Yes literacy 5. Listening Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes 6. Judging/ Discussing of music/ Evaluating Yes Yes Yes Yes 7. Conducting Yes Yes Expressive type of objectives
Attitudinal 8. Developing children’s interest in music and Yes their need of musical activities (attitudinal) 9. Basing children’s aesthetic attitudes to music Yes and life on their perception of music (attitudinal) 10. Implying personal attitudes about oneself music Yes Yes and musical involvement (the student develop excitement about and confidence in his own
46 creative potential) (attitudinal) 11. Developing the attitudes of openness of mind of Yes receptiveness to new situation; of sincerity and concern without pretentiousness for the development of total musicality (attitudinal) 12. Developing the sense of inquisitiveness and Yes sense of personal seniority in intuitive thinking (attitudinal) 13. Teaching to love music with its spiritual wealth Yes Yes of forms and genres (attitudinal) Aesthetic
14. Educating to artistic sense (aesthetic) Yes
15. Awakening of emotional responses to music and Yes education of children moral sense (aesthetic) 16. Awakening of active, emotional and deliberate Yes responses to the best examples of world musical culture and education of children the aesthetic sense (aesthetic) 17. Awakening the ability to comprehend beauty Yes (aesthetic) 18. Awakening of responses to music and fostering Yes Yes of children’s aesthetic sense (aesthetic) Cognitive 19. Teaching to understand music (cognitive) Yes Yes 20. Integrating, systematising and deepening understanding of interrelationship between Yes music, visual art and literature on the base of knowledge received before (cognitive) 21. Broadening children’s conception of music Yes (cognitive) 22. Finding meaning on a plane beyond analysis of Yes mechanics, techniques and concepts (cognitive) 23. Understanding musical concepts (cognitive) Yes
47 24. Understanding relationships between music, the Yes other arts, and disciplines outside the arts (cognitive) 25. Understanding music in relation to history and Yes culture (cognitive)
Table 2.3b. Curricula Objectives Matrix: The references for each ‘Yes’
B G 2B. Creative Arts K-6 Syllabus. (New South Wales: Board of Studies, 8G Zankov, L. (2000). Music. In Collection of syllabae for four-year primary school. 2000), 8. The Zankov system. Moscow: ZAO «Zentr obshego rasvitiya», (pp. 164-183).Занков, 3B. Ibid., 8. Л. (2000). Музыка. В Cборнике программ для четырехлетней начальной школы. 5B. Ibid. Система Л. В. Занкова. Москва: ЗАО «Центр общего развития», стр. 164-183, 6B. Ibid. 164. 9G. Ibid 15G. Ibid 18G. Ibid 21G. Ibid C H 2C. Schemes of work. The UK: Department for Education and Skills. 20H. Hrennikov, B. (1994). 5-8 Grades. In Syllabus for general educational institutions. http://www.standards.dfes.gov.uk/schemes2/music/teaching?view=get 1st grade of four-year primary school. 1-3 grades of three-year primary school. 5-8 3C. Ibid. grades (with brief methodical recommendations). Moscow: “Prosvescheniye”, (pp. 93- 5C. Ibid. 223). Хренников, Б. (1994). 5-8 классы. Программы для общеобразовательных 6C. Ibid. учебных учреждений. Музыка. 1 класс четырехлетней начальной школы. 1-3 классы ерухлетней начальнй школы. 5-8 классы (с краткими методическими пояснениями). Москва: «Просвящение», cтр. 93-223, 94.
D I 1D. The School Music Program: A New Vision. The K-12 National 2I. R. B. Thomas. MMCP Interaction. (USA: Americole, 1979), 10. Standards. MENC. http://www.menc.org/ 3I. Ibid., 9. 2D. Ibid. 4I. Ibid., 10. 3D. Ibid. 5I. Ibid., 9. 4D. Ibid. 6I. Ibid.
48 5D. Ibid. 7I. Ibid., 10. 6D. Ibid. 10I. Ibid. 22D. Ibid. 23I. Ibid., 10. 24D. Ibid. 25D. Ibid. E J 13E. Kabalevsky, D. (2001). The main principals and methods of music 2J. R. B. Thomas. MMCP Synthesis. (USA: Americole, 1979), 7-9. program for general school. In Curricular and methodical materials. Music. 3J. Ibid. Primary School. Ed. E. O. Yaryomenko. Moscow: Drofa, 10-130. 4J. Ibid. Кабалевский, Д. (2001). Основные принципы и методы программы по 5J. Ibid. музыке для общеобразовательной школы. В Программно- 6J. Ibid. методические материалы. Музыка. Начальная школа. Сост.Е. О. 10J. Ibid, 8. Еременко. Москва: Дрофа, 10-130,15. 11J. Ibid. 19E. Ibid. 13J. Ibid. 17J. Ibid. 18J. Ibid. 22J. Ibid. F 13F. Kritskaya, E., Sergeeva, G., & Shmagina, T. (2001). Music. Program. In Curricular and methodical materials. Music. Primary School. Ed. E. O. Yaryomenko. Moscow: Drofa, (pp.182-218). Критская, Е., Сергеева, Г., и Шмагина, Т. (2001). Музыка. Программа. В Программно-методические материалы. Музыка. Начальная школа. Сост.Е. О. Еременко. Москва: Дрофа, 182-218, 183. 14F. Ibid. 16F. Ibid. 19F. Ibid.
49 Table No. 2.4 contains a musical concepts matrix. All music syllabae are represented in the top row with letters of the alphabet. All musical concepts introduced in units of work (the UK (England) and the NSW), in syllabae (Russia and the USA MMCP) and in lessons developed by a professional organisations MENC and ArtsEdge Kennedy Centre (Lessons Standards) appear shaded in the following order, dynamics, rhythm, tempo, timbre, pitch, expressiveness, structure, genre and style. In the matrix, page numbers or Website addresses provide references.
50 Table 2.4 Musical Concepts Matrix
1. A B C D E F G H I J NSW UK USA Russia Russia Russia Russia USA USA Creative KS1&2 MENC; The The The The MMCP MMCP arts K-6 National ArtsEdge Kabalevs Kritskay Zankov Kabalevs Interacti Synthesis 5-12 Standard Kennedy ky a system ky on 8-17 s for Centre system System 6-9 system 4-7 Years old Years old music 7-9 6-9 Years old 10-13 Years old educatio Years old Years old Years old n 5-11 Years old 2. A B C D E F G H I 3. Dynamics p. 92 2110, 2096 p.42 p.173 pp.144, 163, p.129 MENC 164 LESSON1,4 4. discriminating that sounds can be loud, p. 92 U2,4 TB1,p. 59 p. 176 soft, louder or softer or relatively loud or soft 5. discriminating changes in loud and soft, p. 92 U3 p. 176 recognising that sound can change in loudness, getting louder or getting softer 6. recognising that dynamics provide p. 92 U6 contrast in music and using such techniques in their own work 7. Rhythm p. 91 U1,16,21 2248, p. 37 TB1,p. 51 p. 176 pp.146,162, p. 130 2459,2110,2 165,169 369,2369, MENC LESSON2 8. identifying the rhythm of the words U4 9. identifying and recalling rhythmic and U8 melodic patterns 10. creating rhythmic pattern 2459 11. copying short rhythmic phrases U1,4,10 2459
51 12. performing rhythm to a given pulse U4 2035 13. clapping (or echoing) the ostinatos. MENC LESSON1 14. recalling and performing rhythmic U4 patterns to a steady pulse 15. identifying and perform rhythmic U11,16 patterns 16. recognising the effect that music and 2369 rhythm have on written words. 17. recognising repeated pattern that can be U8,10 2248 TB2 pp. melodic and/or rhythmic. 26,27,28,29 18. playing repeated rhythmic patterns U11 2035 19. understanding 7/8 pattern, patting or MENC clapping the strong beat (1 2 3 1 2 1 2). LESSON2 20. fitting different rhythmic patterns U11 together 21. understanding syncopation 2035 pp. 143, 165 22. Metre p. 91 U15 2234 p.156 p. 130 23. grouping of beats into stronger and U8 p. 172 weaker beats 24. Duration p. 91 U3,4,16,18 pp. 166,172 p. 130 25. Beat/pulse p. 91 U1,3,4,10,1 MENC p. 130 416,21 LESSON1 26. Texture (combined rhythmic patterns) U10,12,18 p.42 p. 131 27. exploring different textures using U18 untuned sounds 28. Tempo p. 91 U1,2,3,4,6,1 2459,2369, pp.37,42,45 TB2,p. 34 pp.172, 176 pp.144,162, p. 130 6 MENC TB2,p. 108 164 LESSON2,4 29. Timbre U2 U3,U16 MENC pp. 19,42,45 p.194 p.144 p. 131 LESSON1 TB1,p. 62 TB2,p. 22 TB2,p. 38 TB2,p. 99 TB3,p. 24 30. identifying tone colour of children and pp. 176, 177
52 adult choirs; soprano, tenor and bass voices; solos and duets 31. understanding tone colour and p. 92 3345,3346,3 p.42 p.198 p.173 pp.118,163, instruments 347,3348 32. exploring and describing a variety of p. 92 sound sources (instruments, voices and objects) and the tone colours possible from them 33. exploring and describing sound p. 92 production methods (the ways of creating sounds from sound sources) and how these tone colours can be used in the students’ own work 34. classifying sound sources into categories p. 92 2258 p.173 (wood, metal or aerophones, chordophones, membranophones, idiophones, electrophones) and comparing the tone colours of these groups 35. describing and combining tone colours of p. 92 various sound sources in their own work and the work of others 36. Pitch p. 92 U6,18 3345,2246,3 p. 130 347,3348 37. distinguishing between high, middle and p. 92 U2,3 low pitch; lower and higher 38. recognising pitch going up, going down, U5 steps, jumps, slides 39. recognising the melodic contour of pitch p. 92 TB2,p. 8 patterns 40. distinguishing between definite and p. 92 indefinite pitch 41. understanding tonality (major, minor) pp. 19,42,45 TB2,pp. pp.142,156, p. 129 124,126 163,167 42. understanding melody 2459 pp. 42,44,45 p.195,192 p. 176 pp.100,101, p. 129 162
53 43. understanding ornamented melody p. 202 (oriental) 44. understanding accompaniment p. 192 pp.100, 144 45. understanding registers p. 45 p. 176 46. understanding inflection pp. 19, 37, p.190,196, pp.101,142, Melodic, rhythmic, of timbre; inner 44, 45 200, 202. 159,167- world of humane: of cry, moan, 203 168 tenderness, joy and so on; people’s movements: of step, jump, run; sounds of nature, city 47. understanding inflectional relationship of p.48 Russian folk music with music of Russian composers (common themes, plots, images and principles of development 48. recognising the author of masterpiece pp. 142,161, basing the decision on similarities of 166 intonations 49. discovering inflexions, images and other p. 49 pp.134-149 musical feature in music of the Western and Asian composers 50. Expressiveness pp.42,45 p.196 pp.142,144 51. understanding and distinguishing mood U1,13,18,20 2275,2248,2 pp. 19, p.190 p.166 p.166 by expressive elements of music 258,2369(ly 40,45 TB1,p. 33 rics or a TB2,p. 40 song) 2369 52. understanding and distinguishing mood, 2369, 2369, feelings and emotions by expressive 2369 elements of song lyrics 53. understanding and distinguishing U1,13,18 2248,2258,2 pp. 19,40,45 p.190 p.166 p.166 feelings and emotions by expressive 110, TB1,p. 43 elements of music 2369,2293, TB,p. 220 MENC LESSON4 54. perceiving the mood of music, feeling p. 23 relationship between character of music
54 and character of performance; 55. exploring expressive use of sounds, U2,11 musical elements 56. using sounds expressively to illustrate a U2 story 57. demonstrating the ability to recognise p. 36 expressive elements through artistic movement 58. demonstrating the ability to recognise U8 expressive elements through dance 59. contrast as mean of expressiveness pp.144,145, 146 60. understanding contract in music structure p. 194 p.148 61. musical images pp. 94-153, 157,162, 164,166,167 62. understanding relationship of form and p. 46 p.157 content in music 63. understanding figurative/metaphoric 2369 pp.37,40 p.196 pp.112,142 quality of music TB2,pp. 118,120 64. understanding and distinguishing pp.157,161, dramaturgic features (confrontation of 160 images) 65. understanding climax as means of pp. 145,163 expressiveness and as means of dramaturgic development 66. understanding character of music p. 37 pp.142,159, 161,162 67. Structure/ form p. 93 2275 p.42 pp. 101,163, p. 130 164 68. understanding 1, 2, 3 – part structures p.42 p.198 pp.117,142, 156, 167 69. understanding the concepts of repetition, p. 45 p.198 p.159 contrast and variations in music 70. understanding principles of construction p. 46 p. 198 p.167
55 of rondo form 71. understanding principles of construction p.46 p.159 of variations 72. demonstrating the ability to recognise the U8 p.19 use of structure 73. recognising patterns 2184 74. recognising repetition 2248, p. 142 MENC LESSON5 75. recognising patterns that are the same p. 93 p. 33 and patterns that are different. This reinforces the idea that sounds may be heard in patterns and that these patterns may recur throughout music 76. recognising repetition and contrast p. 93 U10 within music, that repetition of musical patterns may be exact or varied and that this can be incorporated into the students’ own work 77. recognising that music is made up of p. 93 U1,4,5,8, 2234 2467, TB2,p. 12 large sections (verses, choruses, 10,17,19 2036 TB2,p. 32 movements) and small MENC TB2,p. 66 sections (themes, phrases, ostinato, LESSON5 motifs) 78. identifying phrases that could be used as U11 an introduction, interlude and ending introduction, interlude, ending, verse, chorus 79. exploring how repetition of musical p. 93 patterns that are varied provides contrast in the music 80. Genres. Understanding and recognising: pp.172, 180 81. genre roots of composers of classical, p.42 folk, spiritual (religious) and contemporary music 82. songs: p.192
56 TB1,p. 71 83. • lullabies U1 84. • work songs U1 85. • instrumental songs (piano) p. 100 86. • singing games U1 87. • canon p. 131 88. • anthem, hymn 2369 89. • romance p. 107 90. rhapsody p. 164 91. Russian folk songs and dances TB4, p. 100 pp.53,61 92. polyphony, homophony p. 131 93. dance (waltz, minuet, polonaise, TB1,p. 71 p. 118,147 mazurka, gavotte) TB4,p. 83 TB4,p. 85 94. march TB1,p. 71 95. choral TB2,p. 48 96. chant (1721) TB3,p. 12 97. cantata TB3,p. 16 p. 101 98. fugue p. 131,167 99. aria TB2,p. 48 100. ode TB3,p. 128 101. hymn TB3,p. 128 102. instrumental quartet p. 106 103. instrumental suite TB2,p. 131 p. 119 TB3,p. 34 TB3,p. 102 104. sonata TB4,p. 86 p.154 105. prelude TB4,p. 113 106. etude TB4,p. 117 107. nocturne TB4,p. 75 108. barcarole TB4,p. 88 109. ballade TB3,p. 52 110. romance TB3,p. 8 111. ballet 2234 TB3,p. 88 p. 101, 102
57 112. concerto TB2,p. 130 p. 100, TB4,p. 9 148,154 113. jazz 2459,2130 TB3, p. 118 114. Jazz: Scat singing, the call and 2258,2035 response technique 115. folk song the call and response technique MENC LESSON5 116. musical, operetta TB3, p. 90 p.147 TB4, p. 109 117. opera 2133, TB1, p. 73 p. 101, 102 MENC TB3, pp.70– LESSON4 73,78 118. symphony TB 2, p.104 p.100,112, 154,168 119. Styles 120. country and western, rock, jazz, and 2189,2095 blues. identifying if a song is intended as a rallying song, recruiting song, popular entertainment song, campfire song, sentimental song, or patriotic song 121. opera, rap, country, and rock 2184 122. identifying similar and different MENC characteristics of operatic, instrumental, LESSON4 and popular music 123. dances: waltz, samba, ballet Greek-style MENC dance LESSON2 124. recognising the author of unknown pp. 23, 24 p. 182 p.100,103,1 music; recognising the music of different 55 cultures 125. identifying type/ style of music (folk, 2234,2293 national, blues, classical, jazz) 126. recognising Western, Asian music styles p. 182 p.145 127. recognising African music P. 146 128. recognising folk melodies (intonations) p.183 p.100 in music by composers
58 B Creative Arts K-6. Units of Work. (2001). Sydney: Board of Studies NSW. Creative Arts K-6. Units of Work. http:/www.boardofstudies.nsw.edu.au.
C Schemes of work http://www.standards.dfes.gov.uk/schemes2/music/teaching?view=get
D To find any lesson from MENC use http://www.menc.org/ using lesson number. To find any lesson from ArtsEdge Kennedy Centre Lessons Standards add a four digit number to http://ArtsEdge.kennedy- center.org/teach/les.cfm?subjectId=MUS.
E Kabalevsky, D. (2001). The main principals and methods of music program for general school. In Curricular and methodical materials. Music. Primary School. Ed. E. O. Yaryomenko. Moscow: Drofa, 10-130. Кабалевский, Д. (2001). Основные принципы и методы программы по музыке для общеобразовательной школы. В Программно-методические материалы. Музыка. Начальная школа. Сост.Е. О. Еременко. Москва: Дрофа, 10-130.
F Kritskaya, E., Sergeeva, G., & Shmagina, T. (2001). Music. Program. In Curricular and methodical materials. Music. Primary School. Ed. E. O. Yaryomenko. Moscow: Drofa, (pp.182-218). Критская, Е., Сергеева, Г., и Шмагина, Т. (2001). Музыка. Программа. В Программно- методические материалы. Музыка. Начальная школа. Сост.Е. О. Еременко. Москва: Дрофа, 182-218.
Kritskaya, E., Sergeeva, G., & Shmagina, T. (2001a). Music. Text-work Book 1. Moscow: “Prosveschenie”. Критская, Е., Сергеева, Г., и Шмагина, Т. (2001а). Музыка. Учебник-тетрадь1. Москва: «Просвещение». All references from this book begin with TB1 followed by page number.
Kritskaya, E., Sergeeva, G., & Shmagina, T. (2001b). Music 2. Moscow: “Prosveschenie”. Критская, Е., Сергеева, Г., и Шмагина, Т. (2001b). Музыка 2. Москва: «Просвещение». All references from this book begin with TB2 followed by page number.
Kritskaya, E., Sergeeva, G., & Shmagina, T. (2002a). Music 3. Moscow: “Prosveschenie”. Критская, Е., Сергеева, Г., и Шмагина, Т. (2002а). Музыка 3. Москва: «Просвещение». All references from this book begin with TB3 followed by page number.
Kritskaya, E., Sergeeva, G., & Shmagina, T. (2002b). Musiс 4. Moscow: “Prosveschenie”. Критская, Е., Сергеева, Г., и Шмагина, Т. (2002b). Музыка 4. Москва: «Просвещение». All references from this book begin with TB4 followed by page number.
59
G Zankov, L. (2000). Music. In Collection of syllabae for four-year primary school. The Zankov system. Moscow: ZAO «Zentr obshego rasvitiya», (pp. 164-183).Занков, Л. (2000). Музыка. В Cборнике программ для четырехлетней начальной школы. Система Л. В. Занкова. Москва: ЗАО «Центр общего развития», стр. 164-183.
H Hrennikov, B. (1994). 5-8 Grades. In Syllabus for general educational institutions. 1st grade of four-year primary school. 1-3 grades of three- year primary school. 5-8 grades (with brief methodical recommendations). Moscow: “Prosvescheniye”, (pp. 93-223). Хренников, Б. (1994). 5- 8 классы. Программы для общеобразовательных учебных учреждений. Музыка. 1 класс четырехлетней начальной школы. 1-3 классы ерухлетней начальнй школы. 5-8 классы (с краткими методическими пояснениями). Москва: «Просвящение», cтр. 93-223.
J R. B. Thomas. MMCP Synthesis. (USA: Americole, 1979b). .
60 Table No. 2.5a represents the playing of musical instruments, activities and learning experiences. The table is divided into three parts that make up the information from Units of Work (England and the NSW), from syllabae (Russia) and from lessons (the USA, MENC and ArtsEdge Kennedy Centre). The parts are demarcated with shaded rows. The first heading “most of the syllabus includes” gathers a number of performing examples that are found in the most of the sources. The other headings are expressed as follows: English Units of Work and American lessons (MENC and ArtsEdge) which correspondingly are called, “the UK (England) only” and “the USA only”.
61 Table 2.5a Curricula Performing Activities Matrix and Learning Experiences. Playing musical instruments
A B C D E F G H I J NSW UK USA Russia Russia Russia Russia USA USA Creative KS1&2 MENC; The The The The MMCP MMCP arts K-6 National ArtsEdge Kabalevs Kritskaya Zankov Kabalevs Interactio Synthesis 5-12 Standard Kennedy ky system System system ky system n 8-17 s for Centre 7-9 6-9 6-9 10-13 4-7 Years old Years old music Years old Years old Years old Years old Years old education 5-11 Years old Most of the syllabus include playing musical instruments 2263,2467 p.25 p. 186 playing pitched instruments p. 12 U3 2095 p.25 TB1,p. 54 p.166 2096 playing percussion p. 12 U3,4,16 2110,2189,2 p.25 p. 186 p.166 p.127 instruments 096, exploring instruments U2 3344 playing accompaniments on U12 2467 p. 36 pp.166, 176 percussion instruments The UK (England) only handling and playing U2, 3 instruments with control performing different types of U12 accompaniment pitched instruments by ear U17 presenting performances U20 effectively with awareness of audience, venue and occasion playing instrumental U20, 21 accompaniments using notation achieving a quality U17, 20 performance
62 The USA Only (MENC, ArtsEdge) playing self made percussion 2110 instruments expressively playing rhythmic ostinato with MENC the use of dynamics LESSON1 perform on non-pitched MENC instruments using correct LESSON1 technique and rhythmic accuracy accurately perform MENC accompaniment patterns LESSON1 students perform MENC accompaniment to song on LESSON2 non-pitched percussion using correct technique and rhythm copying/imitating rhythm MENC playing percussion LESSON3 instruments echo the melodic rhythm with MENC the non-pitched percussion LESSON3 group playing their own arrangement MENC with notation on paper LESSON5 chant and playing music MENC simulating Aborigine culture LESSON6
B Creative Arts K-6. Units of Work. (2001). Sydney: Board of Studies NSW. Creative Arts K-6. Units of Work. http:/www.boardofstudies.nsw.edu.au.
C Schemes of work http://www.standards.dfes.gov.uk/schemes2/music/teaching?view=get
D To find any lesson from MENC, use http://www.menc.org/ using lesson number. To find any lesson from ArtsEdge Kennedy Centre Lessons Standards add a four digit number to http://ArtsEdge.kennedy- center.org/teach/les.cfm?subjectId=MUS.
63
E Kabalevsky, D. (2001). The main principals and methods of music program for general school. In Curricular and methodical materials. Music. Primary School. Ed. E. O. Yaryomenko. Moscow: Drofa, 10-130. Кабалевский, Д. (2001). Основные принципы и методы программы по музыке для общеобразовательной школы. В Программно-методические материалы. Музыка. Начальная школа. Сост.Е. О. Еременко. Москва: Дрофа, 10-130.
F Kritskaya, E., Sergeeva, G., & Shmagina, T. (2001). Music. Program. In Curricular and methodical materials. Music. Primary School. Ed. E. O. Yaryomenko. Moscow: Drofa, (pp.182-218). Критская, Е., Сергеева, Г., и Шмагина, Т. (2001). Музыка. Программа. В Программно-методические материалы. Музыка. Начальная школа. Сост.Е. О. Еременко. Москва: Дрофа, 182-218.
Kritskaya, E., Sergeeva, G., & Shmagina, T. (2001a). Music. Text-work Book 1. Moscow: “Prosveschenie”. Критская, Е., Сергеева, Г., и Шмагина, Т. (2001а). Музыка. Учебник-тетрадь1. Москва: «Просвещение». All references from this book begin with TB1 followed by page number.
Kritskaya, E., Sergeeva, G., & Shmagina, T. (2001b). Music 2. Moscow: “Prosveschenie”. Критская, Е., Сергеева, Г., и Шмагина, Т. (2001b). Музыка 2. Москва: «Просвещение». All references from this book begin with TB2 followed by page number.
Kritskaya, E., Sergeeva, G., & Shmagina, T. (2002a). Music 3. Moscow: “Prosveschenie”. Критская, Е., Сергеева, Г., и Шмагина, Т. (2002а). Музыка 3. Москва: «Просвещение». All references from this book begin with TB3 followed by page number.
Kritskaya, E., Sergeeva, G., & Shmagina, T. (2002b). Musiс 4. Moscow: “Prosveschenie”. Критская, Е., Сергеева, Г., и Шмагина, Т. (2002b). Музыка 4. Москва: «Просвещение». All references from this book begin with TB4 followed by page number.
G Zankov, L. (2000). Music. In Collection of syllabae for four-year primary school. The Zankov system. Moscow: ZAO «Zentr obshego rasvitiya», (pp. 164- 183).Занков, Л. (2000). Музыка. В Cборнике программ для четырехлетней начальной школы. Система Л. В. Занкова. Москва: ЗАО «Центр общего развития», стр. 164-183.
H Hrennikov, B. (1994). 5-8 Grades. In Syllabus for general educational institutions. 1st grade of four-year primary school. 1-3 grades of three-year primary school. 5-8 grades (with brief methodical recommendations). Moscow: “Prosvescheniye”, (pp. 93-223). Хренников, Б. (1994). 5-8 классы. Программы для общеобразовательных учебных учреждений. Музыка. 1 класс четырехлетней начальной школы. 1-3 классы ерухлетней начальнй школы. 5-8 классы (с краткими методическими пояснениями). Москва: «Просвящение», cтр. 93-223.
64 Table No. 2.5b displays singing activities and learning experiences. The table is divided into five parts that consist of information from Units of Work (England and the NSW), from syllabae (Russia) and from lessons (the USA, MENC and ArtsEdge Kennedy Centre). The data are separated into sections, called “Most of the syllabus include”, “The NSW Units only”, “The UK (England) syllabus only”, “The USA (MENC, ArtsEdge) only”, and “Russian syllabae only”.
65 Table 2.5b Curricula Activities and Learning Experiences Matrix. Singing
A B C D E F G H I J NSW UK USA Russia Russia Russia Russia USA USA Creative KS1&2 MENC; The The The The MMCP MMCP arts K-6 National ArtsEdge Kabalevs Kritskaya Zankov Kabalevs Interactio Synthesis 5-12 Standards Kennedy ky system System system ky system n 8-17 for music Centre 7-9 6-9 6-9 10-13 4-7 Years old Years old education Years old Years old Years old Years old Years old 5-11 Years old Most of the syllabae include singing p. 62 U20 2272,2467,2 p. 26 p. 186 p. 172 p.127 273,2292,20 35,2095,222 0, MENC LESSON1 using recitative singing p. 68 U1 2133, (chanting) MENC LESSON6 singing with awareness p.80 U8 MENC p.165 of pulse and control of LESSON1 rhythm choir singing U1,10 p. 26 p. 186 p. 165 ensemble singing U1 p. 186 singing in tune, with U7,8,15 2036 pp.165, 180, p.162 expression 172,176 inflating intervals U1, U7,U8 SB1,p. 48 p.166 singing controlling the U5,8 MENC p. 165 pitch of the voice LESSON1, 2,3 singing with the use of U8,15 p. 165 traditional notation singing with the sense of p. 58, 68 U17 structure
66 The NSW Units only singing with the p. 74 awareness of dynamics learning a new song by p. 96 imitating experimenting with some p. 96 vocal techniques used in the song (sliding between notes) singing and accompany a p. 74 song The UK (England) syllabus only using different voices to U1 find singing voice singing up and down U1 copying/recalling short U1 melodic phrases singing with a sense of U1 the shape of the melody singing using high, U5 middle and low voices singing using (thinking) U1,U8 inner voice singing songs and U8 creating different effects singing a pentatonic U8 scale C D E G A, extending the range from the minor third E G and adding A, then D, then C. singing a song from U20 memory singing a simple round in U17 two parts and accompany
67 it with a three-note chord (triad) singing a scale C D E F U17 G A B C The USA (MENC, ArtsEdge) only sing songs for enjoyment 2293 and human expression singing along 2189, 2184 singing using stylistic 2035 technique: call and response Russian syllabae only singing creating an p.162 image singing with well p. 176 developed articulation singing without tension p. 176 singing in two parts pp. 165, 180 sing with conducting in p. 183 2/4,3/4, 4/4, 3/8, 6/8 singing with a sense of p.165 tonality (major and minor) singing a scale with the p. 165 use of note names singing a scale with the p. 165 use of grades (from I to VII in major and from I to V in minor
B Creative Arts K-6. Units of Work. (2001). Sydney: Board of Studies NSW. Creative Arts K-6. Units of Work. http:/www.boardofstudies.nsw.edu.au. C Schemes of work http://www.standards.dfes.gov.uk/schemes2/music/teaching?view=get
68 D To find any lesson from MENC use http://www.menc.org/ using lesson number. To find any lesson from ArtsEdge Kennedy Centre Lessons Standards add a four digit number to http://ArtsEdge.kennedy- center.org/teach/les.cfm?subjectId=MUS.
E Kabalevsky, D. (2001). The main principals and methods of music program for general school. In Curricular and methodical materials. Music. Primary School. Ed. E. O. Yaryomenko. Moscow: Drofa, 10-130. Кабалевский, Д. (2001). Основные принципы и методы программы по музыке для общеобразовательной школы. В Программно-методические материалы. Музыка. Начальная школа. Сост.Е. О. Еременко. Москва: Дрофа, 10-130.
F Kritskaya, E., Sergeeva, G., & Shmagina, T. (2001). Music. Program. In Curricular and methodical materials. Music. Primary School. Ed. E. O. Yaryomenko. Moscow: Drofa, (pp.182-218). Критская, Е., Сергеева, Г., и Шмагина, Т. (2001). Музыка. Программа. В Программно-методические материалы. Музыка. Начальная школа. Сост.Е. О. Еременко. Москва: Дрофа, 182-218.
Kritskaya, E., Sergeeva, G., & Shmagina, T. (2001a). Music. Text-work Book 1. Moscow: “Prosveschenie”. Критская, Е., Сергеева, Г., и Шмагина, Т. (2001а). Музыка. Учебник-тетрадь1. Москва: «Просвещение». All references from this book begin with TB1 followed by page number.
Kritskaya, E., Sergeeva, G., & Shmagina, T. (2001b). Music 2. Moscow: “Prosveschenie”. Критская, Е., Сергеева, Г., и Шмагина, Т. (2001b). Музыка 2. Москва: «Просвещение». All references from this book begin with TB2 followed by page number.
Kritskaya, E., Sergeeva, G., & Shmagina, T. (2002a). Music 3. Moscow: “Prosveschenie”. Критская, Е., Сергеева, Г., и Шмагина, Т. (2002а). Музыка 3. Москва: «Просвещение». All references from this book begin with TB3 followed by page number.
Kritskaya, E., Sergeeva, G., & Shmagina, T. (2002b). Musiс 4. Moscow: “Prosveschenie”. Критская, Е., Сергеева, Г., и Шмагина, Т. (2002b). Музыка 4. Москва: «Просвещение». All references from this book begin with TB4 followed by page number.
G Zankov, L. (2000). Music. In Collection of syllabae for four-year primary school. The Zankov system. Moscow: ZAO «Zentr obshego rasvitiya», (pp. 164- 183).Занков, Л. (2000). Музыка. В Cборнике программ для четырехлетней начальной школы. Система Л. В. Занкова. Москва: ЗАО «Центр общего развития», стр. 164-183.
H Hrennikov, B. (1994). 5-8 Grades. In Syllabus for general educational institutions. 1st grade of four-year primary school. 1-3 grades of three-year primary school. 5-8 grades (with brief methodical recommendations). Moscow: “Prosvescheniye”, (pp. 93-223). Хренников, Б. (1994). 5-8 классы. Программы для общеобразовательных учебных учреждений. Музыка. 1 класс четырехлетней начальной школы. 1-3 классы ерухлетней начальнй школы. 5-8 классы (с краткими методическими пояснениями). Москва: «Просвящение», cтр. 93-223
69 Table No. 2.5c contains data about moving to music. Activities and learning experiences are divided into sections, called moving, dancing, awareness of musical concepts, responding to music, creating and improvising in movement or dance. The beginning of each section is marked with a shaded row.
70 Table 2.5c Curricula Performing Activities and Learning Experiences Matrix. Movement to the music
A B C D E F G H I J NSW UK KS1&2 USA Russia Russia Russia Russia USA USA Creative arts National MENC; The The Kritskaya The Zankov The MMCP MMCP K-6 Standards for ArtsEdge Kabalevsky System system Kabalevsky Interaction Synthesis 5-12 Years old music Kennedy system 6-9 6-9 system 4-7 8-17 education Centre 7-9 Years old Years old 10-13 Years old Years old 5-11 Years old Years old Years old 1. Movement p. 58
2. moving in response to p.63 p. 17 p.166 music 3. moving freely to sound p.85 4. exploring different Syllabus, 2036 elements of movement 2000:12. 5. exploring different levels p.63 of space through movement 6. exploring and choose U9 different movements to describe animals 7. memorising and 2275 reproducing movement sequences. 8. exploring different 2036 movement possibilities by experimenting with different elements of dance, such as time, space, and energy. 9. Dancing 2234, p. 17 2272,2467, 2459
71 10. dancing without music 2272 Moving/ dancing with awareness of musical concepts 11. moving maintaining the p.80 beat while walking around and repeating the rhyme 12. responding to changes in U5 pitch to move up or down following changes in pitch 13. responding physically to p. 59 U15 music with (structure) understanding of musical features 14. accurately moving to MENC L2 mixed meter, emphasising the strong beat 15. dancing with flowing p. 186 intonation and rhythmical movement 16. moving expressively pp. 166, 176 17. expressing musical p.36 image in artistic movement 18. Responding to music 19. marching p. 17 20. responding using body U1,3 2035, p.166 percussion (clapping, MENC L1 tapping, stamping)
72 21. Moving or dancing with awareness of emotions 22. expressing a variety of 2110 emotions presented in the play through free dance and impromptu music playing. 23. creating and performing 2110 a dance with emotion that is pulled it out of a hat. 24. Creating and improvising in movement or dance 25. improvising a flowing p. 186 movement 26. creating an interpretative 2467 dance 27. creating a movement to 2133 go with the words, phrase, or event 28. combining the different 2036 choreographed interpretations of Jacob Lawrence’s depictions of Harriet Tubman into one dance piece and perform it 29. Creating a dance 2272,2267,2 (interpretative create one 036 movement for the words, “Follow the drinking gourd,” ) 30. creating a simple 2036 movement piece to show what proceeded and
73 followed the event depicted in the painting 31. creating sequences of U6 movements using the sounds as the stimulus. 32. creating dances that U15 reflect musical features
B Creative Arts K-6. Units of Work. (2001). Sydney: Board of Studies NSW. Creative Arts K-6. Units of Work. http:/www.boardofstudies.nsw.edu.au.
C Schemes of work http://www.standards.dfes.gov.uk/schemes2/music/teaching?view=get
D To find any lesson from MENC use http://www.menc.org/ using lesson number. To find any lesson from ArtsEdge Kennedy Centre Lessons Standards add a four digit number to http://ArtsEdge.kennedy- center.org/teach/les.cfm?subjectId=MUS.
E Kabalevsky, D. (2001). The main principals and methods of music program for general school. In Curricular and methodical materials. Music. Primary School. Ed. E. O. Yaryomenko. Moscow: Drofa, 10-130. Кабалевский, Д. (2001). Основные принципы и методы программы по музыке для общеобразовательной школы. В Программно-методические материалы. Музыка. Начальная школа. Сост.Е. О. Еременко. Москва: Дрофа, 10-130.
F Kritskaya, E., Sergeeva, G., & Shmagina, T. (2001). Music. Program. In Curricular and methodical materials. Music. Primary School. Ed. E. O. Yaryomenko. Moscow: Drofa, (pp.182-218). Критская, Е., Сергеева, Г., и Шмагина, Т. (2001). Музыка. Программа. В Программно- методические материалы. Музыка. Начальная школа. Сост.Е. О. Еременко. Москва: Дрофа, 182-218.
Kritskaya, E., Sergeeva, G., & Shmagina, T. (2001a). Music. Text-work Book 1. Moscow: “Prosveschenie”. Критская, Е., Сергеева, Г., и Шмагина, Т. (2001а). Музыка. Учебник-тетрадь1. Москва: «Просвещение». All references from this book begin with TB1 followed by page number.
Kritskaya, E., Sergeeva, G., & Shmagina, T. (2001b). Music 2. Moscow: “Prosveschenie”. Критская, Е., Сергеева, Г., и Шмагина, Т. (2001b). Музыка 2. Москва: «Просвещение». All references from this book begin with TB2 followed by page number.
74 Kritskaya, E., Sergeeva, G., & Shmagina, T. (2002a). Music 3. Moscow: “Prosveschenie”. Критская, Е., Сергеева, Г., и Шмагина, Т. (2002а). Музыка 3. Москва: «Просвещение». All references from this book begin with TB3 followed by page number.
Kritskaya, E., Sergeeva, G., & Shmagina, T. (2002b). Musiс 4. Moscow: “Prosveschenie”. Критская, Е., Сергеева, Г., и Шмагина, Т. (2002b). Музыка 4. Москва: «Просвещение». All references from this book begin with TB4 followed by page number. G Zankov, L. (2000). Music. In Collection of syllabae for four-year primary school. The Zankov system. Moscow: ZAO «Zentr obshego rasvitiya», (pp. 164-183).Занков, Л. (2000). Музыка. В Cборнике программ для четырехлетней начальной школы. Система Л. В. Занкова. Москва: ЗАО «Центр общего развития», стр. 164-183.
H Hrennikov, B. (1994). 5-8 Grades. In Syllabus for general educational institutions. 1st grade of four-year primary school. 1-3 grades of three- year primary school. 5-8 grades (with brief methodical recommendations). Moscow: “Prosvescheniye”, (pp. 93-223). Хренников, Б. (1994). 5- 8 классы. Программы для общеобразовательных учебных учреждений. Музыка. 1 класс четырехлетней начальной школы. 1-3 классы ерухлетней начальнй школы. 5-8 классы (с краткими методическими пояснениями). Москва: «Просвящение», cтр. 93-223
75 Table No. 2.6 represents data about composing activities and learning experiences. The table is divided by shaded rows into eight parts. They are composing, organising sound, exploring, creating, creating in other areas on music lessons, improvising (rhythmically and melodically), methods of organisation and other activities that relate to composing.
76 Table 2.6 Curricula Activities and Learning Experiences Matrix. Making music/Organising sound/Creating/Composing
A B C D E F G H I J NSW UK KS1&2 USA Russia Russia Russia Russia USA USA Creative National MENC; The The The The MMCP MMCP arts K-6 Standards ArtsEdge Kabalevsky Kritskaya Zankov Kabalevsky Interaction Synthesis 5-12 for music Kennedy system System system system 4-7 8-17 education Centre 7-9 6-9 6-9 10-13 Years old Years old Years old 5-11 Years old Years old Years old Years old Years old Composing 1. composing within U6,7 specified guidelines 2. composing music using U10 rhythmic ostinato based on spoken phrase 3. composing a short song to their own lyrics based U19 on everyday phrases Organising sound 4. organising sound into p.80 musical structures 5. organising sound by p.85 ordering images into ‘night and day’ composition 6. organising sound by p.85 conducting the night and day composition by pointing to the images for the class to play 7. organising sound by p.68 selecting sound 8. organising sound by p.74 selecting different types of dynamics and tone
77 colour 9. organising sound by p.75 selecting instruments to represent appropriate tone colours for accompaniment 10. organising sound by U18 selecting and combining the sounds expressively 11. Organising sound by p.68 experimenting 12. organising sound by P. 62 experimenting by choosing sounds – vocal, percussion or body percussion to represent a range of pictures on cards 13. organising sound by p.69 experimenting with different ways of presenting the chant (softly, loudly, whispered) 14. organising sound by p.81 experimenting with notating of their own compositions 15. organising sound by p.91 experimenting with accompaniments by playing each line separately then in various combinations Exploring 16. different melodic U12
78 patterns in response to words 17. different types of U12 accompaniment 18. different combinations of U13 rhythmic and non- rhythmic sounds 19. selecting sounds and U18 resources to achieve an intended effect/ use ICT to change and manipulate sounds Creating U3 p.186 20. creating the sounds p.62 student might hear taking an imaginary musical walk around the school 21. creating own rhythmic p.96 U14 ostinato based on words from the song 22. creating own ‘dance’ p.96 accompaniment for the song using body percussion and/or percussion instruments, and notate this accompaniment 23. creating and choosing U5,7 sounds in response to a given word stimulus (melodies by playing instruments) 24. creating sequences of U8,12 sound in response to the movements 25. creating music that U13
79 describes two contrasting moods/emotions 26. creating tunes for their U14 own singing games and add appropriate actions 27. inventing simple U16 rhythmic patterns 28. creating a composition U20,21 using different starting points (stimuli) 29. creating melodic patterns U21 using given notes and rhythm 30. creating chants based on MENC a steady beat pattern LESSON6 31. creating a sound signal 2096 using musical instruments in the room or any sound-making materials 32. creating a tune and write 2133 a recitative 33. create a song using 2189 geographic information 34. creating of rhythmic 2459 patterns Creating in other areas p.186 on music lessons 35. making up new verses/ p.69 innovating on the text 36. creating their own lyrics U19 based on headlines and common phrases; creating a bank of song lyric material
80 37. composing lyrics for a known song U19 38. composing a six-line 2275 stanza of lyrics written from the perspective of a dog 39. creating a musical p. 38 fairytale Improvising 40. rhythmically U4, 14 p.44 SB2, p. 32 p.166 41. rhythm by playing MENC p. 186 p.166 percussion instruments LESSON3 42. rhythmic patterns to a 21 steady pulse with awareness of the metre 43. melodically 44. improvising of their own p.81 melodic ostinato over the drone 45. simple tunes based on U12 the pentatonic scale 46. melodies by playing p.44 p. 186 p.166 instruments 47. melodies by singing p. 28,44 p. 186 p.166 within tonality and with modulations with different intonations 48. melodies by singing p. 176 poems with awareness of emotion and images of the characters of fairy tales (or fragments of poems) 49. improvising melodically p.166 or rhythmically with awareness of mood
81 50. improvising recitative p. 186 p.166 51. improvising U12 p.166 accompaniments Methods of organisation 52. creating a song p. 38 individually 53. creating one line of a MENC chant (4 words) on a LESSON6 teacher selected topic individually 54. composing music U21 individually or in pairs using a range of stimuli and developing their musical ideas into a completed composition 55. creating descriptive U9,13 music in pairs or small groups 56. creating their musical 2184 scene from given musical improvisation in groups 57. creating a class song U12 Other 58. creating new lyrics for a 2467 familiar tune 59. editing and recording 2184 their improvisations in script and audio/video forms 60. making up a rainforest p.74 collage wall mural and experimenting with individual sounds to represent each of the
82 parts of the collage 61. imitating p. 13 U1,3 MENC (Syllabus) LESSON1 62. copying the tune, the 2133 tone, and the movement 63. contributing ideas and U7 control sounds as part of a class composition and performance 64. staging/dramatisation P. 13 U14 pp.35, 41 p.166 (Syllabus) 65. changing sounds using a U18 tape recorder (and microphones) that sounds can be captured and modified using ICT 66. changing song form to MENC call and response LESSON5
B Creative Arts K-6. Units of Work. (2001). Sydney: Board of Studies NSW. Creative Arts K-6. Units of Work. http:/www.boardofstudies.nsw.edu.au.
C Schemes of work http://www.standards.dfes.gov.uk/schemes2/music/teaching?view=get
D To find any lesson from MENC use http://www.menc.org/ using lesson number. To find any lesson from ArtsEdge Kennedy Centre Lessons Standards add a four digit number to http://ArtsEdge.kennedy- center.org/teach/les.cfm?subjectId=MUS.
E Kabalevsky, D. (2001). The main principals and methods of music program for general school. In Curricular and methodical materials. Music. Primary School. Ed. E. O. Yaryomenko. Moscow: Drofa, 10-130. Кабалевский, Д. (2001). Основные принципы и методы программы по музыке для общеобразовательной школы. В Программно-методические материалы. Музыка. Начальная школа. Сост.Е. О. Еременко. Москва: Дрофа, 10-130.
83 F Kritskaya, E., Sergeeva, G., & Shmagina, T. (2001). Music. Program. In Curricular and methodical materials. Music. Primary School. Ed. E. O. Yaryomenko. Moscow: Drofa, (pp.182-218). Критская, Е., Сергеева, Г., и Шмагина, Т. (2001). Музыка. Программа. В Программно- методические материалы. Музыка. Начальная школа. Сост.Е. О. Еременко. Москва: Дрофа, 182-218.
Kritskaya, E., Sergeeva, G., & Shmagina, T. (2001a). Music. Text-work Book 1. Moscow: “Prosveschenie”. Критская, Е., Сергеева, Г., и Шмагина, Т. (2001а). Музыка. Учебник-тетрадь1. Москва: «Просвещение». All references from this book begin with TB1 followed by page number.
Kritskaya, E., Sergeeva, G., & Shmagina, T. (2001b). Music 2. Moscow: “Prosveschenie”. Критская, Е., Сергеева, Г., и Шмагина, Т. (2001b). Музыка 2. Москва: «Просвещение». All references from this book begin with TB2 followed by page number.
Kritskaya, E., Sergeeva, G., & Shmagina, T. (2002a). Music 3. Moscow: “Prosveschenie”. Критская, Е., Сергеева, Г., и Шмагина, Т. (2002а). Музыка 3. Москва: «Просвещение». All references from this book begin with TB3 followed by page number.
Kritskaya, E., Sergeeva, G., & Shmagina, T. (2002b). Musiс 4. Moscow: “Prosveschenie”. Критская, Е., Сергеева, Г., и Шмагина, Т. (2002b). Музыка 4. Москва: «Просвещение». All references from this book begin with TB4 followed by page number.
G Zankov, L. (2000). Music. In Collection of syllabae for four-year primary school. The Zankov system. Moscow: ZAO «Zentr obshego rasvitiya», (pp. 164-183).Занков, Л. (2000). Музыка. В Cборнике программ для четырехлетней начальной школы. Система Л. В. Занкова. Москва: ЗАО «Центр общего развития», стр. 164-183.
H Hrennikov, B. (1994). 5-8 Grades. In Syllabus for general educational institutions. 1st grade of four-year primary school. 1-3 grades of three- year primary school. 5-8 grades (with brief methodical recommendations). Moscow: “Prosvescheniye”, (pp. 93-223). Хренников, Б. (1994). 5- 8 классы. Программы для общеобразовательных учебных учреждений. Музыка. 1 класс четырехлетней начальной школы. 1-3 классы ерухлетней начальнй школы. 5-8 классы (с краткими методическими пояснениями). Москва: «Просвящение», cтр. 93-223. .
84 Table No. 2.7 presents a Curricula Activities and Learning Experiences Matrix focussing on listening. This table include all activities within the child’s listening experiences that are found in the listed sources. The table comprises two parts: listening and identifying expressive features of music.
85 Table 2.7 Curricula Activities and Learning Experiences Matrix. Listening
A B C11 D E F G H I J NSW UK KS1&2 USA Russia Russia Russia Russia USA USA Creative National MENC; The The The The MMCP MMCP arts K-6 Standards ArtsEdge Kabalevsky Kritskaya Zankov Kabalevsky Interaction Synthesis 5-12 for music Kennedy system System system system 4-7 8-17 education Centre 7-9 6-9 6-9 10-13 Years old Years old Years old 5-11 Years old Years old Years old Years old Years old Listening 1. listening p. 13 U2,8,16,18, 3345, 2316, pp. 26,27 p. 216 p.166 p.100 19 2275, 2273, 2292, 2459, 2095, 2184, 2220, 2. listening with sustained U15 p. 18 concentration (fragments or whole pieces) 3. listening attentively/ 2369 p.26 p.166 carefully, thinking over 4. listening and 2369 p.34 distinguishing different emotional states/ conditions (joy, grief, anxiety) in music 5. listening with the use of p. 119 imagination 6. perceiving pp. 17, 25 p.166 p. 119 7. meditating p. 17 p. 216 8. Listening to music and 2369 p.166 identifying expressive
11Schemes of work http://www.standards.dfes.gov.uk/schemes2/music/teaching?view=get
86 features of music 9. recognising expressive pp. 94-219 elements in music of variety of genres and from different places and times 10. listening critically to MENC different types of music, LESSON4 using a directed listening guide. 11. listening to longer pieces U15 of music and identifying features 12. hearing and p. 13 U1, 17 distinguishing sounds 13. identifying and p. 13 U1 classifying sounds 14. identify it as an aria, a 2133 recitative, or an ensemble piece 15. identifying the sounds of 2263 different instruments 16. identify melodic phrases U11 and play them by ear 17. identify pentatonic scales U12 in songs 18. identify harmony U17 2369 19. listening carefully for 2035, 2189 recurring words or phrases that may have represented coded messages in the songs, or think of songs about different cities and states 20. listening and p. 13 U8 remembering sounds
87 21. improving their U17 performance through listening
B Creative Arts K-6. Units of Work. (2001). Sydney: Board of Studies NSW. Creative Arts K-6. Units of Work. http:/www.boardofstudies.nsw.edu.au.
C Schemes of work http://www.standards.dfes.gov.uk/schemes2/music/teaching?view=get
D To find any lesson from MENC use http://www.menc.org/ using lesson number. To find any lesson from ArtsEdge Kennedy Centre Lessons Standards add a four digit number to http://ArtsEdge.kennedy- center.org/teach/les.cfm?subjectId=MUS.
E Kabalevsky, D. (2001). The main principals and methods of music program for general school. In Curricular and methodical materials. Music. Primary School. Ed. E. O. Yaryomenko. Moscow: Drofa, 10-130. Кабалевский, Д. (2001). Основные принципы и методы программы по музыке для общеобразовательной школы. В Программно-методические материалы. Музыка. Начальная школа. Сост.Е. О. Еременко. Москва: Дрофа, 10-130.
F Kritskaya, E., Sergeeva, G., & Shmagina, T. (2001). Music. Program. In Curricular and methodical materials. Music. Primary School. Ed. E. O. Yaryomenko. Moscow: Drofa, (pp.182-218). Критская, Е., Сергеева, Г., и Шмагина, Т. (2001). Музыка. Программа. В Программно- методические материалы. Музыка. Начальная школа. Сост.Е. О. Еременко. Москва: Дрофа, 182-218.
Kritskaya, E., Sergeeva, G., & Shmagina, T. (2001a). Music. Text-work Book 1. Moscow: “Prosveschenie”. Критская, Е., Сергеева, Г., и Шмагина, Т. (2001а). Музыка. Учебник-тетрадь1. Москва: «Просвещение». All references from this book begin with TB1 followed by page number.
Kritskaya, E., Sergeeva, G., & Shmagina, T. (2001b). Music 2. Moscow: “Prosveschenie”. Критская, Е., Сергеева, Г., и Шмагина, Т. (2001b). Музыка 2. Москва: «Просвещение». All references from this book begin with TB2 followed by page number.
Kritskaya, E., Sergeeva, G., & Shmagina, T. (2002a). Music 3. Moscow: “Prosveschenie”. Критская, Е., Сергеева, Г., и Шмагина, Т. (2002а). Музыка 3. Москва: «Просвещение». All references from this book begin with TB3 followed by page number.
88
Kritskaya, E., Sergeeva, G., & Shmagina, T. (2002b). Musiс 4. Moscow: “Prosveschenie”. Критская, Е., Сергеева, Г., и Шмагина, Т. (2002b). Музыка 4. Москва: «Просвещение». All references from this book begin with TB4 followed by page number.
G Zankov, L. (2000). Music. In Collection of syllabae for four-year primary school. The Zankov system. Moscow: ZAO «Zentr obshego rasvitiya», (pp. 164-183).Занков, Л. (2000). Музыка. В Cборнике программ для четырехлетней начальной школы. Система Л. В. Занкова. Москва: ЗАО «Центр общего развития», стр. 164-183.
H Hrennikov, B. (1994). 5-8 Grades. In Syllabus for general educational institutions. 1st grade of four-year primary school. 1-3 grades of three- year primary school. 5-8 grades (with brief methodical recommendations). Moscow: “Prosvescheniye”, (pp. 93-223). Хренников, Б. (1994). 5- 8 классы. Программы для общеобразовательных учебных учреждений. Музыка. 1 класс четырехлетней начальной школы. 1-3 классы ерухлетней начальнй школы. 5-8 классы (с краткими методическими пояснениями). Москва: «Просвящение», cтр. 93-223.
89 Table No. 2.8 contains activities that involve verbal experiences. It has nine parts indicated with shaded rows. They are discussing the musical quality, developing a vocabulary of musical terms, making decisions and giving reasons for their work, evaluating, comparing music, describing music, relating music or sounds to literature or visual arts and life, other, and discussing what is not related to music in music units
90 Table 2.8 Curricula Activities and Learning Experiences Matrix. Judging the musical quality
A B12 C13 D E F G H I J NSW UK KS1&2 USA Russia Russia Russia Russia USA USA Creative arts National MENC; The The The The MMCP MMCP K-6 Standards ArtsEdge Kabalevsky Kritskaya Zankov Kabalevsky Interaction Synthesis 5-12 Years for music Kennedy system System system system 4-7 8-17 old education Centre 7-9 6-9 6-9 10-13 Years old Years old 5-11 Years old Years old Years old Years old Years old Discussing the musical 2316,2459 quality 1. analysing sounds, music U19 3345,3346, 3347,2248 2. discussing the p. 92 differences in the style of the two versions and the place indicated by the lyrics and the importance of this to Aboriginal and Torres Strait islander peoples 3. discussing and p. 97 2248 describing tone colours used in the song/ music 4. discussing the effect that p. 97 adding or removing instruments effect dynamics 5. discussing of what p. 81 children like best, the
12 Creative Arts K-6. Units of Work 13Schemes of work http://www.standards.dfes.gov.uk/schemes2/music/teaching?view=get
91 most effective features and that use of musical concepts/ discussing sounds (attitudinal) 6. discussing how sounds U18 can create different intended effects 7. how sounds can be U13 combined to make textures 8. how pitched sounds, U18 when combined, can sound relaxed or tense (feelings) 9. expressing likes and Schemes of 2258,2184 dislikes and the reason work for these (attitudinal) 10. making sure each 2184 character and person knows his/her motivation (that is, what he or she wants), when presenting their scenes (attitudinal) 11. discussing of how music 2189,2095 represents people and where they live. Discussing "Oh! Susanna" and how much fun an old song can be. To get a feel for the time, music can play an important part as a messenger of the past. 12. discussing how songs 2293 can describe people and
92 places of the past 13. discussing how songs 2293 can be a reflection of economic times, geographical areas, human interactions, and politics. 14. discussing the meaning 2467,2273,2 of song lyrics 292,2220 15. discussing the social and MENC cultural context of the LESSON 1 song lyrics 16. discussing how music p. 40 express humane feelings, features of characters; How it describes human portraits, conditions of whether, movements 17. discussing of how p.41 character of music depends on character of performance 18. before listening to the p. 119 new masterpiece, discussing what children will may to hear according to literal and visual stimuli. 19. matching given music to p.121 the variety of literal and visual examples and giving reasons for such choice 20. discussing the pp. 105,111 significance of music for literature and the visual
93 arts 21. discussing the p. 104 significance of music in people’s life 22. realising that music pp. 123,124 influence humane life awakening people’s emotions, feelings, thoughts, moral qualities; strengthens or weakens their will 23. Developing a vocabulary of musical terms 24. developing vocabulary of All units 3346,3347,3 All lessons musical terms 348,2234,22 58,2133,236 9,2184 25. developing vocabulary p. 113 for describing music 26. Making decisions and giving reasons for their work (cognitive) 27. making decisions for p. 63, 75, 85 choosing instruments to illustrate insects, rainforest, sunrise (cognitive) 28. how to select sounds and U18 resources to achieve an intended effect/ use ICT to change and manipulate sounds (cognitive) 29. giving reasons for U2,13 choosing instruments (cognitive)
94 30. identifying how a mood U20 2467,2369 is created by music and lyrics 31. Evaluating 32. making decisions about p. 85 their work 33. making improvements to U6,8 their own and others’ work 34. evaluating and U19 improving work through discussion 35. improve their own work U15,17 2184 through analysis, evaluation and comparison improve their performance through listening, internalising and analysing (in their own minds) what changes need to be made 36. evaluate their peer’s 2133 work 37. commenting their 2275 performance 38. evaluating the presenting 2133,2184,2 group performance 096 39. Comparing music All lessons 40. discussing and p. 85 comparing other’s compositions with their own 41. comparing a pop song p. 97 with a piece of classical music focusing on
95 dynamics 42. discussing the p. 96 similarities and differences between different verses and choruses in the song 43. comparing music 2316 44. identifying similar and MENC different characteristics LESSON 4 of operatic, instrumental, and popular music 45. comparing and contrast 2095 lyrics of songs 46. identifying the difference MENC is between the pieces. LESSON 5 "Kuma San" (Japanese) and "San Toki" (Korean) are both Asian folk songs in traditional song form 47. comparing the styles of 2258 different performers 48. comparing different p. 177 p. 164 performances of the same masterpieces 49. Describing music 50. describing music p.63 U2,7,813,21 3345,3346,3 p. 116 347,3348 51. identifying descriptive U13 2369 p. 40 features in art, poetry and music. how mood and emotion can be illustrated in music 52. identifying and using U7 descriptive words to create sound pictures
96 53. describing styles of 2293 songs 54. describing rhythm 2248 55. using musical terms MENC correctly to describing LESSON 2 the dance. 56. Relating music/ sounds to literature or Visual Arts and life 57. relating sounds to visual U13 p.27 images 58. relating sounds to poetry 2248 59. relating music to visual 2293 art 60. appreciate the role 2293 played by music in history 61. discussing the links pp. 99,100 between music and the literature/visual arts 62. realising that music tales p. 123 about people, expresses their feelings and emotions, draws their characters, images reflects their acts, i.e. life gives raise to music 63. Other 64. showing creativity in p. 28 answers 65. striving for finding p.27 answers themselves 66. finding answers in Web 2467 67. discussing of how to U14 make up tunes for their
97 own singing games and add appropriate actions 68. Discussion of what is not related to music in music units 69. the depiction of p. 75 Aboriginal people in the book 70. discussing the animals p. 75 listed in the song 71. design of shoes 2272 72. coins and how and when 2110 they were issued 73. discussion by talking 2275 about the characteristics of dogs
B Creative Arts K-6. Units of Work. (2001). Sydney: Board of Studies NSW. Creative Arts K-6. Units of Work. http:/www.boardofstudies.nsw.edu.au.
C Schemes of work http://www.standards.dfes.gov.uk/schemes2/music/teaching?view=get
D To find any lesson from MENC use http://www.menc.org/ using lesson number. To find any lesson from ArtsEdge Kennedy Centre Lessons Standards add a four digit number to http://ArtsEdge.kennedy- center.org/teach/les.cfm?subjectId=MUS.
E Kabalevsky, D. (2001). The main principals and methods of music program for general school. In Curricular and methodical materials. Music. Primary School. Ed. E. O. Yaryomenko. Moscow: Drofa, 10-130. Кабалевский, Д. (2001). Основные принципы и методы программы по музыке для общеобразовательной школы. В Программно-методические материалы. Музыка. Начальная школа. Сост.Е. О. Еременко. Москва: Дрофа, 10-130.
98 F Kritskaya, E., Sergeeva, G., & Shmagina, T. (2001). Music. Program. In Curricular and methodical materials. Music. Primary School. Ed. E. O. Yaryomenko. Moscow: Drofa, (pp.182-218). Критская, Е., Сергеева, Г., и Шмагина, Т. (2001). Музыка. Программа. В Программно- методические материалы. Музыка. Начальная школа. Сост.Е. О. Еременко. Москва: Дрофа, 182-218.
Kritskaya, E., Sergeeva, G., & Shmagina, T. (2001a). Music. Text-work Book 1. Moscow: “Prosveschenie”. Критская, Е., Сергеева, Г., и Шмагина, Т. (2001а). Музыка. Учебник-тетрадь1. Москва: «Просвещение». All references from this book begin with TB1 followed by page number.
Kritskaya, E., Sergeeva, G., & Shmagina, T. (2001b). Music 2. Moscow: “Prosveschenie”. Критская, Е., Сергеева, Г., и Шмагина, Т. (2001b). Музыка 2. Москва: «Просвещение». All references from this book begin with TB2 followed by page number.
Kritskaya, E., Sergeeva, G., & Shmagina, T. (2002a). Music 3. Moscow: “Prosveschenie”. Критская, Е., Сергеева, Г., и Шмагина, Т. (2002а). Музыка 3. Москва: «Просвещение». All references from this book begin with TB3 followed by page number.
Kritskaya, E., Sergeeva, G., & Shmagina, T. (2002b). Musiс 4. Moscow: “Prosveschenie”. Критская, Е., Сергеева, Г., и Шмагина, Т. (2002b). Музыка 4. Москва: «Просвещение». All references from this book begin with TB4 followed by page number.
G Zankov, L. (2000). Music. In Collection of syllabae for four-year primary school. The Zankov system. Moscow: ZAO «Zentr obshego rasvitiya», (pp. 164-183).Занков, Л. (2000). Музыка. В Cборнике программ для четырехлетней начальной школы. Система Л. В. Занкова. Москва: ЗАО «Центр общего развития», стр. 164-183.
H Hrennikov, B. (1994). 5-8 Grades. In Syllabus for general educational institutions. 1st grade of four-year primary school. 1-3 grades of three- year primary school. 5-8 grades (with brief methodical recommendations). Moscow: “Prosvescheniye”, (pp. 93-223). Хренников, Б. (1994). 5-8 классы. Программы для общеобразовательных учебных учреждений. Музыка. 1 класс четырехлетней начальной школы. 1-3 классы ерухлетней начальнй школы. 5-8 классы (с краткими методическими пояснениями). Москва: «Просвящение», cтр. 93-223.
99 Figure No. 2.1 presents the predominant focus of the curricula philosophies/rationales/purposes/reasons to teach general music. It shows a scale-like figure. This figure matches a number of the curriculum philosophies to their predominant focuses. The curriculum rationales, purposes and reasons for teaching general music are also related to the concept of “philosophy”. The left end of the scale marks a number of curriculum philosophies that are most focused on music as a goal for study. This includes all programs that are designed in Russia. The right end of the scale shows the curriculum philosophies which are concentrated on the study of music as a learning process. This is outlined in the rationale of the NSW syllabus and the purposes for teaching music of the UK (England) curriculum. In the middle of the scale, there are syllabae that represent the USA music curricula in the present study. The reasons and priorities of teaching and learning by the MENC and rationales by the MMCP embrace both music and study. As a result, it seems that they have a balanced orientation which places them in the centre of the scale.
100 Figure 2.1 Predominant focus of the curricula philosophies/rationales/purposes/reasons to teach general music
Focus on Focus on Balanced the study (learning Music Focus process)
Very Much Very Much
USA USA MMCP MMCP Interaction Synthesis Russia Russia Russia The The The NSW UK Kabalevsky Kritskaya Zankov Creative Arts KS 1&2 System Program System K-6
USA MENC The School Music Program: A New Vision
101 Figure No. 2.2 shows how the different types of objectives dictate the content and how the two (objectives and content) relate to the approach to teaching music. The different objectives of each curriculum were described in Table No. 2.3a. In Figure 2.2, all curricula, which are under consideration in this chapter, are arranged in the light-blue boxes at the top of the page. Both Kabalevsky’s systems are put in one box. There are three ovals that are named Objectives (green), Content (orange) and Approach to Teaching Music (navy). The arrows link the boxes with the green oval. This indicates a syllabus which contains behavioural objectives (the NSW, England and the USA MMCP syllabus), or expressive type of objectives (all Russian syllabae). The arrows from the USA MMCP Interaction and Synthesis are directed to both types of objectives. Then, the outgoing junction arrow, which goes from the behavioural objectives, points to the content in the orange oval which is “activities”. An arrow from “activities” leads to the child-centred approach in the navy oval. This link expresses the notion that behavioural objectives place a child in a position where he or she learns by doing activities. This is a feature of the child-centred method. Returning to the green oval, it is shown that the expressive objectives are connected with content of music in the orange oval. A child is brought-up or fostered by music. Then, the arrow indicates a teacher-centred approach because a child has a passive role.
102 Figure 2.2 The relationship between objectives and content of curricula to the approaches in teaching music
NSW UK USA USA USA Russia Russia Russia Creative KS MENC MMCP MMCP The The The Arts 1&2 The School Interaction Synthesis Kabalevsky Kritskaya Zankov K-6 Music Systems Program System Program: A New Vision
Curricula Objectives Identified as
OBJECTIVE
Behavioural Type Expressive Type
• Performing Music • Teaching to love Music • Creating Music • Teaching to understand Music • Listening to Music • Broadening children’s conception • Discussing Music of music
Child learns by doing Child is up-brought/ fostered through CONTENT
Activities Music
• Singing alone & with others • Variety of music from a varied repertoire of music different times, styles and • Performing on instruments cultures by singing, listening alone & with others a varied and improvising repertoire of music
APPROACH TO TEACHING MUSIC
Child-centred Teacher-centred
103 Figure No. 2.3 shows the three steps of development of the child’s associative thinking through the literal, visual and musical stimuli in the Kabalevsky syllabus. In the first step, the illustrative character of music takes the last position in the row after literal and visual stimuli. In the second step, children are introduced to the descriptive character of music. Music moves to a position after literal stimulus. In the third step music comes forward before literal stimulus. At this step the visual stimulus is omitted. The shift of music from the last position in the row to the first shows how teachers use the different types of stimuli, gradually building children’s associative thinking.
104 Figure 2.3 Development of the child’s associative thinking through literal, visual and musical stimuli in the Kabalevsky syllabus
Literal Visual Music Step 1: stimulus stimulus (illustrative)
Literal Music Visual Step 2: stimulus (descriptive) stimulus
Literal Music Step 3: stimulus
105 Chapter 3 Curricula and syllabae in the primary/ elementary school
Discussion - the primary/ elementary school music curriculum
The word “curriculum” is a term that may be seen from a broad or narrow perspective. From the broad point of view, according to Barrow (1984), “the Latin word “curriculum” means the course of a circuit that a race is to follow. It implies a path or track to be followed or a course of study to be undertaken” (p. 11). He also refers to the etymological definition that considers the curriculum as “the prescribed content for study” (p. 3). This general definition is appropriate to represent the totality of individual courses in a broad view, when curricula are formed by government authorities in the UK (England), NSW and the Russian Federation, and by non- government organisation in the USA.
The National Curriculum of the UK (England) lies at the heart of the government’s policies to raise standards for defining and defending the core of knowledge and cultural experience which is the entitlement of every pupil, and at the same time flexible enough to give teachers the scope to build their teaching around it in ways which will enhance its delivery to their pupils (www.nc.uk.net). Within primary subjects, music is included as a part of the arts learning area along with visual art, dance and drama. The National Curriculum states that “music” is a powerful, unique form of communication that can change the way pupils feel, think and act. It brings together intellect and feeling and enables personal expression, reflection and emotional development. As an integral part of culture, past and present, it helps pupils understand themselves and relate to others, forging links between the home, school, and the wider world (www.nc.uk.net).
In NSW, Australia, the Board of Studies, under the Education Act of 1990 for and on behalf of the State of New South Wales, set out minimum curriculum requirements for primary schools. The Act states that “courses of study in both art and music are to be
106 included in the key learning area of Creative and Practical Arts. The Creative Arts K-6 Syllabus forms part of a K-12 continuum, providing foundational learning in the art forms as specified in the subjects of Visual Arts, Music, Drama and Dance for children from five to twelve years old (http://www.boardofstudies.nsw.edu.au, Syllabus 2000).
Nowadays, Russian education includes the use of a variety of programs. To keep a united and common education within the Russian Federation, there is a Compulsory minimum of primary school content (standards) that was approved by the Department of Education of the Russian Federation in1998 (19.05.98 No 1235). In the Compulsory minimum, music and visual arts are included in the learning area The Arts (Kabalevsky, 2001, p. 6).
In the USA, there is no National Curriculum. The USA curriculum is a State responsibility. Then authority is devolved further down to individual School Boards. As a result, music curricula in the USA are diffuse and often much localised. For example, a School Board would typically cover areas such as Orange County in California or Manhattan in New York. In the USA, the push for national standards began in January 1992, when the National Council on Education Standards and Testing (NCEST) called for a system of voluntary national standards and assessments in the “core” subjects of mathematics, English, science, history, and geography, “with other subjects to follow”. The arts were the first of the “other subjects” to receive federal funding. Providing a basis for developing curricula in the USA, the arts standards were approved by the National Committee in 1994. These voluntary standards describe the knowledge, skills, and understanding that all students should acquire in the arts. With the passage of the Goals 2000: Educate America Act, the national education reform legislation that includes the development of world-class standards, the arts have been recognised for the first time as a fundamental academic subject. National Standards for Arts Education and Reform considers music within the whole body of arts. The music education community is represented by the MENC, The National Association for Music Education. This non-government organisation sees as its mission “the advancement of music education by encouraging the study and making of music by all” (http://www.menc.org/). It sets the Curriculum Framework for general music that is used by most music teachers throughout the United States.
107 Thus, music is considered a part of the whole body of arts knowledge in the UK (England), NSW, Russia and USA. The subdivision of the curriculum into areas, such as science and humanities, tends to result in music being placed in the creative arts area because the arts have a number of similar values and concerns in aesthetic and cultural development. Common elements, however, do not detract from the individual distinctive qualities of particular parts of the arts, such as drama, dance, visual art and music.
From the narrow point of view, Barrow (1984) describes curriculum as “a program of activities (by teachers and pupils) designed so that pupils will attain, as far as possible, certain educational and other schooling ends or objectives” (p. 3). The present study aims to analyse curricula by referring to the more specific definition that it is “an organised set of formal educational and/ or training intentions” in teaching general music (Pratt, 1980, p.4). The term “general music” is widely used by music educators and refers to music instruction that takes place in a classroom setting (Runfola and Rutkowski, 1992, p. 97). The first six curricula for teaching music addressed in this chapter have their roots in Europe. The order in which they appear, to some extent, reflects their relationship to traditional or progressive education: Creative Arts K-6 (2000) syllabus of New South Wales (Australia) (http://www.boardofstudies.nsw.au), Key Stage 1 and 2 (KS1&2) syllabus of the United Kingdom (England) (http://www.standards.dfes.gov.uk/schemes3/), the Kabalevsky system for children from seven to nine years old (Russia, 1974) (Kabalevsky, 2001, pp.10-130), the Kritskaya system for children from six to nine years old (Russia, 1998) (Kritskaya, Sergeeva, and Shmagina, 2001, pp. 182-218), the Kabalevsky system for children from ten to thirteen years old (Russia, 1994) (Hrennikov, 1994, pp. 93-223); and the Zankov system for children from six to nine years old (Russia, 2000) (Zankov, 2000, pp. 164- 183). A similar ordering strategy is used for the remaining three systems, which have their roots in the United States: The School Music Program: A New Vision (1994) by MENC; Interaction and Synthesis by (MMCP), The Manhattanville Music Curriculum Project (1965-1970).
For the present research, the Russian and American music curriculum are represented by a variety of syllabae. To obtain an integrated picture of the general music education
108 and syllabae in these countries, it is worth mentioning some attendant historical issues and circumstances that surround the Russian and American curriculum.
Russia There are three operating syllabae in Russia being discussed in this study, viz., the Kabalevsky system (2001), the Kritskaya program (2001), and the Zankov system (2000). In 1974, Dimitri Kabalevsky (1904-1987) developed a music syllabus for the three-year primary school with children aged from seven to nine and for middle school children up to thirteen years old. The ideas of his program are based on values that are common to all mankind (Kabalevsky, 2001, p.7). Kabalevsky commented that the importance of music as a school subject “is not so much the study of music for its own sake as it is for the effect it has on the whole mental and spiritual world of children, above all on their morals” (p.13). He stressed that the significance of music in school goes far beyond music as an art. Like literature and graphic art, music intrudes upon all spheres of the education and the upbringing of our schoolchildren, as a powerful and irreplaceable means of shaping their inner world (Kabalevsky, 1988, p.41).
The next Russian syllabus for teaching music as general music is the Kritskaya program for the four-year primary school with children aged from six to nine years. Here music and its elements are introduced and taught in close connection with visual arts and literature. Elena Kritskaya’s program emerged because of the socio-political, cultural and technological changes in Russia in the 1990s.14 These changes are outlined in her program “Music” which consists of textbooks, exercise books and musical collections (cassettes) for students from six to nine years old. There is also a
14 The Communist Party's Central Committee made the important educational decisions in the Soviet Union after the Russian Revolution in 1917. In the 1920s, Communist leader Joseph Stalin established a rigid curriculum for Soviet education that emphasised science, mathematics, and Communist ideology. The rigidity and authoritarianism of the Soviet education system were strict. In 1989 Mikhail Gorbachev, then the general secretary of the Communist Party and the leader of the USSR, tried to reform the country's education system. He allowed schools more local control. However, the efforts which aimed at educational reform were hampered because the nation was suffering from political upheaval and a weak economy. With the fall of the Soviet Union in 1991 the former Soviet republics, such as Russia, Ukraine, and Georgia, became independent nations. They controlled their own political and education systems. Nowadays, the struggling economies of these nations often provide insufficient funds for education.
109 booklet with recommendations on method for teachers. The methodology is based on the main principles of Kabalevsky’s artistically-pedagogical ideas and includes basic categories and concepts of musical art which are reflected in Timing requirements to essential content minimum of primary education and The Approximate programs of primary education (Kritskaya, Sergeeva, and Shmagina, 2001, p. 211).
Each double page of the textbook and the exercise book includes the musical material (the title of the piece, scores of the major themes), illustrations (photos, reproductions of paintings), text (fragments of poems and narratives, correlating to the topic of the double page), lists of musical terminology necessary for the children on this level of education, as well as questions and activities. The questions and tasks, in these lessons and exercise books, have a problem-solving character (Kritskaya, Sergeeva, and Shmagina, 2001, p. 215).
The scores have multiple functions. They form the background for the interpretation of the visual representation of the music. They are also an orientation point for familiarisation with various genres of music. They teach the students using the elements of sheet music notation and aim to develop singing skills (Kritskaya, Sergeeva, and Shmagina, 2001, p. 214).
Audiocassettes of music are included in the set. The music is a either a fragment or a whole piece. The audio recordings are to familiarise the students with the masterpieces of the different musical cultures and with diversity of musical interpretations.
In Kritskaya’s program “Music”, there is a greater emphasis on traditional Russian folk music and the music of Russian composers such as Glinka, Tchaikovsky, Rimsky- Korsakov, Borodin, Mussorgsky, Rachmaninov, Prokofiev, Kabalevsky and others. These changes in music education reflect the change in socialist ideology and patriotism toward Russia that occurred in the 1990’s. The changes also introduced a number of elements of the sacred themes of the Russian Orthodox Church. For example, in the Textbook 2 there is a theme about Alexander Nevsky, a Russian military leader, who was regarded as a holy person by Russian Orthotics Church. The music for developing this theme includes two fragments from the Cantata “Alexander Nevsky” by Prokofiev
110 as well as art works by Nesterov (1862–1942) and Korin (1892 - 1967). It is important to stress that both musical and visual examples represent two contrasting feelings, lyric and heroic. The connection between music, visual art and literature is realised through questions like “Which fragment of music helps you to understand the character of Alexander Nevsky?” and “Which words from the choirs, that you have listened to, would you use to describe each of the paintings” (Kritskaya, 2001, pp. 42-43).
The Zankov didactic system also emerged with the transfer from three years primary education to four years. An additional year allowed for the widening and broadening of the programs for music, visual art design and technology. Zankov thought, this would lead to a more balanced system of education (Zankov, 2000, p. 2). Like Kabalevsky, however, his system was developed in the 1970s. It was not authorised for application in schools, because Zankov’s system did not meet the requirements of the ruling party. Kabalevsky inserted into his syllabus a number of songs which thematically focused on praising and glorifying the Soviet Union. The opportunity for introducing the Zankov program into schools occurred in the 1990s when the socialist party collapsed. Asmolov (1999) described the Zankov theory as “an innovative form of pedagogy” based on the Vygotsky theory. As a result, the approach to education, where the theory and technology (practical work) are separated, was overcome (p. 205). Zankov recognised Vygotsky’s notion of the Zone of Proximal Development, and based his educational system on the principle of presenting challenging tasks, taking into account the degree of difficulty. When selecting the task, the educator, in Zankov’s opinion, must bear in mind the level of difficulty that promotes cognitive development. He emphasised that in the educational process, every child must meet the cognitive challenge. This produces social and individual activity (Zankov, 2000, p.5).
As is shown above, there is a variety of systems for six to nine-year-old children in Russia. For teaching children from ten to thirteen years old, almost all teachers use the unified syllabus for general music that was developed by Abdulin, Beider, Vendrova, Kadobnova and others, under the guidance of Kabalevsky (Hrennikov, 1994, pp. 93- 223).
111 The USA In the USA, the MENC music curricula have been affected by a great number and variety of influences. These include traditional practices, projects conducted by professional organisations and state and local school system curriculum guides. Nowadays, both teachers’ traditional practices and society’s beliefs about music education influence what happens in classrooms. For instance, regarding music and young children, De-Ory (1989) described the role of music in society. MacDonald (1971) espouses the view that schooling has become a process of encountering what society thinks children ought to learn rather than what they do learn. He argues that there is no “objectively discoverable” curriculum (p. 21). Concerning material included in the general music curriculum, Britton (1966) stated that it was affected by social values, namely “politeness” rather than the need to furnish content for a thorough program in music education (p. 18). Runfola and Rutkowski (1992) point out that vast amounts of information reach the teachers through professional journals such as the Music Education Journal (MEJ), or General Music Today (GMT), and books published by the Music Educators National Conference (which is now MENC, The National Association for Music Education) (p. 699).
There are a number of projects conducted by professional organisations that influenced the general music curricula in a variety of aspects. According to Hedden and Woods (1992), The Contemporary Musicianship Project (CMP), 1963-73, for example, proposed that the course of study for education in music be based on all types and kinds of music and music education should utilise the creative capacities of the learner. Education in music from the preschool through to the university should develop broad- based musicianship through listening, performing and creating music. Music students will benefit from close association and contact with practising musicians and composers (p.673). The Contemporary Music Project (CMP) ended in 1973. Its aims were “to provide a synthesis and a focus, for the disparate activities in music, to give them cohesion and relevance in society and in the cultural and educational institutions and organisations” (CMP, 1973, p. 35). Runfola and Rutkowski (1992) consider that State and Local School System Curriculum Guides, which are available from state and local departments of education, constitute one of the strongest influences on the application of curriculum in the schools (p. 699). However, they reveal that neither these curricula nor their implementation has been evaluated by research. Furthermore, a number of
112 researchers, such as Caylor (1973), Barndt (1979), DeLaine (1986), Rasor (1988), Walker (1988), and Jothen (1989), were generally focused on the status of music in state and/or local curricula.
The last syllabus to be discussed in the present research is The Manhattanville Music Curriculum Project under the direction of Ronald B. Thomas. It began in 1965 with funding provided by a grant from the U.S. Office of Education. The major goal of the project was to develop a music curriculum for a sequential music-learning program. Interaction and Synthesis were the resulting publications. Each has its own place and purpose. The MMCP Interaction is a comprehensive, early childhood music-learning plan that was developed as a basic experience in musicianship for children from four to seven years old. It is a process-oriented program where the experience of personal involvement is the goal. The only concern for sequence in interaction is found in the processes of exploration. Interaction focuses on sounds and on music in an aural form with little involvement of notation of any kind. It may be implemented by the classroom teacher with consultative assistance from a music specialist. Another educational plan developed by the project, the MMCP Synthesis, offers a structure for music education for children from eight to seventeen years old. Synthesis stresses concept and skill development as well as experience in the processes of musicianship. It proposes the flexible sequence of a spiral curriculum of musical concepts. The plan involves children with the aural reality of music and symbolic references to all types of notation. It requires that the teacher will be a knowledgeable musician (Thomas, 1979a, p. v).
It would appear reasonable to mention the benefits that preschoolers may receive from participating in music sessions before their first year at school. Every society has different views on whether or not infants, toddlers and children from 2 to 4 years old should be involved in formal music training. The early beginning to musical training will help to avoid “missed opportunities” for development of certain abilities as pointed out by Froebel. This echoes Rousseau’s insistence upon the fact that growth takes time and cannot be hurried, as well as Piaget’s emphasis upon the existence of an “optimal time” for the growth of certain abilities, and Montessori’s “sensitive periods” for the natural development of certain (here musical) abilities and skills. The attempt to involve children in the learning processes earlier than five years old was
113 made in the UK (England) by the National Curriculum with the introduction of a Foundation stage for three-year-old children and a Reception syllabus for four-year- old children (National Curriculum, 2003). The philosophy underpinning the Foundation Stage curriculum is that learning should be planned and structured with an emphasis on fun, relevant and motivating activities and sets out six areas of learning. These areas are personal, social and emotional development; communication, language and literacy; mathematical development; knowledge and understanding of the world; physical development; creative development. However, each area of learning has a set of goals that are related only to literacy, numeracy and science. Music is not included as a subject in any early learning syllabus by the National Curriculum. In contrast to the UK (England), the Kindergarten system in Russia (age 1 to 6) and Pre-kindergarten system in the USA (infants and toddlers; and children from 2 to 4 years old) have developed special programs that involve children in the musical learning processes. There are both similarities and differences in their programs.
The Kindergarten system was introduced as a distinct phase of education for children aged 1-6 in the early 1920’s. This program, which was developed by the Department of Education and Science of the Soviet Union and distributed to all kindergartens including the nursery groups, sets out a compulsory requirement for providing music sessions to each child twice a week throughout Russia (Bukin, 2004). These include, for example, two sessions per week of 15 minutes each for first junior groups (age from 1 to 2 years); 20 minutes each for second junior groups (age from 2 to 3 years); 25 minutes each for medium groups (age from 3 to 4 years); 30 minutes each for senior groups (age from 4 to 5 years); 35 minutes each for school preparatory groups (age from 5 to 6 years).
Similarly, the years before children enter kindergarten are seen as critical for their musical development in the USA. The School Music Program: A New Vision, namely the PreK Standards (age 2-4) Curriculum Guidelines, emphasises that “young children need a rich musical environment in which to grow. This environment should exist in day-care centres, nursery schools, and early-intervention programs” (National Curriculum, 2003). However, it is difficult to estimate what percentages of children take part in this program and to what extent the kindergarten teachers follow it, as
114 well as how each session’s timing is set. Moreover, is it appropriate to involve infants, toddlers and children from 2 to 4 years old in formal “unnatural” (Entwistle, 1970, p.101) schooling even though it takes place in specially designed environments in kindergarten? Froebel supposed that less interference in education leads to less damage to the child. Piaget emphasised a child’s self activity and believed that intentional teaching is less fruitful than the child’s intrinsic power (Entwistle, 1970, pp.142-143).
Both programs target the child’s physical, emotional, social, and cognitive development. Froebel’s notion about revealing the child’s potential through activities was reflected in both programs. However, the Russian program includes the development of various skills, abilities and personal qualities by way of music. On the contrary, the American program is based on an exploratory approach and focuses on, and emphasises, development of musical skills, such as singing, moving, performing, creating and discussing. However, in the American Curriculum Guidelines the development of the child’s musical skills through “free participation in activities . . . should not be encumbered by the need to meet performance goals” (http://www.menc.org/publication/books/prek12st.html). The program sets a content standard where “children sing a variety of simple songs in various keys, meters, and genres. The songs include folk songs, ethnic songs, and singing games” (Ibid). Does this mean that there is no musical goal to achieve when children actually perform these simple songs? Or, do children perform movements when developing moving skills? It would seem that the American program does not clearly state what the term “performance goals” means.
The music sessions in Russia have objectives for the development of interest and love of music. The children listen to familiar and new music pieces, discuss them, and learn to recognise them and their composers. The Russian syllabus does not aim to develop children’s singing, performing, listening and creative skills as an objective of the program. The development of these skills serves to express the character of music and its mood and helps children to understand music and to love music. This does not, however, mean that the Russian program ignores the findings of the psychological theories (Piaget, Vygotsky) that children learn by doing things. The program includes all kinds of activities listed in the American Curriculum Guidelines (such as singing,
115 moving, performing, creating and discussing). However, the Russian program pays a lot of attention to the development of psychological processes as a primary goal. For example, participation in music sessions contributes to the development of the emotional sphere and the ability to express emotions by mimicry (happiness, sadness and fear) and develops musical and movement memory.
What kinds of activities are included in the music programs for the preschoolers? There are a number of similarities concerning different types of activities. These include views about singing which are similar (use their voices expressively as they speak, chant, and sing a variety of simple songs in various keys, meters, and genres alone and with a group, becoming increasingly accurate in rhythm and pitch), playing musical instruments (experiment with a variety of instruments and other sound sources; play simple melodies and accompaniments on instruments), creating (including ability to create simple dance movements, rhymes and melodies with musical instruments) and “introductory experiences with verbalisation and visualisation of musical ideas”. However, there are a number of differences concerning moving activities (http://www.menc.org/publication/books/prek12st.html). While the American program outlines the achievement standard when children “respond through movement to music of various tempos, meters, dynamics, modes, genres, and styles to express what they hear and feel in works of music”, the standards of the Russian program, in addition to these, include the development of physical exercises to a musical accompaniment, the ability to orient themselves in space (independently finding a free place in a hall, forming themselves into a circle, standing in pairs and so on) and more specific examples of imitation moves (bear steps, horse trotting, rooster pacing and so on) and dance movements, (spinning on the spot and in pairs, variety of dancing steps) which are set as compulsory standards of achievement. As the result of musical sessions, the children acquire the ability to distinguish the tempos, dynamics, register and rhythm. They can also distinguish two-three part forms of works and their genres and use the elementary musical terms and concepts, such as melody, accompaniment and register. The American Curriculum Guidelines extended this list with the inclusion of the use of music notation. This is outlined in the Content Standards for four-year-olds as creating music where children “invent and use original graphic or symbolic systems to represent vocal and instrumental sounds and musical ideas” (Ibid.).
116 Echoing Montessori, the American National Standards for Music Education include the belief that children’s play is their work. Play is seen as “the primary vehicle for young children's growth, and developmentally appropriate early music experiences should occur in child-initiated, child-directed, teacher-supported play environments” (http://www.menc.org/publication/books/prek12st.html). For example, Montessori believed that the child begins to educate him or herself when he or she has been provided with the pieces of apparatus which will train their senses. The child would then choose the musical instrument and use it freely. This activity would, probably, create a lot of noise which will not help either to train the senses (distinguishing sounds, for example) or to achieve the scholastic subject (music) goals that are the aims of the Montessori Method. On the contrary, the Russian program, reflecting Froebel’s notion that play is not “natural”, but has to be learned like any other human activity (Liebschner, 1991, p. 17). Additionally, it involves teachers who instruct children with all the rules of how and when to play musical instruments.
The next point relates to the development of children’s awareness of music as a part of daily life. In America, effective music teaching in the pre kindergarten should “consist of learning activities and materials that are real, concrete, and relevant to the lives of young children” (Ibid.). However, there are no specific guidelines for the organisation of music sessions concerning planning and instruction. The Russian program sets out the activities that should be included in each music session. The activities are thematic. For example, all music sessions are linked to monthly and annual music events, such as Christmas, New Year Celebration, Mother’s and Father’s Days, the Day of Knowledge, children’s shows, topic sessions (eg, about seasons, animals and transport) and so on. Music is also provided for daily physical exercises and for the weekly physical culture sessions. Moreover, it is advised that there should be a certain repeated order of activities for children from one to four years old. This notion may be linked to Montessori’s findings that very young children have a natural need for order in organising things and events so that children feel secure and confident.
The American program offers children of this age (2-4 years old) a variety of individual musical experiences, with little emphasis on activities that require children to perform together as a unit. The Russian syllabus targets a group of 20-25 children
117 participating in music activities together. Individual sessions are also provided but they are aimed specifically at the development of creative and performing skills.
Both programs take into consideration the notion that “children need effective adult models” (http://www.menc.org/publication/books/prek12st.html). MENC also advises that the program should be “delivered by either early-childhood arts specialists employed as staff members in child-care centres and preschools or by visiting music specialists with training in child development. They would provide musicality and creativity and serve as models and consultants for the child-care staff” (Ibid). In Russia, all musical activities are conducted by specialists in early musical education who have previously graduated from corresponding educational institutions.
In conclusion, the effect of early involvement in formal musical training cannot be underestimated because one of the objectives for the early musical program in the USA is that the approach “provides a rich base from which conceptual understanding can evolve in later years” (Ibid). Both programs reflect a number of similar beliefs concerning the musical learning of young children and facilitating learning through active interaction with adults and other children as well as with music materials. Primarily, the Russian program aims at the musical and aesthetic development of pre- school children, whereas the American Curriculum Guidelines emphasises the development of skills.
However, certain questions arise. When is it the right time to begin fostering and cultivating a love of music and the need to participate in musical activities? Should educators be aware of Rousseau’s “stages” of appropriateness, Froebel’s missed opportunities, Montessori’s sensitive periods, and Piaget’s stages of development for learning particular things? What if the time to learn these things has already passed? Is there then any hope of learning these things? Or, should educators concentrate on Vygotsky’s notion of ZPD that states that children are able to learn at any point in their development?
118 A comparison of the components of curricula and syllabae
There is no consistency in literature regarding the components that should be included in the school music curricula. For example, the music curriculum was described by the Manhattanville Music Curriculum Project (MMCP) as having “four constituents which must be taken into account: music, the student, the process for learning, and the educational environment” (Thomas, 1979b, p.15). Labuta (1982) wrote that “Curriculum is frequently defined in terms of experience. It consists of all of the planned and incidental experiences the child has under the direction of the school” (p. 112). Barrow (1984) states that curriculum should be understood to be “the prescribed content” for study and “an outline of the subject-matter to be studied” (p. 3). The most complete pattern of music curricula was pointed out by Runfola and Rutkowski (1992). It constitutes six component parts, including philosophy (why?), objectives and content (what?), nature of the student (who?), context (when? and where?), techniques, activities and materials (how?), and evaluation (p. 701) (Refer to Table No. 2.2 (Components of Curriculum Models)). In Chapter 1(Child cognitive development), I investigated the nature of the student (who?) in connection to how children learn. The current study makes an extended research on general music curriculum components, including philosophy (why?), objectives and content (what?), and techniques, activities and materials (how?) as well as relevant areas in order to clarify issues that underlie the design of effective general music curricula.
Philosophy
The teaching systems used in general music classes reflect a variety of philosophies. According to Runfola and Rutkowski’s (1992), music educators use the term “philosophy” to reflect a set of values, shared point of view, or a rationale for the inclusion of a music program within the total school curriculum (p. 701). The syllabus of NSW does not indicate a particular philosophical position for teaching the arts but it represents a rationale of how the art forms, such as visual arts, music, drama and dance can be thought; and how music contributes to Creative Arts and the students’ learning. For example, the NSW syllabus rationale includes a wide set of values that is necessary for child development. The main points from syllabus include
119 opportunities for personal expression, enjoyment, creative action, imagination, emotional response, aesthetic pleasure and the creation of shared meanings; opportunities to explore social and cultural values about spiritual and worldly beliefs in Australia and in other regions an a cultures, including those of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples; opportunities to develop the art forms symbol system or language; opportunities to explore how people are involved and to be involved in making, composing, listening, performing and appreciating the arts; opportunities to participate in and contribute to cultural life, to become informed consumers of the arts and culture, and to consider a range of career paths; opportunities to respect the views of various social and cultural groups, people with different religions and belief systems and people with disabilities (Creative Arts K-6 Syllabus, 2001, pp.6-7). The approach that is described in the rationale also takes into account students’ cognitive development and the critical role of the teacher in providing learning experiences that are suited to the students’ abilities and developmental needs and interests (p. 6). Then, the unique contribution of music to Creative arts and students’ learning is acknowledged by how these common values may be realised through the development of knowledge, skills and understanding in performing music of different styles and from different times and cultures by singing, playing and moving, and in organising sound into musical compositions using musical concepts; in listening to and discussing their own music and that of others (p. 7).
Then, following the common use of the term “philosophy” pointed out by Runfola and Rutkowski (1992), as “a rationale for the inclusion of a music program within the total school curriculum” this thesis takes into account the Creative Arts K-6 Syllabus of New South Wales (Australia) even though Runfola and Rutkowski insist that philosophy and rationale are not synonyms and philosophy is the ideology on which a rationale is built (Runfola and Rutkowski, 1992, p.701). Yet, teachers in NSW may base their main ideas in a rationale and use it as a basic ideology for planning and delivering curriculum. Analysis of Leonhard and House’s belief, that says that every teacher’s way of teaching is an expression of that teacher’s philosophy, brings to life a new question (Leonhard and House, 1972, p.8). Does the absence of a unified
120 philosophical stance mean that the implementations of the NSW Creative Arts K-6 (children from five to twelve years old) by a number of different teachers bring to life a number of different philosophies in teaching music?
Considering the music curriculum of the Manhattanville Music Curriculum Project, Thomas did not regard “philosophy” as one of the constituents of the music curriculum (Thomas, 1979b, p. 15). Nevertheless, for the present thesis, it is also valuable to mention the rationale and main principles that underlay The Manhattanville Music Curriculum Project syllabus. Interpreting Jorgensen’s definition of “philosophy” as concepts that “undergird the music curriculum” (Quoted in Runfola and Rutkowski, 1992, p.701), it is acceptable to take into consideration a rationale of MMCP where it is stressed that the bond of the art (music) and the study penetrates all details of the MMCP curricula (Thomas, 1979b, p. 15). The MMCP Interaction and the MMCP Synthesis are conceived on the same philosophical basis with emphasis on exploration. Within the rationale of Interaction, the educational philosophy that underlays the early childhood music curriculum deals with five areas, such as experience within the creative process itself; acquisition of the simple skills which allow the child to operate as a creative musician; understanding of basic concepts of musical elements, their combination and manipulation; development of sensitivity to sounds, to their interaction and to musical nature; and development of positive attitudes toward music and self. Thomas wrote that “the emphasis of music education should be on the development of sensitive people who have the breadth of insight and skill proficiency to use music for its intrinsic meaning and value to them” (Thomas, 1979b, p, 21). Thomas explains that the study must provide the child with the fullest experiences in music as dictated by the nature of the art. He must become involved in the total process, composing, performing, conducting, listening, with critical awareness, and evaluating. His participation in these activities must always be in the spirit of a musician, not an imitator. The study must deal with the inherent concepts of the art and be so formulated that the child discovers for himself the nature of interaction and relationship of the elements that bring meaning to music. The materials of instruction must be drawn from the total spectrum of the art with primary emphasis on the materials of today’s music. For that strongest bond
121 between the musical art and that child is sensitivity to contemporary life (Thomas, 1979a, pp. 5-6).
In Synthesis, the main focus of the curriculum was on the strong bond of the core of music – on concepts that are attributed to all music and the creative processes of study. The idea of absolute confluence of the art and the study, their synthesis, underlay every aspect of the MMCP syllabus.
The implementation of these five areas in the educational process occurs by five Developmental Phases of Musical Exploration (DPME). The first area of philosophy in Interaction is “experience within the creative process itself” (Thomas, 1979a, p. 13). It is linked to the first phase, which is Free Exploration, when the child’s explorations are motivated largely by his natural curiosity to experience the unknown (Thomas, 1979a, p. 13). At this point, the atmosphere or setting of acceptance when the learner is free to explore is defined by Thomas as of the most importance. Children will experiment enthusiastically within their capabilities for producing sounds in such a setting. Reproducing certain sounds over and over again gives them a clearer understanding, better control and a great deal of personal satisfaction (p.13).
Kabalevsky’s philosophy constitutes four concurrent parts, including a focus on the harmonious development of the individual; focus on his belief in the power the arts exerts on children and all aspects of culture; a consistent focus on the close relationship between music (as art and a school subject), and the child’s life; and a focus on music content (musical material). The corner stone of Kabalevsky’s educational and musical philosophy was his concern with the total education of the individual. To support this point, Kabalevsky used as the epigraph for his general school music program a phrase by the Soviet educator Vasili Sukhomlinsky: “Music education does not mean educating a musician - it means first of all educating a human being” (Quoted in Kabalevsky, 2001, p. 12). The next essential component of his philosophy was his belief in the power that art exerts on the individual in all aspects of culture. He wrote As an art influencing directly human emotions music is called upon to play an increasingly important role in attaining this culture (Quoted in Forrest, 2004).
122 He further argued that an interest in music, a fascination and a love for it are essential if music is to yield up all the beauty that it is capable of giving to children, for it to be able to fulfil its educational and cognitive role (Kabalevsky, 1988, p.58).
He expressed the importance of the close connection between music and the child’s life in his article Main Principles and Methods of Music Syllabus for General Music. He wrote that “Music and life” is a major theme, in a sense, a super aim of school music lessons. It must penetrate all lessons from the first to the last grade, together with ideas of patriotism and internationalism, forming ideology, educating their morality and sincere nobleness. Thus, learning music, children will feel and understand from the first grade that they study life, that music is life itself” (Kabalevsky, 2001, p. 21). The last integral part of Kabalevsky’s musical and educational philosophy was the musical content with a greater emphasis on a song genre (Forest, Smith and Barret, 2004). Like piano music, a significant amount of vocal music was written for children and young people as either performers or listeners. Kabalevsky’s compositions for children and his writings shared his common philosophy. His criteria for the music examples used for teaching, have three main requirements. They are that musical material should have pedagogical aims targeting the total development of a child. They should be based of folk inflexions and they should have close links to the child’s life. Kabalevsky criticised previously developed methods and approaches for teaching music. He wrote that “all attempts basing the methodology of general music in schools on pedagogy, psychology, physiology, aesthetics, sociology are positive, but there is no aspiration and desire to be guided by rules of music itself” (Kabalevsky, 2001, p. 13). Furthermore, Kabalevsky insisted on the importance of basing a system of music education on the nature of music as he wrote that in my many years of teaching music to school children of various ages, I have attempted to arrive at a concept of teaching arising from and relying on the music itself, a concept that would naturally and organically relate music as an art to music as a school subject, and that would just as naturally relate school music lessons to real life. I have attempted to find the sort of principles, methods and approaches that could help to attract the children, interest them in music, and bring this beautiful art, with its immeasurable potential for spiritual enrichment, close to them (Kabalevsky, 1988, p. 21).
123
Clearly, Kabalevsky’s philosophy is influenced by traditional and progressive approaches. Following points of Kabalevsky’s philosophy illustrates his strong subject orientated view based on his belief in the power of arts that “exerts all aspects of culture on the children” (Kabalevsky, 2001, p. 17); and his focus on musical content (musical material). This confirms that his method is influenced by the traditional approach. The progressive approach which features in Kabalevsky’s approach is his focus on a close relationship between music (as art and a school subject) and child’s life which is an essential principle of progressivism. This principle has found its reflection in Kabalevsky’s concept of Three Wales. Kabalevsky believed that song, dance and march give the opportunity to unite the musical art with music sessions in school providing the closest connection of these sessions with life, because even preschool aged children listened to and sang songs themselves, listened to and danced to the dance music themselves, and listened to, and watched soldiers and sportsmen marching and they marched themselves many times. This is absolutely a real life experience that is not realised by children (Kabalevsky, 2001, p. 16).
The Kritskaya program for children from six to nine years old is based on Kabalevsky’s philosophical thesis. However, the principle position of the author is that “the child’s entrance into the world of musical art should take place in connection to Russian music - its inflexions, themes and imagery” (Kritskaya, Sergeeva and Shmagina, 2001, pp. 211-212). She wrote that Inflexion is a leading or chief principle, which regulates the process of development of the musical standard and culture of students and which links specific musical elements to spiritual and cultural wealth. The masterpiece opens for a child in the process of defining artistic meaning by dint of different forms of incarnation of artistic images (literal, musically-aural, visual) with a basis in the exposure of life’s connections to music (Kritskaya, Sergeeva and Shmagina, 2001, p. 85). As a result of this statement, all masterpieces of western music are taught by comparing them to Russian music thereby strengthening the relevance of music to the Russian culture and, consequently, to child’s life (Kritskaya, Sergeeva and Shmagina, 2001, p. 135).
124
Then, “purpose” may also be used as a category that has the same function as the category “philosophy” for it explains the intention the education process. Gordon (1984) asserted that “although the purpose does not provide specific direction… if a teacher does not know why he is teaching music, teaching will be haphazard” (p.206). Teaching music at Key Stages 1 and 2 (children from five to eleven years old) in the UK (England) concerns the opportunities that music will provide students in their personal and social life either in the present or in the future. Firstly, according to the government standards in music education, students will acquire the knowledge, skills and understanding needed to make music, for example in community music-making, and, where appropriate, to follow a music-related career (Schemes of Work. http://www.standards.dfes.gov.uk/schemes2/music/teaching?view=ge). Secondly, students will develop skills, attitudes and attributes that can support learning in other subject areas and that are needed for life and work, for example listening skills, the ability to concentrate, creativity, intuition, aesthetic sensitivity, perseverance, self-confidence and sensitivity towards others (Schemes of Work. http://www.standards.dfes.gov.uk/schemes2/music/teaching?view=ge).
It would seem that the orientation to the future and preparation for adult life is a result of the influence of the traditional approach. As with Kabalevsky, the UK (England) curriculum considers music as a power tool for the whole development of the child including his or her cognitive, aesthetic, attitudinal and moral characteristics.
As in the music curriculum of the UK (England), Zankov did not develop a particular philosophical position but he articulated the purpose of music as a subject in the general school that may be regarded as his philosophical stance. Zankov pointed out that participating in aesthetic activities which involve observation, mental work and practical action differ from participating in learning language, mathematics and science (Zankov, 2000, p. 2). He believed in the equality of all subjects for the cognitive development of primary school age children for their development. The purpose of education, he thought, is to establish a greater effectiveness for the total development of students. Under “total development” Zankov implied the development of the cognitive,
125 emotional, moral and aesthetical potential of a child. Yet, unlike Kabalevsky’s and the UK (England) syllabae where music embodies all aspects of child total development, Zankov sees the purpose of music as a subject in building the aesthetic foundation (p. 164).
In the USA, the philosophy of general music education is not outlined by the National Committee. However, all teachers are recommended to take into account a number of considerations. These considerations in the General Music Curriculum Framework Document by Debra Hedden published by MENC are included, when building their philosophy for teaching music (Hedden, http://www.menc.org/). They should include the teacher’s thoughts on goals and priorities, such as the importance of learning music in music class, the importance of music is unique features for the learning process, the importance of learning music for the sake of music, the importance of having broad and specific goals in teacher’s program and the students. There is a statement in Hedden’s document that may be considered as a philosophical stance because it stresses and articulates the fundamentals that should penetrate all components of curriculum development. In her recommendations for developing curricula she insisted on the premise that general music is comprised of the elements of melody, harmony, rhythm, and form to which all other musical elements are related. None of these should be ignored at any grade level, but rather enhanced in order to demonstrate a higher level of sophistication with each successive grade. The general music learning experiences should include singing, moving, listening, performing, composing/improvising, and reading/writing (literacy) music in each class meeting” (Hedden, http://www.menc.org/). However, it is difficult to estimate to what extent teachers follow this premise. Most likely this statement cannot be considered as a common philosophy for all general music teaching in the USA. Nevertheless, it is worth taking it into consideration to show the tendency towards both music and study.
To arrive at a conclusion, five15 different syllabae are represented above. It is worth pointing out the similarities and differences in their philosophical bases for the development of curricula. Some questions may arise after their comparative analysis.
15In England, National Curriculum of primary school and Key Stage 1 and 2 (KS1&2) music syllabus do not indicate neither rationale nor philosophical stance.
126 Jorgensen (1990) stated that philosophy strengthens the music curriculum (p. 701) but Runfola and Rutkowski (1992) disclose that “philosophy” and its effect on the general music curriculum have not been an issue of empirical studies (p. 673). Reimer (1989) also stated that there is a need for “philosophy to provide a strong foundation for the curriculum built upon it” (Quoted in Runfola and Rutkowski, 1992, p. 701). The philosophical stance of the Kabalevsky system, the purposes of the UK (England) syllabae and the Zankov program, the reasons for goals and priorities in the teaching and learning of The School Music Program: A New Vision (USA MENC) and the Thomas model have clear bases for the music curriculum. They are consistent and state that musical education is important for the total development of every child. Zankov, at that, separates the roles of the different academic disciplines in the total process of child development, giving music exclusively the aesthetic role (Zankov, 2000, pp. 2-3). The concept of total development reflects upon the development of each individual and was raised by Rousseau and Pestalozzi and it also was one of the main principles of child-centred approach.
The major differences occur in the attitudes of the UK (England) and NSW syllabus. They are directed towards the study (learning process), whereas the Russian programs are strongly orientated towards music. (Refer to Figure 2.1) The rationale of NSW curriculum and purposes of music education of the UK (England) curriculum focus on performing music and making music because of the strong influence of Piaget’s theory of child cognitive development. That is children learn by experiencing things. Piaget’s belief in the child’s intrinsic motivation towards learning is also reflected in the decline of the teacher’s role when it comes to providing these learning experiences. Kabalevsky’s and Kritskaya’s philosophies and Zankov’s purpose are centred on music rather than on the learning process because they are based on Vygotsky’s theory that educating, teachers have an active role in education. Vygotsky’s notion that adults convey culture to children is reflected even more strongly in the Kritskaya program where she connects western music to Russian inflexions, themes and imagery (Kritskaya, Sergeeva and Shmagina, 2001, pp. 211- 212).
Interestingly, the syllabae of the both MMCP and USA (MENC) maintain a balanced position stressing the equal importance of the music and the study for child
127 development. This was echoed earlier in the educational practices of Froebel, Pestalozzi and Montessori and stems from the philosophical doctrine of progressive education by John Dewey. Three aspects will be analysed, including subject matter, learning process and role of the teacher.
Being influenced by the child-centred approach in a number of aspects, including attention to the development of each individual, Thomas’s rationale discloses that he has different view on subject matter (music as a subject). While progressivism rejects the traditional view that learning through problem solving projects should replace implantation of subject matter (Kneller, 1963, p. 106), Thomas distinguishes music as a subject because music provides a fundamental way of learning and knowing due to its “distinctive, definable and continuing body of content” (Thomas, 1979a, p.2). It includes the wealth of historical masterpieces and resources from the personal creativity and interpretation by children themselves (Thomas, 1979a, p.2). Clearly, he follows Dewey’s philosophical doctrine of education where he states that, while children experience their private interests, teachers move them to embrace the logical content of subject matter (Dewey, 1943, p. 31).
Since progressive educators (Froebel, Montessori and Thomas) explored a number of similar issues of teaching and learning, it is possible to compare their views on the learning process. This includes the use of didactic material or special tools, the starting point for the learning process and the way it develops, and the role of the teacher. The comparison will give insights into some aspects of learning and “the role of the teacher” at a deeper level. For example, Thomas differs from Montessori in his view of how learning occurs but resembles Froebel in his educational aims. “Learning” by Thomas is a creative process itself, but Montessori believes that learning occurs on a physical, mental and sensory level. Assuming that children somehow get into state of profound spontaneous mental concentration in a classroom setting, repeating sound, is there a possibility for learning in Thomas’s free exploration phase as Montessori sees it? For example, Thomas offered the activity of “passing the paper ball” to produce the sounds of paper. This “paper sound source” may be seen as Montessori’s didactic material because the purpose of both is “to give children the chance to see better” (Standing, 1957, p. 221). Examining free exploration of the “sound source” by the repetitive
128 reproduction of sounds using paper, it is clear that an aim of this exercise cannot be regarded as the education of senses because the education of the sense of hearing requires one child at a time to work producing the gradation of sounds. Moreover, the gradation of sounds is impossible to achieve using paper. The possible objective of the exploration of this “paper sound source” in any classroom setting may be the education of the child’s ear to noises so that they will be able to distinguish noise and compare it then with sounds. Thus, when exploring “paper sound source”, learning occurs only on the physical and mental (cognitive) level excluding the sensory level. As a result, the aim of repetition, which is defined by Montessori as “refinement of the child’s senses through the exercise of attention, comparison and judgment”, is not achieved because the sense (hearing) is not equipped for the exploration of sounds set by Thomas. Because the sense of hearing is a missing component at this phase, according to Montessori, learning does not occur (Montessori, 1964, p. 360).
The comparison of Thomas’s “paper sound source” with Froebel’s Gifts shows that the educational aims concerning creativity as “the investigation of that which is not yet known”, learning by discovery, results in children learning new things. For example, Froebel’s Gifts are to “be used to create patterns and shapes of beauty exploring, imitating and extending the aesthetic qualities to be found in the environment” in order to explore unknown things (Liebschner, 1991, p. 77). In the case of “paper sound source”, Thomas sets a similar objective “to explore a wide variety of sounds using paper of differing textures and sizes” (Thomas, 1979a, p. 43). Both Froebel’s Gifts and Thomas’s “paper sound source” are devised to encourage and develop the creative powers in a child. Thomas believes that the nature of child involvement in creative, open-ended music experiences reveals that certain psychological and social factors relate to the production of music and to increased understanding of it (Thomas, 1979a, p. 13).
Thus, in accordance with Froebel’s idea that creativity contributes to learning, creating sounds by manipulation of sound-producing materials in Thomas’s task also leads to learning.
129 Thomas thought that free exploration should be considered as learning. He formulated a bond between music and study that starts with free exploration and proceeds to guided exploration. It is possible to compare Thomas’s first phase with Pestalozzi’s view. What does Thomas consider under Free Exploration? Free Exploration is based on Piaget’s work on concept development that indicates that the child learns to understand his environment by what he does to it, therefore, “the sounds the child makes himself must be that starting point” (Thomas, 1979a, p. 13). However, further analysis of this phase through, for example Pestalozzi’s view, will lead to a contradiction. For example, in regard to every subject, Pestalozzi stressed the acceptance of information from children starting from a simple sensory activity (p. 16). He used the teaching of reading as an example (analogy). Before teaching a child to read the child must have a good vocabulary, so before playing musical instruments a child should experience music. Pestalozzi did not say that a child should spell words before starting reading, so there is no need to explore different single sounds before starting to play musical instruments. As a result, a starting point may be simple sensory activity such as listening to music.
Is Free Exploration play? Thomas writes that encounters in free exploration provide the child with opportunities to discover and explore a wide variety of sound sources without predetermined goals. The child’s explorations are motivated by his natural curiosity to probe and to experience the unknown (Thomas, 1979a, p. 13). Thomas states that using free time, however, children should follow certain rules set by the teacher or constructed by students after the teacher’s encouragement (p. 49). This idea is very much the same as Froebel’s view on child play. Froebel did not advocate free play. Instead, he considered that play “must not be left to chance” and it should have a definite period of time when educators must primarily teach this kind of play (p. 167). In contrast, Montessori considers play as free work of the child’s choice.
The first phase, Free Exploration, is significant because it indicates the position of the learner and position of the teacher. Similar to Froebel, Thomas’s child achieves independence by means of his own actions: Once the learner has an opportunity to discover himself in exploration and experimentation that leads to self-identification, an awareness of evolving capabilities, temporary limitations and particular strengths, the
130 teacher is in a position to assist him further in the creative process rather than offer prescribed patterns of teacher-dominated instruction (Thomas, 1979a, p. 5). The path of learning, according to Thomas from independence to guidance appears at the second phase, Guided Exploration, while Montessori believed that “the first form of educational intervention must lead the child towards independence” (Montessori, 1915, p. 95).
The development from independence determines the teacher’s position from the beginning of the educational process which is to encourage involvement. Thomas believes that teacher’s function is to encourage involvement by “cultivating an air of expectancy and curiosity in the classroom, which allows for spontaneous and total involvement” (Thomas, 1979a, p.15). Why encouragement is possible? Thomas considers that by encouraging the child to engage in free exploration and exhibiting a sincere interest in the child’s discoveries, the teacher can nurture this state because sound sources excite the child’s imagination. It is imperative, therefore, that these early experiences are so conducted that they fully absorb the child’s interest and prod his imagination (p. 15). However, Montessori’s observations shows that personal curiosity only reveals itself in the continuous repetition of an action, in this case “reproducing certain sounds over and over again”, and is linked to profound spontaneous mental concentration. Montessori stressed that this concentration is based on internal motivation rather than external control of behaviour, such as encouragement, as Thomas believed it is (Montessori, 1967, pp. 216-217).
Dewey states that children need to be directed by the teacher. In contrast, a basic principle of progressivism, however, is that the teacher’s role is not to direct but to advise because the child’s own needs and desires determine what he or she learns (Kneller, 1963, p. 106). The teacher’s function according to Thomas is to encourage involvement in the Free Exploration Phase, or the teacher is a guide in Guided Exploration Phase. …The teacher merely has superior and richer experience to bring to bear on the analysis of the present situation…. The teacher is vitally important as stage
131 setter, guide, and coordinator, but he is not the sole source of authority (Quoted in Kneller, 1963, p. 106). Yet, Thomas presents a teacher’s role diversely on the different phases of learning.
The differentiation of philosophical focuses on different agendas (to music, to the study and their combination), which was explained by the influences of different psychological and developmental theories as well as traditional or progressive educational practices, revealed the complexity of the existing position of philosophy as a component of the general music curricula. The significance of philosophy for curriculum is in that it sets not only a number of starting points for defining the functions of music as a subject, of a learner and of a teacher in educational process but also the general focus of curriculum.
Objectives
The next component of a curriculum, pointed out by Runfola and Rutkowski, concerns with objectives and content. The importance of objectives for any music curriculum was pointed out by Gordon (1988). He wrote that “many so-called curricula in music education are nothing more than a compilation of techniques and the gathering of materials. Technique and materials are used haphazardly in those programs because they are not associated with the logical order of objectives” (p. 28). According to Runfola and Rutkowski (1992), Eisner (1985) believed that without specific objectives the techniques and activities cannot have predictable learning outcomes (p. 698). He described two types of objectives, behavioural and expressive. Behavioural objectives, in his thought, define specific outcomes of instruction and systematically lead to music understanding, while expressive objectives have dealings with “the experiences from which each person will probably find different conclusions” (p. 698).
Excluding all general objectives that do not tightly bond to music, the present thesis reveals that all general music programs may be divided into three groups according to their focuses on behavioural, expressive types of objective or their combination (Refer to an abstract of all objectives shown in the Table No. 2.3a). The data about the
132 syllabus of NSW and the UK (England) discloses that their objectives are very specific and are entirely concerned with musical behaviours. The objectives of NSW syllabus proclaim that in music, “students will develop knowledge, skills and understanding of a wide range of different kinds of music in performing, creating, listening and judging/discussing” (Syllabus, 2000, p. 8).
In UK (England), objectives are not articulated in the National Standards for music education. The information that may be valued as objectives was found in two sources. First, in Schemes of Work, there is content that includes a statement that “at all key stages, music teaching should develop each of the interrelated skills of performing, composing and appraising in all activities; and extend these skills by applying listening skills and knowledge and understanding of music” (Schemes of work. http://www.standards.dfes.gov.uk/schemes2/music/teaching?view=get). Second, the datum was also obtained from the information that is in the book The Arts Inspected (1998) issued by the government department, The Office for Standards in Education (OFSTED), which seeks to promote “improvement through inspection” (Clay, et. al., 1998, p. 59). Inspectors are looking for desirable outcomes for students from five to fourteen years old. They build their judgements on close observation of how students respond to what teachers do to foster the learning of music by analysing their performing, composing, listening and apprising activities. Clearly, these curricula represent a number of behavioural objectives when students are involved with the creation and production of music (Refer to behaviour objectives shown in the Table No. 2.3a). These types of objectives are focused on the development a particular skill (performing, creating, listening) of an individual student. This individualistic emphasis links these objectives of the UK curriculum to the child-centred approach with its preoccupation with individual interests and development.
Kimpton (1989) assumes that the music curriculum must be organised around specific music objectives, not music experiences given a certain group of students (pp. 34-35). According to Runfola and Rutkowski (1992), Eisner (1985) points out expressive objectives that deal with the experiences from which each person will probably find a different conclusion. Outcomes of expressive objectives cannot be measurable and deal with higher levels of learning (p. 698). Expressive types of objectives, when students are involved in interpretation and evaluation of musical thought, overrule the
133 Kabalevsky, Kritskaya and Zankov systems. These include, for example, teaching children to love and to understand music (Kabalevsky, 2001, p.150; Kritskaya, 2001, p. 183); developing children’s interest in music and their need for musical activities (Zankov, 2000, p. 164); awakening of emotional responses to music and education of children is moral and aesthetic sense (Zankov, 2000, p. 164). (Refer to expressive objectives shown in the Table No. 2.3a) Webster (1990) revealed that learning about music in a cognitive theoretical manner has not been effective and “being knowledgeable about music is not knowing music” (p. 37). However, Kimpton (1989) argues that the curriculum must be organised around specific music objectives not music experiences offered to a certain group of students (p. 36).
A blend of behavioural and aesthetic objectives is represented in MMCP programs by Thomas. For him music education is “a series of exercises and experiences devised to assist the student to gain skills and knowledge and become involved in the art of music” (Thomas, 1979b, p. 1). In Interaction, Thomas outlines five areas that must be dealt within the early childhood music curriculum. These areas determine the areas of objectives. Firstly, the experience within the creative process itself that dictates the child’s involvement in the creative process based on the belief that provides a fundamental way of learning and knowing for the child (p. 9). Secondly, the development of aural sensitivity to sounds their interaction and musical nature. This involves the child’s analytical, judicial and creative thinking (p. 9). Thomas explains that children use their analytical thinking when they learn through experience to discriminate between various sounds and when they perceive the arranged sounds. He states that judicial thinking is employed by children when they are expected to critically determine for themselves whether the arrangement of sounds in their music and in that of other students’ is used effectively. Thomas reveals that children’s creative thinking occurs when they explore and consider alternative arrangements of the sounds. Thirdly, Thomas believes that it is possible for the child to participate in the discovery of basic musical concepts of sound organisation through sensitivity to sounds (pp. 9-10). Musical concepts must be discovered by children during the process of exploring a variety of sound’s interactions and expressiveness. The next objective is concerned with skill development. It includes basic performance and conducting skills, and the skills of aural discrimination. These are the identification of pitches, duration/ values, timbres, dynamics, the relationships of confined sounds, and the memory tasks associated with
134 extended listening (p. 10). Translative (notational) skills are included in objectives but only to limited degree when children demonstrate a readiness and need for notational means. Last, in addition to the cognitive and the skill aims, Thomas distinguishes the attitudes towards music, which children develop within themselves (p. 10). These attitudes are directed to music and to themselves as creative, responsive and respected individuals who can control and express their thoughts by the means of music.
In Synthesis, he points out four types of objectives. They are cognitive, attitudinal, skill and aesthetic. The MMCP Synthesis curriculum is developed as a spiral model based on musical concepts for cognitive development. These concepts “carry fundamental elements of knowledge that serve as seeds from which the complete structure of personal logic grows” (Thomas, 1079b, p. 8). The program constitutes a variety of complete musical settings for the multiform exploration of each element of musical thought. Concerning attitudinal objectives, Thomas stressed that education is responsible for fostering children’s positive attitudes about themselves and about music. He wrote that “when the reason for learning stems from external demands, the educational program can be described as an imposition on the student. Such a program will have little lasting effect” (p. 8). Skill objectives in MMCP Synthesis are based on belief that “music is a participative art” and that “the values of the art to the individual are directly proportionate to his own measure and perspective of involvement” (p. 9). Thomas sees the developments of three categories of skills, aural, dexterous and translative categories (within his curriculum they appear in this order), which are in close relation to the unique sound language of music. He stressed that the developments of these skills in isolation from cognitive, attitudinal and aesthetic objectives must be considered an irrelevant experience because it contributes little to the musicality of the students or the growth of the art (p. 10).
The final objectives of Synthesis are aesthetic ones that involve the emotions and feelings of the child. They go beyond knowledge, attitudes and skills and include, for example, the awakening of an aesthetic sense, the ability to comprehend beauty and to find meaning on a plane beyond the analysis of mechanics, techniques, or even concepts (p. 8). Thomas wrote that aesthetic objectives cannot be taught because it is personal behaviour that results from an internal stimulus, that is personal experience (p. 9). However, aesthetic objectives may be fostered by educational techniques that involve
135 analytical, judicial and creative thinking. The aim of education is to provide learning conditions which will effect the growth of aesthetic sensitivity, such as “the freedom to react, to accept, to reject”; and the search for meaning through exploration of the sound (p. 10). Further he stated that “the objectives in the cognitive, attitudinal, skill and aesthetic areas cannot be conceived in isolation from one another” and should be linked directly to the Art (p. 10).
The weight of evidence would suggest that all objectives that are tightly bonded to music may be divided into three different groups, including behavioural (Creative Arts K-6 of NSW, KS1&2 of the UK) and expressive types (of Russian the Kabalevsky, Kritskaya and Zankov programs) and their combination (The Manhattanville Music Curriculum Project of USA and The School Music Program: A New Vision of USA) (Refer to Figure 2.2).
To sum up the comparison of objectives, it is valuable to reveal the cause and effect of their division into different groups. A prime reason for this differentiation may arise from the variety of their philosophical orientations, purposes and reasons for teaching and learning music. After looking at two types of objectives (behavioural and expressive), it is clear that the types determine the contents of curricula. The behavioural type has of activities where a child has an active role and learns by doing these activities. For example, “performing” aims for the development of knowledge, skills and understanding by playing musical instruments involving a child activity. The realisation of expressive objectives in an educational process involves content of musical material (repertoire). It places a child in a position where he is fostered/ up- brought by dint of music itself because “music is a device that helps to develop children’s emotional and aesthetic interests. It fulfils a deep emotional need and caters for a variety of moods” (Elkind, 1976, p. 218).
After examining all the arguments, the current discussion also suggests the hypothesis that the effect of the separation of curricula objectives into behavioural and expressive types is that objectives not only determine the content of music curricula, namely, behavioural objectives lead to activities; expressive objectives guide in direction to content of music, but also set a starting point for curricula orientation. This starting
136 point concerns the methodology of teaching general music was influenced to by the traditional (teacher-centred) or progressive (child-centred) approach.
For example, the behavioural objective “creating music”, where the child learns by creating, reflects one of the basic principles of progressive education which is “education should be active and related to the interest of the child” (Kneller, 1963, p. 100). However, having a child be active does not necessarily mean that the activity should be “related to the interest of the child”. This proposes that a child must be free to choose what to do. In other words, the activities must be determined by the individual child rather than by a teacher. The progressives insist that whenever the child is expected to learn something, he must be allowed to perform it, being stimulated by his or her own curiosity and need to discover because, progressives believe, he or she naturally resists anything that is imposed by adults. Analysis of the sections “sequence of learning experiences” in Creative Arts K-6 Units of Work (NSW) and ‘possible teaching activities” in the UK KS1&2 National Standards for music education Units of Work shows that the implementation of behavioural objectives through the content of activities provides no place for the child’s free choice of activities. For example, the subheading for “sequence of learning experiences” considers only what “the teacher can” do. Then, moving on to the description of activities, the majority of activities begin with the teachers’ intent, such as have students discuss the making of illustrations using a collage of natural materials and discuss the sounds that might be heard in a rainforest; have students use their voices, instruments and natural materials to produce a sound scape of a rainforest; have students experiment with dynamics in each verse of the song; have students listen to the song Noongar in the Bush (Creative Arts K-6 Units of Work, 2000, pp. 74-75). Proof for the notion that the teacher decides what the child should do and imposes an activity on the child may be also found in the Units of Work in the UK (England) syllabus. These include, Ask the children to listen to different sounds and make a list of all the sounds they can hear. Start in the classroom and move out beyond the school by using their memory or going on a class walk. What sounds can you hear in the park, the kitchen, the swimming pool?
137 Ask the children to describe both sounds that they hear and sounds they remember. Are they loud/quiet, high/low, now and then or all the time? Play the children music which uses sound in different ways (QCA/DFET http://www.standards.dfes.gov.uk/schemes2/music/?view=get, Unit 2).
The issue of the expressive type of objectives is very complex because it comprises the elements of both child-centred and teacher-centred approaches. The expressive objectives attempt to relate everything to a child’s life, which is an essential element of child-centred approach.
The principle, “a child must see all activities in relation to his or her life” may be fulfilled only by the realisation of the expressive objectives that are concerned with the child’s attitudes towards what he or she is doing. In examining the expressive type of objective, it seems that they may be also roughly divided into three groups, attitudinal, aesthetic and cognitive. The attitudinal type of objective relates to the child’s attitudes, which are tendencies of the mind that are intrinsic. The attitudinal and aesthetic types are strongly interrelated. For example, the objective “basing children’s aesthetic attitudes to music and life on their perception of music”, is concerned with attitudinal and aesthetic concepts that are based on knowing and comprehending music (Zankov, 2000, p. 164). Yet, a decision whether the activity is related or not to his or her life may be shown only by the child’s attitudes. It also depends on the degree of his or her aesthetic sense. This will dictate intrinsically the child’s willingness to participate in music activities, such as singing, playing instruments, creating and discussing music.
The aesthetic and attitudinal types, because of their psychological nature, cannot be taught. To explain this, it is necessary to reveal that the psychological basis of the aesthetic and attitudinal types of objectives is emotions. First, the purpose of emotions is to modify to individual’s benefit the situation of the individual in whom they occur (Adler, 1927, p. 625). According to Dinkmeyer (1965), any observation of children’s behaviour immediately reveals great individual differences in emotional reactions (p. 265). Most important is the fact that children react differently to the same type of emotional stimulus. Their past experiences tend to have a significant effect upon the meaning of the emotional situations that occur in their lives (p. 265). Second, some
138 believe that emotion is the primary experience and is fundamental to them to the extent that all learning is acquired in emotional terms (p. 254). Emotions involve feelings, attitudes, impulses toward action, and the subjective element of perception that exists in the mind and produces the feelings and impulses (Jersild, 1947, p. 225). It is reasonable to suggest then that considering the learning process, emotions should be developed first. For example, Kritskaya believes that in learning, emotions are prior actions. She did not offer concepts of music theory in her program at all considering that In music lessons in primary school, the main accent must be on broadening of children’s emotional and figurative baggage (experience), on the development of the emotional response to music…in all children’s musical activities (Kritskaya, 2001, p. 215). Last is the need theory. Snygg and Combs (1959) link emotions with needs. This theory reveals that fundamental needs are not only organic but include psychological needs which have developed during the process of socialisation and the emergence of self. The individual needs of the child serve as the basis for his educational experience (p. 58). Similarly, Piaget stresses that there is no need to suggest for child what he or she needs (Elkind 1976, p. 56). Yet, the expressive type of objective, at this point, has a clear, child-centred orientation because child is motivated intrinsically by his own emotions.
How is the issue of relevance to the child’s life resolved in syllabae where there is no expressive type of objective? The syllabae of NSW and Schemes of Work of the UK (England), for example, follow progressives in erasing a border between subjects to make education closer to the natural appearance of things. This makes education closer to the child’s life. Links with other Key Learning Areas are included in Units of Work. Moreover in NSW, music is taught mostly by generalists. This makes the planning of these links easier for teachers. However, Entwistle (1970) suggests that integrated studies and subjects or links to the other subject areas could lead to the ‘dragging in” of, at best, irrelevant and, at worst, unworthy material in the subjects. As a result, a subject may be unbalanced in its neglect of important areas of experience (pp. 106-107). He argues that it is important to teach children to be selective and discriminating in their perceptions rather than sensitive to every irrelevant impression which attracts them
139 from their environment. From this point of view, the irrelevant curriculum is that which tries to link together music, mathematics, literature, geography, biology, history and so on (p. 105). Whatever organising principle one might use to bind these together, it would lead to some very odd results. For example, one of the American lessons developed by the professional organisation ArtsEdge Kennedy Centre involves an attempt to bind together music and technology and design, where the role of music was reduced to a background for discussion about shoe design, at the mercy of music which can be learned (http//www.ArtsEdge.kennedy-center.org/content/2272) (Refer to Table No. 2.8 Curricula Activities and Learning Experiences Matrix. Judging/ discussing of musical quality. Discussion of what is not related to music). Yet the chief educational criterion for discussing a work of music with children is that it has musical merit and is appropriate to their experience and sensibility.
To avoid any odd situation, objectives should relate directly to musical goals. In a preface to the syllabus for children from ten to twelve years old, Kabalevsky stresses that despite a program for music lessons at this level if children are presented with an inner connection between music and literature or music and visual arts, it is important to remember that the matter concerns music and not a literature or visual arts. The music must remain at the centre of any lesson. The lesson must be based on the musical pieces that are described in literature (Kabalevsky, 2001, p. 96).
Back to the main point about emotions and their role in the expressive type of objectives, teachers cannot make any difference to the development of emotions so their role should be passive. How then to rechannel the emotions to make them most effective in the development of the child if they cannot be taught? Kabalevsky believes that emotions may be fostered or nurtured. He, for example, states that “in the indissoluble unity of the main pedagogical formulae “fostering or up-bringing – teaching”, the main accent must be put on the first part of the formulae” (p. 24). The first part of the formulae carries Kabalevsky’s belief that, primarily, the music educators, fostering/ bringing up children, should establish the children’s interests and love of music as well as the habits of music perception together with the
140 broadening of listening capacity. The second part of his formulae relates to the formal education, for example, the teaching of the elements of music theory. This formal education, as Kabalevsky sees it, should come later and is almost entirely excluded from his method at the beginning. He therefore bases his belief on Acafiev’s thought that music is the Art, i.e. a certain phenomenon in the world that is created by man, rather than a scientific branch of science, which one is applying to be learnt and to learn (Quoted in Kabalevsky, 2001, p. 14). Kabalevsky argues that, a problem is that most of syllabae for teaching music at schools are concerned with “what and how to educate” children rather “what and how to carry” children with music (Kabalevsky, 2001, p. 14).16
Thus, the accomplishment of the following expressive type of objective, such as teaching children to love music (Kabalevsky, 2001, p. 15); awakening of the emotional responses to music and the education of children is moral sense; awakening the ability to comprehend beauty (Thomas, 1979b, p. 18); and awakening of the active, emotional and deliberate responses to the best examples of world musical culture and the education of children in the aesthetic sense (Kritskaya, 2001, p. 183), gives a teacher a leading role in the educational process. When, focusing on specific musical material, he or she organises different pedagogical techniques (explanation, comparison and so forth) to represent music in a way that children’s interest, emotion and feeling toward music will be awakened. Thomas says a teacher’s role in the different phases of learning is diverse. The teacher may be the stage setter, guide or coordinator. Kabalevsky agrees when he writes that It is important that any new problem be solved by conversations between the teacher and students. Each of these conversations must consist of the three inseparably linked constituent steps. These steps are clearly formulated task by the teacher, gradual solving of the task together with students, and the
16 Italics are by Kabalevsky.
141 final inference which students must make themselves (Kabalevsky, 2001, p. 27). The words in bold (his emphasis) show how the leading role shifts from the teacher to students. Primarily, the teacher is given a leading role. Then he or she must encourage students to be involved; they make the task together. Finally, students become active and draw conclusions.
Moreover, the implementation of attitudinal and aesthetic objectives in music lessons involves musical content and music itself is a device that helps to develop children’s emotional and aesthetic interests. Music is a source of activities that will help to nourish children’s emotional abilities. Thus, a child is fostered/ brought up, through music, by the teacher. Giving the teacher an active role in setting the aesthetic and attitudinal objectives, Russian and American syllabae follow the traditional teacher- centred approach.
The cognitive objectives are designed for the development of cognitive processes. These pertain to the mental processes of perception, memory, judgment, categorisation, understanding and reasoning, as contrasted with the emotional and volitional processes, such as “broadening children’s concept of music” (Zankov, 2000, p. 164). These cognitive objectives, for example, learning about musical concepts, may be taught or explained systematically by a teacher. The theoretical foundation for this may be found in Vygotsky’s works. Vygotsky’s notion of ZPD is reflected in one of the principles of Russian education which concerns the child’s level of potential development (the upper limit of an assignment that a child can fulfil with the help of competent person). It takes into account and moderates the degree or extent of hardship. The meaning of this principle is explained by Vygotsky as What the child is able to do today under guidance and collaboration. Tomorrow he or she is able to do it by him or herself. By observing what the child is able to do under guidance we observe the development of tomorrow (Quoted in Zankov, 2000, p. 5).
This principle overlooks collaboration during the lesson. This collaboration leads to solving a problem that the child is unable do alone (potential development), but is able to do with the teacher’s help (moderation of degree or extent of hardship). For example,
142 using different coloured paintings which are familiar to children (a child’s actual development or the upper limit of assignment that a child can carry out without help) the teacher can explain musical timbre (tones or colours of sound) as an abstract concept (a child’s potential development, moderating degree or extent of hardship). The principle of a child’s level of potential development taken from Vygotsky’s notion about ZPD has found its logical extension in another principle of all Russian syllabae by Vygotsky, namely the strong connection between “running a few steps forward” (potential development) and repetition. This principle “allows a teacher to link the construction of new levels of the students” musical culture with the strengthening of previously built levels” (Kabalevsky, 2001, pp.29-30). The syllabus recommends teachers draw children’s attention to the idea that repetition in music and life that is slightly different be perceived as a new step of development. Teachers are advised to encourage children to meditate upon the expression: The first time we meet a song; the second time, we recognise it as acquaintance; the third time we meet as old friends (Hrennikov, 1994, p. 167). In other words, previously built knowledge, by the means of repetition, becomes a child’s actual development. It opens new horizons for their potential development by “running a few steps forward” gradually constructing the knowledge.
There may, indeed, be a place for a work of music at more than one educational level. For instance, the suite Peter and Wolf by Prokofiev may be used as a focus for studying structures at different levels. Each image could be represented by a particular musical instrument performing a melody/ phrase or as a suite in terms of its common genre structure. At the one level, it will be judged as an appropriate task because children need to discover that a musical phrase or melody has one musical thought and is clearly represented by a particular instrument. At the other level children are ready for discussion of more complex structures. Thus, cognitive objectives target the child’s mental development through the teacher’s instruction. This happens at any level of the child’s development. By including cognitive objectives in their syllabae, Kabalevsky and Thomas follow Vygotsky’s theory of cognition.
However, further analysis of Kabalevsky’s and Thomas’s syllabae show evidence of Piaget’s influence on their approach to learning musical concepts. In contrast to Vygotsky, Piaget does not believe that cognitive development may be accelerated from
143 outside (by instruction) because each child gradually constructs knowledge within himself or herself. He observed that the completion of schemata (cognitive process of accumulation of information) with information over time leads to the next level of comprehension. For example, Kabalevsky writes the introduction to musical theory requires the highest level of caution and should occur only after kids become interested in music and love it. Their skills in auditory perception should also have been developed and fulfilled (Kabalevsky, 2001, p. 24).
Kabalevsky agrees with Piaget in that to be able to understand theoretical concepts about music children should perceive a certain amount of music aurally. This will spark their inner interest and curiosity to know more about music. Similarly, Thomas accepts Piaget’s notion about the cognitive process of accumulation of information (fulfilment of schemata) and recommends that musical theory should be excluded from first two years of music education because learning musical literacy must follow the process of acquiring music. Yet, after looking at both Kabalevsky’s and Thomas’s syllabae, evidence would suggest that the works of psychological researchers (Piaget and Vygotsky) with their opposing views on teaching and learning has had an impact on the objectives set for primary/ elementary school music curricula.
Content
According to Runfola and Rutkowski (1992), content is a selection of what should be taught. The expression of this content through objective is a fundamental of the general music curriculum development (p. 702). Regarding the specificity of content recommendations, Edelstein and colleagues (1980) said: “If the suggestions offered are too vague, teachers are left without the expected guidance; if too specific, teachers may feel bound by prescribed ideas and fail to make adaptations or adjustments which would increase the benefit of the activities for their students” (p. 1), whereas Boardman (1989) believes that “our content has become fairly well defined” (p. 2). There is no agreement among theorists regarding what should be included in the general music curriculum because of the different orientation of philosophies, purposes or reasons for teaching and learning. As it was shown above, all syllabae may be divided according to their focus on activities (the UK and NSW), focus on music (Russia) and their combination
144 (USA). Ferrara (1986), Shehan (1985, 1986), Webster (1990) found learning by doing to be highly effective. Whereas Webster (1990) asserts that learning about music in a theoretical way has not been effective: “Being knowledgeable about music is not knowing music” (p. 37). However, the study Facilitating creativity and group- cooperative skills in the elementary music classroom: A model, a curriculum, and a study (poetry, imagery) by Baloche (1985) suggests that techniques and activities must contribute to the accomplishment of a music objective (p.154).
The next component of the music curriculum is content. There are three areas which constitute content. They are: 1) musical concepts, 2) content of activities and 3) content of music (repertoire).
1. Musical concepts
Gary (1967) proposed that music curricula should be based on the structure of music. He also stated that musical concepts could be taught to children in an intellectually honest manner. Andrews and Diehl (1967) support this statement that primary/ elementary school children are able to understand musical concepts. The differences between the younger and older children on the musical tasks of O’Hearn (1984) and Serafine (1988) suggest that from six to twelve years old the ways in which children hear and learn music change. However, in the chapter above (Objectives) it was shown that Kabalevsky and Kritskaya delay the study of musical concepts in their programs. Nevertheless, Kabalevsky and Kritskaya introduce the basics of music theory almost at the beginning (this will be shown in following comparison of the use of musical concepts). Unlike them, Thomas deliberately excludes any elements of musical theory for beginners in Interaction. His program for children from 4 to 7 years old will not be subject for analysis from this point of view. The introduction of musical theory to children was explained by influence of the Vygotsky’s notion about ZPD, which supposes that conceptual development can be speeded up by instruction from a more competent person. Reasons for delaying the introduction of musical theory to children were interpreted by Piaget’s idea of fulfilment of schemata which does not accept any acceleration in learning from an outside source.
145 Research in music education also shows that some musical concepts had greater attention in the research literature than others. For example, Andrews and Diehl (1967) investigated the conceptual understanding of pitch, duration and loudness; Palmer (1974), Gordon (1971) and Richards (1964) have investigated the efficacy of an approach to teaching rhythm reading that includes a simultaneous speech cue; and a substantive body of research has been conducted by LeBlanc (1981), Leblanc and Cote (1983) and LeBlanc and McCrary (1983) to define the effect of tempo on listening to music.
The first portion of this part of research will offer a comparison of musical concepts (features or characteristics of music) from listed syllabae. It will reveal their major similarities and differences and will make an attempt to determine causes for these. Second, the analysis of some musical concepts included in syllabae will provide data that will show whether the models of curricula are spiral or linear (sequential).
The data from the Table No. 2.4 show that music lessons in different countries include the following musical concepts dynamics: rhythm, tempo and timbre (Refer to Table No. 2.4 Musical Concepts Matrix). First, the difference between curricula occurs in how all of these concepts are used. The Russian lessons bring knowledge in a theoretical manner while the English and Australian lessons have mostly applied character. For example, in Russian lessons learning about dynamics, such as discriminating and distinguishing the loudness of sounds, takes place by perceiving music and discussing (focussed thinking/ meditating) dynamics. The learning starts with an aesthetic objective and proceeds to the cognitive objective of understanding this musical concept. Whereas, in the UK and NSW the task of recognising dynamics proceeds to the concept to children’s own works. As a result, the method of learning eventually points to behavioural objectives. According to Thomas, during the exploration of sounds children will understand the concept of dynamics. For him behaviour and cognitive processes occur simultaneously (Thomas, 1979a, p. 10). Data under Rhythm in Table No. 2.4 also disclose that in the UK and the USA (MENC) almost all tasks are introduced with children creating, copying, performing, clapping and playing. Analysing the part of the table about Timbre, the tasks of the NSW syllabus often start with the verb “explore” which puts action before understanding. Thus, these examples show that in different educational systems the same concept
146 may be represented to children differently according to the type of objectives set for learning. Consequently the way of acquiring knowledge may have theoretical or applied character. The main difference is that Russian syllabae do not include pitch as a musical concept in the music lesson. There is no task similar to “distinguishing between high, middle and low pitch; lower and higher” (http://www.standards.dfes.gov.uk/schemes2/music/?view=get, Units of Work) or “distinguishing between definite and indefinite pitch” (Creative Arts K-6.Units of work, 2001, p. 92). The smallest elements of music that appear in Kabalevsky’s and Kritskaya programs are the intervals (the difference in pitch between two tones), which are inserted from folk or western music. The following tasks from the syllabus indicate that the concept of pitch is not seen as a part of music and that pitch is not singled out from melody as an independent and significant musical element. For example, there is an “inflectional relationship between Russian folk music and the music of Russian composers (common themes, plots, images and principles of development)” (Kabalevsky, 2001, p. 48); “recognising the author of the masterpiece bases the decision on similarities of inflexions” (Hrennikov, 1994, pp. 142,161,166); and, “discovering inflexions, images and other musical features in music of the Western and Asian composers” (Kabalevsky, 2001, p. 49; Hrennikov, 1994, pp. 134- 149). Thus, in discussion with children on the direction of melodic elements, a Russian teacher more likely will ask about falling or rising inflection (modulation of the voice; change in pitch or tone of voice) rather than asking children to recognise “pitch going up, going down, steps, jumps, slides” as it is in Unit 5 of Schemes of Work in the UK (England).
Possible reasons for this difference lead to the distinct philosophical orientation of curricula when music as the art is seen from diverse points of view. This reflects, in turn, the complexity of concept of the music itself in contemporary Western culture with its great variety of sources. The concepts of pitch and inflexion lead to questions about musical perception, comprehension and understanding. What is musical understanding? Which musical concepts are involved in perception of music? Is it the ability to comprehend meaning from the total effect of these combined sounds or from the singled out sounds? What is music? According to the New Grove Dictionary, there may be two ways of defining music as a concept. On the one hand,
147 generally, the word “music” or its cognates denote or suggest a unitary concept, in the sense that all “music” is to an equal degree music, and the term “music” applies equally to art, popular, folk and other strata or genres (Music.: www.grovemusic.com). All Russian philosophical stances of music curricula are focused on music in this sense without pointing out single pitches as its smallest elements. Thomas (MMCP) has similar view on this issue as he wrote It is the interaction of the various sounds and the totality of their influence on each other that determines the meaning. Musical understanding implies the ability to comprehend meaning from the total effect of these combined sounds (Thomas, 1979b, p. 10).
In the Western concept of music, on the other hand, those who identify themselves with other musical styles or genres such as jazz or popular music may see the world of music less as a hierarchy than as a group of musics of equal quality, among which certain styles or, even more, certain individual performers stand out (Music.: www.grovemusic.com).17 Having said that, children may be seen as the “certain individual performers”. Their performance may be identified less than certain style because each has his or her own concept of music in mind and creates or performs uniquely. The first part of Schoenberg’s expression helps to define music that is created by children, as it says At its lowest stage, music is simply imitation of nature. But soon it becomes imitation of nature in a broader sense, not just imitation of the surface of nature but also of its inner essence (Quoted in Music: www.grovemusic.com). In this instance, performing their own music, children imitate nature. Yet, a typical designation of the sounds made by children would probably count as “almost, but not quite” music. Nevertheless, the English and Australian syllabae imply this concept of music in their curricula as children are not able to perform music as a common concept. They use pitch as the smallest constituent of their own music. Undoubtedly, music by children primarily is the random selection of pitches. Thus, setting a strong orientation toward the study syllabae target the learning process which starts with activities exploring or creating by manipulation with random selection of pitch.
148 Diverse views on music bring to a life more differences between syllabae regarding musical concepts, such expressiveness, structure, genre and style. All Russian syllabae have deep insight into all these categories while, in the UK (England), USA (lessons by ArtsEdge) and NSW syllabae, the elements of expressiveness and structure appear at the very basic level and genre is completely absent. For example, all syllabae consider musical concepts, such as dynamics, tempo, timbre and rhythm, as a means of music expressiveness. However, Australian Units of Work do not show any traces of tasks which target moods, feelings or emotions by expressive elements of music (Refer to Table No. 2.4 Musical Concept Matrix. Expressiveness). In the USA, ArtsEdge offers a number of music lessons where mood, feelings and emotions are discussed as expressive elements of the song lyrics (poetry) rather than music (http://ArtsEdge.kennedy-center.org/teach/les.cfm?subjectId=MUS, Lessons Standards, 2369, 2369, 2369). In the English Units of Work, the expressive use of sounds appears by exploring expressive elements of sound (http://www.standards.dfes.gov.uk/schemes2/music/teaching?view=get, Units1, 2, 18); using sounds expressively to illustrate a story (Unit 2); and, demonstrating the ability to recognise expressive elements through dance (Unit 8). These actions (exploring, dancing and illustrating) represent an applied form of education, radiating from behavioural objectives and targeting the development of skills. Unlike these syllabae, the Russian documents focus on the common sense of music. They emphasise the expressiveness that associates music with the gamut of emotions and moods (in music), including contrast (Kritskaya, 2001, p. 194; Hrennikov, 1994, p. 148) and climax as a means of expressiveness (Hrennikov, 1994, p. 144-146). Moreover, Kabalevsky emphasised that the role of musical concepts should be understood in the development of the imaginary content of music (p. 144). Yet, through musical concepts, Russian syllabae have a theoretical approach to learning, aimed at emotional development and development of associative thinking (the ability to pertain to or result from association). This aim is derived from expressive objectives.
Next, in the UK, NSW and USA the elements of musical form are presented superficially or slightly while in Russia it seems more profound or substantial. For example, in the lessons to ArtsEdge and MENC a task is limited by “recognising
17 Bold is mine. 149 repetition” (http://ArtsEdge.kennedy-center.org/teach/les.cfm?subjectId=MUS, Lessons Standards, 2248; http://www.menc.org/, Lesson 5). In the UK and NSW, a similar task - “recognising that the repetition of musical patterns may be exact or varied and that this can be incorporated into the students’ own work” - leads to the deeper level of understanding using this concept (http://www.standards.dfes.gov.uk/schemes2/music/teaching?view=get Unit 10; Creative Arts K-6. Units of Work, 2001, p. 93). Whereas in Russian syllabae, the development of comprehension goes gradually, starting from “recognising repetition” and proceeding to understanding “principles of construction of rondo form” (Kabalevsky, 2001, pp. 45-46; Kritskaya, 2001, p.198; Hrennikov, 1994, pp. 159, 167) .
Last, Table No. 2.4 shows significant differences between syllabae regarding the concept of genre (a class or category of artistic endeavour having a particular form, content, technique, or the like). While the English units introduce lullabies, work songs and singing games, ArtsEdge and MENC put an accent on the call and response technique in jazz and folk music. At the same time, Russian syllabae and lessons contain extended lists of vocal and instrumental genres from simple, such as songs (romance, rhapsody, folk songs, choral, chants), dances (waltz, minuet, polonaise, mazurka, gavotte), instrumental music (prelude, etude, nocturne, barcarole) to complex, such as (fugue, area, ode, hymn, sonata), and to compound (instrumental quartet, instrumental suite, concerto, operetta and opera). These are taught in connection to the genre roots of composers of classical, folk, spiritual (religious) and contemporary music.
However, the introduction of these genres gives rise to a number of questions which take into consideration the development of children. Is this material suited to children of this age? Does this material mean anything to them? Are genres hostile to school? Are there more appropriate ways of presenting them at this level? The content of the Kabalevsky, Kritskaya and Zankov programs employ a thematic approach that is “submission of all material of a lesson to its major theme” (Hrennikov, 2994, p. 21). All themes are organised sequentially in blocks of themes. For example, seasons, musical instruments, singing voices and fairy tales about opera. They are based on the moral and aesthetic comprehension of the main masterpieces of folk, classical and
150 contemporary music. Kabalevsky wrote A Story of Three Whales and Many Other Things (1970) for young people to read and understand the “realms of music”. In it he outlined in comprehensible language the fundamental building blocks of music, as well as articulating his philosophical stand point on music and music education. In this he talked in detail of the “Three Whales” (the song, the dance and the march) and stated that they are the foundations of music (Kabalevsky, 2001, p. 15). He asserted that through an understanding of these three forms children and young people can enter the larger world of real and complex music in a way that children will perceive, understand and enjoy it (pp. 17-18). Thus, a thematic approach based on an emotional perception of music involves children into genres easily.
This research sets a hypothesis that musical concepts define the models of curricula, whether they are linier or spiral. Analysis of musical concepts within each of the syllabae and their developed units and lessons reveals that in Russia there are spiral models of curriculum organisation. The introduction of images, musical form and genre from simple to complex clearly represents the spiral model of Russian curricula, which takes place when “running” continuously around learning material (p. 29). For example, the complicated concept of image presents itself through the following steps. First, children become acquainted with one or two contrasting images in one musical piece. Then, they go into a number of contrasting images in one piece without contradictions and collisions between them. Last, students make the acquaintance of a number of images with contradictions and collisions (Hrennikov, 1994, 94-149). The development of musical form and genre from simple to complex was introduced and discussed above. Clearly, one of the important characteristics of the spiral model is the opportunity to obtain deep insights into musical concepts. The organisation of musical concepts in a spiral model was influenced and provoked by Vygotsky’s notion about ZPD giving teachers an active role. Any new task, such as determining structure, characters of images, dramaturgic development, must be solved with the teacher’s help <…> (Hrennikov, 1994, p. 167). Kabalevsky applied it to learning and teaching music as “three tightly bound criteria”: First, there is a sharply-defined/ clear cut task which must be set by a teacher; second, this task must be solved gradually and conjointly (teacher and
151 students); third, finally children must to draw a conclusion themselves (Kabalevsky, 2001, p. 27).
In contrast, the Units of Work in the UK and NSW set linear models of curricula, where learning material is arranged in a line. For example, Table No. 2.4 shows that, in the UK and NSW each musical concept (dynamics, rhythm, tempo, timbre) appears occasionally and at fairly similar level in the units set for children from 5 to 12 years old. For example, the aim of Unit 2 in English Schemes of Work targets the development of children’s ability to identify different sounds and to change and use sounds expressively in response to a stimulus. During this unit, children make a variety of sounds with their voices, bodies, found objects and instruments, and explore how these sounds can be changed and used expressively in response to a stimulus. They use this knowledge to select sounds that reflect the mood of chants and songs. This leads to the creation of a class performance that uses sounds to heighten the effect of a chosen story (Schemes of Work, Unit 2, http://www.standards.dfes.gov.uk/schemes3/).
It is also recommended that “this unit could be revisited using a different story, poem or play” (Ibid.). This shows that everything used on the unit is planned to use later on the same level of difficulty including musical concepts (dynamics, eg loud, quiet; tempo, eg fast, slow; pitch, eg high, low). Yet, there is a special part in each unit called Enrichment. On first sight it might seem plausible to argue that this part will take everything learnt to a deeper level, however, on closer inspection Enrichment does not bring anything new but just another activity. It is advised that “the children could work with a storyteller to create a class story using different voices and sound effects” (Ibid.).
The intention of OFSTED’s inspectors in England to search for continuity and progression in music lessons also proves that music education there has problems with continuity. It states that Lack of continuity in pupils’ experience of music means their inability to consolidate their knowledge, understanding and skill. Lack of progression means the teaching fails to promulgate the content of the subject – skills,
152 knowledge and understanding – incrementally. Thus pupils do much the same things, say, in Year 3 as in Year 2 (Clay, 1998, p. 60). Mills (1991), a specialist adviser for music in OFSTED, sees that the problem of continuity and progression arise with “issues when pupils may have more than one music teacher at a time, and their teachers may not exchange information about their progress” (p. 60). However, after looking at both sides (Russian and English) it would appear reasonable to conclude that the problem is shaped by the absence of concepts of images, complex musical structures/ forms and genres in learning material of the latter. In fact, how far may the concepts of dynamics, tempo, and pitch is developed? Is it from loud to louder and from fast to faster? Having them as the distillation of music will give children only superficial knowledge or a smattering of the subject. Thus, as there is no increase in complexity in the use of musical concepts in the UK, and NSW, the sequence of activities only is left. This proves that the music syllabae of these countries employ a linear model of music curricula which has a narrow view on concept development.
There is the possibility that the roots of a linear model for music curricula lead to Rousseau’s “stages” of appropriateness, Froebel’s missed opportunities, Montessori’s sensitive periods, and Piaget’s stages of development. The main point of their notions is that there are certain times, periods or stages of child’s cognitive development. There are times, periods or stages when he or she is ready to perceive new concepts naturally because his or her mental capacities are ready for them. As a result, school curricula should arrange all material in sequences in accordance with these times, periods or stages. The weakness of this part of the research is in that it does not provide detailed analysis of the use of each musical concept, whether it is introduced to children at the right time, period or stage. This indicates the need for further research.
2. Activities and techniques
The next part of the music curriculum to be discussed in this chapter is related to the use of techniques and activities for attaining objectives. Research (Shehan, 1985, 1986; Webster, 1990) shows that learning by doing is highly effective, therefore
153 activities that develop the child’s musical skills and knowledge about music are important. The activities of the activity orientated curricula (Australian, English and American (MENC)) are well represented in the research. For example, much researches were conducted on the playing musical instruments (Charboneau, 1980; Nebb, 1988; and Wig and Boyle, 1982); singing and melodic or tonal activities (Forsythe and Kelley, 1989; and Stafford, 1987); moving and rhythmic activities (Callen, 1985; Colley, 1987; and Kluth, 1986); creating (DeLorenzo, 1987, 1989; Pogonowski, 1985); and listening (Baldridge, 1984, Bartlett, 1973 and Brinson, 1986).
Runfola and Rutkowski (1992) reveal that some music educators prefer to use activities rather than techniques (p. 703). For example, Labuta (1982) stated that “learning activities are not pre-planned, but planned cooperatively by the teacher and pupils” (p.114). Labuta continued that “curriculum is frequently defined in terms of experience. It consists of all the planned and incidental experiences the child has under the direction of the school” (p.112). The definition of technique as an activity suits the Russian curriculum when a technique is seen as “a teaching aid which is employed to achieve one or more …objectives” (Gordon, 1988, p. 28). In account of Russian syllabae set expressive objectives, which accent on the cognitive and emotional development and target music through perception and understanding, a number of principles in Russian syllabae will be described below in this chapter showing the best ways to achieve their expressive type of objectives. Despite the fact that the objectives in Russian programs do not target activities but the music, they, nevertheless, have an established selection of musical activities which serve to introduce musical content to students. MMCP presents the same number of activities and musical content interdependently (Thomas, 1959a, p. b). Overall, all currently operating syllabae display the same types of activities, such as performing, singing, moving, composing, listening and discussing (Refer to the Tables No. 2.5a, 2.5b, 2.5c, 2.6, 2.7, 2.8 Activities Matrixes).
This part of research will illustrate and analyse children’s activities and experiences in currently operating Units of Work, lessons and syllabae (where it is possible). The activities arise from different points of view on objectives of musical education. As a result, the syllabae of NSW, UK (England), USA (MENC) and the Russian programs direct units and lessons to different problems. For instance, answering the question
154 how learning experiences can be selected, there are two problems. First, which of learning experiences are likely to be useful in attaining set of behaviour objectives in the NSW and UK (England)? Second, how can the learning experiences be organised for effective instruction in the USA and Russia?
The discussion will comprise three aspects. Firstly, some activities need clarification. There is no consistency in defining some activities in the different educational systems. Secondly, there will be comparison where possible because the data come from different types of sources. For example, the data for the Tables No. 2.5a, 2.5b and 2.5c Performing Activities Matrix were collected from the syllabae of Russia, and from units/ lessons of the NSW, UK (England) and USA (MENC and ArtsEdge). It is reasonable to compare the information from similar sources. Thirdly, since the syllabae of NSW and the UK (England) set only behavioural objectives, there will be quantitative and qualitative analysis of activities included in their units of work.
Performing When revealing similarities and differences within the domain of performing, it is unnecessary to specify some of them because all syllabae include performing with unpitched and pitched instruments (Refer to Table No. 2.5a Curricula Performing Activities Matrix and Learning Experiences. Playing Musical Instruments). The differences occur when MENC, Kabalevsky and Zankov include the performance of accompaniments (MENC Lessons 1, 2; Kabalevsky, 2001, p. 36; Zankov, 2000, pp. 166,176); when English and American (MENC) units and lessons involve notation when playing instruments (http://www.standards.dfes.gov.uk/schemes2/music/?view=get, Units of Work 20, 21; MENC Lesson 5); when English units demonstrate clear progression in the development of performing skills while American lessons (MENC) reflect a chaotic set of activities. The latter needs to be discussed in detail.
The difference between English units and American (MENC) lessons may be rooted in that the English syllabus sets performing musical instruments as an outcome of the behavioural objective “performing”. This is set for the development of a particular skill. As a result, there is a sequence of activities through the units that culminates in a quality performance. The sequence starts with exploring instruments in Unit 2;
155 handling and playing instruments with control in the 2 and 3; playing pitched instruments in Unit 3; playing percussion instruments in Units 3, 4 and16; performing different types of accompaniment in Unit 2; performing pitched instruments by ear in Unit 17; playing instrumental accompaniments using notation in Units 20, 21; present performances effectively with awareness of audience, venue and occasion in Unit 20; and achieve a quality performance in Units 17, 20 (http://www.standards.dfes.gov.uk/schemes2/music/?view=get).
American (MENC) lessons, in turn, are rooted in a combination of objectives, behavioural and expressive. However, what does it intend to achieve when there is no continuity and progression through lessons? The following examples from six published lessons by MENC illustrate the total absence of any sequence in activities. There is playing rhythmic ostinato with the use of dynamics; performing on non- pitched instruments using correct technique and rhythmic accuracy and accurately performing accompaniment patterns in Lesson 1. Students perform accompaniment to a song on non-pitched percussion using correct technique and rhythm in Lesson 2. There is copying/ imitating rhythm playing percussion instruments and echoing the melodic rhythm with the non-pitched percussion group in Lesson 3. Students play their own arrangement with notation on paper in Lesson 5. Children chant and play music simulating Aborigine culture in Lesson 6. Where do these lessons fit? In the first and second lessons students are able to use correct technique and rhythm but in the third and fifth and sixth they are required to imitate and copy. Logically, it must go from copying or imitating to the correct use of technique and rhythm, from the easy task to the complex one. Yet, the absence of continuity and progression in the development of performing skill in lessons by MENC may derive from setting two types of objectives, behavioural and expressive, rather than focusing on one.
Singing Singing as a performing activity is an integral part of all curricula (Refer to Table No. 2.5b. Curricula Activities and Learning Experiences Matrix. Singing). The analysis of singing activities shows of how students are organised to participate in singing activities. For example, the smallest singing unit is found in the USA (ArtsEdge) syllabus when a student sings alone (http://ArtsEdge.kennedy- center.org/teach/les.cfm?subjectId=MUS, Lessons Standards, 2189, 2184). The UK
156 (England) and the Kritskaya programs offer ensemble singing (http://www.standards.dfes.gov.uk/schemes2/music/?view=get, Unit 1; Kritskaya, 2001, p.186). Choir singing is highly valued in Russian syllabae and also is found in the 1st and 10th Units of Work in the UK (England) syllabus (Kabalevsky, 2001, p. 26; Kritskaya, 2001, p. 186; and Zankov, 2000, p. 165; http://www.standards.dfes.gov.uk/schemes2/music/?view=get).
Analysis of singing activities reveals that all syllabae, units and lessons exemplify the development of singing skills through a number of described experiences when children sing with awareness of musical concepts. For example, singing “with an awareness of dynamics” in the Australian unit (Creative Arts Syllabus K-6. Units of Work, 2001, p. 74); “singing in tune, with expression” is included in the English Units 7, 8, 15, and in a lesson by ArtsEdge and the Zankov and Kabalevsky programs (http://www.standards.dfes.gov.uk/schemes2/music/?view=get, Units of Work 7, 8, 15; http://ArtsEdge.kennedy-center.org/teach/les.cfm?subjectId=MUS, Lessons Standards, 2036; Zankov, 2000, pp. 165, 180, 172, and176; Hrennikov, 1994, p. 162). Considering “expression” as an outcome of awareness of musical concepts, all countries contain of a similar number of basic musical concepts when singing. For instance, “singing with awareness of pulse and control of rhythm” is mentioned in the Australian Unit (Creative Arts Syllabus K-6. Units of Work, 2001, p. 80); in the English Unit of Work 8; in Lesson 1 by MENC; and in the Zankov syllabus (Zankov, 2000, p. 165); inflating intervals in the English Units of Work 1, 7, 8 (http://www.standards.dfes.gov.uk/schemes2/music/?view=get); in children’s Text Book by Kritskaya (Kritskaya, Sergeeva, & Shmagina, 2001a, p. 48); and in the Zankov syllabus (Zankov, 2000, p. 166); singing controlling the pitch of the voice in the English Units 5 and 8, Lessons 1, 2, 3 by MENC, and in syllabus by Zankov (Zankov, 2000, p. 165). Yet, these examples show that the behavioural objective, development of singing skill, is implemented in all countries including Russia which does not set behavioural objectives in the syllabae.
Then, a number of the Russian, American and English singing experiences are also outcomes of expressive objectives. For example, focussing on expressive objectives, all authors of Russian syllabae direct children’s attention to music through singing.
157 For instance, Kabalevsky’s expression represents a subtype of aesthetic and cognitive expressive objectives as he wrote that Choir singing involves not only the ability to hear themselves, their own choir friends and the accompaniment but also the sense of a given composers’ style and understanding of the typical and distinctive features of a given masterpiece (Kabalevsky, 2001, p. 26). His ideal was in that “each class is a choir!” so that learning experiences can be organised for effective instruction (Kabalevsky, 2001, p. 27). In pointing out the aesthetic subtype, Zankov stressed that We are talking about expressive, beautiful singing if a child sings with a clear, light, natural sound, with right inflection within do1 – re 2 octaves. Therefore, the chief task of a teacher is to develop children’s timbre ear and pitch ear simultaneously using varied singing material (Zankov, 2000, p. 165). Kritskaya also added a cognitive subtype in following Musical material for singing at school should include not only songs but also the main themes of masterpieces for singing with children, in an effort to remember them substantially and to trace their modifications and development when perceiving the complex and compound forms (Kritskaya, 2001, p. 216). A lesson that is offered by ArtsEdge (the USA) mirrors the attitudinal objective “sing songs for enjoyment and human expression” (http://ArtsEdge.kennedy- center.org/teach/les.cfm?subjectId=MUS, Lessons Standards, 2293). However, it is difficult to define what particular instructional technique may be used by a teacher to get students to achieve enjoyment because of the limited description of the task and music.
Singing is considered as an essential musical activity in the UK (England). Singing skill development, which is based on behavioural objectives, reveals itself in the UK (England) Units of Work where singing is put in the special category of Ongoing Skills. For example, Unit 1 highlights the musical skills that require regular practice and ongoing development throughout the key stage. It focuses on the development of the singing voice and other essential musical skills (listening skills, aural memory and physical skills) that should be a regular part of classroom work week-by- week (http://www.standards.dfes.gov.uk/schemes2/music/?view=get, Unit 1).
158 Despite the fact that English syllabus does not target the expressive objectives, Unit 20 discloses that their cognitive subtype, viz., “singing a song from memory”, nevertheless, is implemented in units. Thus, the comparison of how singing experiences are introduced to children in units, lessons and syllabae reveals that setting one type of objective, such as behavioural (England) or expressive (Russia) does not necessarily mean that music lessons do not possess another type.
Movement The importance of movement for child development was pointed out by Montessori. She believed that learning occurs physically, mentally and through the senses. It is worth illustrating how they interrelate. She wrote in Absorbent Mind that the organisation of man has three parts: brain, senses and muscles. Movement is the final result to which the working of all these delicate mechanisms leads up. In fact it is only by movement that the personality can express itself (Gettman, 1987, p. x). Clearly, movement contributes to mental growth. To put it another way, the hand and brain evolve to a high degree of interdependence. She revealed that the transition from unconscious to conscious happens through the experience of objects in the child’s environment, through movement or by means of doing things (Standing, 1957, p. 89- 90). Moog (1979) reported that lack of movement experience was a factor contributing to poorer rhythmic perception. Moore’s report (1984) showed improvement in rhythmic aptitude after instruction that incorporated movement and rhythm exercises. The comparison of moving activities shows their purpose and the stimulus for children to participate in the development of moving skills in music lessons.
A number of the movement activities are used by most of the syllabae (excluding the Kabalevsky syllabus for children of 10-13 years old) for the combination of sensory motor preparation and for understanding musical concepts (Refer to Table No. 2.5c. Curricula Activities and Learning Experiences Matrix. Moving). The difference occurs in defining movement as a concept. The NSW syllabus considers movement as “exploration of both locomotor movement (walking, running, skipping) and non locomotor movement (bending, stretching)” (Creative Arts Syllabus K-6, 2001, p. 12),
159 while the rest of the syllabae bear in mind dancing (moving one’s feet or body, or both, rhythmically in a pattern of steps, esp. to the accompaniment of music with excitement or emotion). For example, along with “moving in response to music” and “moving freely to sound” which are connected with music (p. 85), Units of Work in the NSW syllabus include movement experiences which do not relate to music, such as “exploring different levels of space through movement” (p. 63). Similarly, the UK (England) Unit 9 contains a task “exploring and choosing different movements to describe animals”, which cannot be related to the child’s musical development but only to sensory motor preparation. However, the use of “dancing without music” by ArtsEdge (USA) and Kabalevsky’s “marching” may be considered as musical experiences because dancing and marching involve rhythmic and pulse organisation which are musical features (http://ArtsEdge.kennedy- center.org/teach/les.cfm?subjectId=MUS, Lessons Standards, 2272; Kabalevsky, 2001, p. 17).
Moving, or dancing with awareness of musical concepts is common to music lessons in all listed countries. Moving as a tool for understanding musical concepts mostly displays an accent on rhythm development, such as “moving maintaining the beat while walking around and repeating the rhyme” in the NSW Unit of Work (p. 80); “students accurately move to mixed meter, emphasizing the strong beat” in Lesson 2 (MENC). However, there are a number of examples that focus on other musical concepts, including “responding to changes in pitch to move up or down following changes in pitch in Unit 5 (England)”; moving with awareness of structure in the NSW Unit of Work (p. 59); and “expressing musical image in artistic movement” in Russia (Kabalevsky, 2001, p. 36).
There are a number of stimuli to involve children in movement activities. As a stimulus to movement activities, for example, educators use music, “responding to music using body percussion (clapping, tapping, stamping)”, which is found in the English, American (ArtsEdge and MENC) and Zankov syllabae (http://www.standards.dfes.gov.uk/schemes2/music/?view=get, Units of Work 1 and 3; http://ArtsEdge.kennedy-center.org/teach/les.cfm?subjectId=MUS, Lessons Standards, 2035; http://www.menc.org/, Lesson 1; Zankov, 2000, p. 166). In creative movement activities, Units 6 and 16 in the UK (England) use sounds as the stimulus,
160 ArtsEdge in the USA employs literal stimuli “creating an interpretative dance” (http://ArtsEdge.kennedy-center.org/teach/les.cfm?subjectId=MUS, Lessons Standards, 2467) and “creating a movement to go with the words, phrase, or event” (http://ArtsEdge.kennedy-center.org/teach/les.cfm?subjectId=MUS, Lessons Standards, 2133).
Thus, as an extension to the development of musical skills, movement contributes to sensory motor preparation and to understanding musical concepts. However, evidence shows that a number of moving activities (from the NSW and England) do not help the child’s musical development because they contribute to the kinaesthetic sensation of movement or muscle strain without the involvement any musical features. Comparison also indicates that most moving experiences aim at the students’ sense of rhythm, meter and beat. To engage children in moving experiences, musical and literal stimuluses are applied.
Composing The research consists of a comparison of how children are organised in composing activities. It discusses the differences. Considering composing activities, a number of units of work and lessons refer to composing itself (the UK); improvising (the UK, NSW, Russia and USA (MENC)); organising sound (the NSW and UK); and creating (the NSW, UK and USA (ArtsEdge)) (Refer to Table No. 2.6 Curricula Activities and Learning Experiences Matrix. Composing).
Organisation of composing activities The data reveal the different countries, being influenced by a number of factors, use distinct methods of organisation when children are participating in composing activities. They include working individually, in pairs and in groups. For example, there is evidence of individual work in the Kabalevsky syllabus for children from 7 to 9 years old such as “creating a song individually” (Kabalevsky, 2001, p. 38). The use of individual work reflects here the emphasis on the concept of total development which was raised by Rousseau and Pestalozzi and was one of the fundamental factors of Kabalevsky’s philosophy for general music education. MENC (the USA) offers creating “individually one line of a chant (4 words) on a teacher selected topic” in
161 Lesson 6 because it was influenced by Dewey and progressive education with its emphasis on the individual learner. Next, “composing music individually or in pairs using a range of stimuli and developing musical ideas into a completed composition” is found in the UK (http://www.standards.dfes.gov.uk/schemes2/music/?view=get, Unit 21) and “creating descriptive music in pairs or small groups” (Ibid, Units 9 and 13). ArtsEdge proposes “creating their musical scene from given musical improvisation in groups” (http://ArtsEdge.kennedy- center.org/teach/les.cfm?subjectId=MUS, Lessons Standards, 2148) and Unit 12 in the UK presents “creating a class song”. Group work and work in pairs appear in units and lessons because of the effects of the psychological theory of Piaget on education in the UK and USA. They believe that children learn from each other. There is also the influence of progressive education with its principle that accents the cooperation between learners.
Composing Composing activities, which are formulated as composing per se, were found only in the UK Units of Work. These include “composing within specified guidelines” (http://www.standards.dfes.gov.uk/schemes2/music/?view=get, Units 6 and 7); “composing music using rhythmic ostinato based on spoken phrase” and “composing music using rhythmic ostinato based on spoken phrase” (Unit 10); and “composing a short song to their own lyrics based on everyday phrases (Unit 19).
Improvising Then, the syllabae, units and lessons of all countries employ improvising (composing and performing without previous preparation from whatever materials are readily available). The difference is in the use of material for improvisations, instruments or voices. For example, by playing musical instruments improvising rhythmically is put into Units 4, 14 and 21 in the UK (Ibid.), Lesson 3 in the USA (MENC) and in syllabus by Kabalevsky (Kabalevsky, 2001, p. 44), Zankov (Zankov, 2000, p.166) and Kritskaya (Kritskaya, 2001, p. 32) in Russia. The information about improvising melodically by playing instruments is obtained from the English, Australian and Russian sources. Improvising accompaniments is found in Unit 12 (the UK) and the Zankov program (Zankov, 2000, p. 166). However, using voices, improvising is used only in Russian syllabae. These include “melodies by singing within tonality and with
162 modulations with different intonations” (Kabalevsky, 2001, pp. 28, 44; Kritskaya, 2001, p. 186; Zankov, 2000, p. 166); “melodies by singing poems with awareness of emotion and images of the characters of fairy tales (or fragments of poems)” (Zankov, 2000, p. 176); “improvising melodically or rhythmically with awareness of mood” (Zankov, 2000, p. 166); and, “improvising recitative” (Kritskaya, 2001, p. 186; Zankov, 2000, p. 186).
Organising Sound The next difference occurs in the use of organising sound activities in the English and Australian Units of Work. The rest of the musical systems do not mention this type of activity. Organising sound activities involve children in different types of action. For example, in the NSW, the Units of Work offer a variety of activities for children to participate in organising sound by ordering images (Creative Arts Syllabus, Units of Work, 2001, p. 85); by conducting and pointing to the images (p. 85); by selecting “different types of dynamics and tone colour” (p. 74); by “selecting instruments to represent appropriate tone colours for accompaniment” (p. 75); by “experimenting with different ways of presenting the chant (softly, loudly, whispered)” (p. 69); and, by “experimenting with accompaniments by playing each line separately then in various combinations” (p. 91). In the UK organising sound activity was found in Unit 18. The example is a “selecting and combining the sounds expressively” (http://www.standards.dfes.gov.uk/schemes2/music/?view=get, Units of Work). Thus, organising sound activities engage children into the creative organisation of their musical ideas.
It needs to be pointed out that a number of the units in England and the USA (ArtsEdge) offer activities that are mere imitation, such as “copying short rhythmic phrases” (http://www.standards.dfes.gov.uk/schemes2/music/?view=get, Units of Work 1, 4, 10; http://ArtsEdge.kennedy-center.org/teach/les.cfm?subjectId=MUS, Lessons Standards, 2459). What is intended to be achieved in this task? Does it for understanding of concept of rhythm or learning any particular skill? Is copying educational? The dictionary gives the definition of imitation from psychological point of view. It is the performance of an act whose stimulus is the observation of the act performed by another person and from the sociological viewpoint as the copying of patterns of activity and thought of other groups or individuals (Random House
163 Unabridged Dictionary, 2000). Concepts, in elemental terms, are points of understanding while skills are the various means of implementation of these concepts. Certainly both concepts and skills are vital if one is to participate fully in music. For example, Unit 3 (the UK) illustrates how imitation is used for achieving proficiency in the recognition and translation of musical concepts (a variety of long and short sounds) through kinaesthetic action (the use of children voices). Children are introduced to the concept of long sounds, for example the noise which is made by a spinning washing machine, a hair dryer or running water, and are asked to imitate them with their voices. Then they are asked to imitate some short sounds, for example hammering, radio alarm, knocking, footsteps, ticking clock, or dripping water (http://www.standards.dfes.gov.uk/schemes2/music/?view=get, Units of Work).
However, the evidence shows that some syllabae use imitation in activities that require more than observation and copying of patterns of activity. For example, in the NSW syllabus, imitation is seen as an activity that takes part in the process of composing (organising sound) (Creative Arts Syllabus K-6, 2001, p. 13). Composing is a creative process. According to the Random House Unabridged Dictionary, “creativity is the ability to transcend traditional ideas, rules, patterns, relationships, or the like and to create meaningful new ideas, forms, methods, interpretations, etc”. The main characteristics of creativity are originality, progressiveness, or imagination. Thus, there is no point in including imitation in the process of organising sound because imitation is limited to observation and the copying of patterns of activities of other people, excluding any traces of originality or imagination. It would seem that there is no point including imitation in the experiences that lead to creativity.
Creating Activities and their Stimuli A comparison of creating activities shows the incorporation of other areas of learning into the music lesson. These areas contribute to creativity in music and include different starting points (stimuli) for creating activities. The data from Table No. 2.6 disclose that creating activities in music are welcomed in all educational systems. It also reveals that a number of creating activities are borrowed from other areas of learning. They include “making up new verses or innovating on the text” (Language area of study) in the NSW (Creative Arts Syllabus K-6, 2001, p. 69); “tape recorder and microphones so that sounds can be captured and modified using ICT”
164 (Technology) in the UK (http://www.standards.dfes.gov.uk/schemes2/music/?view=get, Units of Work, 18); “making up a rainforest collage wall mural and experimenting with individual sounds to represent each of the parts of the collage” (Visual Art) in the NSW (Creative Arts Syllabus K-6, 2001, p. 74); and, staging/dramatisation (Drama) in the NSW (syllabus) (Creative Arts Syllabus K-6, 2001, p. 13; http://www.standards.dfes.gov.uk/schemes2/music/?view=get, Units of Work, 14; Kabalevsky, 2001, pp. 35, 41; Zankov, 2000, p. 166). Kritskaya points out a variety of fields associated with creativity in music lessons: Creativity in the speech, vocal, rhythm, movement improvisations; paintings on themes of favorite musical pieces; sketches of the operatic and ballet costumes and sceneries; creating collages and posters; poetic diaries; concert programs; collecting musical collections for home music library; creating cartoons with known music; small literal essays about music, musicians, musical instruments and so on (Kritskaya, 2001, p. 186).
There are a number of different starting points or stimuli (that incite to action or exertion or quicken action, feeling and thought) which involve children in creating activities. For example, as stimuli for creating, elements may come from related arts, such as Literature (spoken phrase in Unit 10 (the UK), everyday phrases Unit 19 (the UK) and lyrics from the songs in the Creative Arts Syllabus Units of Work (the NSW) (p. 69); the Visual Arts (the images and pictures on cards in Units of Work (the NSW) (p. 62); Dance (the movements in Units 8 and 12 (the UK). They may come also from other fields, such as Geography (“creating a song using geographic information geographic information” in the ArtsEdge’s lesson (the USA) (http://ArtsEdge.kennedy-center.org/teach/les.cfm?subjectId=MUS, Lessons Standards, 2189)).
However, there is evidence besides these examples to show that creating starts with stimuli from literal or linguistic fields of study (“creating own rhythmic ostinato based on words from the song” in the Creative Arts Syllabus Units of Work in the NSW (p. 96)). ArtsEdge suggests that creating activities starts with musical stimuli, such as “creating a tune and then writing a recitative”. Here children create a composition first and then write words to it (http://ArtsEdge.kennedy-
165 center.org/teach/les.cfm?subjectId=MUS, Lessons Standards, 2133). What does creating mean for children? Do they already know how to do it? What is composition in a child’s thought? What are the criteria for creating a tune? What kind of activity precedes creating? Do they need to think about their creation? Do they already thinking the abstract or do they still think in the concrete form? Or, will manipulating sounds bring a tune to life? Will it have any sense for them? Can they give reasons for their choice of sounds and other musical features? Would anyone be able to write words to it at all?
To find answers to these questions, it is better to investigate the Russian syllabus for children by Kabalevsky. This syllabus targets the development of child associative thinking. In Kabalevsky’s program, associative thinking is based on perception as the act of apprehension by means of the senses; cognition; understanding of music and the aims of the expressive type of objectives, for instance “teaching to understand music” (Kabalevsky, 2001, p. 15; Kritskaya, 2001, p. 183). Throughout the Kabalevsky program, the development of associative thinking via literal, visual and musical stimuli happens in three steps gradually moving musical stimuli from the last position to the first when introducing music lessons (Refer to Figure 2.3). Firstly, because music is abstract, Kabalevsky starts with literal stimuli for children from 6 to 9 years old. He proceeds to the visual (a picture) and finally reaches the musical. In this step, the illustrative (how music can tell about events) characteristics of music are discovered. The second step is for children from nine to ten years old. It begins with literal stimulus, and builds on what is already grasped by asking what the music illustrates and why? After children describe an imaginary picture, the teacher presents visual aids asking which aid illustrates the music better and why. Music at this step takes second place to the literal and visual stimuli. At the second step, children are introduced to the descriptive (how music can transmit emotions and feelings) characteristics of music. At the third step for children from 10 to 11 years old, the music is heard without any prior commentaries. Children define a context themselves because they already understand that music can illustrate and describe things (events, emotions and feelings). Children are also able to give explanations. Then, the teacher offers a literal aid. At this step, there is no need for any visual stimuli because music is perceived,
166 understood, and described by the children using associations with their emotions, feelings and events. Having described the development of the child’s associative thinking in music lessons in Russia, it becomes apparent that Piaget’s theory of stages is inadequate to explain this process. Vygotsky’s theory of ZPD is the one to take into consideration when discussing child cognitive development concerning reasoning on music lessons. Young children have difficulties when thinking in abstract terms. However, according to Piaget’s theory of individual constructivism, in the concrete operational stage, from ages 7 to 12, the child begins to deal with abstract concepts such as numbers and relationships but he or she is not able to reason logically (Saettler, 1990, p. 331). Children reason logically and systematically, in Piaget’s thought, only in the formal operational stage, ages 12 to 15 (p. 331). He also believes that there is no vehicle to speed up this process (Elkind, 1976, p.255). In contrast to Piaget, Kabalevsky offers the idea that 9-year-old children are able to reason logically. He bases this idea on Vygotsky’s notion of ZPD. This concerns the child’s readiness to improve cognitive abilities including reasoning at any point during the child’s development, building new knowledge on what is already grasped.
Unlike Kabalevsky, ArtsEdge offers children a task of “creating a tune and then write a recitative” without any stimuli for creating. However, before offering children a task as “creating a tune and then write a recitative” it is necessary to consider not only the issue of child development but also the techniques which must be taken into account when presenting musical tasks which will have meaning for children (http://ArtsEdge.kennedy-center.org/teach/les.cfm?subjectId=MUS, Lessons Standards 2133).
Listening A comparison of listening activities will include a study of the importance of listening in the different music education systems and its place and function in other activities in the Russian syllabae, in the Units of Work in the UK and NSW and in lessons developed by ArtsEdge and MENC in the USA.
Kabalevsky states that “listening to music” must serve as a conventional term for “perceiving music”. Therefore, it is better using his term. Perceiving music, as he
167 believes, “is not just one of the kinds” of activities in music lessons but it is the active perception of music which is the foundation of the child’s aesthetic, cognitive and attitudinal development. Music will fulfil its aesthetic, cognitive, educational, moral and fostering role only if children learn to perceive music and think about it (Kabalevsky, 2001, p. 25). Zankov agrees with Kabalevsky and adds that among other things “children receive aesthetic pleasure” when listening to music (Zankov, 2000, p.166). Kabalevsky believes that perceiving music is the most active category as he wrote The real, sensitive and well thought-out perception of music is one of the most active forms of union with music because, when perceiving music, the inner and spiritual world of students as well as their feelings and thoughts are enlivened (Kabalevsky, 2001, p. 25). This determines the primary place of listening activities in Russian syllabae. Kabalevsky puts perceiving music in the prior position. It comes before performing with musical instruments and singing. He believes that Any form of communication with music, any musical activity teaches to perceive music, perfecting the ability to listen attentively and think over continuously and steadily (p. 26). Hence, the methodical principles of Kabalevsky for each aspect of musical development are “enthusiasm based on the emotional perception of music” (Kritskaya, 2001, p. 185). He makes an attempt to find more natural, logical, direct and immediate ways to bring children into the world of musical images and, at the same time, to eliminate the methods and techniques that do not relate to music directly (Kabalevsky, 2001, p. 33). Thus, perceiving of music (as it is thought of in Russian syllabae) is a special type of listening skill with focused thinking. It has a primary role among other musical activities because it permeates into all spheres of the child’s musical development and promotes the development of other musical skills (performing, singing, moving, composing and discussing).
Unlike the Russian syllabae, the syllabus of the UK and the School Music Program: A New Vision in the USA (MENC) imparts a secondary role to listening activities. For example, in the UK syllabus (Content of Music) listening is used for the extension of
168 development of “each of the interrelated skills of performing, composing and appraising in all activities” (http: //www.nc.uk.net). Then it is recommended to “extend these skills by applying listening skills and knowledge and understanding of music” (Ibid). This finds its practical implementation in Unit 17 in the task “improving their performance through listening”. Similarly, MENC (the USA) states that performing, creating, and responding to music are the fundamental music processes in which humans engage. Singing, playing instruments, moving to music, and creating music enable them to acquire musical skills and knowledge that can be developed in no other way. Learning to read and write (notate) music gives them a skill with which to explore music independently and with others (http://www.menc.org/publication/books/prek12st.html, The School Music Program: A New Vision). Then, listening is placed between other categories that are involved in learning and are concerned mostly with cognitive processes: Listening to, analysing and evaluating music are important building blocks of musical learning (Ibid.). It seems that, listening is seen as a tool for learning how to perform, create and respond to music rather than a discrete skill which children should develop.
All listed sources include “listening to music and identifying expressive features of music” (Creative arts K-6 Syllabus, 2001, p. 13; http://www.standards.dfes.gov.uk/schemes2/music/?view=get, Units of Work 2, 8, 16, 18, 19; http://ArtsEdge.kennedy-center.org/teach/les.cfm?subjectId=MUS, Lessons Standards 3345, 2316, 2275, 2273, 2292, 2459, 2095, 2184, 2220; Kabalevsky, 2001, pp. 26-27; Kritskaya, 2001, p. 216; Zankov, 2000, p. 166; Hrennikov, 1994, p. 100).
However, the features may be seen from a narrow and broad view. The difference occurs when the Units of Work in the NSW and UK direct children’s attention to the smaller elements of music, such as “hearing and distinguishing sounds” (Creative Arts Syllabus K-6, 2001, p. 13; http://www.standards.dfes.gov.uk/schemes2/music/?view=get, Units of Work 1, 17), “listening and remembering sounds” ((Creative Arts Syllabus K-6, 2001, p. 13; http://www.standards.dfes.gov.uk/schemes2/music/?view=get, Units of Work 8), and “identifying and classifying sounds” (Creative Arts Syllabus K-6, 2001, p. 13; http://www.standards.dfes.gov.uk/schemes2/music/?view=get, Units of Work 1, 17).
169 These examples represent a narrow view because a number of the qualitative characteristics of sounds in these tasks are limited by pitch, dynamics and tempos. The limitation happens because children are expected to apply the information received from listening in their own performance, for instance “identify melodic phrases and play them by ear” in Unit 11 of the UK. Russian and American sources possess a broad view. They aim at the features that make music as more complex matter, viz., “listening and distinguishing different emotional states (joy, grief, anxiety) in music” (http://ArtsEdge.kennedy- center.org/teach/les.cfm?subjectId=MUS, Lessons Standards 2369; Kabalevsky, 2001, p.34); and Russian only “listening with the use of imagination” (Hrennikov, 1994, p. 119). There is a variety of musical qualitative characteristics the may be involved. For example, in Lesson 4 MENC offers children a listening guide which directs their attention “towards orchestration, dynamics, tempo, number of singers, and quality of singers” (http://www.menc.org/); Kabalevsky’s syllabus proposes recognising expressive elements in music of a variety of genres and from different places and times (Hrennikov, 1994, pp. 94-219).
In summary, giving listening activities a primarily role, Kabalevsky believes that the perception of music contributes to the progress of other skills. Yet, by targeting expressive (aesthetic and cognitive) objectives, Russian syllabae do not exclude behavioural objectives. The NSW and UK Units of Work do not consider listening as a skill that should be developed and use listening activities as a device to perfect other skills (performing, singing and composing). However, they also set a number of listening tasks when the boundaries of music are limited to children’s abilities so that children are able to use them in their performance.
Discussion Discussion activities are used in all educational systems (Refer to Table No. 2.8 Curricula Activities and Learning Experiences Matrix. Judging/ Discussing of Musical Quality). The data show that discussion may serve to support behavioural objectives as well as expressive.
As discussed earlier, the behavioural objectives target the development of a particular skill, namely discussing, in the NSW, UK and USA syllabae. In spite of the fact that
170 Russian syllabae do not set behavioural objectives they still develop children’s skills of discussion. There are some differences between those who do not set behavioural objectives and those who do. Russian discussing activities have a theoretical character while Australian, English and American activities possess their applied quality. For example, discussing what music illustrates and describes in Russian syllabae has a theoretical character because it deals with and consists of hypothesis. Included in these discussing activities is discussion how music expresses human feelings, features of characters; how it describes human portraits, conditions of weather, movements” Kabalevsky, 2001, p. 40). However, at a deeper level these examples aim for the development of discussion as a skill itself. To support this idea, it must be taken into consideration that all lessons by Kritskaya include “developing a vocabulary of musical terms” which enables children to participate in the discussing activities.
The development of vocabulary of musical terms is also included in all Units of Work in UK and in a number of lessons by ArtsEdge in the USA. However, by analysing the discussion activities of the UK, it is clear that they have an applied nature. They aim at mastering performing skills – skills that are not solely discussion skills. These include, “how sounds can be combined to make textures” in Unit 13 in the UK (http://www.standards.dfes.gov.uk/schemes2/music/?view=get); “how sounds can create different intended effects” and “how pitched sounds, when combined, can sound relaxed or tense (feelings)” in Unit 18. This type of discussion (how to do something to achieve something or how musical features may be used) usually precedes performing, composing or creating activities. As a result, discussion is used to implement other skills.
However, the use of musical terms and descriptive words in describing music activities proves the development of children’s verbal skills in all educational systems. For example, in the NSW, UK, USA and Russia, there are “describing music” activities (Creative Arts Units of Work K-6, 2001, p. 63; http://www.standards.dfes.gov.uk/schemes2/music/?view=get, Units of Work 2, 7, 8, 13, 21; http://ArtsEdge.kennedy-center.org/teach/les.cfm?subjectId=MUS, Lessons Standards 3345, 3346, 3347, 3348); in the UK - “identifying and using descriptive words to create sound pictures” (http://www.standards.dfes.gov.uk/schemes2/music/?view=get, Unit 7); and, in the
171 USA – “describing styles of songs” and “describing rhythm” (http://ArtsEdge.kennedy- center.org/teach/les.cfm?subjectId=MUS, Lessons Standards 2293, 2248).
Then, regardless of the fact that the NSW and UK syllabae do not have expressive objectives, they do include a number of activities which support the attitudinal and cognitive subtypes of expressive objectives. For example, in the Units of Work of the NSW and in Schemes of Work of the UK there are attitudinal tasks that orientate the child’s mind to his or her feelings. These are “discussing what children like best, the most effective features and the use of musical concepts/ discussing sounds” (Creative Arts K-6 Units of work, 2001, p. 81) and “expressing likes and dislikes and the reason for these” (http://www.standards.dfes.gov.uk/schemes2/music/?view=get, Schemes of Work).
The next examples relate to the cognitive subtype of expressive objectives. These include a variety of tasks about making decisions and giving reasons for their work, such as “making decisions for choosing instruments to illustrate insects, rainforest, sunrise” in the NSW (Creative Arts K-6 Units of work, 2001, pp. 63, 75 and 85); and “giving reasons for choosing instruments” in Units 2 and 3 of the UK (http://www.standards.dfes.gov.uk/schemes2/music/?view=get ). The cognitive subtype of objectives also include evaluation or judgement activities which involve appraising and estimating the quality of their work, or others, such as “making decisions about their work” (the NSW (Creative Arts K-6 Units of work, 2001, p. 85)); “making improvements to their own and others’ work” in Units 6 and 8 (the UK, (http://www.standards.dfes.gov.uk/schemes2/music/?view=get)). There is also “evaluating and improving work through discussion” in Unit 19 (the UK (Ibid)); and “improve their own work through analysis, evaluation and comparison and improve their performance through listening, internalising and analysing (in their own minds) what changes need to be made” in Units 15 and 17 (the UK (Ibid)). Cognitive objectives also reveal themselves through the comparison of discussing experiences in the NSW Units of Work, such as “discussing and comparing others’ compositions with their own” (Creative Arts K-6 Units of work, 2001, p. 85); “comparing a pop song with a piece of classical music focusing on dynamics” (p. 97); and “discussing the similarities and differences between different verses and choruses in the song” (p. 96).
172 Thus, comparison of discussion activities indicates that all current educational systems, regardless of objectives, develop children’s discussing skills. Australian and English Units of Work use discussion for mastering and improving other skills as well. Russian syllabae do not set the behavioural objectives but develop discussion skills per se, while Australian and English syllabae do not target expressive objectives but expand children’s attitudinal and cognitive development through judging, evaluating and comparing tasks.
Quantitative and qualitative analysis of activities offered in Units of Work in the NSW and UK
Table No. 3.9 shows the number of music activities and the percentage offered in the primary school Units of Work in the syllabae of the NSW and UK. These two syllabae were chosen because of their focus on activity orientated teaching and learning which is formulated in their behavioural objectives. All activities, which are offered in the primary/ elementary school syllabus in NSW and the UK were analysed and divided into five major groups. They are performing, including singing, playing and moving with their total number and percentage, sound organising or composing, listening, discussion of music and musical concepts, and activities involving making and using scores. They are represented in the top column. The last column shows the total number and the percentage of activities. The total number of all activities in each subcategory is defined as 100%. All activities are also grouped into three subcategories viz 1-2, 3-4, 5- 6 learning years and the total number and percentage for each activity in the NSW and UK are represented in rows and are separated with shaded areas.
173
Table 3.9 Percentage of activities offered in the primary school syllabus Units of Work in the NSW and UK
Amount and percentage of performing Amount and percentage Amount and Amount and Amount and Total amount and activities offered in syllabus of sound percentage of percentage of percentage of percentage of organising/composing listening activities discussions of activities activities activities offered in offered in syllabus music and musical involving syllabus concepts offered in making or using syllabus scores Singing Playing Moving Total for Singing, Playing and Moving 1-2 years NSW 18 28 28 14 70 13 26 6 3 118 23.7% 23.7% 11.9% 59.3% 11% 22% 5% 2.5% 99.8% UK 19 54 51 12 117 12 48 30 2 209 25.8% 24.4% 5.7% 55.9% 5.7% 23% 14.3% 1% 99.9% 3-4 years NSW 17 13 4 34 13 14 7 2 70 24.3% 18.6% 5.7% 48.6% 18.6% 20% 10% 2.9% 100.1% UK 38 50 13 101 17 31 40 6 195 19.5% 25.6% 6.7 51.8% 8.7% 15.9 20.5% 3.1% 100% 5-6 years NSW 3 7 2 12 3 17 7 4 43 7% 16.3% 4.7% 28% 7% 39.5% 16.3% 9.3% 100.1% UK 27 32 2 61 29 28 39 3 160 16.9% 20% 1.3% 38.2% 18.1% 17.5% 24.4% 1.9% 100.1% Total 1-6 years NSW 231 48 20 68 29 57 20 9 414 55.8% 11.6% 4.8% 72.2% 7% 13.8% 4.8% 2.2% 100.1% UK 119 133 27 279 54 107 109 11 560 21.3% 23.8% 4.8% 49.9% 9.6% 19.1% 19.5% 2% 100.1%
18 http://www.boardofstudies.nsw.au Creative Arts K-6 Units of Work, 56-99. 19 http://www.standards.dfes.gov.uk/schemes3/Unitsofwork. 175 Aim The aim of this table is to compare primary school music activities (performing, singing, moving, composing, listening and discussing) to discount the percentage of time devoted to the development of certain skills when learning music.
Method All activities, which are offered in the primary school Units of Work in the syllabae in the NSW and UK, were analysed and divided into five major groups namely Performing, including singing, playing and moving; Sound Organising/ Composing; Listening; Discussion of music and musical concepts; and Activities Involving Making and Using Scores. All activities were also grouped into three subcategories viz 1-2, 3-4 and 5-6 learning years. The total number of all activities in each subcategory was defined as 100%. The percentage of each particular group of activities was calculated as a percentage of the total number of activities in the corresponding subcategory.
Results Overall, the most regular activity which is mentioned in both sources is performing, namely 72.2% in the NSW and 49.9% in the UK. The most frequent activity recommended in both syllabae during years 1 and 2 is performing with an accent on singing and playing. It is 59.3% in NSW and 55.9% in the UK. Similarly, the results from years 3-4 show that performing prevails in the both syllabae, 48.6% in NSW and 51.8% in the UK. The domination of performing activities remains strong in the UK during years 5-6 – 38.2%, whereas in NSW their percentage decreases to 28% shifting to listening activities at 40%. As a result, the rate of performing activities is diminished to almost a half in years 5-6 in NSW.
Among all performing activities, moving is offered 11.7 times less than singing. Playing has the highest percentage at 11.9% throughout the years 1 and 2 in NSW. The lowest percentage for moving activities falls at years 5-6 in the UK. It is 1.3%.
The proportion of time devoted to singing drops sharply from 23.7% and 24.3% in years one and two and three and four to 7% in year five and six.
176 Unlike NSW, the UK syllabus has a more moderate decline. It goes from 25.8% in years one and two to 19.5% over the next two years, to 16.9% in years five and six.
The least amount of time is spent on making and using scores. In the NSW syllabus it amounts to 2.5% and 2.9% in years one and two and years three and four. In the UK syllabus it amounts to 1% and 3.1% in these years. But in the NSW syllabus, the percentage of time spent on these activities reaches to 9.3%.
There is a significant difference between percentages of time devoted of listening activities recommended in the syllabus. They are similar in years one and two (22% - NSW and 23% – the UK), but in years five and six it rises dramatically to 39.5% in NSW but drops to 17.5% in the UK.
There is no significant difference in the syllabae in sound organising activities. It is 7% for NSW and 9.6% for the UK. In NSW, the stronger emphasis is on sound organising/composing activities for first two subcategories, 11% and 18.6%, but during years four and five this activity loses its relative focus and falls to 7%. The UK syllabus however offers sound organising/composing activities that reach their climax at 18.1% by years five and six.
Discussion The UK and NSW syllabae focus on the “activity” approach as the best type of musical education for youngsters. Both syllabae have been designed employing this approach with strong emphasis on performing activities, playing and singing in particular, and listening. Many children would probably achieve most of the teaching aims because the different types of activities create conditions for students to learn by making music themselves. However, the lack of activities involving making and reading scores may lead to uncertainty in this sphere later. In NSW, some difficulties in discussion and using appropriate vocabulary may arise in years five and six. This is because of the small proportion of time spent discussing music and musical concepts in the early years of learning. The table also shows that creativity (composing/ sound organising) is not the primary aim of music curricula in the UK and NSW.
177 To sum up, the curricula’s activities were sorted to match the behavioural objectives that they best support. When discussing the relative merits of the “activity” approach, it is important to recognise the emotional or cognitive of the child and the role these aspects play in the child’s musical education. But, by focussing only on the cognitive, emotional and attitudinal development of the child, skill acquisition may not occur. However, a comparison of performing, singing, moving, composing, listening and discussing activities shows that there are no missing parts in units and lessons in spite of their differences in types of objectives. For example, the comparison of singing experiences reveals that setting one objective, such as behavioural (the UK) or expressive (Russia) do not necessarily mean that music lessons does not possess another type. Targeting expressive (aesthetic and cognitive) objectives, Russian syllabae do not exclude behavioural types when introducing children listening and discussing activities. Australian and English syllabae do not target expressive objectives but they carefully design activities for the attitudinal and cognitive development of children through judging, evaluating and comparing.
3. Musical content/ repertoire
What should be included in syllabae? This question brings to light a number of different problems for discussion. Should music curriculum content seek out the best that has been produced in music? Does this material mean anything to children? Are children hostile to school? Should all students be initiated into aspects of their parents’ culture? Or, should students be made aware of each others’ cultural heritage? Is this material suited to children of this age? Are there more appropriate ways of presenting it at this level?
Progressivism maintains that the children learn properly only when they can relate what they learn to their own interests. Where does this idea come from? Long before a period during the 1930s and early 1940s, when the child activity movement flourished, Froebel argued for the free unfolding of the child’s nature. He kept as an absolute goal that the child should unite himself or herself voluntarily and spontaneously with God under inspired guidance, and not the direction, of a teacher (Kneller, 1963, p.102). Applying his notion to the music curriculum, musical content should be developed according to the students’ desires. But what are these desires?
178 How far will the child’s interests go in learning music? What kind of music will be included in the music curriculum to follow children’s interests: the music which they listen to on the radio, in the shop, or with their parents? It depends on how far a child has progressed. Barrow (1984) states that Since students will sometimes be interested in trivial, immoral, counterproductive, short-term and otherwise puerile interests, we cannot sensibly take their interests, whatever they may be, as the criterion of curriculum selection (Barrow, 1984, p.83). The child is not mature enough to define the contents of their education.
The major difference concerning the curricula’s musical content occurs between the syllabae of the NSW, UK and USA (MENC) and the syllabae of Russia and the USA (MMCP). The syllabae of the NSW, UK and USA (MENC) advocate only a general frame work for defining musical content while the Russian syllabae not only establish strict criteria for the selection of music that must be introduced in schools, but also set a list of musical material with recommendations about timing, namely what, when and for how long it should be taught. The American syllabus by Thomas (MENC) also provides a list of musical examples.
For example, in the NSW syllabus, general music lessons should include “music of different styles and from different times and cultures” (Creative Arts Syllabus K-6, 2001, p. 8). Similarly, the English Schemes of Work do not include details of musical repertoire as they state that children should “explore their thoughts and feelings through responding physically, intellectually and emotionally to a variety of music from different times and cultures” (http://www.standards.dfes.gov.uk/schemes2/music/teaching?view=get, Schemes of Work). In the USA (MENC), the standards for curriculum content in The School Music Program: A New Vision are described in Conditions and Expectations for Music Instruction where it states that the music curriculum should “reflect the multicultural nature of our pluralistic American culture” and “include music of the world and other times in history” (http://www.menc.org/publication/books/prek12st.html).
To make a clear distinction between the Russian and American views on content, it is necessary to examine their concepts of education in relation to culture. There are two
179 senses of culture. First, Arnold (1932) characterised culture as the best that has been thought and said. Similar to him, Bantock (1963) maintained a curriculum interest in such cultural works. In this definition of culture, Kabalevsky’s method was to teach children to get the best out of Bach or Stravinsky. He wanted to teach children the skills and concepts that allowed them to appreciate music as an expression of the human experience (Kabalevsky, 2001, p. 33). However, Barrow (1984) points out the disadvantage in making a musical value judgement and then using this as a means of curriculum selection. People do not agree on what works are representative of culture because there is no criterion for the selection of the best musical examples (p. 86). Second, from the sociological point of view, culture may be seen as the way of life of a specific group of people (p. 87). It concerns not only works of quality produced by the group but also “their code of living, and their overall pattern of life, including their characteristic activities and beliefs” (p. 87). The Kritskaya system is concerned with culture in this sense as it emphasises the relevance of Western music to the Russian culture (Kabalevsky, 2001, p. 135). Barrow also believes that any school curriculum should be concerned only with the second sense of culture “for both individual benefit and for benefit of society, where children have to be brought up to understand and be able to participate in <…> the ways of their community <…> that constitute that particular society” (Barrow, 1984, p. 87).
In America, Opportunity-to-learn standards for music instruction consider a model of music curriculum where students can “make informed evaluations concerning music, and understand music and music practices in relation to history and culture” (http://www.menc.org/publication/books/prek12st.html). However, there was in the beginning no United States culture. Nowadays, the American society is diverse and global. Determining the curriculum and the specific instructional activities, The School Music Program: a New Vision states that it necessary to achieve the standards in which students must understand their own historical and cultural heritage and those of others within their communities and beyond (Ibid.). What are those standards of musical content for American students? National Standards for Music Education just outlines it as the following: They (students) should have an informed acquaintance with exemplary works of art from a variety of cultures and historical periods, and a basic understanding
180 of historical development in the arts disciplines, across the arts as a whole, and within cultures (Ibid.). Barrow states that If countries or communities are to remain culturally vibrant and rich, whilst accommodating the many immigrants in their midst, then it is important that respect and understanding of cultural differences should not lead to cultural disintegration. [Barrow, 1984:88] Lawton (1975) recommends that a curriculum that serves different cultures should not accept different programs centred on the cultural difference between groups. It must both disseminate information about cultural differences and seek to forge a cultural unity. Whose historical heritage is dominant and sufficient enough to mould an American cultural unity? Yet, the musical repertoire of any multicultural society should be broad enough and include wide range of music. Also, it should not focus students’ attention on a particular aspect of the culture.
In contrast, there was autonomy of the Russian culture and its ethnic distinctions. Kabalevsky stressed that his program with listed musical examples is suitable for Russian students. He said that to use the program in the local national schools (Ukraine, Belarus, Kazakhstan and other former Soviet Republics) teachers would need to adjust the material to suit national traditions. Everything must be based on the cultural heritage of the locals (Kabalevsky, 2001, p. 31).
Despite the fact that all Russian syllabae and the American one by Thomas have the lists of actual pieces of musical repertoire, they have a number of differences. For example, they set different criteria for the selection of musical repertoire. Kabalevsky’s concern was very much for the musical content of music lessons at schools. The selection of musical content for his program is based on Kabalevsky’s belief in the educational power of music to influence child’s mind. His criterion is the “artistic and cultural wealth of works of art and their educational orientation and pedagogical expediency” (Hrennikov, 1994, p. 196). As with to Kabalevsky, Thomas determines criteria for choosing the musical content and offers a discography of musical repertoire (Thomas, 1979b, pp. 133-167). However, Thomas’s criterion is very much concerned with the connection of music to the child’s life. Thomas writes that
181 The materials of instruction must be drawn from the total spectrum of the art with primary emphasis on the materials of today’s music. For that strongest bond between the musical art and the child is sensitivity to contemporary life (Thomas, 1979a, pp. 5-6).
The Russian syllabus also differs from the American one by Thomas in the way how musical material is arranged and presented to students. To illustrate this it is worth giving a detailed description of what is in these lists and how the musical material is structured. For example, Kabalevsky and other Russian authors (Kritskaya and Zankov) employ a thematic approach to present music to the students. The Kabalevsky’s syllabus was used because it comprises the music program from year one through to year eight. Overall, the musical content of Kabalevsky’s syllabus is divided into six parts according to the years of study: the first year of study or class (children from seven to eight years old); the second class (from eight to nine); the third class (from nine to ten); and so on. To make his thematic approach clearer to the reader, it is worth giving a description of musical content of first two years of study (children from seven to nine years old) in precise detail. It is important to stress that the lists of musical material are approximate and meet the conditions of the Timing requirements to essential content minimum of primary education (Kabalevsky, 2001, p. 6). The teachers are given a certain freedom to choose different examples of music after they fulfil the minimum content.
The content for the first class is divided according to the number of terms in the year. It comprises 30 hours. Musical content is separated into four parts: the introduction of the theme; its development; its culmination; and its summary. The major theme of this first year is “How may we hear music”. What does it mean “to hear music”? Kabalevsky writes that it means “listen to, discover, sink into, plunge into, touch (lightly), experience, go through; endure, watch, keep an eye on it, distinguish; tell apart; modify, evaluate, perceive and so on” ( Kabalevsky, 2001, p. 34) He believes that the “Lullaby is the beginning of perception of music. The inflections of folk songs and sonic properties of folk proverbs and sayings are the native musical language. The art of “hearing” a variety of human states: music of joy, sadness,
182 anxiety. Home, native land, mother-Russia are sound images of homeland (Ibid.).
The list of music repertoire for the introduction of these is follows20: A. Lyadov Kikimora; a variety of the Russian lullabies; songs (The Wind by G. Frid, The Squirrels by S. Levina, The Trees by E. Tilicheeva); the Russian folk songs (Under our Gates); the Ukrainian folk songs (The Sweep) and so on; the children’s musical-rhythmical play The Old Man and the Turnip. As well as The Mother, Baba Yaga, Waltz and other masterpieces from Album for Children and fragments from Symphony No. 2 by P. Tchaikovsky. There are a number of pieces from The Anna Magdalena Notebook by J.S. Bach. The music by Kabalevsky is represented by Novella and Preludes (for pianoforte), fragments from his Concerto for Violin and Orchestra (II part), and other pieces for piano and songs (Ibid, p. 35).
The development of the theme for the first year at school has a meaning “talking, telling, making up…” which puts students back into the time of the bylina (a genre of Russian epic). Bylina helps children to feel the time differently. The concept of bylina is linked to the “musical-lyrical” concept of folk art. As well, students become acquainted with how different composers reflect and mirror the childhood with its typical situations, relationships, emotions, behaviour and humour. The process of creativity in making up musical pictures helps students to penetrate the characters of the images, finding their commonality and typical features. Creativity takes place in making up the simple rhythmical accompaniments and in the expression of musical images in the children’s artistic movement.
The list of music repertoire for development contains the following: a number of bylina(s) and the Russian folk songs; the fragments from operas Ruslan and Ludmila by M. Glinka including the Aria of Ruslan from the third movement, Chernomor’s March; With Nanny, In the Corner from suite (series) Detskaya and The Old Castle from the piano series Pictures at an Exhibition by M. Mussorgsky; Cuckoo in the Heart of the Woods from the Carnival of Animals by C. Saint-Saens; The Clowns by D. Kabalevsky; Choir for the opera The Magic Flute by W. A. Mozart and so on (Ibid, pp. 35-36).
20 Note: the musical examples are not dated and specified because they are distributed into schools to support the syllabus requirements.
183 The culmination of the theme “How may we hear music?” helps students to understand the unlimited boundaries of music and to reflect on the human inner world and outward things. The students’ attention is directed to the capabilities of music to describe, draw and express. This is the beginning of the comprehension of musical texture in its expressive meanings. The expressive meanings are a part of musical language. These include image and its character, tempo, melody, rhythm, inflexion and their summarising in the notation, the lyrical word and picture. Children participate in making up a variety of colourful graphical scores. Their attention is drawn to the transformation of winter into spring and how music mirrors these seasons (Ibid, p. 37).
The list of music repertoire for culmination contains a number of fragments of Tchaikovsky’s ballet Nutcracker which is represented together with reading of the Gofman’s fairy tale; The winter from series of The Seasons by A. Vivaldi; a number of pieces for the piano by M. Glinka and F. Chopin; The Wild Rider and others by R. Shuman; In Spring and Happy Farmer by E. Greig; Adagio and Imitation of the Folk by A. Khachaturian; The Moon is Walking above the Valleys, Rain and Rainbow by S. Prokofiev. As well as there is a variety of Russian folk songs and songs for children and about children by Soviet and Russian composers. Children are also expected to make up a musical fairy tale The Winter Road and The Loud Dram; and compose songs for their mothers (Ibid, pp. 37-38).
When the students reach the last part of the theme “How may we hear music?” which is a summary of student activity, attention is directed to the concept of music, namely “What is music”. Kabalevsky wrote that in music lessons at school children must realise that “music enters the child’s room with a folk song, melodies by Tchaikovsky, Mozart, Glinka, Bach, Verdi, Prokofiev… These people are the great creators for whom composing music means to live a full valuable life. The little-great, such as Mozart, Tchaikovsky, Prokofiev, Rachmaninov and others in their childhood were like contemporary children, cheerful, naughty, playful (Ibid., p.38). Children observe with care, music (by I. Saz) and lyrics (by Meterlink) to the play The Blue Bird. In connection to this play students meditate on the living and non-living, animated and unanimated, on problems of happiness in life and music (Ibid, p. 38).
184 Musical material is provided for the summarising of theme during the last term in the year one. This includes: fragments of the opera Snegurochka, such as Melodrama, The song of Brusila, Plyaska Scomorohov by Tchaikovsky; a number of piano pieces from The Children’s Album; the choir from the opera Novohudonosor by G. Verdi; a number of Russian folk songs and songs for children by the contemporary Russian composers (Ibid, p. 38).
The content for the second class is divided according to the number of terms in the year. It takes 34 hours. The theme of the first term is “Three whales in music – song, dance, march”. The song, dance and march are the major types of music for this year. Students are expected to recognise and define all three types of music. When basing all activities on three whales, aural development, memory development, the development of the sense of rhythm and performing skills occur. Students participate in music lessons as composers, performers and listeners (Ibid, p. 39).
The musical content of the first term of year two includes the following: 1) marches (by Prokofiev, Tchaikovsky, Kabalevsky, Shostakovich, Mendelssohn, and Chopin); 2) dances by Tchaikovsky ( from his ballet The Sleeping Beauty), Shostakovich, Rachmaninov (The Italian Polka), minuets by J. S. Bach, W.A. Mozart, and J. Ramo; and the contemporary rhythm dances; 3) songs by Kabalevsky (The Song about School, The first class, and The Happy Musician), Lyadov (Lullaby), Mozart (Aria), Beethoven (The Marmot), and a number of Russian folk songs (Ibid, pp. 39-40).
The second term of the second year continues the theme “Three whales in music – song, dance, march” but sees it from different point of view. These three genres (song, dance and march) help students to understand that music is not only to express the human feelings (joy, anger, sadness, anxiety and so on), it also describes the distinct features of human characters (strength and courage, tenderness and kindness, seriousness and jocosity). Music also creates the human portrait and reflects the variety of natural conditions (gentle murmur of a brook and thunderstorm). In other words, students are faced with the relationship between the expressive and figurative language of music. They also find the similarities and differences between music and the visual arts. In their performing activities students try to achieve correspondence between their performance and the character of music. The following pieces are for listening,
185 movement and playing on musical instruments: The cheerful, The sad and March by Beethoven; The Wild Rider by Schumann; Cocks and Hens by Saint-Saens; Poputnaya by Glinka; The Music Box by Lyadov; and pieces by Sviridov, and Kabalevsky. There are also a number of folk songs for students to sing and song written by contemporary composers (Ibid, pp. 40-41).
In term three, students find out “Where the three whales lead us”. The way is to the opera, ballet, symphony and concerto. The musical content includes: children’s operas and musicals (A Wolf and Seven Kids by M. Koval); choir from the opera Evgeniy Onegin by Tchaikovsky, March of the Toreador and Carmen by G. Bizet; fragments from the ballets The Nutcracker, Sleeping Beauty and Swang Lake by Tchaikovsky and Zolushka by Prokofiev. There are also fragments from the Symphonies No. 2 and 4 by Tchaikovsky; No. 7 by Prokofiev; and Unfinished Symphony by Schubert. As well as fragments of Concerto No. 3 for Piano and Orchestra (II part) by Kabalevsky and the Concerto for a Vocal and Orchestra (I part) by P. Glier (Ibid, pp. 41-42).
The theme of the three whales is summarised in term four in the context of the question “What is musical language?” Students define the expressive features of music in the images through the characteristics of melody, tempo, dynamics, texture, tonality, rhythm, register and timbre and experience these in their performances. There is time to become acquainted with simple musical structures. As well, children find out about the expressive characteristics of the traditional and classical instruments and the role of instruments in creating of musical images. The music used for this section is: a symphonic tale Peter and the Wolf by Prokofiev; the pieces for piano Theme and Variations by Beethoven; The First Loss by Schumann; Pictures at an Exhibition by Mussorgsky; and other (Ibid, pp. 42-43).
Thus, Kabalevsky used a thematic approach to present music from different times, places and styles to students. This allowed him to maintain the children’s interest in music and to develop their emotional perception of different musical genres and structures. Students learn how to listen to music, think about it and communicate their ideas about music. A thematic approach also allowed Kabalevsky to connect everything (musical activities and music) in music lessons to the children’s lives. It is important to
186 stress that the rest of the syllabus is equally full, comprehensive and sequential. It is also specified that each school receive the actual music.
Thomas also developed a list of musical content for his Synthesis (students from eight to seventeen years old). The content of the American syllabus by Thomas (MMCP, Synthesis) contains information about cultural differences. Together with examples of the well known masterpieces from different times and places (J. S. Bach, Suite for Unaccompanied Cello (Germany, 1720); C. Debussy, Prelude al’ Apres-Midi d’un Faune (France, 1894); and A. Mossolov, Symphony of Machines – Steel Foundry (Russia, 1928)) he offers students folk music from around the World. For example: African Dance Song, Music of Tibet (Thomas, 1979b, p. 133); music of Peru Munahuangui (Ibid, p. 136); music of New Guinea Murut Music of North Barneo (Ibid, p. 144).
His structural strategy differs from Kabalevsky’s thematic approach. Musical examples are divided into sections mostly by musical concepts. The structure of the curriculum as a whole is a spiral model. This model has four cycles (levels of learning and action) with a certain number of musical concepts being taught. These are: concepts of timbre, duration, dynamics, pitch, form, and other. Each musical concept appears in the next cycle on the next level of complexity. However, he did not divide the list of music into cycles. For example, when introducing the concept of timbre he advocates J. S. Bach’s Ricercar No. 2 (1747); A. Wevern’s Ricercar No. 2 (1935); G. Antheil’s Ballet Mecanique (1924); and J. Cage’s Construction in Metal (1937) (Thomas, 1979b, pp. 137-138). When presenting a concept of musical duration, he recommends M. Mussorgsky’s Pictures at an Exhibition, Haydn’s String Quartet No. 79 (1797) ; J. Brahms’s Piano Quintet (1861); R. Schumann’s Traumerei; N. Rimsky-Korsakov’s Flight of the Bumblebee; and H. Bading’s Evolutions-Ballet Suite (1958) (Ibid, pp. 140- 141).
When introducing dynamics Thomas offers Faure’s Requiem, Op. 48 (1887); Berlioz’s Te Deum, op. 22, and Honegger’s Rugby (1849); R. Starer’s Night Music for Percussion; and M. Gould’s Parade (Ibid, pp. 141-142). When learning the concept of pitch he advises to reference to Mozart’s Marten Aller Arten from Die Entfuehrung aus Dem Serail, J.S. Bach’s Suite for unaccompanied cello” No. 3 in C Major, and
187 Ussachevsky’s Transposition (Ibid, 142-143). Learning about musical form he supports with the following: motive (L. Beethoven’s Symphony No. 5; M. Ravel’s Bolero (c. 1927); C. Saint-Saens’ Symphony No. 3 (1886); and S. Goodman’s Timpiana (1967)); canons and fugues (English rota or infinite canon, Sumer Is Icumen in from History of Music in sound Vol. II. Early Medieval Music up to 1300; J. S. Bach’s Art of the fugue (1750); L. Beethoven’s Great Fugue in Bb, Op. 133; and S. Goodman’s Canon for Percussion (1967) (Ibid, pp. 148-150).
Thomas also suggests musical examples which are thematically divided. These themes and their samplers are: animal sounds (A. Banchieri’ Contrapunto Bestialy (1608), G. Handel’s The Cuckoo and the Nightingale, and E. Satie’s The Octopus (1914); machines (H. Villa-Lobos’ Little Train of Cipira (1930), A. Honneger’s Pacific 231 (1924), and L. Hiller’s Machine Music (1964); mood and expression (G. Holst’s Mars, The Bringer of War from The Planets, Op. 32 (1914),A. Schoenbers’ A Survivor from Warsaw, Op. 46 (1947), and G. Schuller’s An Eerie Moment (1959); portraits (V. Thompson’s Five Portraits (1944), A. Copland’s A Loncoln Portrait. E.Elgar Enigma Variation, Op. 36 (1899), and I. Mimaroglu’s Bowery Bum (1964); place at certain time (Muezzin’s Call to Prayer (c. 10th C.), Le Moulin de Paris (14th C.), O. Respighi’s Reste Romane (1929); and R. Wagner Overture to The Flying Dutchmen); spring (A. Vivaldi’s La Primavere from The Four Seasons, Op. 8, R. Schumann’s Spring Symphony No. 1 in Bb, op. 38 (1841), and B. Britten’s Spring Symphony, Op. 44 (1949); fire (R. Wagner’s Magic Fire Music from Die Walruere (1856), W. A. Mozart’s Damnation Scene from Don Giovanni (1787), and R. Shankar’s Fire Night (1961)); water ( Lang Taur Sha (Yuan Dynasty 1271-1368) and C. Debussy’s La Mer (1908) (Ibid, pp. 152-161).
These examples show that to introduce students to one concept Thomas uses a variety of music from different times, places and styles. He recommends that Whenever a musical example is needed, more that one musical reference should be used, preferably at least three. Each of these should be from different musical periods, e. g. one Baroque, one neo-classical, and on contemporary. Such a practice will open the student’s mind by allowing him insight into the relationship of music of all periods (Ibid, p. 32).
188 The teachers are given unlimited freedom regarding timing and duration when studying a particular musical example. Thomas wrote that The length of time spent of stratifies pertaining to one cycle may be a week, a month or a semester depending on the grade level, the class time, the teacher’s insight; the student’s interest, and the emphasis given to the creative and cognitive concerns of the music curriculum (Ibid).
Most of the examples are accompanied by a short historical and/ or musicological comment. For example, about Cello Concerto in A Minor, Op. 129 by R. Schumann Thomas wrote the following: “One of Schumann’s last works; motivic treatment between orchestra and soloist”. The cat’s Fugue by D. Scarlatti is followed by “Theme which consists of G (below middle C), B-flat, E-flat and F-sharp represents an unusual and unorthodox motive for Scarlatti’s time. The story is that the composer’s cat walked across the keyboard while he was working, hence the title”. To comment on Fugue from Young People’s Guide to the Orchestra Thomas added “Short Broadway musical treatment of discussion between local track enthusiasts” (Ibid, pp.148-149).
Unlike Kabalevsky, Thomas does not describe any teaching strategies to teachers. He believes that the creative teacher who respects the individuality and perspectives of the students will find many ways to create circumstances in which great musical literature becomes a practical resource (Thomas, 1979b, p. 36). Contrary to Kabalevsky, who uses music to develop students’ emotional perception prior to the rest of the musical activities in music lessons, Thomas uses music recordings for a different purpose. He wrote that music should provide musical clues for the student, assist him to find answers to his own creative problems. Such questions as, “How do you keep a pedal going?”, “How can I vary a motif?”, are often answered far better with examples from the literature than by verbal explanations by the teacher” (Ibid.)
Thus, Thomas uses music (in a common sense, not by children) to acquaint students with musical concepts. Students can thin create their own music using these concepts. He also states that music (written by composers) can explain these concepts better than words. However, Vygotsky states that “the development of a scientific concept begins
189 with the verbal definition” (Vygotsky, 1987, p. 168). He argued that using words in a specific way was a necessary part of the process of concept development. “The concept is not possible without the word. Thinking in concepts is not possible without verbalising” (Ibid, p. 131). Vygotsky used the term “scientific concept” to refer to concepts introduced by a teacher in school (Daniels, 2001, p. 50). Yet, the musical concepts (pitch, duration, tempo, timbre and other) are “scientific concepts” because they are introduced by the teacher in music lessons at school and their meaning must be verbalised.
So, what content is desirable? The question of what should be taught is bound up in practice with a variety of other questions. It is difficult to say whether the fixed repertoire is better than the boundless freedom of choice because it is still a question of what is implemented by teachers in Australian, English and American schools. It is impossible to develop a unified content of music for multicultural countries such as Australia, England and America, where there are a variety of social and cultural groups and people with different religions and belief systems, in the same way as for Russia, where for many centuries there was well established dominant culture, where from generation to generation, an inherited way of thinking and acting, a continuing pattern of culture beliefs and educational practices, statements and legends, customs and language were handed down. Nevertheless, students should have opportunities to have an informed acquaintance with exemplary works of music from a variety of cultures and historical periods.
190 Chapter 4
Introduction to the statistical analysis of Survey of Primary School Teachers in the NSW
That teachers’ attitudes can influence student achievement is true if it can be demonstrated that students’ performance can be improved when teachers hold certain positive attitudes concerning their students’ ability to learn. If the attitudes of those who teach influence the achievements of those who learn, then clearly the attitudes of the teacher training institutions are of paramount importance and must affect the curriculum in such institutions. Barrow states that one of the most important factors relating to what children get out of a curriculum may be not what is in it, not what use is made of it, not how it is taught in terms of techniques of instruction, not how the instruction is organised, but who is teaching it. (Barrow, 1984, p. 27) North, Hargreaves and O’Neill (2000) believe that music teachers can re-define their subject in accordance to the contemporary role of music education. For example, teachers can direct music as a subject to the external social world developing a sense of group identity and togetherness because “music has profound social psychological connotations for adolescents” (p.270). Mills (1997) makes a similar comment about the importance of the teacher on teenage attitudes to music (p. 76). The aggregate impact of teachers’ attitudes may influence students at any level of their development. Understanding this collective impact is of key importance for those wishing to provide all students with equal opportunities.
Teachers’ attitudes regarding to what and how they teach may be affected by their confidence. Confidence is the teachers’ beliefs in their powers, or reliability of their knowledge of the subject which they teach. It is also their reliance on the skills which are essential for the delivery of their knowledge to students. Investigation of teachers’ perceptions of different teaching tasks may reveal the necessary condition for making their decisions in designing music lessons. This research sets the hypothesis that there are a number of factors that influence teachers’ confidence in teaching music. These
191 may include, for example, their age, gender, musical qualifications and musical training. When considering a music curriculum, there are four constituents that must be taken into account: the process of learning, the student, the music and the teacher. In the first three chapters I investigated the nature of the student and process of learning and the components of music curricula. From a cognitive-developmental perspective, if children are to receive an effective education in music there is considerable evidence to suggest that music learning should take place from the early childhood education levels.
Music is included by the Board of Studies in the primary curriculum framework documents in NSW and is an integral part of primary arts education. However, if music is not being effectively taught at the primary level because of a lack of skills and knowledge among generalist primary teachers and there is no adequate provision for music specialists in primary schools, there may be a shift towards music being taught only at the secondary school level.
There have been a number of studies carried out in Australia regarding the availability of trained music teachers. Bartle (1968) undertook a nation-wide survey of music education that involved approximately 150 schools (Stevens, 2003, http://www.mca.org.au/StevensDocs/Conclusions.pdf). Bartle’s findings, published as Music in Australian Schools (ACER, 1968) were that music in primary schools at the time depended on whether the class teacher had any interest or expertise in music and that secondary school music was rarely offered beyond the year eight. He recommended employing itinerant instrumental teachers in government primary schools. By beginning instrumental training at the primary school level, these teachers, in his opinion, could help to lay the basis for further development of the subject in secondary schools (Stevens, 2003, http://www.mca.org.au/StevensDocs/Conclusions.pdf).
Stevens (2003) carried out a National Report on Trends in School Music Education Provision in Australia. This research project of the Music Council of Australia in collaboration with the Australian Society for Music Education and the Australian Music Association investigated the availability of trained music teachers, and adequacy of
192 music facilities, equipment and teaching materials. Stevens stated that in reality a utopian expectation that classroom music will be taught by generalist primary school teachers does not occur in New South Wales. He also outlined the chief problems associated with this issue. They are: • There is a mismatch between the extent—in terms of time allocation and therefore of curriculum content—of music curriculum studies undertaken by prospective teachers in their pre-service teacher education courses and the expectations of education authorities and/or the school in relation to classroom music teaching; • There is also a lack of teacher professional development opportunities particularly for primary school music teachers, with many states adopting the policy of leaving the provision of in-service education to teacher professional associations; • Related in part at least to the lack of teacher professional development, there is a decline in the availability of curriculum support staff; • While there is a policy in place that classroom music teaching at the primary level should be undertaken by generalist teachers, the argument for the provision of musically-qualified teachers to ensure that music teaching takes place loses creditability; • The frequently referred to ‘over-crowded curriculum’ at the primary school level which has seen the introduction of new curriculum areas such as mandatory LOTE or Information Technology has resulted in less time being available for class music teaching. In addition, the inclusion of five art forms (or strands) instead of the traditional two (Music and Visual Art) has resulted not only in a further decline in the available time for teaching music but has had repercussions for teacher education where many institutions have felt compelled to broaden the range of arts areas to their arts curriculum study (http://www.mca.org.au/StevensDocs.pdf, pp.174-175).
The current situation in New South Wales from the perspective of generalist primary teacher preparation is that, there is little chance that primary teachers will be capable of implementing music curriculum in their classrooms. The teachers’ expertise in music depend on their musical qualifications, musical training and experience in teaching music.
193 Aim of the study In this chapter, I investigate the existing position of musically trained and untrained teachers involved in the teaching of music in NSW and the teachers’ perceptions of the importance of pre-service and in-service training. As well I investigate the different problems related to repertoire suggestions. For these I used a questionnaire, which is designed to inquire into the specific situation in NSW and is aimed at primary school teachers. The analysis of written statements and teachers’ responses will also provide insight into both the intent and the potential results of the application of the Creative Arts Syllabus K-6.
Questionnaire design The questionnaire contained measures designed to examine teachers’ responses to the following: involvement in teaching different kinds of musical activities; problems related to repertoire suggestions; beliefs about teaching opportunities at school (including staff support and in-service training; school resources); beliefs about musical opportunities for children at school; and, beliefs about the Creative Arts Syllabus K- 6 and teachers’ involvement in using it for teaching.
To investigate these issues, the nine-page questionnaire was designed with three sections: A (About you); B (What music do you use in your teaching); and C (About your school). It consisted of 28 main items, most of which are reported here. 8 items required participants to respond using 1± 7 rating scales on which 1 represented the low end of the scale and 7 represented a corresponding high point. There were 17 items which involved categorical responses (e.g., “Have you had any musical training?”), and frequency responses (e.g., “How long have you been playing your major instrument”).
Part A Part A (About you) contained four questions about independent variables. These included: 1) the teachers age; 2) gender; 3) qualifications, such as BEd with music specialty, BEd without a music specialty, Music Degree, Music Diploma, and other where teachers were asked to specify; 4) musical training where teachers were asked to rate their ability as performers, including high, moderate, basic and poor. The next two questions were dependent variables. They were: 5) whether or not they felt
194 confident teaching music, where participants were asked to comment further their answers; 6) how challenging they found a number of teaching tasks. Participants were then presented with a list of teaching tasks. These included: teaching performing, organising sound, listening, planning lessons; making performing repertoire suggestions, listening to repertoire suggestions, links to other key learning areas; finding appropriate vocabulary; maintaining classroom organisation, including students behaviour; and assessing students progress. Teachers were asked to rate how challenging they found a particular task. A total score was used which allowed an estimation of the degree of difficulty for teachers of the different teaching activities.
Question number 7 was about how likely they were to be engaged in the teaching of the 17 following items : performing pitched instruments (eg. keyboard, guitar, flute, etc.); performing unpitched instruments (eg. percussion instruments); singing known songs; singing new songs; moving or dancing to music; experimenting with sounds; imitating sounds; improvising; arranging; composing; making graphic scores; making scores in staff notation; listening activities; discussions about music; musical concepts (eg. pitch, duration, dynamics, tone colour, structure); how to read music; computer music. The participants were asked to rate the extent to which taught each item. This allowed for the investigation of their involvement in teaching different kinds of musical activities.
The additional three questions (No. 8, 9 and 10) investigated whether participants played musical instruments and if so, what ones. There was a list of four musical instrument groups: keyboard, string, brass and percussion. Those who played musical instruments were asked to specify how long they had been playing their major instrument. They were then asked how long they had been playing starting with less than a year and ending with more than 5 years. Participants who played musical instruments were also asked about the amount a week they usually spent playing an instrument. These included: less than 1 hour; 2-3 hours (30 minutes per day); 4-6 hours; 7-10 hours (60 minutes per day); and more than 10 hours. These questions were designed to estimate the level of teacher’s involvement in music.
Question number 11 (Have you been an organiser, conductor or teacher of any musical groups at school or outside school?) It was also asked respondents to specify
195 from the following: school orchestra; orchestra outside school; school wind or brass group; wind or brass band outside school; school choir; and choir outside school. This question was included into the questionnaire to estimate their ability to conduct musical groups.
Question number 12 (How long have you been teaching music?) had frequency responses such as 1 – 5, 6 – 10, 11 – 15 years and 16 or more. This allowed investigation of their experience in teaching music. In question number 13 (What other subjects do you teach?) participants were asked to specify as follows: primary subjects, drama, dance, visual arts, none of the above and other. The question number 14 was about the type of employment as a music teacher, part-time or full-time.
The last question in the part A was “Do you think your training, as a teacher, was adequate to enable you to teach music?” Participants were also asked to explain their answers in the provided space.
Part B In the part B (What music do you use in your teaching?), teachers were asked to specify composers’ and performers’ names and their works in the space provided. This contained three parts: 1) music of different times and places, such as Medieval, Renaissance, baroque, classical, nineteenth-century music, art music of the 20th and 21st centuries; 2) music of contemporary styles and genres, such as music for children, World Music, popular and country music, hard rock, folk-rock, heavy metal, acid, rap, thrash, jazz, music for radio, film, television and multimedia, music of a culture, music for small ensembles, music for large ensembles; and other; and 3) and Australian music, such as Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander contemporary music, Australian composers and their works, Australian jazz, Australian popular and rock music (country and western, hard rock, folk-rock, heavy metal, acid, jazz-rock, thrash, rap and grunge) and other.
The final question number 4 in part B was “How much do you think the selection of the music repertoire for classroom use depends on…” Participants were presented with a list of 21 possible items and asked to rate the extent to which each applied to them. These items were: availability of music sources at school; availability of music
196 sources in teacher’s private collection; cost of the sources; thematic links to other subjects; students’ likes and dislikes; the school’s preferences; examples from the syllabus; repertoire used by other teachers; popularity of the repertoire; classical examples of children’s music (eg. nursery songs); students’ skill and previous experience in music; annual/ biannual events, eg. Anzac Day; teacher’s personal preferences; parents’ preferences and/or suggestions; teacher’s experience with teaching music; level of difficulty of the repertoire; students’ age group; students’ social background; students’ ethnic background; and students’ gender. This allowed investigation of problems and issues which are related to repertoire suggestions.
Part C Finally, participants were presented with part C (About your school). The three questions in this part were independent variables. They were: 1) post code of your school; 2) type of school, public or religious; 3) size of school (number of students) where teachers were asked to choose from 6 items, such as 0-99, 100-199, 200-299, 300-399, 400-499, and 500 and over. This allowed estimation of the number of students involved in this study.
The next two questions were about adequacy of music facilities, equipment, the teaching materials. Question number 4 (How much do you think…) presented respondents with a list of eleven items. These include: Your school has sufficient teaching staff to meet the demands of the music curriculum? Your school has sufficient time in the timetable? Your school has support staff with qualifications and experience to meet the demands of the music curriculum? Your school has a combination of teachers, specialising in one or more art forms supporting classroom teachers? Staff meetings at your school can be helpful in fulfilling demands of the music curriculum? In-service training in music is adequate? Your school would be attractive to qualified teachers to teach music at your school? It would be helpful to have a ready repertoire list for music lessons? It would be helpful to have the sequence of developed music lessons? It would be helpful to make use of units developed by other educational or commercial authorities? Being qualified to teach music is essential? Question number 5 (How much do you think your school provides resources for teaching music based on…) used 6 following items: computer software; video recordings; audio recordings; electronic instruments; traditional instruments;
197 and books and written resources. In both questions, the participants were asked to give their opinion. This allowed for the investigation of the teachers’ opinions of the importance of pre-service and in-service training as well as their potential wishes regarding teaching facilities, equipment, teaching materials.
The next two questions were about teachers’ beliefs about student benefits when learning music and students’ perception of the Creative Arts Syllabus K-6. There were 3 items in question 6 (How much do you think students would benefit if…): the teacher plays a musical instrument when teaching music; music is taught by a qualified teacher; music is considered to its own subject area. As well as, 6 items in question 7 (Do you think children find music within K-6 Creative Arts Syllabus): stimulating; challenging; not challenging; difficult; or too easy.
The last two questions in part C were about teachers’ perception of the Creative Arts Syllabus K-6. Question number 8 (How much do you follow K-6 Creative Arts Syllabus in your teaching?) asked the participants to rate the extent to which each applied to them. In question number 9 (About Arts Syllabus) they were asked to comment the following 4 items: What parts of K-6 Creative Arts Syllabus do you find too easy and why? What parts do you find too difficult and why? What parts do you agree with and why? What parts do you disagree with and why? This allowed insight into both the intent and the potential results of the application of the Creative Arts Syllabus K-6 (Refer to a copy of the questionnaire in the Appendix A).
By asking these questions it was expected that the survey could result in following outcomes:
1. Male/female teachers working in public schools may hold more positive views and be more confident in teaching music than teachers working in Catholic schools.
2. The teachers with/ without musical qualifications working in public schools may hold more positive views and be more confident in teaching music than teachers working in Catholic schools.
198 3. The teachers with/ without musical training working in public schools may hold more positive views and be more confident in teaching music than teachers working in Catholic schools.
4. Younger/older teachers working in public schools may hold more positive views and be more confident in teaching music than teachers working in Catholic schools.
5. Younger/older teachers working in public schools may hold more positive views on the importance of pre-service and in-service training than teachers working in Catholic schools.
6. Younger/older teachers working in public schools may find the majority of teaching tasks easier than teachers working in Catholic schools.
7. The public /Catholic school teachers may select a different musical repertoire for classroom use depending on different aspects which affect their choice.
8. The public/ Catholic school teachers may be more innovative not only in the use of pedagogical equipment, but also in initiating didactical practice in general.
9. There may be not much difference between teachers from public/ Catholic schools in their attitude to the teaching of music and their perception of the Creative Arts Syllabus K-6.
Research Procedure All items of the questionnaire were tested by the Ethic Approval Committee to ensure that the questions were comprehensible and unambiguous to the teachers and were approved (Ethics Approval No. 04 2 080 dated by 14 September, 2004). Then, the Ethics Approval letters together with applications to conduct research and lists of the participating schools were sent to the Department of Education and Training (DET) and to the Catholic Education Office (CEO), in the Archdiocese of Sydney. Both applications were approved. The approval from the DET had a number 04.168 and remained valid until 28th of September, 2005. Permission from the CEO was dated by
199 22nd of September, 2004. This allowed me to contact the principals of the nominated schools to seek their participation. It was also advised that there was the prerogative of any principal whom I might approach to decline my invitation to be involved in the study or to withdraw from involvement at any time.
I began by contacting the Catholic and public primary school principals in NSW and asking them to participate. Of those who agreed to participate, I selected schools that covered a range of socioeconomic backgrounds and 200 surveys were sent to teachers who are engaged in teaching music. The Survey Questionnaire of Primary School Teachers in NSW together with letters to the primary school principals, copies of Ethics Approval and the letters of permission from the DET or CEO was distributed to teachers in November 2004. Participants were informed that they would remain anonymous throughout, and that their responses would be completely confidential. The questionnaire required approximately 15 minutes to complete. Primary school teachers were asked to volunteer to complete the questionnaire. This resulted in 18 (42.9%) of public and 24 (57.1%) of religious schools responding, with total of 42 teachers’ responses. I have received forty two responses out of two hundred survey copies. This was a return rate of 21%. A comparison of primary school music teacher qualifications and professional view points was carried out.
It was impossible to investigate what kind of music is taught in music lessons. Only a few (4) teachers responded to the question “What music do you use in your teaching” in part B and most of them did not specify the composers’ or performers’ names and works. There may be a few reasons why the teachers did not indicate any musical examples. These may include: there is no time to fill the survey in; there is only the music created by children in music lessons; there are not enough music resources available in schools; students do not like music that the teachers use; and there are no examples in syllabus so teachers do not know what to choose and use.
200 Chapter 5
Analysis of the primary school teachers’ survey
This chapter has four parts. These parts are: 1) results which were taken out of both Catholic and public schools; 2) results from the public school participants; and 3) results from the Catholic school participants.
Public and Catholic schools
Overall, 112 Catholic schools were contacted and it was revealed that 20.5% (23) of these schools do not have music lessons at all. The situation in the public school sector was that in the 112 schools contacted there were no music lessons in 32.1% (36) of the schools. It appears, from these data, that the NSW public school sector follows the notion expressed by Butts and Cremin (1953). They pointed out that one of the reasons for the failure of public education in general is that it has “a curriculum full of frills like art and music which detracted from teaching of the essentials” (pp. 386-387).
Age The age range was from 20 (minimum) to 50 (maximum) years old. The mean age of all participating primary teachers (N=42) was 32 years old. The teachers who were confident in teaching music (N=24) were 35 years old on average. The teachers who were not confident in teaching music (N=18) were 29 years old on average.
Gender There were 4 (9.5%) responses from male teachers and 38 (90.5%) from female teachers. The four male teachers all said they were confident in teaching music. Teachers who were confident in teaching music (N=24) consisted of 4 males and 20 females, while those who were not confident (N=18) were all females.
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Qualifications The responses revealed that 7 (16.7%) teachers have musical qualification and 35 (83.3%) out of 42 teachers did not have any musical qualifications. All 7 teachers with music qualification said they were confident in teaching music.
The Pie Chart No. 5.1 (Music Qualification and Confidence) shows that the responses by the other 35 responses from teachers without music qualification were mixed; 17 felt confident and 18 did not feel confident teaching music.
Pie Chart 5.1 No Music Qualification and Confidence
Confident Teaching Music 18 17 Not Confident Teaching Music
Musical training Descriptive statistics of the musical training reveal that 24 teachers had musical training while 18 teachers did not. The 24 teachers with musical training rated their performance ability as follows: 5 high, 7 moderate, 7 basic and 5 poor. The Pie Chart No. 5.2 (Musical Training and Confidence) shows the effect of musical training on confidence in teaching music. Among the teachers who had musical training, 19 teachers were confident in teaching music while 5 teachers were not.
202 Pie Chart 5.2 Musical Training and Confidence
5 Confident Teaching Music Not Confident 19 Teaching Music
The Pie Chart No. 5.3 (No Musical Training and Confidence) shows that among the 18 teachers, who did not have musical training, only 5 teachers were confident in teaching music, while the majority, 13, were not.
Pie Chart 5.3. No Musical Training and Confidence
5 Confident Teaching Music Not Confident Teaching 13 Music
In response to the question of whether teacher training was adequate to enable the teaching of music, 24 (57.1%) teachers responded positively but 18 (42.9%) teachers gave a negative response.
Of those teachers who felt their training was adequate, some teachers believe that they can teach music only on a basic level. Their responses can be summarised as follows: I think training gave a good variety of activities; only at a very basic and emergent level; enough to teach primary, no more; to teach the basics. Some teachers wish to receive further musical qualifications but have some problems with getting further qualifications. Their comments included the following: they would like a music degree but can’t afford it; they would like a broad coverage of subject matter which was very expansive; some researched their own discipline methods and developed their own teaching style; some feel more knowledge given in the teaching,
203 programming and assessing at university would be useful; some believe that their teaching and musical qualification are adequate to enable them to teach music. One of their comments was “A Diploma in Teaching and a Diploma in Performing were the basis for confidence in teaching”.
Most of the teachers who believe that their training was not adequate to enable them to teach music commented as follows: I have only a little training; my music training was less than twenty hours; we only ever did two units of music over two years i.e. two semesters over four years; it would have been more beneficial to look at planning music units and learning practical skills; I had one subject at university that covered music and visual arts so I wasn’t prepared well enough to teach music; and, the basic BEd Degree barely touches on it; I am primarily relying on my own knowledge and experience and will do further study to allow me to teach music with more finesse. Many teachers who have musical training, however, believe that experience and playing musical instruments will provide confidence in teaching music. Their comments include the following: I have no experience because I just graduated in 2003 and do not feel I could teach music confidently; if I did not have musical knowledge from learning an instrument, I would have no understanding of how to read and write musical scores or fully understand many musical concepts; and, most of my initial training and confidence came from teaching in a school that used the Kodaly Program in the 1980s; I have explored and blended other programs into syllabus requirements.
Confidence in teaching music In response to the question about confidence in teaching music 18 (42.9%) of teachers said that they do not feel confident but 24 (57.1%) did feel confident teaching music. The following are comments from those who said they did not feel confident: training was long time ago; I have no training in music; cannot play any instrument; I do not know enough theory. I can teach only basic rhythm and songs; I don’t feel I’ve had enough training in how to teach music; I do not have experience; I don’t feel I know enough about it, to teach it, I can’t play a musical instrument, read music or sing in tune; I find it difficult to understand musical notation; I enjoy teaching music, but not sure if I am doing it correctly; I do not feel I have had adequate training to competently teach music; I do not feel confident because of different terms used in
204 music; I feel limited in my knowledge and ability. Thus, many teachers do not feel confident because they did not have any musical training or their musical training was long time ago. Some teachers do not play musical instruments and do not know musical theory to be confident enough to teach music.
Teachers’ who felt confident commented as follows: I have a basic understanding so I can use this in my teaching; I feel confident as I am allowed to teach a program specific to the needs of those students at my school; I feel confident in teaching the basics in Early Stage One and Stage One but I have difficulties with kindergarten; I feel very confident due to my experience and qualifications but more quality primary music teaching resources would help develop confidence; I was well trained at uni and have had plenty of experience since; confident with teaching songs, dance and percussion but not a musical instrument; I try to maintain communication with the student own sense of music and use that as the starting point for development. Their interest helps me to expand their musical horizon. Thus, a number of teachers feel confident to teach music because of experience and qualifications received during training. However, some teachers feel confident teaching only a certain age group but have difficulties with others. Some teachers also believe that playing musical instruments will increase their confidence in teaching music.
The teachers’ responses to the question of what are the most challenging teaching tasks show that Mean of Total scores of challenging experiences data were 3.64 (out of 7). That is, the average response to the questions regarding challenging experiences was “Not sure”.
The effects of age on perceptions of challenging experiences In the computation of relationships between perceptions of challenging experiences and age 42 observations were used. The question used a 7-point rating scale ranging from 1 (finding teaching easy) to 7 (finding teaching very challenging and difficult). Thus, the low total scores of this question means teachers find teaching music easy. Older teachers perceived the teaching tasks easy, while younger teachers perceived the teaching tasks difficult. And the correlation between their perceptions of challenging experiences and age was significant at p< .05 level: r = -.296. Thus, the negative correlation coefficient of r = -.296 means older teachers showed low scores meaning
205 “finding the tasks easy” while younger teachers showed higher scores meaning “finding the tasks difficult”.
The effects of gender on perceptions of challenging experiences Since there are only 4 males among the teachers from primary schools, the effects of gender could not be computed on perceptions of challenging experiences. For the same reason, the effects of gender on the other dependent variables will not be computed either.
The effects of music qualification on perceptions of challenging experiences There are 7 teachers with music qualification among the 42 teachers from primary schools. The 7-point rating scale ranging from 1 (finding teaching easy) to 7 (finding teaching very challenging and difficult) shows that 7 teachers with music qualification perceived the teaching tasks easy, while teachers without music qualification perceived the teaching tasks difficult. And the correlation between their perceptions of challenging experiences and age was significant at p< .05 level: r = -.565. Thus, the negative correlation coefficient of r = -.565 means teachers with music qualification showed low scores meaning “finding the tasks easy” while teachers without music qualification showed higher scores meaning “finding the tasks difficult”.
The Bar Chart No. 5.1 (Teaching Tasks and Challenges) presents teaching tasks that are most challenging for teachers. All teachers were asked to rate each of the ten teaching tasks below in a 7-point scale from (1) not very much to (7) a lot. The three most challenging teaching tasks were: 1) teaching organising sound/composing, 2) making performing repertoire suggestions and 3) teaching performing. The three easiest teaching tasks were: 1) maintaining classroom organisation, including students’ behaviour, 2) teaching listening and 3) making links to other key learning areas.21
21 Note: the lowest number, not the highest number, in the bar chart represents the most frequently used musical activities.
206 Bar Chart 5.1 Teaching Tasks and Challenges
A6-10 A6-9 A6-8 A6-7 A6-6 A6-5 A6-4 A6-3 A6-2 A6-1
01234567 Mean Scores
Legend A 6-1 Teaching performing A 6-2 Teaching organising sound/ composing A 6-3 Teaching listening A 6-4 Planning lessons A 6-5 Making performing repertoire suggestions A 6-6 Making listening repertoire suggestions A 6-7 Making links to other subjects/ key learning areas A 6-8 Finding appropriate vocabulary A 6-9 Maintaining classroom organisation, including students’ behaviour A 6-10 Assessing/ evaluating students’ progress
7-point rating scales ranging from 1 (most likely) to 7 (least likely) were used in the study of 17 items of how likely are teachers to be engaged in teaching of different types of activities. Thus, smaller numbers indicated the likeliness of teaching the relevant musical activities. Teachers’ responses to the question on whether they are more likely to be engaged in teaching performing pitched instruments (e.g.., keyboard, guitar, flute, etc) revealed that 24 teachers out 42 do not use pitched instruments such as keyboard, guitar, flute, etc., while 11 teachers said they use them frequently. The mean score of
207 4.95 showed that the teachers are less likely to use pitched instruments.22 The mean of the scores for this question was 2.24 (out of 7), which showed that the teachers were likely to use unpitched percussion instruments 29 teachers said that they use unpitched percussions frequently, while 3 teachers said they rarely use unpitched percussions.
There were two questions about teaching singing and singing known and unknown songs. The mean of the scores for the first question was 1.71, which showed that most teachers are likely to sing known songs in teaching music. 35 teachers said that they frequently sing known songs to students in music classes, and only 1 teacher was not likely to sing known songs in teaching music. The mean of the scores for the second question was 2.19, which showed that most teachers are likely to sing new songs in teaching music in primary schools. 29 teachers said that they frequently sing new songs in teaching music, while 2 teachers were not likely to sing new songs in teaching music. Analysis of the question about the teaching of moving or dancing to music resulted in a mean of 2.00. This showed that most teachers are likely to do moving and dancing in teaching music. 30 teachers said they do moving and dancing in music classes, and only 2 teachers said they do
The mean of the scores for the question about teaching imitating sounds was 3.12. This showed that imitating sounds is done fairly frequently in music lessons in primary schools. 16 teachers said they frequently do imitating sounds; 22 teachers said they sometimes do it; and 5 teachers are unlikely to do it.
Questions about the teaching of different types of creative activities in music lessons in primary schools included experimenting with sounds, improvising, arranging and composing. The mean of the scores for this question was 2.88. This showed that experimenting with sounds is done fairly frequently in the primary school music classes. 22 teachers said they frequently do experimenting with sounds; 14 teachers in sometimes do it; 6 teachers hardly do it. Next, improvising is done frequently in music lessons. The mean of the scores for the question was 3.14. 22 out of 42 teachers said
22 This question in the questionnaire did not include the Orff pitched bar instruments, which are commonly used in primary music classrooms. However, because the Orff pitched bar instruments were not included in the examples given for pitched instruments, the participating teachers might not consider them for the question.
208 they frequently do improvising and 7 teachers are most unlikely to do it. Then, 18 teachers out of 42 said they are less likely to do arranging and 9 teachers said that they do it frequently. The mean of the scores for arranging was 4.60, which showed that teachers are less likely to teach arranging in music lessons in primary schools. Analysis of teaching composing resulted in a mean of 4.76. This showed that teachers are less likely to do composing in music lessons in primary schools. Of 42 teachers, 18 said they do not do composing in music classes and 9 teachers said that they do it frequently.
There were two questions about teaching making scores, making graphic scores and making scores in staff notation. The mean of the scores for the question was 4.83, which showed that teachers are less likely to do making graphic scores in music lessons in primary schools. Of 42 teachers, 21 said they do not do making graphic scores in music classes. 8 teachers said that they do it frequently. The mean of the scores for the question about making scores in staff notation was 5.10, which showed that teachers are less likely to do making scores in staff notation in music lessons in primary schools. Of 42 teachers, 22 said they do not do making scores in staff notation in music classes and only 4 teachers said that they do it frequently.
Computation of the mean of the scores for teaching listening activities was 2.48, which showed that most teachers are likely to do listening in teaching music. 26 teachers said they do listening in music classes and only 1 teacher said that he or she hardly does it.
Teachers’ responses showed that they are more likely to teach discussions about music in music lessons in primary schools. The mean of the scores for the question was 2.95, which showed that 21 teachers said they frequently do discussions about music, 16 do it fairly frequently; and 5 teachers are most unlikely to do it.
The Mean score of 3.31 showed that teachers teach musical concepts (eg. pitch, duration, dynamics, tone colour, structure) in fairly frequently. 20 teachers said that they are more likely to teach musical concepts, 11 teachers teach it fairly frequently; and, 11 teachers said they hardly do it.
209 Teachers are less likely to teach how to read music in music lessons in primary schools. The mean of the scores for the question was 4.45. Of 42 teachers, 20 said they hardly do it in music classes, 5 teachers said they do it fairly frequently; and 11 teachers said that they do not do it frequently.
Teachers are also less likely to teach computer music in music lessons in primary schools. The mean of the scores for the question was 6.21, which showed that 32 teachers out of 42 said they do not do it in music classes. 9 teachers said that they do it fairly frequently.
The Bar Chart No. 5.2 (Frequency of Musical Activities) shows what musical activities are teachers are likely to use in teaching music in primary schools. It visually presents which of the 17 questions about musical activities are more likely to be used by the teachers in teaching music in primary schools.23 The three most frequently used musical activities in primary music classes are: 1) moving or dancing to music, 2) singing known songs, and 3) performing unpitched instruments, for example percussion instruments. The next frequently used musical activities are: 4) listening activities, 5) discussions about music and 6) musical concepts, for example pitch, duration, dynamics, tone colour and structure.
23 Note: The lowest number, not the highest number, in the Bar Chart represents the most frequently used musical activities.
210 Bar Chart 5.2 Frequency of Musical Activities
A7-17 A7-16 A7-15 A7-14 A7-13 A7-12 A7-11 A7-10 A7-9 A7-8 A7-7 A7-6 A7-5 A7-4 A7-3 A7-2 A7-1
01234567 Mean Scores
Legend A7-1 Performing pitched instruments (eg. keyboard, guitar, flute, etc.) A7-2 Performing unpitched instruments (eg. percussion instruments) A7-3 Singing known songs A7-4 Singing new songs A7-5 Moving or dancing to music A7-6 Experimenting with sounds A7-7 Imitating sounds A7-8 Improvising A7-9 Arranging A7-10 Composing A7-11 Making graphic scores A7-12 Making scores in staff notation A7-13 Listening activities A7-14 Discussions about music A7-15 Musical concepts (eg. pitch, duration, dynamics, tone colour, structure) A7-16 How to read music A7-17 Computer music
211
There were 23 (54.8%) teachers who said they played musical instruments and 19 (45.2%) teachers who did not play any musical instrument. The mean for the number of years for playing a major musical instrument by the teachers who said they play a musical instrument is 5.81. 21 teachers played a major musical instrument more than 5 years and 1 teacher had been playing a major musical instrument for 2 years. Among the teachers who played musical instruments 7 out of 42 primary teachers said they practise for less than one hour per week, and 14 teachers said they practise one hour per week. 4 teachers practise playing a musical instrument for two hours and 4 teachers said that they practise for four hours or more per week.
The data show that 19 out of 42 teachers said they have been an organiser, conductor or teacher of music performance groups either in or out of school.
Of 35 received responses to the question, about how long they had been teaching music, 17 teachers had been teaching in schools from one to five years, 8 teachers from six to ten years and 10 teachers for more than 11years.
Many teachers teach primary and/ or other creative arts subjects as well as music. Five teachers teach dance, drama and visual arts as well as primary subjects in schools. Of 42 teachers, 21 teach primary subjects in primary schools. Together with primary subjects, 10 teachers teach drama, 11 teachers teach dance, and 6 teachers teach visual arts.
There were 20 responses to the question on employment. Of them, 17 teachers have part-time and 3 teachers have full-time employment. Of the 33 teachers who teach the primary school subjects in primary schools, 3 teachers have full-time employment and 11 teachers have part-time employment.
Of 42 teachers, 27 think that their teacher training was not adequate to enable them to teach music in primary schools, and only 15 teachers think that their teacher training was adequate for it.
The Bar Chart No. 5.3 (Selection of Music Repertoire) shows the ratings that teachers gave for each of the aspects that affect the selection of music repertoire for teaching
212 music in classrooms. All teachers were asked to rate each of the 21 aspects suggested in this question on a 7 point scale from (1) not very much to (7) a lot. The total score is used to draw graphs to identify which aspects affected the selection of musical repertoire for teaching music in classrooms. The three most important aspects were: 1) availability of music resources at school, 2) students’ age group, and 3) the teacher’s experience with teaching music. The next three important aspects were: 4) cost of the resources, 5) the teacher’s personal preferences, and 6) the level of difficulty of the repertoire.
Bar Chart 5.3. Selection of Music Repertoire
B4-21 B4-20 B4-19 B4-18 B4-17 B4-16 B4-15 B4-14 B4-13 B4-12 B4-11 B4-10 B4-9 B4-8 B4-7 B4-6 B4-5 B4-4 B4-3 B4-2 B4-1
01234567 Mean Scores
Legend B4-1 Availability of music resources at school B4-2 Availability of music resources in teacher’s private collection B4-3 Cost of the resources B4-4 Thematic links to other subjects B4-5 Thematic links with other art forms B4-6 Students’ likes and dislikes B4-7 The school’s preferences
213 B4-8 Examples from the syllabus B4-9 Repertoire used by other teachers B4-10 Popularity of the repertoire B4-11 Classical examples of children’s music (eg. Nursery songs) B4-12 Students’ skill and previous experience in music B4-13 Annual/biannual events, eg. Anzac Day etc. B4-14 Teacher’s personal preferences B4-15 Parents’ preferences and/or suggestions B4-16 Teacher’s experience with teaching music B4-17 Level of difficulty of the repertoire B4-18 Students’ age group B4-19 Students’ social background B4-20 Students’ ethnic background B4-21 Students’ gender
Teachers in this study teach in public and Catholic primary schools. Of the 42 primary schools, 13 schools have student numbers of 500 and over, 7 schools have about 400, 6 schools have about 300, 4 schools have about 200 and 12 schools have about 100 students.
The Bar Chart No. 5.4 (Schooling and Teaching) shows teachers’ opinions about their schools and teaching. All participants were asked to rate their opinions on a 7-point scale from (1) not very much to (7) a lot. The results show that in-service teacher training in music is inadequate (2.5 point out of 7). Other recommendations are: 1) to have support staff with qualifications and experience to meet the demands of the music curriculum, 2) to have staff meetings at school which can be helpful in fulfilling demands of the music curriculum and 3) to have sufficient teaching staff to meet the demands of the music curriculum. The teachers’ strong wishes (6 points out of 7) are: 1) to have a ready repertoire list of music lessons, 2) to have a sequence of developed music lessons and 3) to make use of units developed by other education authorities or units developed commercially.
214 Bar Chart 5.4 Shooling and Teaching
C4-11 C4-10 C4-9 C4-8 C4-7 C4-6 C4-5 C4-4 C4-3 C4-2 C4-1
01234567 Mean Scores
Legend C4-1 Your school has sufficient teaching staff to meet the demands of the music curriculum? C4-2 Your school has sufficient time in the timetable? C4-3 Your school has support staff with qualifications and experience to meet the demands of the music curriculum? C4-4 Your school has a combination of teachers, specialising in one or more art forms supporting classroom teachers? C4-5 Staff meetings at your school can be helpful in fulfilling demands of the music curriculum? C4-6 In-service training in music is adequate? C4-7 Your school would be attractive to qualified teachers to teach music at your school? C4-8 It would be helpful to have a ready repertoire list for music lessons? C4-9 It would be helpful to have the sequence of developed music lessons? C4-10 It would be helpful to make use of units developed by other educational authorities or to have commercially developed units? C4-11 Being qualified to teach music is essential?
Teachers’ responses to the question about how much their school provides resources (computer software, video and audio recordings, electronic and traditional instruments, and books and written resources) for teaching music showed that the school’s teaching resources were moderate. The mean of total resources was 3.15 point out of 7. The Bar
215 Chart No. 5 (School Support and Teaching Resources) shows that the three lowest-level teaching resources were: 1) computer software, 2) video recordings and 3) electronic instruments. Audio recordings, traditional instruments, books and written resources were in the medium to low level support group.
Bar Chart 5. School Support and Teaching resourses
C 5-6 C 5-5 C 5-4 C 5-3 C 5-2 C 5-1
01234567 Mean Scores
Legend C 5-1 Computer software? C 5-2 Video recordings? C 5-3 Audio recordings? C 5-4 Electronic instruments? C 5-5 Traditional instruments? C 5-6 Books and written resources?
The teachers’ responses, which are presented in the Bar Chart No. 5.6 (Benefits for Students) showed that music teaching in primary schools can benefit students as follows: 1) if the teacher plays a musical instrument when teaching music; 2) if music is taught by a qualified music teacher; and 3) if music is considered as an independent school subject. The means of the responses were around 6 points out of 7 and total mean that is mean of the means for each question, was 5.87.
216 Bar Chart 5.6 Benefits for Students
Mean -C6 C6-3 C6-2 C6-1
01234567 Mean Scores
Legend C6-1 The teacher plays a musical instrument when teaching music? C6-2 Music is taught by a qualified teacher? C6-3 Music is considered to be on its own subject area? Mean -C6 Total Mean score
Of 42 teachers, 35 responded to the question about their opinion on music within K-6 Creative Arts Syllabus and 7 did not. Of them, 23 teachers said their students find music classes within K-6 Creative Arts Syllabus stimulating, 10 teachers said their students find music classes challenging, 8 teachers said that music within K-6 Creative Arts Syllabus is not challenging for students, 9 teachers believed that it is difficult and 2 teachers thought that it is easy.
Teachers also expressed their opinions on the K-6 Creative Arts Syllabus. Overall, many teachers complained that the “content is brief”, “there are not enough art music examples”, “implications for teaching and learning are very simply outlined but with no specific examples of resources to use to support the outcomes”, and “the units of work do not lead directly to desired outcomes so I use the outcome to derive own activities”. Many teachers find some parts of K-6 Creative Arts Syllabus too easy. Other comments are: I feel the curriculum does not challenge either the teacher or the student; the syllabus is a bit boring, students are more engaged in simple lessons rather than challenging ones; some of the units of work do not promote challenging tasks particularly for those (children) with strength in this area; and listening activities could be more specific and challenging.
217 Many teachers find some parts of the Creative Arts Syllabus K-6 too difficult. One part is content. There is too much content. The syllabus should be simple with one or two activities per lesson that are interesting and teach students basic concepts, for example rhythm, melody, listening. Another is composition. Composition in Stage 3 is rather challenging for many children whose only experience of musical study is as part of the curriculum. Children have difficulty composing songs etc when they have so little exposure to music. Composition is a challenge at the K-2 level). Another is outcomes. The outcomes are too wordy and contain too much for art and not enough for music. Another is Units of Work. I don’t think the “Units of Work” in the syllabus are interesting or challenging. I find the Musica Viva Program (Dep. Ed.) is fantastic. It is outcomes based but with great practical ideas, that are challenging and fun, culminating in a concert. Some teachers find it too difficult fitting music in with all the other subjects in the Key Learning Area (drama, dance and visual art) because there is not enough time to implement the activities in the curriculum. Some teachers see music in the syllabus as “a complicated subject but described only a little in depth” because the Creative Arts Syllabus K-6 does not “provide a CD music resource” nor “explicit details” for teachers.
Some teachers agree with the basic ideas and with some parts of syllabus. These include developing students’ skills in a variety of forms. The outcomes are broad enough to allow for a variety of activities and techniques, to be implemented. Teachers agree with the emphasis on experimentation and listening because teachers need freedom to find the best way to teach their pupils. Some like the scope and non- specifics so they can teach as broadly as they like and still fulfil the curriculum requirements and some like the explanations and definitions for the terminology for each of the performing arts.. However, some teachers think that “resources need to be updated, web sites need to be available to music teachers, and music courses should be offered”.
Many teachers disagree with some parts of Creative Arts Syllabus K-6, for example, composing and performing. Teachers’ comments on these are “the performing and organising sound can be very difficult if one’s only experience of musical learning is forty mins once a week (if lucky)”. Some teachers criticise the syllabus for its “integration for the sake of integration”.
218 The primary teachers’ responses to the question, whether they follow K-6 Creative Arts Syllabus, were in the moderate frequency range. The mean=3.67 on a 7-point rating scale, ranging from (1) not very much to (7) a lot. The results revealed that 13 teachers follow K-6 Creative Arts Syllabus rigorously, while 11 teachers do not follow it strictly.
Public schools This point of the analysis is on public schools. There are18 teachers. Of the 18 public schools, 6 schools have student numbers of 500 and over and 4 schools have about 400.
Age The age range in public schools was from 20 (minimum) to 50 (maximum) years old. The mean age of the participating primary teachers in public schools (N=18) was 31 years old. The teachers who were confident in teaching music (N=9) were 28 years old on average.
Gender There were 2 responses from male teachers and 16 from female teachers. The two male teachers said they were confident in teaching music. Teachers who were confident in teaching music (N=9) consisted of 2 males and 7 females, while those who were not confident (N=9) were all females.
Qualifications The responses showed that 17 out of the 18 teachers did not have music qualifications. The teacher with a music qualification was confident in teaching music. Responses from the other teachers without music qualifications were mixed.
Musical training The descriptive statistics of musical training revealed that 8 teachers had musical training while 10 teachers did not have musical training. Of the 10 teachers with musical training rated their performance ability as follows 1 high, 2 moderate, 6 basic and 1 poor.
219 The Pie Chart No. 5.4 (Musical Training and Confidence) shows the effect of musical training on confidence in teaching music. Of the teachers who had musical training, 6 teachers were confident in teaching music, while 2 were not.
Pie Chart 5.4 Musical Training and Confidence
2 Confident Teaching Music Not Confident Teaching 6 Music
The Pie Chart No. 5 (No Musical Training and Confidence) shows that of the 10 teachers, who did not have musical training, only 3 teachers were confident in teaching music, while the majority, 7, were not.
Pie Chart 5. No Musical Training and Confidence
Confident 3 Teaching Music Not Confident Teaching 7 Music
The teachers’ responses to the question of what are the most challenging teaching tasks show that the mean of total scores of challenging experiences data collected from public schools were 3.64 (out of 7). That is, the average response to the questions regarding challenging experiences was “Not sure”.
The effects of age on perceptions of challenging experiences 18 observations were used in the computation of relationships between perceptions of challenging experiences and age. The question used a 7-point rating scale ranging from 1 finding teaching easy to 7 finding teaching very challenging and difficult. Thus, low
220 total scores of this question mean teachers find teaching music easy. Older teachers perceived the teaching tasks as easy, while younger teachers perceived the teaching tasks as difficult. And the correlation between their perceptions of challenging experiences and age was significant at p< .05 level: r = -.492. Thus, the negative correlation coefficient of r = -.492 means older teachers showed low scores meaning “finding the tasks easy” while younger teachers showed higher scores meaning “finding the tasks difficult”.
The effects of gender on perceptions of challenging experiences Since there are only 2 males among the teachers from public primary schools, the effects of gender could not be computed on perceptions of challenging experiences. For the same reason, the effects of gender on the other dependent variables will not be computed as well.
The effects of music qualification on perceptions of challenging experiences There is only 1 teacher with music qualifications among the 18 teachers from public schools, thus the effect of music qualification on perceptions of challenging experiences could not be computed. For the same reason, the effects of music qualifications on other dependent variables will not be computed. The music teacher with music qualification was a female teacher in her 30’s. She had musical training, and she thinks her performance ability is in moderate range. She is confident in teaching music, and perceived the teaching tasks as not challenging (1.5 point out of 7).
The effects of confidence in teaching music on perceptions of challenging experiences data There was a significant difference in perceptions of challenging experiences between teachers confident in teaching music and those not confident in teaching music; T = -2.876, p< .0.5. Primary teachers confident in teaching music found the teaching tasks less challenging (Mean = 2.8 out of 7), while teachers not-confident in teaching music found the teaching tasks more difficult (Mean = 4.5 out of 7).
The Bar Chart No. 5.7 (Teaching Tasks and Challenges) show the teaching tasks which are most challenging for teachers. All teachers were asked to rate each of the ten
221 teaching tasks below in a 7-point scale from (1) not very much to (7) a lot. The three most challenging teaching tasks were: 1) teaching organising sound/composing; 2) making performing repertoire suggestions; and 3) teaching performing. The three easiest teaching tasks were: 1) maintaining classroom organisation including students’ behaviour; 2) teaching listening; and 3) making links to other key learning areas.
Bar Chart 5.7 Teaching Tasks and Challenges
A 6-10 A 6-9 A 6-8 A 6-7 A 6-6 A 6-5 A 6-4 A 6-3 A 6-2 A 6-1
01234567 Mean Scores
Legend A 6-1 Teaching performing A 6-2 Teaching organising sound/ composing A 6-3 Teaching listening A 6-4 Planning lessons A 6-5 Making performing repertoire suggestions A 6-6 Making listening repertoire suggestions A 6-7 Making links to other subjects/ key learning areas A 6-8 Finding appropriate vocabulary A 6-9 Maintaining classroom organisation, including students’ behaviour A 6-10 Assessing/ evaluating students’ progress
222 A 7-point rating scale ranging from (1) most likely to (7) least likely were used in the study of 17 items about how likely teachers are to be engaged in the teaching of different types of activities. Smaller numbers indicated a greater likelihood of teaching the relevant musical activities.
Teachers’ responses to the question whether they are more likely to be engaged in teaching performing pitched instruments, for example keyboard, guitar and flute, revealed that 13 teachers out 18 do not use pitched instruments such as keyboard, guitar or flute, while 2 teachers said they use them frequently. The mean score of 5.83 showed that teachers are less likely to use pitched instruments. The mean of the scores for the question was 2.33 (out of 7), which showed that the teachers were likely to use unpitched percussion instruments. Of 18 teachers, 12 said that they use unpitched percussions frequently, while 2 teachers said they hardly use unpitched percussions at all.
There were two questions about teaching singing and singing known and unknown songs. The range of scores was within a minimum of 1 and maximum of 5. The mean of the scores for the first question was 1.33 (out of 5), which showed that most teachers are likely to sing known songs in teaching music. Of 18 teachers from public schools, 17 said that they frequently sing known songs to students in music classes, and only 1 teacher was not likely to sing known songs in teaching music. The mean of the scores for the second question was 1.5 (out of 5), which showed that most teachers are likely to sing new songs in teaching music in primary schools. Of 18 teachers, 16 said that they frequently sing new songs in teaching music, while 1 teacher was not likely to sing new songs in teaching music.
Analysis of the question about the teaching of moving or dancing to music resulted in a mean of 2.06. This was within the range from minimum 1 to maximum 6. This showed that most teachers are likely to do moving and dancing in teaching music. 12 teachers said they do moving and dancing in music classes, and only 1 teacher said he or she does not.
The mean of the scores for the question about teaching imitating sounds was 3.22. This showed that imitating sounds is done fairly frequently in music lessons in public
223 schools. Of 18 teachers, 5 said they frequently do imitating sounds, 12 teachers do it sometimes and 1 teacher is most unlikely to do it.
Questions about the teaching of different types of creative activities in music lessons in primary schools included experimenting with sounds, improvising, arranging and composing. The mean of the scores for the question about experimenting with sounds was 2.89. This showed that experimenting with sounds is done fairly often in the public school music classes. 8 teachers said they frequently do experimenting with sounds, 6 teachers do it sometimes and 2 teachers hardly do it. Next, improvising is done frequently in music lessons. The mean of the scores for this question was 3.5, which showed that improvising is done fairly often in music lessons in public schools. 6 teachers said they frequently do improvising, 10 teachers do it sometimes and 2 teachers most unlikely to do it. The mean of the scores for the question was 5.17, which showed that teachers are less likely to do arranging in music lessons in public schools. Of 18 teachers, 9 said they are less likely to do arranging. 5 teachers do it sometimes; and 1 teacher said that he or she did it frequently. Analysis of teaching composing resulted in a mean of 4.76. This showed that teachers are less likely to do composing in music lessons in public schools. Of 18 teachers, 10 said they do not do arranging in music classes, 5 teachers do it sometimes and only 3 teachers said that they do it frequently.
There were two questions about teaching making scores, making graphic scores and making scores in staff notation. The mean of the scores for the first question was 5.57, which showed that teachers are less likely to do making graphic scores in music lessons in public schools. Of 18 teachers, 12 said they do not do making graphic scores in music classes. Only 1 teacher said that he or she does it frequently. The mean of the scores for the question about making scores in staff notation was 5.29, which showed that teachers are less likely to do making scores in staff notation in music lessons in primary schools. Of 18 teachers, 10 said they do not do making scores in staff notation in music classes. Only 2 teachers said that they do it frequently
The computation of the mean of the scores for teaching listening activities was 2.77, which showed that most teachers are likely to do listening in teaching music. 10
224 teachers said they do listening in music classes and only 1 teacher said that he or she hardly does it.
Teachers’ responses showed that they teach discussions about music fairly often in music lessons in public schools. The mean of the scores for the question was 3.67. Of 18 teachers, 6 said they frequently do discussions about music, 9 teachers do it sometimes and 3 teachers most unlikely to do it.
The mean score of 4.29 showed that the teachers are less likely to teach musical concepts, for example pitch, duration, dynamics, tone colour, structure. Of 18 teachers, 5 said that they teach musical concepts and 7 teachers said they hardly do it.
Teachers are less likely to teach how to read music on music lessons in public schools. The mean of the scores for the question was 5.5. Of 18 teachers, 12 said they hardly do it in music classes. Only 3 teachers said that they do it frequently.
Teachers are also less likely to teach computer music in music lessons in public primary schools. The mean of the scores for the question was 6.29, which showed that teachers are less likely to teach computer music in music lessons in public schools. 14 teachers out of 18 said they do not do it in music classes. Only 2 teachers said that they do it sometimes.
The Bar Chart No. 5.8 (Frequency of Musical Activities) shows what musical activities teachers are likely to use in teaching music in public primary schools. It visually presents which of the 17 questions about musical activities are more likely to be used by the teachers in teaching music in primary schools. The lowest number, not the highest number, in the graph represents the most frequently used musical activities. The three most frequently used musical activities in primary music classes in public schools are: 1) singing known songs; 2) singing new songs; and 3) moving or dancing to music. The next frequently used musical activities are: 4) performing un-pitched percussion instruments; 5) listening activities; and 6) experimenting with sounds.
225 Bar Chart 5.8 Frequency of Musical Activities
A7-17 A7-16 A7-15 A7-14 A7-13 A7-12 A7-11 A7-10 A7-9 A7-8 A7-7 A7-6 A7-5 A7-4 A7-3 A7-2 A7-1
01234567 Mean Scores
Legend A7-1 Performing pitched instruments (eg. keyboard, guitar, flute, etc.) A7-2 Performing unpitched instruments (eg. percussion instruments) A7-3 Singing known songs A7-4 Singing new songs A7-5 Moving or dancing to music A7-6 Experimenting with sounds A7-7 Imitating sounds A7-8 Improvising A7-9 Arranging A7-10 Composing A7-11 Making graphic scores A7-12 Making scores in staff notation A7-13 Listening activities A7-14 Discussions about music A7-15 Musical concepts (eg. pitch, duration, dynamics, tone colour, structure) A7-16 How to read music
226 A7-17 Computer music
There were 9 teachers from public schools who said they played musical instruments and 9 teachers who did not play any musical instrument. The mean of the number of years for playing a major musical instrument was 6. Those teachers had been playing a major musical instrument for more than 5 years. Of the teachers who played musical instruments, 4 teachers said they practise it less than one hour per week, and 8 teachers said they practise one hour per week. Thus, 12 teachers out of 18 primary teachers in public schools practise playing a musical instrument for 30 minutes to1hour per week.
The data show that 9 out of 18 teachers said they have been an organiser, conductor or teacher of music performance groups in or out of school.
Among the 18 received responses to the question about how long they had been teaching music, 6 teachers responded from one to five years, 3 teachers, from 6 to 10 years and 5 teachers for more than 11years.
Data show that 16 teachers out of 18 teach primary subjects in public schools. The 2 teachers who did not respond to this question did not indicate any other subjects that they taught. One teacher also teaches dance and visual arts as well as primary subjects. Another teacher teaches dance, drama and visual arts as well as primary subjects in schools. Another teacher teaches only drama.
Of the 16 teachers who teach the primary school subjects in public schools, 1 teacher has full time employment and 3 teachers have part-time employment.
Of 18 teachers, 13 think that their teacher training was not adequate to enable them to teach music in primary schools, and only 5 teachers think that their teacher training was adequate.
The Bar Chart No. 5.9 (Selection of Music Repertoire) shows the mean score for each of the 21 questions about which aspects affect the selection of music repertoire for teaching music in classrooms. The total score is used in drawing graphs to identify which aspects affected the selection of musical repertoire for teaching music in
227 classrooms. Teachers thought the three most important aspects were: 1) the teacher’s experience with teaching music; 2) the level of difficulty of the repertoire; and 3) the students’ age group. The next three important aspects were: 4) the cost of the resources; 5) the students’ skill and previous experience in music; 6) and the teacher’s personal preferences.
Bar Chart 5.9 Selection of Music Repertoire
B4-21 B4-20 B4-19 B4-18 B4-17 B4-16 B4-15 B4-14 B4-13 B4-12 B4-11 B4-10 B4-9 B4-8 B4-7 B4-6 B4-5 B4-4 B4-3 B4-2 B4-1
01234567 Mean Scores
Legend B4-1 Availability of music resources at school B4-2 Availability of music resources in teacher’s private collection B4-3 Cost of the resources B4-4 Thematic links to other subjects B4-5 Thematic links with other art forms B4-6 Students’ likes and dislikes B4-7 The school’s preferences B4-8 Examples from the syllabus
228 B4-9 Repertoire used by other teachers B4-10 Popularity of the repertoire B4-11 Classical examples of children’s music (eg. Nursery songs) B4-12 Students’ skill and previous experience in music B4-13 Annual/biannual events, eg. Anzac Day etc. B4-14 Teacher’s personal preferences B4-15 Parents’ preferences and/or suggestions B4-16 Teacher’s experience with teaching music B4-17 Level of difficulty of the repertoire B4-18 Students’ age group B4-19 Students’ social background B4-20 Students’ ethnic background B4-21 Students’ gender
The Bar Chart No. 5.10 (Schooling and Teaching) shows teachers’ opinions about their schools and teaching. All participants were asked to rate their opinions on a 7-point scale from (1) not very much to (7) a lot. The results (1.5 point out of 7) show that in- service teacher training in music is inadequate. Other recommendations are: 1) having sufficient teaching staff to meet the demands of the music curriculum; 2) to have sufficient time in the timetable; and 3) to have support staff with qualifications and experience to meet the demands of the music curriculum. The teachers’ strong wishes (6 points out of 7) are: 1) to have a ready repertoire list of music lessons; 2) to have the sequence of developed music lessons; and 3) to make use of units developed by other education authorities or units developed commercially.
229 Bar Chart 5.10 Schooling and Teaching
C4-11 C4-10 C4-9 C4-8 C4-7 C4-6 C4-5 C4-4 C4-3 C4-2 C4-1
01234567 Mean Scores
Legend C4-1 Your school has sufficient teaching staff to meet the demands of the music curriculum? C4-2 Your school has sufficient time in the timetable? C4-3 Your school has support staff with qualifications and experience to meet the demands of the music curriculum? C4-4 Your school has a combination of teachers, specialising in one or more art forms supporting classroom teachers? C4-5 Staff meetings at your school can be helpful in fulfilling demands of the music curriculum? C4-6 In-service training in music is adequate? C4-7 Your school would be attractive to qualified teachers to teach music at your school? C4-8 It would be helpful to have a ready repertoire list for music lessons? C4-9 It would be helpful to have the sequence of developed music lessons? C4-10 It would be helpful to make use of units developed by other educational authorities or developed commercially? C4-11 Being qualified to teach music is essential?
The Bar Chart No. 5.11 (School Support and Teaching Resources) shows teachers’ responses on the question about how much they think their school provides resources like computer software, video and audio recordings, electronic and traditional
230 instruments, and books and written resources for teaching music. The chart shows that school support for teaching resources was quite low. The mean of total resources was 2.86 point out of 7. The three lowest-level teaching resources were: 1) computer software; 2) video recordings; and 3) electronic instruments. Audio recordings, traditional instruments, books and written resources were in the medium to low level group.
Bar Chart 5.11 School Support and Teaching Resources
C 5-6 C 5-5 C 5-4 C 5-3 C 5-2 C 5-1
01234567 Mean Scores
Legend C 5-1 Computer software? C 5-2 Video recordings? C 5-3 Audio recordings? C 5-4 Electronic instruments? C 5-5 Traditional instruments? C 5-6 Books and written resources?
The Bar Chart No. 5.12 (Benefits for Students) showed that music teaching in public schools can benefit students in the following: 1) if the teacher plays a musical instrument when teaching music; 2) if music is taught by a qualified music teacher; and, 3) if music is considered as an independent school subject. Means of their responses were above 5 points out of 7; and the total mean, that is the mean of the means for each question, was 5.70.
231 Bar Chart 5.12 Benefits for Students
Mean -C6 C6-3 C6-2 C6-1
01234567 Mean Scores
Legend C6-1 The teacher plays a musical instrument when teaching music? C6-2 Music is taught by a qualified teacher? C6-3 Music is considered to be its own subject area? Mean -C6 Total Mean score
Of 18 teachers, 13 responded to the question about their opinion on music within K-6 Creative Arts Syllabus and 7 did not. Nine teachers said their students find music classes stimulating. Of the 9 teachers, 3 teachers said their students find music classes stimulating and challenging.
Some teachers agree with the basic ideas and with some parts of syllabus. These include developing students’ skills in a variety of forms. They say the outcomes are broad enough to allow for a variety of activities and techniques, to be implemented. They agree with the emphasis on experimentation and listening because as teachers need freedom to find the best way to teach their pupils. Some like the scope and non- specifics so they can teach as broadly as they like and still fulfil the curriculum requirements and some think explanations and definitions for the terminology for each of the performing arts are good and helpful. However, some teachers think that “resources need to be updated, web sites need to be available to music teachers, and music courses should be offered”.
The public school teachers’ responses to the question about whether or not they follow K-6 Creative Arts Syllabus, was less than positive. The mean was 3.22 on a 7-point rating scale, ranging from 1 not very much to 7 a lot. Thus, the results revealed that
232 although the teachers are all public schoolteachers, only 4 teachers follow K-6 Creative Arts Syllabus rigorously, while 12 teachers do not follow it strictly.
Catholic schools
Among the 24 teachers who teach in Catholic schools, 7 schools have student numbers of 500 and over, 7 schools have about 400 and 10 schools have from 100 to 300 students.
Age The range of age in Catholic schools was from 20 (minimum) to 50 (maximum) years old. The mean of age of the participating primary teachers (N=24) was 33 years old. The teachers who were confident in teaching music (N=15) were 35 years old on average. The teachers who were not confident in teaching music (N=9) were 30 years old on average.
Gender There were 2 responses from male teachers and 22 from female teachers from Catholic schools. The two male teachers all said they were confident in teaching music. Teachers who were confident in teaching music (N=15) consisted of 2 males and 13 females, while those who were not confident (N=9) were all females.
Qualifications The responses showed that 18 out of 24 teachers did not have music qualification. 6 teachers with music qualification said they were confident in teaching music. Responses by the other 18 teachers without music qualification were mixed 9 felt confident and 9 did not feel confident teaching music.
Musical training Descriptive statistics of musical training reveal that 16 teachers had musical training while 8 teachers did not. Of the 16 teachers with musical training they rated their performance ability as follows: 5 high, 5 moderate, 2 basic and 4 poor.
233 The Pie Chart No. 5.6 (Musical Training and Confidence) shows the effect of musical training on confidence in teaching music. Among the teachers who had musical training, 13 teachers were confident in teaching music, while 3 were not.
Pie chart 5.6 Musical Training and Confidence
3 Confident Teaching Music Not Confident Teaching Music 13
The Pie Chart No. 5.7 (No Musical Training and Confidence) shows that among the 8 teachers, who did not have musical training, only 2 teachers were confident in teaching music, while the majority, 6 were not.
Pie Chart 5.7 No Musical Training and Confidence
2 Confident Teaching Music Not Confident Teaching 6 Music
The teachers’ responses to the question about what the most challenging teaching tasks are, show that the mean of total scores of challenging experiences data collected from Catholic schools were 3.28 (out of 7). That is, the average response to the questions regarding challenging experiences was “Not sure”.
The effects of age on perceptions of challenging experiences In the computation of relationships between perceptions of challenging experiences and age 24 observations were used. The question used 7-point rating scale ranging from 1 (finding teaching easy) to 7 (finding teaching very challenging and difficult). Thus, the
234 low total scores of this question mean teachers find teaching music easy. Older teachers perceived the teaching tasks as easy, while younger teachers perceived the teaching tasks as difficult. And the correlation between their perceptions of challenging experiences and age was significant at p< .05 level: r = -.136. Thus, the negative correlation coefficient of r = -.136 means older teachers showed low scores meaning “finding the tasks easy” while younger teachers showed higher scores meaning “finding the tasks difficult”.
The effects of gender on perceptions of challenging experiences Since there are only 2 males among the teachers from Catholic schools, the effects of gender could not be computed on perceptions of challenging experiences. For the same reason, the effects of gender on the other dependent variables will not be computed as well.
The effects of music qualifications on perceptions of challenging experiences There are 6 teachers with music qualification among the 24 teachers from Catholic schools. The effect of music qualifications on perceptions of challenging experiences were computed as follows: the 6 music teachers with music qualification were all female teachers; all had musical training; 4 of them think their performance ability is in high level and 2 teachers think that it is in moderate level. They are confident in teaching music, and perceived the teaching tasks not challenging (1.4 point out of 7).
The Bar Chart No. 5.13 (Teaching Tasks and Challenges) presents which teaching tasks are most challenging for teachers. All teachers were asked to rate each of the ten teaching tasks below in a 7-point scale from (1) not very much to (7) a lot. The three most challenging teaching tasks were: 1) making performing repertoire suggestions; 2) teaching organising sound/composing; and 3) making listening repertoire suggestions. The three easiest teaching tasks were: 1) maintaining classroom organisation including students’ behaviour; 2) teaching listening; and 3) making links to other key learning areas.
235 Bar Chart 5.13 Teaching Tasks and Challenges
A 6-10 A 6-9 A 6-8 A 6-7 A 6-6 A 6-5 A 6-4 A 6-3 A 6-2 A 6-1
01234567 Mean Scores
Legend A 6-1 Teaching performing A 6-2 Teaching organising sound/ composing A 6-3 Teaching listening A 6-4 Planning lessons A 6-5 Making performing repertoire suggestions A 6-6 Making listening repertoire suggestions A 6-7 Making links to other subjects/ key learning areas A 6-8 Finding appropriate vocabulary A 6-9 Maintaining classroom organisation, including students’ behaviour A 6-10 Assessing/ evaluating students’ progress
A 7-point rating scale ranging from 1 (most likely) to 7 (least likely) was used in the study of 17 items about how likely teachers are to be engaged in teaching of different types of activities. Thus, smaller numbers indicated the greater likelihood of teaching the relevant musical activities. Neither gender nor musical qualification effects were computed due to the fact that there were only 2 males and 6 teachers with musical qualification among the 24 teachers from Catholic schools.
Teachers’ responses to the question about whether they are more likely to be engaged in teaching performing pitched instruments, for example keyboard, guitar and flute,
236 revealed that 11 teachers out 24 do not use pitched instruments such as keyboard, guitar or flute, while 9 teachers said they use it frequently. The mean score of 4.29 showed that the teachers use them fairly often. The mean of the scores for the question whether they are more likely to be engaged in teaching unpitched percussion instruments was 2.17 (out of 7). This showed that the teachers were likely to use unpitched percussion instruments. Of 24 teachers, 17 said that they use unpitched percussions frequently, while 2 teachers said they hardly use unpitched percussions at all.
There were two questions about teaching singing and singing known and unknown songs. The range of scores was within minimum 1 and maximum 6. The mean of the scores for the first question was 2 out of 6, which showed that most teachers are likely to sing known songs in teaching music. 18 teachers said that they frequently sing known songs to students in music classes, and only 1 teacher was not likely to sing known songs in teaching music. The mean of the scores for the second question was 2.71 out of 5, which showed that most teachers are likely to sing new songs in teaching music in Catholic schools. 13 teachers said that they frequently sing new songs in teaching music, while 2 teachers were not likely to sing new songs in teaching music.
Analysis of the question about the teaching of moving or dancing to music resulted in a mean of 1.95, within the range from minimum 1 to maximum 6. This showed that most teachers in Catholic schools are likely to do moving and dancing in teaching music. 18 teachers said they do moving and dancing in music classes, and only 1 teacher said he or she does not.
The mean of the scores for the question about teaching imitating sounds was 3.01. This showed that imitating sounds is done fairly often in music lessons in Catholic schools. 11 teachers said they frequently do imitating sounds, 9 teachers do it fairly often and 4 teachers are unlikely to do it.
Questions about the teaching of different types of creative activities in music lessons in Catholic schools included experimenting with sounds, improvising, arranging and composing.
237 The mean of the scores for the question about experimenting with sounds was 2.88. This showed that experimenting with sounds is done fairly often in the Catholic school music classes. 14 teachers said they frequently do experimenting with sounds, 6 teachers do it sometimes and 4 teachers said that they hardly do it. Next, improvising is done frequently on music lessons. The mean of the scores for the question was 2.88, which showed that improvising is done frequently in music lessons in Catholic schools. Of 24 teachers, 16 said they frequently do improvising and 5 teachers are most unlikely to do it. The mean of the scores for the question on arranging was 4.18, which showed that arranging is done sometimes in music lessons in Catholic schools. Of 24 teachers, 9 said they are less likely to do arranging, 7 teachers do it sometimes and 8 teachers said that they do it frequently. Analysis of teaching composing resulted in a mean of 4.33. This showed that teachers are less likely to do composing on music lessons in Catholic schools. Of 24 teachers, 8 said they do not do composing in music classes. 10 teachers in moderate frequencies; and only 6 teachers said that they do it frequently.
There were two questions about teaching making scores, making graphic scores and making scores in staff notation. The mean of the scores for the question was 4.21, which showed that teachers are less likely to do making graphic scores in music lessons in Catholic schools. Of 24 teachers, 9 said they do not do making graphic scores in music classes and 6 teachers said that they do it frequently. The mean of the scores for the question on staff notation was 4.96, which showed that teachers are less likely to do making scores in staff notation in music lessons in Catholic schools. Of 24 teachers, 12 said they do not do making scores in staff notation in music classes. Only 2 teachers said that they do it frequently.
Computation of the mean of the scores for teaching listening activities was 2.29 out of 5. There was a range from minimum 1 to maximum 5. The mean showed that most teachers are likely to do listening in teaching music. Of 24 teachers, 16 said they do listening in music classes.
Teachers’ responses showed that they teach discussion about music fairly often in music lessons in Catholic schools. The mean of the scores for the question was 2.42, which showed that teachers are more likely to teach discussions about music in music lessons
238 in Catholic schools. 17 teachers said they frequently do discussions about music, 5 teachers do it sometimes and 2 teachers are most unlikely to do it.
The mean score of 2.58 showed that the teachers are more likely to teach musical concepts, for example pitch, duration, dynamics, tone colour and structure. 15 teachers said that they teach musical concepts often and only 4 out of 24 teachers said they hardly do it.
The mean of the scores for the question about teaching how to read music was 3.68, which showed that teachers teach how to read music fairly often in music lessons in Catholic schools. Of 24 teachers, 11 said they hardly do it frequently in music classes, 5 teachers said they do it in moderate frequencies and 8 teachers said that they do not do it frequently.
Teachers are also less likely to teach computer music on music lessons in Catholic schools. The mean of the scores for the question was 6.17, which showed that teachers are less likely to teach computer music in music lessons in Catholic schools. Of 24 teachers, 18 said they do not do it in music classes. Only 5 teachers said that they do it fairly often.
The Bar Chart No. 5.14 (Frequency of Musical Activities) shows what musical activities teachers are likely to use in teaching music in Catholic schools. It shows which of the 17 questions about musical activities are more likely to be used by the teachers in teaching music in Catholic schools. The lowest number, not the highest number, in the graph represents the most frequently used musical activities. The three most frequently used musical activities in primary music classes in Catholic schools are: 1) moving or dancing to music; 2) singing known songs; and 3) performing unpitched instruments (eg. percussion instruments). The next frequently used musical activities are: 4) listening activities; 5) discussions about music; and 6) musical concepts, for example pitch, duration, dynamics, tone colour and structure.24
24 Note: the lowest number, not the highest number, in the graph represents the most frequently used musical activities.
239 Bar Chart 5.14 Frequency of Musical Activities
A7-17 A7-16 A7-15 A7-14 A7-13 A7-12 A7-11 A7-10 A7-9 A7-8 A7-7 A7-6 A7-5 A7-4 A7-3 A7-2 A7-1
01234567 Mean Scores
Legend A7-1 Performing pitched instruments (eg. keyboard, guitar, flute, etc.) A7-2 Performing unpitched instruments (eg. percussion instruments) A7-3 Singing known songs A7-4 Singing new songs A7-5 Moving or dancing to music A7-6 Experimenting with sounds A7-7 Imitating sounds A7-8 Improvising A7-9 Arranging A7-10 Composing A7-11 Making graphic scores A7-12 Making scores in staff notation A7-13 Listening activities A7-14 Discussions about music A7-15 Musical concepts (eg. pitch, duration, dynamics, tone colour, structure)
240 A7-16 How to read music A7-17 Computer music
There were 14 teachers from Catholic schools who said they played musical instruments and 10 teachers who did not play any musical instrument. The mean of the number of years for playing a major musical instrument was 5.69. The minimum score was 2 and the maximum was 6. 13 teachers had played a major musical instrument more than 5 years and 1 teacher had been playing a major musical instrument for 2 years. Of the teachers who played musical instruments, 3 teachers said they practise a musical instrument less than one hour per week, and 6 teachers said they practise one hour per week. Three teachers practice playing a musical instrument for 2 hours and 2 teachers said that they practise playing a musical instrument for 4 hours or more per week.
The data show that 10 teachers out of 24 teachers said they have been an organiser, conductor or teacher of music performance groups in or out of school.
Of the responses to the question about how long they had been teaching music, 11 teachers answered from 1-5 years, 5 teachers for 6-10 years and 5 teachers for more than 11years.
Data show that 17 teachers out of 24 teach primary subjects in Catholic schools. The 2 teachers who did not respond to this question teach drama and 1 teacher teaches dance. 4 teachers teach dance, drama and visual arts as well as primary subjects.. Together with primary subjects, 5 teachers teach drama, 8 teachers teach dance, and 4 teachers teach visual arts. One teacher teaches also drama as well as primary subjects. 4 teachers teach only dance.
Of the 15 teachers who teach the primary school subjects in Catholic schools, 2 teachers have full-time employment and 13 teachers have part-time employment.
Of 24 teachers, 14 think that their teacher training was not adequate to enable them to teach music in Catholic primary schools, and only 10 teachers think that their teacher training was adequate for it.
241 The Bar Chart No. 5.15 (Selection of Musical Repertoire) shows means for each of the 21 questions about aspects which affect the selection of music repertoire for teaching music in classrooms. Teachers thought there were three important aspects to consider when selecting the musci repertoire for classroom music teachers. They are: 1) the teacher’s experience with teaching music; 2) the students’ age group; and 3) the level of difficulty of the repertoire. The next three important aspects were: 4) the cost of the resources; 5) the availability of music resources at school; and 6) annual/biannual events such as Christmas, Mother’s Day and Anzac Day.
Bar Chart 5.15 Selection of Music Repertoire
B4-21 B4-20 B4-19 B4-18 B4-17 B4-16 B4-15 B4-14 B4-13 B4-12 B4-11 B4-10 B4-9 B4-8 B4-7 B4-6 B4-5 B4-4 B4-3 B4-2 B4-1
01234567 Mean Scores
Legend B4-1 Availability of music resources at school B4-2 Availability of music resources in teacher’s private collection B4-3 Cost of the resources B4-4 Thematic links to other subjects B4-5 Thematic links with other art forms B4-6 Students’ likes and dislikes B4-7 The school’s preferences
242 B4-8 Examples from the syllabus B4-9 Repertoire used by other teachers B4-10 Popularity of the repertoire B4-11 Classical examples of children’s music (eg. Nursery songs) B4-12 Students’ skill and previous experience in music B4-13 Annual/biannual events, eg. Anzac Day etc. B4-14 Teacher’s personal preferences B4-15 Parents’ preferences and/or suggestions B4-16 Teacher’s experience with teaching music B4-17 Level of difficulty of the repertoire B4-18 Students’ age group B4-19 Students’ social background B4-20 Students’ ethnic background B4-21 Students’ gender
The Bar Chart No. 5.16 (Schooling and Teaching) shows teachers’ opinions about their schools and teaching. All participants were asked to rate their opinions on a 7-point scale from (1) not very much to (7) a lot. The results show that teachers are most dissatisfied with in-service teacher training in music (2.5 point out of 7). Other recommendations for improvement are: 1) having sufficient teaching staff to meet the demands of the music curriculum; 2) to have sufficient time in the timetable; and 3) to have support staff with qualifications and experience to meet the demands of the music curriculum. The teachers’ strong wishes (6 points out of 7) are: 1) to have a ready repertoire list of music lessons; 2) to have the sequence of developed music lessons; and 3) and to make use of units developed by other education authorities or commercially developed units.
243 Bar Chart 5.16 Schooling and Teaching
C4-11 C4-10 C4-9 C4-8 C4-7 C4-6 C4-5 C4-4 C4-3 C4-2 C4-1
01234567 Mean Scores
Legend C4-1 Your school has sufficient teaching staff to meet the demands of the music curriculum? C4-2 Your school has sufficient time in the timetable? C4-3 Your school has support staff with qualifications and experience to meet the demands of the music curriculum? C4-4 Your school has a combination of teachers, specialising in one or more art forms supporting classroom teachers? C4-5 Staff meetings at your school can be helpful in fulfilling demands of the music curriculum? C4-6 In-service training in music is adequate? C4-7 Your school would be attractive to qualified teachers to teach music at your school? C4-8 It would be helpful to have a ready repertoire list for music lessons? C4-9 It would be helpful to have the sequence of developed music lessons? C4-10 It would be helpful to make use of units developed by other educational authorities or to have commercially developed units? C4-11 Being qualified to teach music is essential?
244 The Bar Chart No. 5.17 (School Support and Teaching Resources) shows teachers’ responses on the question about how much they think their school provides resources like computer software, video and audio recordings, electronic and traditional instruments, books and written resources for teaching music. The results indicate that school support in teachers’ resources was low. The mean of total resources was 2.86 point out of 7. The three lowest-level teaching resources were: 1) computer software; 2) video recordings; and 3) electronic instruments. Audio recordings, traditional instruments, books and written resources were in medium to low level supporting group.
Bar Chart 5.17 School Support and Teaching Resources
C5-6 C5-5 C5-4 C5-3 C5-2 C5-1
01234567 Mean Scores
Legend C 5-1 Computer software? C 5-2 Video recordings? C 5-3 Audio recordings? C 5-4 Electronic instruments? C 5-5 Traditional instruments? C 5-6 Books and written resources?
The teachers’ responses, which are presented in the Bar Chart No. 5.18 (Benefits for Students) shows that music teaching in Catholic primary schools may benefit students if the teacher plays a musical instrument when teaching music, if music is taught by a qualified music teacher and, if music is considered as an independent school subject. The means of their responses were around 6 points out of 7 and the total mean, that is the mean of the means for each question, was 5.99.
245 Bar Chart 5.18 Students' Benefits
Mean -C6 C6-3 C6-2 C6-1
01234567 Mean Scores
Legend C6-1 The teacher plays a musical instrument when teaching music? C6-2 Music is taught by a qualified teacher? C6-3 Music is considered to be in its own subject area? Mean -C6 Total Mean score
Of 24 teachers, 22 responded to the question about their opinion of music within K-6 Creative Arts Syllabus and 2 did not. 13 teachers said their students find music classes stimulating. Of the 13 teachers, 4 teachers said their students find music classes stimulating and challenging.
The Catholic school teachers’ responses to the question about whether they follow K-6 Creative Arts Syllabus, was less than positive. The mean was 4.00 on a 7-point rating scale, ranging from 1 (not very much) to 7 (a lot). Thus, the results revealed that 7 teachers follow K-6 Creative Arts Syllabus rigorously, while 7 teachers do not follow it strictly.
Conclusions I investigated the existing position of musically trained and untrained teachers involved in the teaching of music in NSW. There is no significant difference between the teachers’ responses from public and Catholic schools. To conclude, I will use the results which are taken from both public and Catholic schools.
246 Teachers’ attitudes regarding to what and how they teach are affected by their confidence. The effects on teachers’ confidence in teaching music were computed with the teachers’ age, gender, qualifications and musical training. The analysis of teachers’ perceptions of different teaching tasks revealed that the confidence is the necessary condition for making decisions when designing music programs for their students. Teachers’ music programs must grow from the minimum curricula requirements. These state that when learning music, students develop knowledge and understanding, skills, values and attitudes by participating in all types of musical experiences. The teacher plays a critical role in providing these learning experiences to students. However, the results of the teachers’ survey showed that those teachers with the lowest level of confidence in teaching music are not able to implement the music curriculum to its full extent. Non-confident teachers have negative attitudes towards a number of musical activities. In other words the non-confident teachers are less likely to be involved in a number of essential teaching tasks. For example, teachers’ responses show that the majority of teachers find teaching organising sound/composing, making performing repertoire suggestions and teaching performing very challenging. They are also unlikely to be engaged in the teaching of computer music, making scores in staff notation and performing pitched instruments, for example keyboard, guitar or flute.
This research shows that there are a number of factors that influence teachers’ confidence in teaching music. These include their musical qualification, musical training and age. The responses revealed that 83.3% of all teachers did not have any musical qualifications. In the public schools the situation with qualified teachers is 94.4% while in the Catholic schools 75% of teachers are without any musical qualification. The statistics show the effects of musical training on confidence in teaching music. Of the teachers who had musical training 79.2% were confident in teaching music while in the group without any musical training, only 27.8% of teachers were confident. The teachers’ perceptions of challenging experiences show their level of confidence. The results revealed that a teacher’s perception of challenging experiences is affected by age. The older teachers found the majority of teaching tasks easier than the younger teachers.
247 The analysis of the survey’s data showed the teachers’ opinions about the importance of pre-service and in-service training. 72.2% of teachers who responded to this question think that their teacher training was not adequate to enable then to teach music in primary schools.
A number of different problems related to repertoire suggestions are rooted in the low school support for teaching resources. The schools’ support for audio recordings, traditional instruments and books and written resources was rated as medium to low level.
The analysis of written statements and teachers’ responses provided insight into both the intent and the potential results of the application of the Creative Arts Syllabus K-6. The public school teachers’ responses to the question about whether they follow K-6 Creative Arts Syllabus, were less than positive, with only 22.2% of teachers following the K-6 Creative Arts Syllabus rigorously. In the Catholic schools 29.2% of teachers claim to follow it strictly.
Implications of the Study Based on the results from this study, the following implications are suggested: 1. Involve qualified music teachers in the teaching of music at primary schools. 2. Provide teachers with in-service teacher training in music. 3. Provide teachers with opportunities and encouragement to learn how to play a musical instrument. 4. Provide schools with sufficient teaching staff to meet the demands of the music curriculum. 5. Provide schools with support staff with qualifications and experience to meet the demands of the music curriculum. 6. Provide teachers with opportunities to participate in staff meetings at school which can be helpful in fulfilling demands of the music curriculum 7. To enrich the syllabus with a ready repertoire list of music lessons. 8. To enrich the syllabus with the sequence of developed music lessons. 9. To enrich the syllabus with units developed by other education authorities or with units developed commercially.
248 Chapter 6
Issues of further investigation and research of curricula and syllabae in the primary/ elementary school
In this thesis I have investigated and compared nine curriculum models from four different countries. I have also outlined their cognitive-developmental background in connection to the psychological theories by Piaget and Vygotsky as well as a number of other influences which have had an impact on these curriculum models. In this part of my thesis I attempt to outline some issues which may be suggested for further investigation and research into curricula and syllabae in the primary/ elementary school.
There are guides for general music that teachers could adapt to local needs in the NSW, UK and Russia. They have been developed by curriculum specialists and music education scholars. There is no national curriculum in the USA where the general music curriculum is mostly developed independently at the local level by school districts and local teachers. The standards, which are outlined in the English national curriculum and the Russian minimum curriculum requirements, require the teacher to be a knowledgeable musician. However, in England and the NSW public and Catholic schools, music is mostly taught by non musicians most of whom are generalist teachers. It was also shown in Chapter 5 (Analysis of the survey of primary school teachers in the NSW) that teachers in NSW are not being prepared for the diversity of information that is available to them in music education. Although the elementary school teacher in the USA is also a generalist teacher, nevertheless some school districts might employ music specialists to teach in these schools. Further research could inquire into this specific situation and to clarify the existing position of musically trained and untrained teachers involved in the teaching of music in USA and the teachers’ perceptions of the importance of pre-service and in-service training.
Four components of the music curricula for primary/ elementary school have been analysed in this research: the nature of the student, philosophy, objectives and content. The knowledge of how children learn, the nature of the students and their cognitive- developmental background has been investigated in Chapter 1 in connection to the
249 psychological theories of Piaget and Vygotsky. More knowledge about how music is learned is necessary if appropriate curricula are to be established. All components of music curricula have different functions and are equally important because together they bring a more complete picture of the curricula intentions (Refer to Chapter 3, Components of Curricula). Philosophy is the ideology on which a rationale is built. It reflects a set of values and shared point of view and permeates the rest of the components of curricula. Objectives are the music curricula’s efforts or actions which are intended to be attained or accomplished. They serve to direct the teaching techniques and activities to achieve learning outcomes. Content may be expressed through music, the students’ musical activities (performing, composing, listening and other) and the teachers’ techniques and methods of instruction. Content is to realise a set of objectives. Barrow (1984) admits that some objectives “might be better expressed as principles of procedure, or in terms of the provision of particular experiences” as it is the NSW, UK and USA (MENC), and some objectives are put forward in terms of presenting content as it is in Russian syllabae and MMCP by Thomas (Barrow, 1984, p. 6).
Further study may compare and evaluate the two remaining components of music curricula, including context (when? and where?) and evaluation in conjunction with the psychological theories of child development. When and where musical instruction takes place should be of concern in developing curricula. Hale [Runfola] (1977) found the kindergarten children who attend music only once a week achieve less than those children who attend music class twice a week (p. 23-30). Evaluation of student achievement of objectives is also an important aspect in curriculum development. Boyle and Radocy (1987) wrote in a favour of evaluation as “an essential and critical aspect of the music curriculum” (p. 285). Identifying appropriate and valid measurement instruments is necessary for curriculum development.
The continuity and the smooth sequential progression through the years of study may be issues for further research. For example, the focus of further study may investigate relationships between early childhood music programs and general music curricula for primary/ elementary schools. Unlike NWS and UK, early childhood music programs are implemented in Russia but only suggested in the USA. Further research may cast light on the extent to which general music curricula for primary/ elementary schools
250 in Russia and the USA are affected by these programs. Is there a link and continuous progression from the suggested components of early childhood music programs to the primary/ elementary schools music curricula? Other research on the continuity and progression of learning music may be undertaken in Russia. There is a variety of music syllabae for six to nine-year-old children in Russia, the Kabalevsky’s, Kritskaya and Zankov. Further research on student outcomes and problems with progression to the next level, the Kabalevsky system for children from ten to thirteen years old, may help to decide which system is more efficacious.
As shown in Chapter 3, there is an absence of continuity and progression throughout the educational lessons offered by the MENC and ArtsEdge. A comparison of music curriculum revealed the American syllabus (MENC) is concerned with both behavioural and expressive objectives while the syllabae of the NSW and UK set only behaviour objectives, syllabae of Russia prescribe only expressive objectives. The behavioural objectives of the general music education in the USA (MENC) are the result of the influence of the child-centred orientation. The child is thought to be active in learning and motivated intrinsically by his own emotions. The American objectives are also affected by the traditional teacher-centred approach with its active role for the teacher to awaken children’s interests, emotions and feelings toward music. These are major characteristics of expressive objectives. An agenda for further research in the music classes of the USA may reveal many possible reasons for the lack of continuity and progression. These reasons may derive from setting two types of objectives, behavioural and expressive, rather than focusing on one. They also may derive from the absence of a National curriculum and its philosophical stance as well as unlimited freedom for local authorities (Refer to Chapter 3).
The picture that emerges from considering three components of general music curricula, philosophy, objectives and content shows that all Russian syllabae have a strong psychological background. The syllabae are based on Vygotsky’s theory of cognitive development which runs through all three components of music curriculum philosophy, objectives and the way of presenting content. For example, Russian syllabae set their philosophical positions to indicate that teachers must be active because their role is to impose cultural values on children. The active role of the teacher is clearly articulated in the establishment of expressive objectives to awaken
251 children’s interests, emotions and feelings toward music. Kabalevsky, Kritskaya and Zankov recognised Vygotsky’s notion of the ZPD, and based their educational systems on the principle of presenting challenging tasks, taking into account the degree of difficulty. Clearly, the psychological theory by Vygotsky is applicable to music education. Kritskaya enriched this by placing an emphasis on the traditional Russian folk music and the music of the Russian composers and the inclusion the individual didactic materials for children to use in music lessons, such as textbooks, exercise books and musical collections. Further study may investigate how six to nine-year-old students benefit (outcomes, achievement, perception and so on) from the presence of textbooks, exercise books and musical collections (cassettes) in the Kritskaya program as well as discovering what teachers think about her method.
In Australia (NSW) and England, educational systems are based on the Piaget theory of child cognitive development. This research has attempted to investigate the relevance of Piaget’s theory of developmental stages to primary music education. The analysis of the NSW and UK components of curricula and syllabae revealed that there are only some traces of Piaget’s psychological theory. It results in a diminishing of the role of the teacher and in an emphasis on pupil centred activity. The application of the Piaget’s theory to music education remains questionable. Further research may investigate the NSW and UK curricula and syllabae in connection to other theories of child development. Is the psychology of learning the issue in the development of the Australian and English curricula? What are their psychological foundations?
There is a list of the compulsory musical material which is an essential part of all Russian syllabae. Further investigation of Russian general music education, may disclose the teachers’ perceptions of the prescribed ideas and how they make adaptations or adjustments as well as whether the prescribed content increases the benefit of the activities for their students. The listening activities are closely connected to discussion, have a prior position among other activities and are considered and taught as a discrete skill. Throughout primary years, the Russian syllabus emphasises to the development of discussion while systematically developing children’s associative thinking and vocabulary of musical terms. The development of discussing and listening skills culminates in the Kabalevsky’s syllabus for children
252 from ten to thirteen years old. It mostly focuses on listening and discussion activities. Differences in musical content (repertoire) were further complicated by the absence of the listed specific musical examples in the NSW, UK and USA. There are only broad outlines in the syllabae of these countries regarding musical examples. For instance, in the Creative Arts Syllabus K-6 in NSW the music repertoire is described as following: “music of different styles and from different times and cultures” (p.7). It seems that the suggestions offered are too vague and teachers are left without musically focussed guidance. Further investigation is needed to expose what music is actually taught in music classes.
Also, those who wish to conduct research on students’ activities could plan to study discussion in music lessons. When considering research on discussion it is also necessary to include a number of diverse theories (Piaget and Vygotsky) of how children use language, how this influences their cognitive development and how this affects their musical development. In other words, it would be reasonable to investigate children’s perception of music and their ability to express it orally. As was shown in Table No. 3.9, the percentage of activities offered in the primary school syllabus Units of Work in the NSW and UK, and in their quantitative and qualitative analysis in Chapter 3, the percentages of time devoted to the development of discussion skills when learning music in the NSW syllabus, reveals a considerable lack of development of these skills (with the lowest level of 5% of all activities devoted on discussion during the first and second years of study). Discussions were mostly used for mastering performing skills. However, by the time children reach ten - twelve years old, the time devoted to the development of performing skills declines while listening to music increases. The percentages are 28% for performing activities, including singing, playing and moving, 39.5% for listening to the music, and 16.3% for discussing. If the Australian teachers follow the suggestions given in the Creative Arts K-6 Units of Work, the Australian students aged from ten to twelve years old are faced with listening as a dominant activity in music classrooms. Russian children are faced with the same number of listening activities, however, Russian children listen to specific works which are advocated in the syllabus and are the issue of Compulsory Minimum. What do the NSW children listen to? Is there a place for music from “different times, places and styles” as it is advocated in the NSW and UK syllabae? If
253 the music from “different times, places and styles” is not used in listening and discussing activities, when is it used? As was shown in Chapter 3 (in the part Creating Activities and their Stimuli) all syllabae employ a number of different starting points or stimuli to encourage creativity. These stimuli come from related arts, such as literature, the visual arts and dance and from other fields, such as geography. However, the Russian and American syllabae use these stimuli to achieve expressive objectives while the English and Australian use them to fulfil behavioural objectives. Taking into consideration the differences in objectives, further study of the curricula could investigate the differences in purpose of such stimuli. Is it to quicken/ encourage feeling and thought when trying to achieve the expressive objectives? Is it to quicken students’ action when accomplishing behavioural objectives? Or, is the purpose of stimuli to quicken all feeling, thought and action? If this is so what is prior among these three? It would be worth investigating the possible effects or the role of literary, visual or moving stimuli compared to other stimuli (historical events, geographical information and scientific facts) on the child’s creativity in music.
This study also revealed that all syllabae use a number of organisational techniques (individual, pair and group) to organise activities (Chapter 3). Future empirical studies could examine whether individual or group/ team works contribute better to the creative use of structure, melody, accompaniment, timbre, tempo and so on in children’s compositions.
The size of the learning domain in the classroom illustrates the complexity of the discipline. This becomes more complicated when music as a school subject is implemented, fulfilled, performed and carried out by educators with diverse pedagogical views. Thomas’s use of didactic material or special tools discussed in Chapter 3 differs from the way Montessori sees it but resembles Froebel’s belief. Examples shown in this thesis prove that someone’s educational idea is often not relevant to the beliefs and intentions of the other educational specialists. Further comparisons of different pedagogical notions will give a deeper insight and better understanding of the issues of learning and teaching music.
254 Educators themselves, as opposed to academic philosophers and psychological theorists of child development and learning have constructed educational theories of their own. Although their views are related in the main to the philosophical doctrines and psychological theories, it is clear that educators introduce a number of new themes and terms. These are related specifically to the educational contents of general music at schools. To develop a sophisticated music curriculum, research will probably be required to explore the greater number of distinct music programs. Any music curriculum should include the most sophisticated models which are available in music education. Comparison of these models needs to occur empirically to provide a knowledge base for curriculum development.
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266 Appendix A: Survey of the music lesson content in the primary schools of NSW, November 2004
You are invited to take part in this NSW-wide survey of teachers who teach music in primary schools. Please return your completed questionnaire by posting it in the enclosed reply-paid envelope. The information you provide will be strictly confidential and anonymous, and it will be of enormous help to me in completing my MMusEd Research Degree at UNSW, namely International Comparison of Music Curriculums.
Your help will be very much appreciated. On average, this form should take about fifteen minutes to complete. If you have any questions or suggestions, or if you would like to see all research findings when it has completed, please do not hesitate to contact me via e-mail [email protected], or telephone (02) 9386 5185, my name is Irina Petrova.
To answer the questions, please tick the appropriate box or write your response in the space or boxes provided. You may tick more than one box, if needed. It would be greatly appreciated if you can answer all the questions, but if not please answer as many as possible.
Do not put your name or your school on this questionnaire.
THANK YOU VERY MUCH FOR YOUR TIME AND CO-OPERATION
A. ABOUT YOU
1. Your age [ ] 20 – 29 [ ] 30 – 39 [ ] 40 – 49 [ ] 50 or above 2. Your gender [ ] Male [ ] Female
267 3. Your qualification [ ] BEd with music specialty [ ] BEd without music specialty [ ] Music Degree [ ] Music Diploma [ ] Other, please specify:
4. Have you had any musical training [ ] Yes [ ] No If Yes, please specify how would you rate your ability as a performer? [ ] High [ ] Moderate [ ] Basic [ ] Poor 5. Do you feel confident teaching music? [ ] Yes [ ] No
Could you comment further your answer? For example, whether your answer is Yes or No, could you explain why below
6. How challenging do Not Not A you find very sure lot much
1. Teaching performing 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 2. Teaching organising 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 sound/composing
268 3. Teaching listening 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 4. Planning lessons 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 5. Making performing 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 repertoire suggestions 6. Making listening 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 repertoire suggestions 7. Making links to other 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 subjects/ key learning areas 8. Finding appropriate 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 vocabulary 9. Maintaining classroom 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 organisation, including students’ behaviour 10. Assessing/evaluating 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 students’ progress
7. How likely are you to be Most Not Least engaged in teaching of likely sure likely
1. Performing pitched 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 instruments (eg. keyboard, guitar, flute, etc.) 2. Performing unpitched 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 instruments (eg. percussion instruments) 3. Singing known songs 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 4. Singing new songs 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 5. Moving or dancing to 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 music 6. Experimenting with 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 sounds 7. Imitating sounds 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8. Improvising 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 9. Arranging 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 10. Composing 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 11. Making graphic scores 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 12. Making scores in staff 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 notation 13. Listening activities 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 14. Discussions about music 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 15. Musical concepts (eg. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
269 pitch, duration, dynamics, tone colour, structure) 16. How to read music 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 17. Computer music 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 18. Other, please specify: 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
8. Do you play musical instrument/s? [ ] Yes [ ] No If Yes, circle as appropriate below Keyboard group Piano Harpsichord Organ Electronic keyboard Other, please specify:
String group Violin Cello Viola Double bass Guitar Electric Guitar Other, please specify:
Brass group Clarinet Oboe Trumpet Flute French Horn
270 Other, please specify:
Percussion group Please specify:
9. How long have you been playing your major instrument? [ ] Less than 1 year [ ] 1 year [ ] 2 years [ ] 3 years [ ] 4 years [ ] 5 years [ ] More than 5 years
10. How many hours a week do you usually spend playing an instrument? [ ] Less than 1 hour [ ] 2 – 3 hours (30 minutes per day) [ ] 4 – 6 hours [ ] 7 – 10 hours (60 minutes per day) [ ] More than 10 hours
11. Have you been an organiser/conductor/teacher of any musical groups at school or outside school? [ ] Yes [ ] No If Yes, please select below [ ] School orchestra [ ] Orchestra outside school [ ] School wind or brass band/group [ ] Wind or brass band/group outside school [ ] School choir
271 [ ] Choir outside school [ ] Other:
12. How long have you been teaching music? [ ] 1 – 5 years [ ] 6 – 10 years [ ] 11 – 15 years [ ] 16 or more
13. What other subjects do you teach? [ ] Primary subjects [ ] Drama [ ] Dance [ ] Visual Arts [ ] None of the above [ ] Other:
14. As a music teacher, do you work [ ] Part-time [ ] Full-time
15. Do you think your training, as a teacher, was adequate to enable you to teach music? [ ] Yes [ ] No Please explain your answer below:
272
B. WHAT MUSIC DO YOU USE IN YOUR TEACHING Please specify composers/performers names and their works in the space provided
1. Music of Different Times and Places Medieval Music
Renaissance Music
Baroque Music
Classical Music
Nineteenth-century Music
Art Music of the 20th and 21st Centuries
Other
2. Music of Contemporary Styles and Genres Music for Children
World Music
Popular Music
Country Music
Hard rock
Folk-rock
Heavy metal
Acid
273 Rap
Thrash
Jazz
Music for Radio
Music for Film
Music for Television
Music for Multimedia
Theatre Music
Music of a Culture
Music for Small Ensembles
Music for Large Ensembles
Rock
Other
3. Australian Music Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander contemporary music
Australian composers and their works
Australian jazz
Australian popular and rock music (country and western, hard rock, folk-rock, heavy metal, acid, jazz-rock, thrash, rap and grunge).
Other
274
4. How much do you think the Not Not A selection of music repertoire for very sure lot classroom use depends on… much
1. Availability of music resources at 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 school 2. Availability of music resources in 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 teacher’s private collection 3. Cost of the resources 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 4. Thematic links to other subjects 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 5. Thematic links with other art 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 forms 6. Students’ likes and dislikes 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 7. The school’s preferences 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8. Examples from the syllabus 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 9. Repertoire used by other teachers 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 10. Popularity of the repertoire 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 11. Classical examples of children’s 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 music (eg. Nursery songs) 12. Students’ skill and previous 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 experience in music 13. Annual/biannual events, eg. Anzac 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Day etc. 14. Teacher’s personal preferences 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 15. Parents’ preferences and/or 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 suggestions 16. Teacher’s experience with 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 teaching music 17. Level of difficulty of the repertoire 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 18. Students’ age group 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 19. Students’ social background 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 20. Students’ ethnic background 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 21. Students’ gender 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
275
C. ABOUT YOUR SCHOOL
1. Post Code of your school
2. Type of your school [ ] Public [ ] Religious [ ] Independent
3. Size of your school (number of students) [ ] 0 – 99 [ ] 100 – 199 [ ] 200 – 299 [ ] 300 – 399 [ ] 400 – 499 [ ] 500 and over
4. How much do you think… Not Not A very sure lot
much 1. Your school has sufficient teaching 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 staff to meet the demands of the music curriculum? 2. Your school has sufficient time in 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 the timetable? 3. Your school has support staff with 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 qualifications and experience to meet the demands of the music curriculum? 4. Your school has a combination of 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 teachers, specialising in one or more art forms supporting classroom teachers? 5. Staff meetings at your school can be 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 helpful in fulfilling demands of the music curriculum?
276 6. In-service training in music is 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 adequate? 7. Your school would be attractive to 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 qualified teachers to teach music at your school? 8. It would be helpful to have a ready 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 repertoire list for music lessons? 9. It would be helpful to have the 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 sequence of developed music lessons? 10. It would be helpful to make use of 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 units developed by other educational authorities or to have commercially developed units? 11. Being qualified to teach music is 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 essential?
5. How much do you think Not Not A your school provides resources very sure lot for teaching music based on… much
1. Computer software? 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 2. Video recordings? 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 3. Audio recordings? 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 4. Electronic instruments? 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 5. Traditional instruments? 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 6. Books and written resources? 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
6. How much do you think Not Not A students would benefit if… very sure lot much
1. The teacher plays a musical 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 instrument when teaching music? 2. Music is taught by a qualified 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 teacher? 3. Music is considered to be in its 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 own subject area?
7. Do you think children find music within K-6 Creative Arts Syllabus [ ] Stimulating? [ ] Challenging?
277 [ ] Not challenging? [ ] Difficult? [ ] Too easy?
8. How much do you follow in Not Not A your teaching K-6 Creative very sure lot Arts Syllabus? much
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
9. About Arts Syllabus 1. What parts of K-6 Creative Arts Syllabus do you find too easy and why?
2. What parts do you find too difficult and why?
3. What parts do you agree with and why?
4. What parts do you disagree with and why?
278