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Contents

vii Acknowledgments viii Notes on Contributors

xi Foreword Janet WASKO

1 Introduction Nolwenn MINGANT, Cecilia TIRTAINE and Joël AUGROS

13 ‘My job is to find the right signals at the right moment for the right people’ An Interview with Benoît MÉLY Laurent CRETON and Nolwenn MINGANT

I AND

21 ‘There simply isn’t one-shape-fits-all for film’ An Interview with Michael WILLIAMS-JONES Nolwenn MINGANT

26 And Tom Cruise Climbed the Burj Khalifa, or How Marketing Shapes Film Production Nolwenn MINGANT

36 ‘My Big Fat Life in Ruins’ Marketing Greekness and the Contemporary US Yannis TZIOUMAKIS and Lydia PAPADIMITRIOU

47 Carry On Laughing Selling English Humour in France Cecilia TIRTAINE and Joël AUGROS

61 Hearing Voices and Marketing in the Ice Age Series A case study by Nolwenn MINGANT

65 Hollywood in China Continuities and Disjunctures in Film Marketing Michael CURTIN, Wesley JACKS and Yongli LI

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76 Film Marketing in Nollywood A case study by Alessandro JEDLOWSKI

80 Marketing High in The Hobbit Trilogy A Spectacular Case of Promoting and Un-promoting New Cinema Miriam ROSS

92 Niche Marketing in Peru An Interview with Claudia ZAVALETA Nolwenn MINGANT

II MARKETING FOR AND BY THE CONSUMER

97 Leaked Information and Rumours The Buzz Effect A case study by Joël AUGROS

102 Brave New , Brave New Ways The and the Future of Low- to No Budget and Marketing Hayley TROWBRIDGE

112 Between and Marketing, the SocialSamba Model An Interview with Aaron Williams Nolwenn MINGANT

117 Promoting in Six Seconds New Strategies Using the Social Network Vine in Spain A case study by Javier LOZANO DELMAR and José Antonio MUÑIZ-VELÁZQUEZ

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122 Piracy and Promotion Understanding the Double-edged Power of Crowds Ramon LOBATO

132 Marketing Bait (2012) Using SMART Data to Identify e-guanxi Among China’s ‘Internet Aborigines’ Brian YECIES, Jie YANG, Matthew BERRYMAN and Kai SOH

147 From Marketing to Performing the Market The Emerging Role of Digital Data in the Independent Film Business Michael FRANKLIN, Dimitrinka STOYANOVA RUSSELL and Barbara TOWNLEY

POSTSCRIPT: THE INVISIBLE SIDE OF BUSINESS: B-TO-B MARKETING

163 Marketing the ‘Avatar Revolution’, or How to Sell Digital Technology to Exhibitors Kira KITSOPANIDOU

174 ‘It’s Africa. It’s Arizona. It’s Antarctica. It’s Afghanistan. Actually, it’s Alberta’ Marketing Locations to Film Producers Ben GOLDSMITH

185 Select Bibliography 194 Index

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Introduction

Nolwenn MINGANT, Cecilia TIRTAINE and Joël AUGROS

While in the 1930s Bette Davis fans, enticed by , trailers and articles in maga- zines, had to patiently wait for her films to be released in , today Julia Roberts fans can enjoy her past and current films in theatres but also on numerous types of screens, in licensed or pirated copies. They can immerse in the film’s marketing campaign, by reacting on the official website, downloading applications and exchanging comments on social net- works. In the early twenty-first century, films are still avidly watched, but the ways they are experienced has dramatically changed; and as the way to engage films has evolved, so have the ways to reach .

Film Marketing: A Defi nition Film marketer Jean-François Camilleri once described his job as ‘the of creating desire, or seducing the largest number of people’.1 Just as the aim of marketing is to ‘find the best possible match between a product and its market’, film marketing strives to create ‘product/market couples’.2 Amorous metaphors thus abound, with film marketing depicted as ‘large-scale flirting’3 or ‘seduction thanks to packaging’.4 Quick seduction is required, on a ‘it’s now or never’ principle, as people have to be enticed to go to theatres for the ‘critical opening weekend’.5 At the centre of attention is the spectator, the ‘target’ to reach, and film marketing can first be defined as ‘consumer marketing’.6 Cinematic products have a number of specific characteristics. First, each film is unique: cinema is a prototype industry. For each campaign, marketers have to identify the adequate target group and create adapted material. This is called ‘ cre- ation’.7 Not only is each campaign unique, but it also takes place prior to the release, leaving few opportunities for ulterior changes. In the words of producer Robert Evans: ‘a film is like no other product. It only goes around once. It is like a parachute jump. If it doesn’t open you’re dead.’8 Second, films are cultural products. Culture can be under- stood as ‘the works and practices of intellectual and especially artistic activity’,9 which links film to performing and museums, with their uniqueness, intangibility and absence of concrete utility. Film marketing, as ‘cultural marketing’, indeed, deals with hedonistic, emotional and symbolic experiences.10 ‘Culture’ can also be understood as the common identity shared by a country’s inhabitants, as a fundamental element in the very making of these nations, which Benedict Anderson defined as ‘imagined political communities’.11 In that sense, marketers have to deal with national traits and represen- tations, and although ‘marketing is universal, marketing practice … varies from country to country’.12 Moreover, these constructed cultural elements which characterise a group13 do not necessarily refer to a national context. The target of film marketers can, indeed, be ‘affinity groups’,14 such as Twilight fans, or ‘trekkies’.15 With the development of social , such affinity groups have recently gained importance. Practitioners and analysts of film marketing must thus be mindful of the link between the film, as a cultural

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product, and the spectator, as a culturally specific entity, whether in terms of nationality, gender, age, or affinities. Although to the general audience film marketing is mostly visible through posters and trailers, film marketers’ attempts to reach their target is a much wider-reaching activity. More than mere ‘ techniques’, film marketing is about ‘gathering the information and intelligence necessary to elaborate a production and commercialisation strategy’.16 It implies the participation of many players, from the very beginning of a film’s life in its author’s mind, to the adoption by audiences long after they have left the theatres. For this volume, we have adopted Kerrigan’s definition that film marketing ‘begins at the new prod- uct development stage and continues throughout the formation of the project ideas, through production and into distribution and exhibition’.17 Like her, we believe it is neces- sary to ‘continue the film marketing journey unto the realm of film consumption’ as con- sumers ‘may wish to extend their consumption through visiting online review sites, discussing the films with friends or progressing with their film consumption to consumer- related films’.18

The Film Marketing Process Detailed practical information on how to take a film through the different production and dis- tribution stages is readily available in how-to guides such as Angus Finney’s International Film Business: A Market Guide beyond Hollywood (2010), Jon Reiss’s Think Outside the Box Office: The Ultimate Guide to Film Distribution and Marketing for the Digital Era (2011), or Robert Marich’s seminal Marketing to Moviegoers: A Handbook of Strategies and Tactics (2013). One can also turn to the now-dated but still pertinent Movie Marketing: Opening the Picture and Giving it Legs (1997), in which Tiiu Lukk presents a series of case studies based on interviews with professionals. This introduction will briefly go over the dif- ferent stages of film marketing.

Strategic marketing First, the target audience is identified by analysing the ‘film marketing mix’ – that is, direc- tor, , , genre, age classification. Marketers map out the film’s SWOTs (Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities and Threats).19 On the basis of these elements, film marketers operate a segmentation of the audience, identifying a core target, but also a secondary group to which the film could cross over. Once the target audience is identified, the team determines the film’s positioning, by setting its identity and defining where it stands in relation to other films on the market and in audiences’ minds. Positioning relies on a film’s selling points – that is, ‘story elements that are easily communicated in simple terms’.20 One film can have several types of posi- tioning, for different target groups. Four Weddings and a Funeral (1994) was marketed as a about single people to eighteen-to-twenty-four-year-olds, as an English-humour romantic comedy for twenty-five-to-thirty-four-year-olds and as an adult date movie for the thirty-five-plus audience.21 A film can also have a different positioning in different countries. While Minority Report (2002) was sold in France on the reputation of its direc- tor, with praise from film critics printed on the , the highly technological elements of the films were the major selling point in the Japanese campaign.22 The identification of the audience segment and positioning then guides the choice of a distribution pattern or release strategy. Big-budget films for audiences usually benefit from a saturation release – that is, on a large number of screens, with a blitz tele- vision campaign. Mid-range pictures, often directed to a more adult audience, usually have

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Introduction 3

UK poster for Four Weddings and a Funeral (1994): an English-humour romantic comedy and an adult date movie a more limited release. An exclusive release refers to a distribution move restricted to a few theatres, in big cities. A platform release is a limited release strategy: the film is first distributed in a few cinemas and then, as positive word of mouth expands, the number of copies gradually increases and the marketing campaign gathers pace. At that stage, a release date is selected, according to existing seasons. In the USA, summer is the peak season,23 the time for big-budget films. A second important season for big-budget films, notably , is the Christmas holidays. For art-house films the peak will be autumn, on the way to the Oscar season. Although big-budget films increasingly tend to be released simultaneously around the world, or day-and-date, each region maintains its own seasons. In , for example, autumn is a strong period.24 Marketers must also take into account specific holidays such as Eid al-Fitr and Eid al-Adha in Egypt, or the summer school break in China. They must stay attuned to this seasonality, which can evolve over time. The choice of the right release date is vital, as the buzz created by the theatrical mar- keting push is crucial for ancillary markets such as , and video-on-demand (VoD).

Operational marketing Operational marketing occurs at the distribution stage. It comprises the creation of com- munication material (title, poster, teasers, trailers), media planning and buying (also called the media mix) and . One must distinguish advertising, which marketers pay for (e.g. ads in papers or posters) and publicity, which includes all unpaid-for media coverage, TV chat shows, interviews, premiere appearances, world tours, press junkets, films reviews and awards ceremonies.25 Trailers, which are ‘probably the most important, effective, and

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cost-efficient way of marketing a new film’,26 have been the object of a specific , with notable contributions such as Lisa Kernan’s Coming Attractions: Reading American Movie Trailers (2004), Keith M. Johnston’s Coming Soon: Film Trailers and the Selling of Hollywood Technology (2009) and Tiiu Lukk’s chapter ‘Coming Attractions: Creating the ’.27 But today relies on a wider variety of tools, as Jonathan Gray’s Show Sold Separately: Promos, Spoilers, and Other Media Paratexts (2010) shows with his analyses of trailers, as well as spoilers, reviews or DVD bonus materials. Operational marketing is deeply rooted in local conditions. Marketers in charge of media buying must be aware of the specificities of local media outlets. An example is how tele- vision spending is a large part of the budget in North America, while no ads for movies are allowed on French television. A central issue for the operational marketing team is, thus, how to tailor the film’s campaign to a specific market, a process called adaptation or local- isation. Beyond the choice of adequate media outlets for advertising and promotion, and minor adaptation of the posters and trailers, marketing teams can also use two other tools to localise their campaigns: dubbing28 and tie-ins with local partners.

Cross-cutting practices Some activities stand astride the division described above. For example, product place- ment – that is, ‘“placing” a product or a brand in one or more scenes of a film, in one form or another, in return for payment’29 – is decided upon at the strategic stage and activated at the operational stage. Generally, the strikes a barter deal with a brand, which provides the products in exchange for their presence in the film.30 at the production stage opens cross-promotional opportunities at the distribu- tion stage. The franchise is probably the best-known example of product placement on a large scale, with more than twenty brands included in Die Another Day (2002) and the appearance of Heineken in Skyfall (2012).31 As films are prepared for release, the car, food or perfume companies devise their own advertising campaigns fea- turing the film’s characters, thus participating in the marketing push with tie-ins. Tie-in deals can also result in the creation of branded products, or merchandising. Another activity that occurs both at the strategic and operational marketing stages is market research. As the ability to obtain information about the potential audience is vital, market research holds a central place at all stages.32 During development, producers can resort to concept and title testing. At the strategic marketing stage, positioning studies can ‘develop a detailed movie marketing plan at a very early stage based on a script and cast- ing’.33 Marich gives a detailed presentation of market research practices such as focus groups, test screenings, or tracking surveys.34 Marketing material, such as posters and trailers, can also be tested. Although market research is central, film marketers equally insist on the importance of intuition and experience – personal and shared – in making decisions. The search for predictability which guides market research has also led to a trend in academic literature whose aim is to identify the impact of the marketing mix on a film’s success, such as Barry Litman and Hoekyun Ahn’s ‘Predicting Financial Success of Motion Pictures: The Early ’90s Experience’35 or Arthur De Vany’s chapter on ‘Big Budgets, Big Openings and Legs: Analysis of the Blockbuster Strategy’.36

Marketability and distribution choices Given the vast array of films, not all are equally marketable. Marketability is ‘a marketer’s calculation of all the elements of the film than can be used in promotion and advertising’:

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the ‘larger the number of advertising- friendly elements – including a film’s imagery, storyline, music, genre and styl- isation – the greater the marketability’.37 The most ‘advertising-friendly’ films are ‘high-concept’ films, such as Flashdance (1983) or Top Gun (1986), which include striking visual and audio elements con- ceived to be easily used at the marketing stage.38 The marketing practices described above are thus used to varying degrees for each film, depending on its mar- ketability and its distributor. Marketing strategies for big-budget films released by Hollywood studios will tend to inte- grate production and marketing, to devote a large budget to prints and advertising (P&A), and to rely on satura- Top Gun (1986): the prototype of the ‘high-concept’ tion releases. Independent distributors fi lm will tend to ‘dispense with research com- pletely’,39 have much smaller P&A bud- gets and fewer distribution outlets. While saturation releases rely on a massive marketing blitz, independent distribution will favour the development of positive word of mouth through limited releases and presentations in the festival circuits.

Industrial marketing Strategic and operational marketing can be defined as ‘business-to-consumer’ (B-to-C) practices. They are the more visible facets of the marketing campaign. However, film mar- keting also encompasses ‘business-to-business’ (B-to-B) practices, including pitches by to producers, screenings for sales agents or distributors, the selling of a new technology to owners, as well as advocacy marketing – that is, the creation of pop- ular and political support for Hollywood through publicised awards ceremonies and politi- cal lobbying by the Independent Film & Television Alliance and the Motion Picture Association of America (MPAA).40

Film Marketing Players With such a variety of practices, film marketing involves many players. The overall strategy used is determined by the type of distributor. The largest distribution outfits are Hollywood’s major studios: Disney, Paramount, Sony, 20th Century-Fox, Universal and Warner Bros. They have large marketing departments with subdivisions for creative adver- tising, publicity and promotion, market research and media.41 The majors also have a large network of international distribution offices, which contributes to their continued domi- nance in the world markets. They own speciality divisions, such as Fine Line or Sony Picture Classics, which distribute less mainstream films. Alongside these international colossuses, there is a variety of smaller distribution companies, such as in the USA. To market their films abroad, US independent distribution companies rely on local distributors. While some distributors cover a regional area, such as the French company

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Studio Canal which has offices in France, Germany, the UK, Australia and New Zealand, or Dubai-based Gulf Film, which covers the whole Middle East, some distributors focus specifically on their national market, such as United Motion Pictures in Egypt or Prooptiki in Greece. Film marketing activities are often externalised to a wide range of small companies, called ‘outside vendors’42 or ‘boutique agencies’.43 Market research is largely outsourced to firms like National Research Group (NRG)44 and Online Testing Exchange (OTX) in the USA, or Ipsos MediaCT and Dodona Research in the UK. Also often externalised is the creation of trailers, to companies such as Ant Farm in Los Angeles or Silenzio in Paris, and the film’s dubbing to companies such as Dubbing Brothers, VSI Group or Arvintel Media Productions. When the distributor does not have an in-house marketing department, the marketing process can be subcontracted to advertising and agencies, such as Ireland’s Wide Eye Media. Other types of advertising-support companies include cinema in foyer media companies (e.g. Boomerang Media in the UK), outdoor advertising companies (e.g. Primesight UK, JCDecaux or CBS Outdoor in the UK), advertising space brokers (e.g. Carat, Mediacom or Mindshare in the UK) or internet-advertising companies (France’s Cinefriends). The film’s talent, the director and actors, can also be very much involved in the market- ing push, through personal appearances and interviews. For small-budget films, doing the legwork can be determining, as when comedian Dany Boon toured France to promote Bienvenue chez les Ch’tis (2008), a medium-budget comedy which became a hit in France and subsequently experienced success in a large number of countries. Film marketing activities do not, however, rely on film professionals only. State players also have a key role in the definition and operations of this activity. In France, the is closely regulated by a public body, the Centre national de la cinématographie et de l’ animée (CNC). The ban on film trailers on television decided in order to fight inequality between small and large distributors is one aspect through which marketing is limited in France. States also intervene through censorship and quota legislations or through nationalised film distributors, such as China Film Group or Kuwait National Cinema Company. In contrast, state intervention can be enabling, especially for indepen- dent films. In 2003, the UK Specialised P&A Fund was created to support the national dis- tribution and marketing of specialised movies, whether British or not, and of more mainstream British movies which had small P&A budgets.45 On a pan-regional level, the Creative Europe EU initiative has a MEDIA sub-programme dedicated to distribution and marketing to encourage transnational film circulation. A final player is the spectator. The object of constant attention from film marketers, the audience should not be viewed as a passive entity experimented upon with previews and surveys. Viewers increasingly take on an active role in film campaigns. Through positive and word of mouth, they can be true ‘influencers’,46 a phenomenon now increased by the internet.

A Brief Marketing Film marketing in Hollywood Marketing developed in the USA in the 1930s. Although it did not officially reach Hollywood before the , one can consider that many current practices are as old as cinema itself, with the use of market research in production choices identified as early as the 1910s.47 In the 1930s, stars were used as ‘market strategy’, while studios practised audience testing and publicity in fan magazines.48 Before the 1970s, however, Hollywood

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Introduction 7 did not market its films, it promoted them. The publicity departments concentrated on pub- licity and trailers, rather than on advertising.49 During the ‘studio era’, studios were, indeed, associated with particular stars – who were under contract – and genres, and each studio developed a brand identity.50 As the collapsed in the , in the wake of the 1948 Consent Decree, publicity departments could not rely on the same tools any more and had to start creating awareness for each film;51 ‘marketing services’ started to be tentatively created at the very end of the 1960s.52 In the 1970s, two films marked the establishment of marketing practices in Hollywood: Jaws (1975), which launched the concept of the saturation release, with ad campaigns centred on TV spots,53 and Star Wars (1977), which took the marginal practice of mer- chandising to previously unheard-of levels and turned it into a staple practice in Hollywood.54 By the late 1970s, marketing had officially set foot in Hollywood, and ‘pub- licity departments gradually evolved into “multi-disciplined” marketing departments, which include specific divisions for publicity, creating advertising, media buying and promotion (including product placement and tie-in activities)’.55 At the same time, market research surged to become ‘integral’ to the film industry, in an era when conglomerate-owned stu- dios wanted reassurance against unpredictability.56 Today, marketing considerations guide production decisions in the Hollywood system. Janet Wasko defines this as a ‘bottom-line or box-office mentality’.57 With the development of marketing practices came the recurrent issue of constantly expanding marketing costs. Whereas studio era advertisers relied mostly on free publicity, P&A costs today represent about one third of a film’s total cost by a major Hollywood studio. For big franchises, the cost can be much higher. In 1995, GoldenEye’s marketing costs reached 125 per cent of its production costs. In 2013, Skyfall kept them at 100 per cent, and relied on externalised publicity (tie-ins).

Beyond Hollywood Given the capitalistic orientation of the US film industry, marketing found a ready ground in Hollywood. Film marketing, however, is used in film industries all over the world, as the following examples show. Promotion of movies has existed since the 1913 release of Raja Harishchandra, but film marketing actually developed in the mid-1990s, when the pro- ducer of Hum Aapke Hain Kaun (1994) decided to promote his film on television. Prior to the 1990s, aggressive campaigns had never seemed necessary as filmgoing was the main in the country. Since then, integrated marketing strategies have been com- monly used, with previews, television appearances and dedicated websites.58 The largest -based distributors have adopted Hollywood-style standardised methods to pro- mote their films in India and abroad, with P&A costs at about 10 per cent of a film’s total budget.59 In France, another important film-making country, film marketing was first met with dis- trust, with cinema primarily considered as an art form and largely supported by the state. In the mid-90s, marketing was generally looked down upon by film professionals for ide- ological reasons: adopting marketing would mean giving in to US-style commodification, conglomeration and more generally to ‘supermarket culture’.60 The structure of the French film industry was also a factor explaining the slow adoption of marketing practices. With the exception of major companies Gaumont, Studio Canal and EuropaCorp., producers mostly work on a single project.61 This cottage industry organisation does not allow for the allocation of large funds to marketing. The importance of state support, through French or European aid programmes, also tends to lessen the focus on the consumer in production

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decisions. In the 2000s, however, the development of wider releases and a cannibalisation phenomenon in peak season led to fierce competition, which pushed distributors to increasingly adopt a market logic focused on the consumer.62 In several countries, theatrical film marketing cannot exist as such. In Algeria, for exam- ple, the exhibition sector has collapsed over the past three decades, and only two com- mercial movie theatres still stand. Run by civil servants, these theatres, as well as the existing cinémathèques circuit, have no incentive to attract customers and simply post the day’s programme outside the theatres.63 In Nigeria, theatrical exhibition is also virtually non-existent and a flourishing local video film industry has developed since the 1990s,64 with specific marketing practices. In recent years, Nollywood’s push towards the interna- tional market has taken the form of advocacy marketing efforts, notably with the Los Angeles Nollywood Foundation.65 The development and range of film marketing practices can thus be correlated to each country’s film production structure and culture: cottage industry vs integrated industry, art vs industry. One cannot, however, generalise, as within each country a variety of film pro- duction and marketing practices coexist. South Korea is, for example, home to both world- wide distributed, internationally co-produced sci-fi actioner Snowpiercer (2013) and to film-festival distributed, art-house Moebiuseu (2013). This volume will mostly concentrate on the marketing of English- films, but seeks to provide reflection which can be of theoretical and practical use in various contexts around the world.

Film Marketing into the Twenty-First Century Through academic articles and case studies, as well as interviews with professionals, this volume explores current film marketing issues, which take their roots in the 1980s wave of globalisation, characterised by 1) the opening of borders to financial, trade, population and culture flows and 2) the development of new information and communication . As borders opened, notably with the collapse of the Communist bloc, globalisation influ- enced the way identities were created, experienced and perceived. The easy circulation of cultural products led to the idea of the development of a ‘global culture’,66 in which every- one became ‘citizens of the world’. Rapidly, however, local identities claimed their place with renewed vigour.67 Part I explores the current relevance of culture – with its diverse meanings – in film marketing decision-making and practices. This part starts with an interview with former president of United International Pictures, Michael Williams-Jones, who shares his views on international marketing, stressing the importance of ‘understanding your market and understanding your movie’, and strongly defending the value of local expertise. Two articles then explore the implication of cultural differences for film marketing. Comparing the US and Greek campaigns of two Greek-ori- ented films, My Big Fat Greek Wedding (2002) and My Life in Ruins (2009), Tzioumakis and Papadimitriou contrast ‘indie’ and ‘indiewood’ marketing strategies in two different national contexts, and interrogate the use of stereotypes and localisation. Stereotypes and national clichés are also at the centre of Tirtaine and Augros’ article on the selling of British in France. Their analysis of the main differences between the two markets and the choices made by distributors in terms of film titles and posters shows that Britishness has tended to be a major selling point when marketing British comedies in France, especially as from the 1990s. In a case study, Mingant offers further reflexion on the localisation of campaigns through dubbing. Taking the example of the Ice Age franchise, she shows how the choice of famous local voices is a marketing asset for professionals in the USA and abroad.

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Two essays then explore the major Hollywood studios’ efforts to market their films inter- nationally. Mingant examines Hollywood’s renewed interest for non-US audiences since the mid-90s and brings to light the place of international marketing professionals and their role in the transformation of Hollywood big-budget films into highly marketable global- local films. Curtin, Jacks and Li reflect on the specific cultural and political challenges of the Chinese market, and show Hollywood operating in a highly constrained environment, by allying with local partners and relinquishing control of their products to online players. Another market where distribution is deeply constrained by local circumstances is Nigeria. Nollywood – the Nigerian film business – is a predominantly non-theatrical indus- try. Jedlowski’s case study shows that Nollywood, because of this, has a unique model of film marketing, which is based mostly on point-of-sale marketing strategies. Taking a different view, the final chapter leads the reader to consider cinema as a specifically constructed culture. By detailing the marketing campaign led by Warner Bros. and Peter Jackson around The Hobbit 2012 and 2013 opuses, Ross shows how new tech- nologies that revolutionise our understanding of realism can be rejected by audiences and create a marketing conundrum. This part concludes with an interview with film marketer Claudia Zavaleta, who discusses playing on audiences’ expectations when distributing Bollywood films in Peru. The second major issue since the 1980s has been the development of new communi- cation technologies, notably the internet. In the past decades, the rapid development of social media has had a deep influence on the relationship between products and their con- sumers. The capacity to exchange opinion through Facebook, Twitter, YouTube or Vine has turned internet users (especially bloggers) into main players in the marketing process. Social media has made Alvin Toffler’s 1980 concept of ‘prosumer’ – the combination of ‘producer’ and ‘consumer’ – a truism. Part II brings to light the opportunities and challenges offered by social media and user-generated content for film marketing. Augros opens this part with a short reflexion on the interplay between official and non- official internet presence of the distributors, insisting on the blurry area of ‘leaked’ infor- mation. Tracing buzz-creating strategies back to the , he opens a vista on how word of mouth turned into e-WOM. Equally insisting on the mixing of old and new strategies in the era of media conver- gence, Trowbridge shows how independent film-makers can tap into the internet’s ‘partic- ipatory culture’68 to develop grassroots financing and distribution strategies away from the main gatekeepers. Two shorter texts provide further case studies of marketers’/consumers’ collaboration through social media. Aaron Williams relates how his SocialSamba website users can experience film and television-branded stories, as well as write their own versions of these programmes, in an example of viral marketing practice. Lozano Delmar and Muñiz- Velázquez’s case study analysis of the video social network Vine shows both the opportu- nities offered by new technologies and the hesitations and learning processes for the distributors. Lobato, indeed, warns that using consumers as promotional players can be ‘double- edged’. He shows how distributors have to balance their desire to create e-WOM with efforts to prevent pirate access to their films through platforms such as BitTorrent. Two final essays then take a more theoretical stand, offering new methodologies. Aiming to evaluate the value of e-WOM and user-generated content, Yecies, Yang, Berryman and Soh take the example of comments on Australian Bait (2012) on China’s Douban internet platform to propose a novel platform for social media data

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processing. In their chapter, based on a observation at the Scottish Documentary Institute, Franklin, Stoyanova Russell and Townley show how the analysis of Digital Engagement Metrics, such as Facebook Likes, influence the market, thus bringing to light the performative characteristics of social media. Part I and II analyse the realms of culture and new technologies, focusing on the rela- tionship between 1) the producer/film-maker/marketer and 2) their customers. An explo- ration of film marketing issues today, however, would have seemed incomplete without acknowledging B-to-B practices, to which a postscript is dedicated. Kitsopanidou presents the relationship between film-makers/producers and exhibitors through the case of Avatar (2009), focusing on Cameron’s efforts in the adoption of 3D. The final article deals with an even less visible practice; Goldsmith offers insight into the work of film commissions around the world and their efforts to advertise their regions as ‘film-friendly’ locations for international shoots, in order to boost local economic activities. From national to virtual environments, from a culturally constructed spectator to an active prosumer, from B-to-C to B-to-B, this book proposes a journey through film marketing issues in the first decades of the twenty-first century.

Notes 1. Jean-François Camilleri, Le Marketing du cinéma (Paris: Dixit, 2006), p. 43. 2 Laurent Creton, Economie du cinéma: Prespectives stratégiques (Paris: Armand Colin Cinéma, 2005 [1994]), p. 162. 3. Camilleri, Le Marketing du cinéma, p. 44. 4. Nolwenn Mingant, Hollywood à la conquête du monde: Marchés, stratégies, influences (Paris: CNRS Editions, 2010), p. 76. 5. Robert G. Friedman, ‘Motion Picture Marketing’, in Jason E. Squire (ed.), The Movie Business Book (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1992 [1983]), p. 293. 6. Robert Marich, Marketing to Moviegoers: A Handbook of Strategies and Tactics (Carbondale, IL: Southern Illinois University Press, 2013, 3rd edn), p. 2. 7. Edward J. Epstein, The Hollywood Economist (New York: Melville House, 2010), p. 187. 8. Mark Litwak, Reel Power: The Struggle for Influence and Success in the (New York: William Morrow, 1986), p. 84. 9. Raymond Williams, quoted in John Tomlinson, Cultural Imperialism: A Critical Introduction (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1991), p. 5. 10. Hélène Laurichesse, Quel marketing pour le cinéma? (Paris: CNRS Editions, 2006), pp. 44–7. 11. Benedict Anderson, Imagined Communities (New York : Verso, 1991 [1983]), p. 6. 12. Warren J. Keegan, Global Marketing Management (Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall, 2002, 7th edition), p. 2. 13. Carmel Camilleri and Margalit Cohen-Emerique (eds), Chocs de : Concepts et enjeux pratiques de l’interculturel (Paris: L’Harmattan, 1989), p. 27. 14. Marich, Marketing to Moviegoers, p. 399. 15. ‘Trekkies’ are fans of the Star Trek universe. 16. Creton, Economie du cinéma, p. 162. 17. Finola Kerrigan, Film Marketing (Amsterdam: Elsevier, 2010), p. 10. 18. Ibid. 19. The SWOT analysis is a strategic management technique developed in the USA in the 1960s and 1970s. 20. Toby Miller, Nitin Govil, John McMurria and Richard Maxwell, Global Hollywood (London: BFI, 2001), p. 153.

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21. Tiiu Lukk, Movie Marketing: Opening the Picture and Giving it Legs (Los Angeles: Silman-James Press, 1997), p. 5. 22. ‘Rejigged Marketing Helps US Pics Soar’, Variety, 28 October 2002. 23. Joël Augros, L’Argent d’Hollywood (Paris: L’Harmattan, 1996), p. 168. 24. Marich, Marketing to Moviegoers, p. 222. 25. Janet Wasko, How Hollywood Works (London: Sage, 2005), pp. 193–6. Philip Drake, ‘Distribution and Marketing in Contemporary Hollywood’, in Paul McDonald and Janet Wasko (eds), The Contemporary Hollywood Industry (Malden: Blackwell, 2008), p. 74. 26. Wasko, How Hollywood Works, p. 198. 27. Lukk, Movie Marketing, pp. 217–32. 28. See the Ice Age case study in this volume. 29. Jean-Marc Lehu, Branded Entertainment: Product Placement & Brand Strategy in the Entertainment Business (London: Kogan Page, 2007), p. 4. See also Kerry Segrave, Product Placement in Hollywood Films: A History (Jefferson: McFarland & Co., 2004). 30. Wasko, How Hollywood Works, p. 155. 31. Ibid., p. 154. ‘The Skyfall’s the limit on James Bond marketing’, Guardian, 23 October 2013, www.theguardian.com/film/filmblog/2012/oct/23/skyfall-marketing-james-bond 32. Studies on audience motivation can be traced back in Hollywood to the late 1920s. For the role of George Gallup and Audience Research Inc. in the 1940s, see Susan Ohmer, George Gallup in Hollywood (New York: Columbia University Press, 2006). 33. Marich, Marketing to Moviegoers, p. 38. 34. Ibid., pp. 32–58. 35. Barry Litman and Hoekyun Ahn, ‘Predicting Financial Success of Motion Pictures: The Early ’90s Experience’, in Barry Litman, (ed.), The Motion Picture Mega-Industry (Boston: Allyn and Bacon, 1998), p. 176. 36. Arthur De Vany, Hollywood Economics: How Extreme Uncertainty Shaped the Film Industry (New York: Routledge, 2004). 37. Miller et al., Global Hollywood, p. 155. 38. Justin Wyatt, High Concept: Movies and Marketing in Hollywood (Austin: University of Texas Press, 2003 [1994]). 39. Marich, Marketing to Moviegoers, p. 33. 40. Miller et al., Global Hollywood, p. 161. 41. Friedman, ‘Motion Picture Marketing’, p. 293. 42. Wasko, How Hollywood Works, p. 189. 43. Drake, ‘Distribution and Marketing in Contemporary Hollywood’, p. 71. 44. NRG has the same parent as trade publication The Hollywood Reporter, VNU. In 1997 NRG was integrated into the Nielsen Entertainment unit at VNU. 45. Cecilia Tirtaine, ‘Le Nouvel essor du cinéma britannique (1994–2004): Facteurs conjoncturels et structurels’, PhD Dissertation, Université Paris Ouest Nanterre, 2008, pp. 82–4. 46. Kerrigan, Film Marketing, pp. 115, 155. 47. David Bordwell, Janet Staiger and Kristin Thompson, The Classical Hollywood Cinema: Film Style & Mode of Production to 1960 (New York: Columbia University Press, 1985), p. 144. 48. Cathy Klaprat, ‘The Star as Market Strategy: Bette Davis in Another Light’, in Tino Balio (ed.), The American Film Industry (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1985), pp. 351–76. 49. Wasko, How Hollywood Works, p. 188.

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50. Drake, ‘Distribution and Marketing in Contemporary Hollywood’, p. 67. 51. Ibid. 52. Mingant, Hollywood à la conquête du monde, pp. 224–5. 53. Joël Augros and Kira Kitsopanidou, L’Economie du cinéma américain: Histoire d’une industrie culturelle et de ses stratégies (Paris: Armand Colin Cinéma, 2009), pp. 124, 174. The national saturation technique was first experimented with by Warner Bros. with Billy Jack (1971). 54. Augros, L’Argent d’Hollywood, p. 286. 55. Wasko, How Hollywood Works, p. 189. 56. Wyatt, High Concept, pp. 155–60. 57. Wasko, How Hollywood Works, p. 54. 58. Camille Deprez, Bollywood: Cinéma et mondialisation (Villeneuve d’Ascq: Septentrion, 2010), pp. 77–9, 142. 59. Ibid., p. 72. 60. Creton, Economie du cinéma, p. 163. 61. Alejandro Pardo, The Europe–Hollywood Coopetition: Cooperation and Competition in the Global Film Industry (Pamplona: Ediciones Universidad de Navarra, 2007), p. 45. 62. Laurichesse, Quel marketing pour le cinéma?, p. 3. 63. Nolwenn Mingant, ‘A Peripheral Market? Hollywood Majors and the Middle East/North Africa Theatrical Market’, Velvet Light Trap vol. 75, 2015. 64. Ramon Lobato, Shadow of Cinema: Mapping Informal Film Distribution (London: BFI, 2012), p. 57. Kerrigan, Film Marketing, p. 78. 65. Lobato, Shadow Economies of Cinema, p. 63. 66. Armand Mattelart, ‘La nouvelle idéologie globalitaire’, in Serge Cordellier (ed.), La Mondialisation au-delà des mythes (Paris: La Découverte/Poche, 2000), p. 86. 67. Benjamin Barber, ‘Jihad vs McWorld’, The Atlantic Monthly, March 1992. 68. Henry Jenkins, Convergence Culture: When Old and New Media Collide (New York: New York University Press, 2006), p. 331.

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Index

Note: Page numbers in bold indicate detailed analysis. Those in italic refer to . n = endnote. t = table/diagram.

3D cinema 10, 24, 81–3, 163–9 Antichrist (2009) 14 The Best Exotic Marigold Hotel history 163–5, 171n20 Arizona see Monument Valley (2011) 49t increased ticket prices 81, 164, Armstrong, Shayne 133 Bhaji on the Beach (1993) 55, 56, 170n13 Aronofsky, Darren 14 60n25 marketing of concept 165–7 art-house fi lms 3, 14, 35n43, Bienvenue chez les Ch’tis (2008) scarcity of screens 164 51–2, 57 6, 59n12 (500) Days of Summer (2009) 40 Asano, Tadanobu 32 The Big Bang (2007–) 61 Asia, emerging markets in 23, 26, Bilginer, Haluk 62 About a Boy (2002) 49t 28 Billy Elliot (2000) 49t Abrams, J. J. 99 Association of Film Commissioners Billy Jack (1971) 12n53 , timing of International (AFCI) 178 Black Swan (2010) 14 releases to fi t in with 3, 15 Atkinson, Rowan 55 audience targeting 14 Acland, Charles 163, 169 attendance fi gures, estimation of SWOTs 15 action fi lms, international popularity 13–14 The Blair Witch Project (1999) 99, 31–2 audiences, targeting 1–2, 14, 24 99, 104, 109n15 Network Theory (ANT) 148 Australia, fi lm industry 133 Blue Jasmine (2013) 72 advertising Australian Film Commission 182 Bluhdorn, Charles 21 consumer-generated 118–20 Avatar (2009) 10, 81, 82, 88n15, The Boat that Rocked (2009) 53t, online 79n16, 117–20 163–9 54 on television 4, 7, 39, 79n10, ‘Avatar Day’ 167, 168, 169 Bollywood 7 100n7 marketing strategy 165–9 Peruvian distribution/marketing affi nity groups 1 posters 167–8, 168 92–4 Afghanistan, showing of US fi lms release 168–9, 172n43, Bond fi lms 4, 22, 31 in 125 172n45 Boon, Dany 6 Ahn, Hoekyun 4 trailers 167–8 Bourne franchise (2002–12) 31 ‘Ain’t It Cool News’ (website) The Avengers (2012) 127 The Bourne Legacy (2012) 145n7 97–8 Bourvil 48 Airbnb (website) 118 B-to-B (business-to-business) Boyle, Danny 60n33 Aladdin (1992) 61 practices 10 Boys Don’t Cry (1999) 14 Alberta Film 174–5 Baba qu nar? (2014) 69 Bradshaw, Peter 87 Algeria, collapse of exhibition Back to the Future, Part III (1990) brand names, featuring in sector 8 28 fi lms/advertising 4 Ali G Indahouse (2002) 59n15 bad fi lms, problems of marketing Brave New Films 103, 106–8, Alice in Wonderland (1953) 23 109n5 172–3n50 Baidu (search engine) 71 Brave New Foundation 103, 106, Alice in Wonderland (2010) 166 Bait (2012) 9–10, 132–44 109n5 Aliens of the Deep (2005) 165 analysis of online responses: Bridget Jones: The Edge of All for Love (2012) 145n7 method 137–41; results Reason (2004) 49t, 60n30 The Amazing Spider-Man (2012) 141–4 Bridget Jones’s Diary (2001) 49t, 67 box-offi ce success 133 57, 60n30 The Amazing Spider-Man 2 (2014) cast/crew 133 British comedy/ies 47–58 68 Chinese version 133 accents in 51 Amelia (2009) 40 release dates 146n19 audience appeal 48 America, America (1963) 37 star power 135, 140 differing reception in UK and American Pie (1999) 61 Bardem, Javier 30 France 50–2, 50t American Ultra (2015) 127 Barnes, Brooks 32 French marketing strategies Anderson, Benedict 1 Battle of Britain (1969) 53t 55–8 animation fi lms, in 3D 164–5, 166 Baym, Nancy 148 French titles 52–5, 53t anime 124 Bean (1997) 49t output 48, 59nn9–10 Anne of Green Gables (Canadian Beautiful Thing (1996) 50t posters 55–8, 56 TV 1985) 184n34 Belton, John 80, 85 (problems of) defi nition 47 Another Year (2010) 50t The Benny Hill Show (TV) 47, success in France 48–50, 49t Ansari, Aziz 61, 62 58n3 British Film Commission 181

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Index 195

Broderick, Peter 105, 107 Cohen, Sacha Baron 59n15 directors, involvement in marketing Broomfi eld, Nick 106 Colorado, location fi lming in 177 6 Bruno (2009) 59n15 Comes a Horseman (1978) 177 distribution companies 5–6 Buckskin Joe (town) see Colorado communication technology, District 9 (2009) 83, 100 budget, impact on marketing developments in 9, 24 Distrify player 153, 153–6, 155, strategy 2–3 Confetti (2006) 50t 156 Buice, Susan 107, 108 Consent Decree 1948 (USA) 7 DIY fi lm-makers 102, 108n1 Burroughs, Edgar Rice 98 ‘conversion marketing’ 163, 165, DMG Entertainment (Beijing) Burton, Tim 166 170n7, 171n21 67–8 The Butterfly Effect (2004) 14 Corbett, John 38 documentaries 147–56 Corden, James 55 problems of marketing 149 Calendar Girls (2003) 49t Corliss, Richard 87 Dolphin Tale (2011) 114, 115 Cameron, James 10, 82, 88n15, costs, marketing vs production 7 Donnie Darko (2001) 104 163, 164, 165–9, 171n33 Cotillard, Marion 30 Don’t Go Breaking My Heart Camilleri, Jean-François 1 Covered Affairs (TV 2010–12) (1999) 50t Canal + (TV channel) 119 112, 116n3 Douban (social network) 132, Canclini, Nestor Garcia 126 The Cowboys (1972) 177 134–5, 136, 141–3 Cannes 15, 51 Cripps, Andrew 30 Douglas, Michael 27 Captain America: The Winter cross-cutting practices 4 Downey, Robert, Jr 68 Soldier (2014) 68 crowdfunding 106 Dragons (2009) 164 Captain Corelli’s Mandolin (2003) crowdsourcing 106–7 Drake 61, 62 37 Croxson, Karen 123 The Draughtsman’s Contract La Cara del Diablo (2014) 92, 93 Cruise, Tom 5, 31 (1982) 53t, 54 Carrey, Jim 59n15, 63, 64n7 Crumley, Arin 107, 108 DreamWorks Animation 164 Carrie (2013) 118–19 Cruz, Penelope 30 Dreyfuss, Richard 40 Carry On series (1958–92) 59n13 The Cult (2013) 93 Dubai Film Festival 31 Cassavetes, John 105–6 culture 1, 8 Dwyer, Tim 103–4 Cassel, Vincent 14 Curse of the Blair Witch (1999) cast, involvement in marketing 6 104 ‘e-guanxi ’ 132–3, 135, 141–3 Cat Ballou (1965) 177 Curtil, Emmanuel 59n15, 64n7 East Is East (1999) 54, 60n23 Cedric the Entertainer 62 Curtis, Richard 57 Eastern Europe, emerging markets Chabat, Alain 61 in 8, 26, 28 Chaffey, Dave 109n6 Dallas Cowboys 167 Easy Virtue (2008) 55 Chan, Jackie 33 The Damned United (2009) 50t Edinburgh Festival 150t Charlie Wilson’s War (2007) 37 The Dark Knight (2008) 100 Elf (2003) 30 Chef (2014) 120 The Dark Knight Rises (2012) 67, Elizabeth II 52 Chen, Ashton 133, 135, 145n5 127 Elton, Ben 55 Chennai Express (2013) 92, 93, Davis, Bette 1, 26 England, My England (1995) 53t 94 The Day They Robbed the Bank of The English Patient (1997) 53t Chicken Little (2005) 81, 164, England (1960) 53t The Englishman Who Went Up a 166, 171n24 De Laurentiis, Dino 177 Hill But Came Down a Chicken Run (2000) 49t De Vany, Arthur 4 Mountain (1995) 52, 53t China 65–73, 132–44 Death at a Funeral (2007) 50t, 55 Entwistle, Joanne 156 3D in 169 Delaney, Corey 127 Espejel, Carlos 62 expansion of fi lm markets 65, Derrière les murs (Behind the Eternal Sunshine of the Spotless 70, 72 Walls) (2011) 145n7 Mind (2004) 38 leading box-offi ce fi lms 145n7 The Descendants (2011) 16 European Film Commission marketing diffi culties 66–9, Despicable Me (2010) 166 Network (EUCN) 178 72–3 Despicable Me 2 (2014) 69 Evans, Robert 1 online & mobile (O&M) Desproges, Pierre 47, 58n1 Everybody Loves Raymond (TV marketing 65, 70–1 Dhoom 3 (2013) 31, 93 1996–2005) 61 social media 9–10 The (2012) 59n15 The Exorcist (1973) 37 social/political change 65 Die Another Day (2002) 4 The Expendables 2 (2012) 67 stages of marketing process digital engagement metrics 65–6 (DEMs) 10, 147, 156 Facebook see social media state control of media 6, 9, 65, means of calculation 148, 149, The Faculty (1998) 98 66–8 154 Falling Skies (TV 2011–13) 116n4 SVoD releases 65–6, 69–70 digital technology Una familla con suerte (Mexican China Film Group Corporation conversion of cinemas to 80, TV) 62 (CFGC) 66–7 88n11, 163, 172n46 Fargo (1996) 48–50 A Christmas Carol (2009) 164 fi lm-makers’ use of 80, 81–2, The Fast Lady (1963) 53t circulation, concept of 107–8 85 Fatal Attraction (1987) 27, 27 Close, Glenn 27 impact on fi lm revenues 147 Japanese version 29, 34n30 Closer (2004) 14 impact on marketing/ Favreau, Jon 30 Cloverfield (2007) 99–100 distribution 147–56 La fea más bella (Mexican TV) 62 A Cock and Bull Story (2005) 53t, relationship with 3D 164 Les Femmes du 6ème étage 54 see also 3D; high frame rates (2010) 15

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Fever (2005) 50t Ghostbusters (1984) 27 international co-productions 33 Fielding, Helen 60n30 GI Joe: Rise of the Cobra (2009) international marketing 26, fi lm commissions 174–5, 178–83 30–1, 33 28–33, 36–45, 65–73 activities/services 179–82 Goetzman, Gary 37 location fi lming 31, 175–7, establishment/early examples GoldenEye (1995) 7 179 177 Goldsmith, Ben 176 marketing history 6–7, 26–30, range of areas represented by Good Morning Vietnam (1987) 34n21 178 54 mergers/conglomerates 27 training/accreditation 178 Gorber, Jason 87 online marketing 97–100 Film Friendly Michigan 177 Goulding, Harry 177 Production Code 26 178 La Grande vadrouille (1966) 48, relationship with Press 97 Film NZ 179 59n12 ‘runaway production’ 175–6 Finney, Angus 2 Grant, Hugh 52, 57–8, 60n30 studios 5 Finnish Lapland Film Commission Gravity (2013) 33 word-of-mouth marketing 179 Gray, Jonathan 4, 125 97–8 Firth, Colin 60n30 Grease (1978) 27 , share of market 164, A Fish Called Wanda (1988) 49t Greece, fi lm marketing in 8, 170n12 The Flash (TV 2014–) 120 36–45, 167 homogenisation (of global market) Flashdance (1983) 5, 27 Greeks 29 Flushed Away (2006) 49t depictions in Hollywood fi lms Hopper, Hedda 98 Ford, Harrison 22 37 Horne, Matthew 55 Ford, John 177 presence in US society 36 Hot Fuzz (2007) 49t, 50, 61 Ford, Sam 107, 126, 157n5 Green, Joshua 107, 126, 157n5 How Do you Know (2010) 15 Four Eyed Monsters (2005) 107 Greenberg, Randy 28, 32 How to Lose Friends & Alienate Four Lions (2010) 57 Greenfingers (2000) 52 People (2008) 53t, 54 Four Weddings and a Funeral Greenwald, Robert 103, 106–8, How to Train Your Dragon (2010) (1994) 2, 3, 48, 49t, 54, 55, 109n5 166 57 Les Guignols (TV 1988–) 15, Hua pi 2 (Painted Skin: The Fox, Kate 58n2 17n2 Resurrection, 2012) 67 Fox, Michael J. 63 Hum Aapke Hain Kaun (1994) 7 frame rates see Hall, Peter 176–7 The Hunger Games (2012) 114 France 13–17 Han Sanping 67–8 Hutchinson, Tom 104 fi lm festivals 58 (see also Hanks, Tom 37, 38, 44 Cannes) Hannibal (TV 2013–) 120 I Am Breathing (2013) 150–6 fi lm marketing regulation 4, 6 Happy-Go-Lucky (2008) 50t analytics data 153, 154t, 155 fi lm posters 22–3 Happy New Year (2014) 93 market action schedule marketing history 7–8 Harry Potter series (2001–11) 28, 150–1t marketing of British comedies 98 specifi cs of screening 155, 55–8 Heaven’s Gate (1980) 21 156 marketing/release of US fi lms Heine, Cariba 133 I Give It a Year (2013) 53t, 57–8, 15–16, 169, 172n45 ‘high-concept’ fi lms 5, 27–8 60n31 popularity of British comedy 47, high frame rate (HFR) 80–7 Ice Age (2002) 64n2 48–52, 49t, 50t critical responses 85–7, 89n29 Ice Age: Continental Drift (2012) retitling of British comedies historical background 80–1 61, 64n2 52–5, 53t Hills, Matt 107 Ice Age: Dawn of the shooting of foreign fi lms in Hitchcock, Alfred 23 (2009) 64n2, 166 180, 182 The Hobbit: An Unexpected Ice Age: A Mammoth Christmas view of British culture 52, Journey (2012) 9, 80, 84 (TV 2009) 64n2 54–5 choice of viewing speeds Ice Age: The Meltdown (2009) Frears, Stephen 51, 57, 60n29 83–5, 88n13, 89n29 64n2 Freeman, Martin 84 critical responses 85–6, 87, Ice Age franchise (2002–) 8, Frost, Nick 50, 51 89n29 61–3 Frozen (2013) 69–70, 72 The Hobbit: The Desolation of dubbing of foreign versions The Full Monty (1997) 13, 48, 49t, Smaug (2013) 9, 80, 83 62–3, 64n7 54, 55, 57 critical responses 87 voice casting 61–2 Funès, Louis de 48 frame rates 86–7 Ile-de-France Film Commission Future My Love (2013) 150–6 The Hobbit trilogy (2012–14) 9, 178, 179 market action schedule 150–1t 80–7 The Inbetweeners (2011) 49t, specifi cs of screening 155, 156 Hollywood 50 ‘Americana syndrome’ 30, 31 independent cinema Gambit (2012) 53t casting 30–1, 33, 35n51 digital marketing 147–56 Game of Thrones (TV 2011–) 119 characterisation of Europeans in USA 37–40, 44, 45n3 Gamos ala ... Ellinika (1964) 26, 37 see also low-budget fi lms 46n14 of fi lms for foreign Independent Film & Television Gavin & Stacey (TV 2007–10) 55 market 29, 32 Alliance 5 Georgiadis, Vassilis 46n14 genres 31–2 India, marketing of foreign fi lms in Ghost of the Abyss (2003) 165, infl uence of foreign markets on 29 171n23 fi lm content 30–3 see also Bollywood

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Index 197 internet Lacourbe, Roland 47, 59n6 Lukk, Tiiu 2, 4 advertising on 79n16, 118–19 The Land Girls (1998) 53t, 54 Lumière brothers 176 contradictions 122 Landau, Jon 165, 167 Lyngbe, Dagfi nn 62 impact on marketing 9, 16, 24, Landy, Marcia 47, 59n6 97–8, 103 Last Night (2010) 15 MacKenzie, Donald 148 mobile apps 71 The Last of England (1987) 53t Madagascar 3: Europe’s Most regulation 71 Latifah, Queen 61, 62 Wanted (2012) 31 spread of opinion via 97–100 Latin America, piracy in 126 Malawi, piracy in 125 see also online & mobile see also Peru Mamma Mia! (2008) 37, 44, 48 marketing; piracy; social Laurie, Hugh 55 The Man From Earth (2007) 128 media; SocialSamba; Vine; Laverty, Paul 57 The Man with the Iron Fists (2013) viral marketing; Web 2.0; Leary, Denis 61 92 word of mouth Lee, Byung-hun 30, 33 Mañana te cuento (2005, 2008) ‘internet aborigines’ 132, 143 Lee, Sam 63 93 Intruders (2011) 92 Lefèvre, Raymond 47, 59n6 Mangold, James 119 Iordanova, Dina 103 Leguizamo, John 61, 62, 63 Marich, Robert 2, 4 Iraq for Sale (2006) 103, 106 Leigh, Mike 51–2, 57 market research 6 Iron Man (2008) 32 Leno, Jay 61, 62 marketability 4–5 (2013) 32, 66, 68, 144 Lesbian Vampire Killers (2008) marketing 55, 60n24 adaptation to national audi- The Jacket (2005) 14 Lethal Weapon (1987) 127 ences 15–16, 21 Jackson, Peter 9, 82–7, 89n23 Leung, Edmond 63 costs 7 Jamaica Film Commission 178 Lewis, Lincoln 133 cultural 1 Japan, marketing of western fi lms Li Bingbing 68 diffi culties 23 in 22, 29, 169 Lim, Dennis 111n43 emerging markets 23, 28 Jaws (1975) 7, 98 limited release strategy 108n3 fi lm-makers’ disapproval of 7 Jegeus, Tomas 165 Litman, Barry 4 future challenges 24–5 Jenkins, Henry 103–4, 107, Live with Regis and Kelly (TV) 39 handbooks 2 109n10, 124, 126, 157n5 Living in Bondage (1992) 76 history 6–8 Jespersen, Otto 62 Loach, Ken 51–2, 57 industrial 5 Jet Li 67 Lobato, Ramon 108 innovations 102 Jian guo da ye (The Founding of a locations 174–83 national variations 7–8, 22–3 Republic, 2009) 67–8 association with particular operational 3–4 Johnny English (2003) 49t, 52, fi lms/series 182, 184n34 players 5–6 53t competition between 175 practitioners’ comments 1 Johnny English Reborn (2011) 53t design vs location interest 176 preliminary work 13–14 Johnston, Keith M. 4 ‘fi lm friendliness’ 179–82 seasonal 3, 15 Journey to the West: Conquering fi nancial incentives to use 180 strategies 2–3 the Demons (2013) 31 history 176–7 vocabulary 16–17 Joyful Noise (2011) 114 increased use 175–6, 178–9 see also audiences; digital Juno (2007) 40 reversal of national attitudes to technology; marketability; Jurassic Park (1993) 28 180, 182 online & mobile marketing; version 29 ‘split’ 176 target groups; viral marketing see also fi lm commissions Marsden, Rhodri 106 Kapoor, Aman 92, 94n5 Lock, Stock and Two Smoking Martha Meets Frank, Daniel and Karagarga 126 Barrels (1998) 50, 55–7, Lawrence (1998) 51 The Karate Kid (2010) 33 60n26 Maybe Baby (2000) 53t, 54, 55, Katzenberg, Jeffrey 164–5 The Long Good Friday (1980) 57 56, 60n25 Kazan, Elia 37 Long kohng (2005) 92 McCarthy, Todd 86, 87 Kernan, Lisa 4 Looking for Eric (2009) 50t McGillis, Kelly 5 Kerrigan, Finola 2, 28, 108n3 Looper (2012) 68 McMahon, Julian 133 Kevin & Perry Go Large (2000) Lopez, Jennifer 61 media convergence 103–4, 50t The Lord of the Rings trilogy 109n10 Khan, Shah Rukh 92–3, 93, 94n3 (2001–3) 80, 82–3, 86, Meet the Robinsons (2006) 164 Khan-Din, Ayub 60n23 89n21, 98–9 Melancholia (2011) 15 Kim, John 133 Louisiana, location fi lming in Melero, Berni 119, 120 King, Geoff 102 180–1 Mély, Benoît 13–17 King Kong (2005) 83, 89n22, Love Actually (2003) 49t, 57 Memento (2001) 40 166 low-budget fi lms 102–8 Men In Black 3 (2012) 32 Kipling, Rudyard 60n23 diffi culties of marketing 102–3 merchandising 7 Klinger, Barbara 125 impact of internet 103 Michigan, location fi lming in 177, Knowles, Harry 97–8 impact of media convergence 180–1 Knoxville, Johnny 59n15 103–4 Middleton, Catherine (now Koch, Bill 177 innovative marketing strategies Duchess of Cambridge) 52 Kopan, Yekta 62–3 103, 105–7 Mike Bassett: England Manager Kozuka, Masayuki 169 limited release strategy 108n3 (2001) 52, 53t Krause, Shane 133 Lucas, George 164, 166 Miller, Toby 125 Kroll, Colin 117 Lucky Break (2001) 50, 50t, 55 Minaj, Nicki 61

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Minnesota Film and TV 175, 175 Need for Speed (2014) 69 Paul (2011) 51 Minority Report (2002) 2 New Zealand, (incentives to) Pearl Harbor (2001) 29, 32 Les Misérables (2012) 59n15 location fi lming 179, 180 Pegg, Simon 50, 51, 61 Miss Congeniality (1999) 40 Ng, Joe 145n4 Pendlebury, Ty 85 Mission: Impossible III (2006) 31 Nielsen surveys 97, 117, 118, 124, Perren, Alisa 38 Mission: Impossible – Ghost 143 Perry, Matthew 59n15, 64n7 Protocol (2011) 31, 33, 127 Nigeria 9 Peru Moab and Monument Valley Film population 79n6 distribution/marketing of Commission 177 social/economic problems 76 foreign fi lms 92–4 Moebiuseu (2013) 8 television 79n10 domestic fi lm industry 93 Momentum (1992) 81 video fi lm industry 8 preferred genres 92–3 Monster (2003) 14 see also ‘Nollywood’ Pesce, Mark 108 Monster House (2006) 164 Night at the Museum: Battle of the Petrie, Donald 40, 44 Monsters vs Aliens (2009) 164, Smithsonian (2009) 61 Philippines, piracy in 126 165, 166, 170n9, 172–3n50 Nightingale, Victoria 103–4 The (1993) 14 Montgomery, L. M. 184n34 Nnebue, Kenneth 76 The Piano Teacher (2001) 14 ’s The Meaning of ‘Nollywood’ 9, 76–8 Pina (2011) 88n8 Life (1983) 49t distributional outlets 77–8 Piolín pol la Mañana (Mexican Monument Valley, AZ 177 London premieres 79n16 radio) 61 Moretti, Franco 31 moves into international market Piolin Sotelo, Eddie 61, 62 Morning Glory (2010) 15 8 piracy 65, 122–30 Mot i brøstet (Norwegian TV) 62 objections to use of term 78n1 impact on box-offi ce revenues Motion Picture Association of online advertising 79n16 147 America (MPAA) 5 (reduced) role of religion 77 and market variables 125–6 motivations (of fi lm-makers) 129 TV promotion 79n10 polarisation of views on 122–3, Moulin Rouge (2001) 29 Nordin, Sven 62 129–30 Mr Bean (TV 1990–5) 47 Nothing Left to Fear (2013) 93 positive impacts 124, 125–6, Mr Bean’s Holiday (2007) 49t Notting Hill (1999) 49t 130 Mulachy, Russell 133 Nourizadeh, Nima 127 sleeper hits 126–8 Muller, Stuart 85 and textual/audience variables ‘mumblecore’ 107, 111n43 O Brother, Where Art Thou? 126–7 Muppets Most Wanted (2014) 119 (2000) 40 theoretical analyses 123–5 My Big Fat Greek Wedding (2002) Ocean’s Eleven (2004, and and 126 8, 36–45 sequels) 31 values/motivations 129–30 box-offi ce success 37, 39, Ochoa, Jesús 62 The Pirate Bay 122, 128 41–2, 45 Oh, Alex 145n4 Pitt, Brad 30 cast/production team 37 Olympic Games 60n33 Polar Express (2004) 81, 164 compared with My Life in Ruins online & mobile (O&M) marketing Por ella soy Eva (Mexican TV) 62 37–8, 41, 44 65, 69–71 Portman, Natalie 14, 14 distribution 37–8, 41–2 advertising 71 The Postman Always Rings Twice Greek marketing campaign choice of material 72 (1941/1981) 37 41–3 expansion 70 Powell, Amy 105 poster 39 leading providers 70–1 Poyrazog˘Iu, Ali 62 trailers 39–40, 42–3 programming strategies 71–2 previews 22 US marketing campaign regulation 71 El Privilegio de mandar (Mexican 38–40 revenues from 70 TV) 62 My Life in Ruins (2009) 8, 36–45 Ontario Media Development Project X (2012) 127, 127–8 box-offi ce response 37, 41 Corporation 178, 181 Prometheus (2012) 67 cast/production team 37 The Oprah Winfrey Show (TV) 39 Purse, Lisa 81 compared with My Big Fat O’Regan, Tom 176 Greek Wedding see above Oresund Film Commission 178 Qi Yuwu 133 distribution 37–8 Oscars see Academy Awards Quiapo (pirate marketplace) 126 Greek marketing campaign 43–4 P2P (peer-to-peer) screenings Raiders of the Lost Ark (1981) posters 41, 43–4 127, 128 21–2 trailer 41 Pace, Vince 163 Raja Harishchandra (1913) 7 US marketing campaign 40–1 Pacific Rim (2013) 33 Red Dawn (1984) 30 My Man is a Loser (2014) 93 The Page Turner (2006) 15 Red Dawn (2012) 30 My Name Is Khan (2010) 33, 92 Pakistan, showing of Indian fi lms in Reichenbach, Harry 97, 100 My Sucky Teen Romance (2011) 125 Reiss, Jon 2, 129 98 Palin, Sarah 106 release dates 3, 15 Myers, Mike 59n15, 64n7 Palmer, Keke 61 Rendall, Kimble 133, 140 Panama Film Commission 175 Requiem for a Dream (2000) 14 National Film Fund 153 Pang, Adrian 133 Reservoir Dogs (1992) 57 natural language processing 136, Paranormal Activity (2007) 100, Rethink Afghanistan (2009) 103, 144, 146n17 104–5, 110n16, 110n21 106, 107, 108 The Navigators (2001) 51 Parsons, Louella 98 revenues, fall in 147 Nayyar, Kunal 61, 62 Pathé-Frères 176 Ritchie, Guy 50

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Index 199

Roberts, Julia 1, 58 Snatch (2000) 49t, 50 increasing availability 24 Robots (2005) 166 Snowpiercer (2013) 8 promotional appearances on Rockwell, Norman, The Gossips So Young (2013) 66, 68 39 97 social media 9, 71–2, 115–16, Thalberg, Irving 22 Rocky Balboa (2006) 15–16 157nn6–8 Theia apo to Chicago/The Aunt Rodriguez, Robert 98, 164 data derived from 148, 152, from Chicago (1957) 42 Rogers, Everett M. 172n42 153–4, 156 This is 40 (2013) 92 Romano, Ray 61, 62 distribution via 106–7 This Is England (2007) 53t Rosemary’s Baby (1968) 15 see also Douban; SocialSamba; This Year’s Love (1999) 52, 53t Rush Hour (1998, and sequels) Vine Thompson, Anne 105 33 SocialSamba (website) 112–16 Tiny Times 3.0 (2014) 144n1 Russell, Alex 133 Soderbergh, Steven 31 Titanic (1997) 98, 125, 165 South Korea To Paris With Love (1955) 53t Sabotage (2014) 119 fi lm industry 8 Toffl er, Alvin 9 SagaWriter (website) 114 location fi lming/exhibitions 179 Tomorrow Never Dies (1997) 33 Sai Yin 70 Spaced (TV 1999–2001) 50 Tonkin, Phoebe 133 Samuel, Xavier 133 Spain Top Gun (1986) 5, 5, 27 Sarah Palin: You Betcha! (2011) location fi lming/exhibitions 179 Top Hat (1935) 26 106 social media 117–20 TorrentFreak (website) 126–7 saturation release 2–3, 7, 110n21 The Spanish Prisoner (1998) 40 Total Recall (2012) 145n7 Saving Grace (2007) 55 Spider-Man franchise (2002–) 22 Toy Story 3 (2010) 166 Scott, Seann William 61 Spitting Image (TV 1984–96) trailers 3–4, 39–40 Scottish Documentary Institute 17n2 spreadable 147 (SDI) 10, 149–56 Stagecoach (1939) 177 studies 4 funding 153 Stallone, Sylvester 15–16 US vs European 23 market research 151–3 Stamos, John 93 Trainspotting (1996) 49t Screen Flanders 178 Star of Midnight (1935) 26 Transcendence (2014) 68 Screen New South Wales 178 Star Trek Into Darkness (2013) 32 Transformers (2007) 99 seasons, releases timed in accor- Star Wars (1977) 7, 48–50, 166 Transformers 2 (2009) 166 dance with 3, 15 Star Wars: Episode I – the Transformers 4: Age of Extinction Secrets and Lies (1986) 49t, 50, Phantom Menace (1999) 14, (2014) 68, 72, 144 50t, 51–2 81 translation, into minority Semoun, Elie 63 Star Wars: Episode II – Attack of 126 Sendel, Sergio 62 the Clones (2002) 14 The Tree in the Rain (2012) Sex and the City (TV 1999–2005) Star Wars: Episode III – Revenge 145n7 38 of the Sith (2005) 14 Tron (2010) 15 sexual metaphors, applied to state(s), intervention in fi lm True Grit (1969) 177 marketing 1 marketing/distribution 7–8 True Grit (2010) 15 Shadows (1959) 105–6 see also China Trumbull, Douglas 81 Shallow Grave (1994) 49t, 54, 55 Stewart, Kristen 127 Tryon, Chuck 106, 107 Shao Yezhan 63 Still Crazy (1998) 55, 60n24 The Tunnel (2011) 128 Shaun of the Dead (2004) 49t, Stiller, Ben 59n15, 64n7 Twilight (and sequels) (2008–) 1 50, 51, 61 studios 5 The Twilight Saga: Breaking Dawn Shi Xiaolong see Chen, Ashton Submarine (2010) 57 – Part 1 (2011) 145n7 Shilts, Matthew 112 SWOTs (Strengths, Weaknesses, Twitter 117 Shooting Fish (1997) 57 Opportunities and Threats) Tzioumakis, Yannis 105 Showscan 81 14 Shrek Forever After (2010) 166 assessment 2, 15 Uncovered: The Whole Truth about Sideways (2004) 38 defi ned 15 the Iraq War (2003) 106, , Joel 127 Sykes, Wanda 61 106 Singapore, (fi rst) co-production 23 with Australia 133 Tai Chi Hero (2012) 145n7 United Kingdom The Sins of the Father – A Very Taken 2 (2012) 145n7 cinematic competition with USA British Gangster II (2011) Tamara Drewe (2010) 50t 48 53t target groups 1–2 state support for fi lm industry Skäber, Linn 62 affi nity-based 1 6 Skyfall (2012) 4, 7 different, for same fi lm 2 see also British comedy Slash (guitarist) 93 minority-interest 24 Up! (2009) 166 Slater, Don 156 Tatum, Channing 30 USA Sliding Doors (1998) 49t technology, developments in 9, 24 ethnic minorities 36 Slumdog Millionaire (2008) 40 see also communication state fi lm commissions 174–5, SMART data analysis 135–7 technology; digital technol- 177, 180–1 components 135–6, 136t ogy; internet see also Hollywood; names of data structure 136–7, 136t Teen Wolf (TV 2011–) 115 individual states Smashing Time (1967) 53t, 54 Telang, Rahul 123 Utah, location fi lming in 177 Smith, Jeremy 85 television Smith, Karol 177 advertising on 4, 7, 39, 79n10, Vale, Angélica 62 Smith, Michael D. 123 100n7 Valiant (2005) 49t

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value, concept of 129 The Way Back (2010) 15 Word of Mouth Marketing Vardalos, Nia 37, 38, 41, 43 Web 2.0 103, 109n6, 117, 132 Association (WOMMA) Vasey, Ruth 26 Weinstein, Bob 21 97 Vélez, Humberto 64n7 Weinstein, Harvey 21 Working Title Films 52, 57, A Very British Gangster (2007) Wellington (NZ), Embassy Theatre 60n20 53t 88n13 World Cup (soccer) 16 (VoD) Wenders, Wim 88n8 The Wrestler (2008) 14 revenues 147 Wentworth Heritage Village Wright, Edgar 50 user technology 153–6 (Ontario) 184n34 Wu Ershan 67 Vine (social network) 9, 117–20 Westerns, location fi lming 177 Wyatt, Justin 27 advertising 118 Weta (digital effects company) Wyllie, Dan 133 Vinson, Sharni 133, 145n5 89n23 viral marketing 97–100, 104–5, Whip It (2009) 40 X-Men: Days of Future Past 113–14 White, George E. 177 (2014) 68, 119, 144 The Virgin of Stamboul (1920) 97 Wild Target (2010) 52, 53t Xi you ji: Da nao tian gong (2014) Vonderau, Patrick 148 William, (Duke of 69 Cambridge) 52 Waalkes, Otto 63, 63 Williams, Aaron 9, 112–16 Yeoh, Michelle 33 Wagon Master (1950) 177 Williams, Robin 61 Waldfogel, Joel 123 Williams-Jones, Michael 8, 21–5 Zavaleta, Claudia 9, 92–4 Wallace & Gromit: The Curse of Wilson, Rita 38, 44 Zellweger, Renee 60n30 the Were-Rabbit (2005) 49t The Wolverine (2013) 119 Zemeckis, Robert 164 Wanger, Walter 177 word of mouth, marketing via 104, Zhang Zhao 144n1 warlike metaphors, applied to 132 Zhao Wei, Vicki 68 marketing 16–17 history 97 Zhi wo men zhong jiang shi qu de Washington, Denzel 30 online 97–100, 104–5, 132–3, qing chun see So Young Wasko, Janet 7 134–5, 140–3, 147 Zidane, Zinédine 16 Wasserman, Lew 21 potency 97 Zorba the Greek (1963) 37

List of Illustrations While considerable effort has been made to correctly identify the copyright holders, this has not been possible in all cases. We apologise for any apparent negligence, and any omissions or corrections brought to our attention will be remedied in any future editions.

Four Weddings and a Funeral, © PolyGram Filmproduktion GmbH; Top Gun, © Corporation; Black Swan, © Twentieth Century- Corporation/Dune Entertainment III LLC; Bhaji on the Beach, Channel Four Films/Umbi Films; Maybe Baby, © Carlton Jarvis/© Pandora Investment S.a.r.l.; Ice Age Live, © Radio Hamburg; Fatal Attraction, Paramount Pictures Corporation; The Hobbit: An Unexpected Journey, /Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer/WingNut Films; The Blair Witch Project, © Inc.; Uncovered: The Whole Truth About the Iraq War, © Carolina Productions; Project X, Green Hat Films/; Avatar, © Twentieth Century-Fox Film Corporation/Dune Entertainment III LLC.