i THE MULTICULTURAL MEGALOPOLIS: AFRICAN-AMERICAN SUBJECTIVITY AND IDENTITY IN CONTEMPORARY HARLEM FICTION A Dissertation Submitted to the Temple University Graduate Board In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY by Shamika Ann Mitchell May 2012 Examining Committee Members: Joyce A. Joyce, Ph.D., Advisory Chair, Department of English Sheldon R. Brivic, Ph.D., Department of English Roland L. Williams, Ph.D., Department of English Maureen Honey, Ph.D., Department of English, University of Nebraska-Lincoln ii © Copyright 2012 by Shamika Ann Mitchell iii ABSTRACT The central aim of this study is to explore what I term urban ethnic subjectivity, that is, the subjectivity of ethnic urbanites. Of all the ethnic groups in the United States, the majority of African Americans had their origins in the rural countryside, but they later migrated to cities. Although urban living had its advantages, it was soon realized that it did not resolve the matters of institutional racism, discrimination and poverty. As a result, the subjectivity of urban African Americans is uniquely influenced by their cosmopolitan identities. New York City‘s ethnic community of Harlem continues to function as the geographic center of African-American urban culture. This study examines how six post-World War II novels ― Sapphire‘s PUSH, Julian Mayfield‘s The Hit, Brian Keith Jackson‘s The Queen of Harlem, Charles Wright‘s The Wig, Toni Morrison‘s Jazz and Louise Meriwether‘s Daddy Was a Number Runner ― address the issues of race, identity, individuality and community within Harlem and the megalopolis of New York City. Further, this study investigates concepts of urbanism, blackness, ethnicity and subjectivity as they relate to the characters‘ identities and self- perceptions. This study is original in its attempt to ascertain the connections between megalopolitan urbanism, ethnicity, subjectivity and African-American fiction. iv ACKNOWLEDGMENTS As a native New Yorker who is born from two generations of Harlemites, I found this topic both personal and interesting. We in the Hip-Hop community often celebrate our geographic spaces of origin. Whether your home is the Dirty South or Bucktown (Brooklyn), H-Town (Houston) or Chi-Town (Chicago), Compton or the B-Cross (Bronx), there is a deeply personal attachment we have when representing our hometown within the culture. Our home cities say something about who we are: where we live, how we live and even when we lived. My grandparents were part of the Great Migration, and I am the product of Harlemites from East Harlem (Spanish Harlem or El Barrio) to be specific. I was raised in the lower Soundview area of the Bronx, which some also consider the South Bronx because it is a stone‘s throw from Hunt‘s Point. Although the area names and borders continue to change, the area‘s history often remains the same. With gentrification efforts underway throughout the ethnic communities in most of New York City‘s boroughs, the people living in these neighborhoods are continuing to drastically change. Ironically, some of New York City‘s ethnic neighborhoods are rapidly losing their ethnicity; there are almost no Italian residents in Little Italy and there continues to be an influx of Anglo residents moving into ethnic neighborhoods such as Williamsburg, Bedford-Stuyvesant and Bushwick (Brooklyn), Lower East Side, Harlem, El Barrio, Washington Heights (Manhattan), and the South Bronx. v With the ethnics gone, or being erased, the soul and spirit of these communities also fades. In his song ―I Know You Got Soul,‖ the legendary MC, Rakim, makes an iconic statement that is an inspiration for my research: ―It ain‘t where ya from, it‘s where ya at.‖ True, it is not unusual to find transplants from the world‘s nether-regions living among us cosmopolitan natives. Still, something about your home affects who you are. Another renowned MC, Jay-Z (Shawn Carter) states in his song ―Where I‘m From‖: ―I‘m from the place where the church is the flakiest / And niggas is praying to God so long that they Atheist‖ This song is used to validate his street-credibility, and, despite his celebrity star-status, it reconnects him with the local community, his place of familiarity. Although he traverses the globe, vacations in exotic locations, and lives a life of material excess, he claims ―Mentally been many places, but I‘m Brooklyn‘s own.‖ Jay-Z‘s attachment to Brooklyn is a confirmation of his rooted attachment to his essence, his Self. In one of the most seminal representations of neighborhood pride, Boogie Down Productions frontman KRS- ONE proudly proclaims South Bronx affiliation, while Queens native MC Shan boisterously celebrates Queensbridge, thus sparking an historic musical rivalry between them. Staten Island is brought to Hip-Hop‘s forefront when Wu-Tang Clan debuts Enter the Wu-Tang: 36 Chambers, in which they pronounce affinity for their borough, dubbing it Shaolin. In similar fashion, several American writers are celebrated for using the locale as their inspiration. William Faulkner‘s American South, Amy Tan‘s Chinatown, Langston Hughes‘ Harlem, Edgardo Vega Yunqué‘s vi Loisaida or Lower East Side in Manhattan, Sherman Alexie‘s Spokane reservation, John Edgar Wideman‘s Pittsburgh, and Anzia Yezierska‘s Hester Street of Lower Manhattan are all notable examples of American writers and their geographic literature. For people living on the margins, it is particularly important to find and have a sense of place and belonging. We most readily recognize ourselves by our environment. We are labeled according to where we live ― ―good‖ and ―bad‖ neighborhoods ― and our life experiences are also informed by our living environment. As any realtor would state, the location is the main advertising point. Where you live says much about yourself, what you have, and what you don‘t have. This, too, informs your subjectivity and identity. Regarding subjectivity, ethnic identity is itself a complicated matter, and so is urban identity. When combining the two concepts, there are multiple possibilities for consideration. Ethnic communities are special and distinct, and they are often a significant setting for building a cultural foundation. When it comes to New York City‘s ethnic neighborhoods, ethnicity becomes connected to a major urban center, one that is über cosmopolitan as a multicultural megalopolis. Of the aforementioned multiple possibilities, I explore only a few of these. Subjectivity is both complicated and complex; it is dependent on various factors, some of which will be discussed in this project. Ethnic identity and urban identity are two factors of subjectivity and they will be the primary focus for analysis. I hope that this information will be useful to the casual reader and the scholar, the city slicker and the rural resident. vii This project has been a long-time coming. My education at Brooklyn Technical High School provided the foundation; my University of Michigan advisers Dr. Dwight Fontenot and Dr. Bruce Watkins provided the inspiration. My Syracuse University professors Dr. Susan Edmunds and Dr. Margaret Himley provided the support, as did Del Lausa, who introduced me to the lovely complexities of discourse analysis. Dr. Angela Weisl and Dr. Mary Balkun at Seton Hall University provided the training. Dr. Theresa A. Powell at Temple University provided the insight. Further, I am extremely grateful to my dissertation committee for their guidance and patience: Dr. Joyce A. Joyce, Chair, Dr. Sheldon Brivic and Dr. Roland Williams. I owe a debt of gratitude to Samuel (Chip) Delany, without whom I would‘ve been lost. Dr. Soraya Alamdari was there from the beginning, and our love for Hello Kitty keeps us bonded. The Faculty Resource Network of New York University was an invaluable resource, and I greatly valued my time there as both a Scholar-in- Residence and a University Associate. The many precious hours invested at Bobst Library have finally ended (for now), but not without numerous sacrifices. To that end, my friends‘ love, patience and encouragement have been much required during my prolonged preoccupation with my studies, and for that, I am obliged. My beloved cat stood guard during this entire process; her feline frolics were a welcome distraction (but not always), and she always kept me company during many late nights/early mornings of writing. I am appreciative of my companion and best friend, Ewart Dewgarde (DJ Evil Dee) for his love and support; his Beatminerz viii Radio team provided a much-needed soundtrack during my writing sessions. I am indebted to my ancestors who paved the way, and I honor their memory and legacy, including my father, the late John Harold Mitchell, my uncle Reginald Calvin Mitchell, my grandmother Dorothy Mae Mitchell (née Bowie), and both of my grandfathers, John Henry Mitchell and George Anthony Britton, Sr. Most especially, this project is dedicated to my family who first planted the seeds and then lovingly grew them with tender care. This project is the fruit of their efforts and I believe it is now ripe for picking. And so, let‘s get on with it. ix All praises are due to God, the Most Beneficent, the Most Merciful. This project is dedicated to the Harlemite women in my life: my mother Carolyn Louise Britton-Mitchell ― I cannot thank you enough ― my aunt and second- mother, Rev. Dr. Mariah Ann Britton, my beloved titi Sarah Mitchell (née Pagan) ― te amo mucho ― and my grandmother Annie Esther Britton (née Smalls). They continue to be my beacons, guiding me through storms and moments of poor visibility, sharing their wisdom. I have indeed been blessed to be born to them! I cannot forget the people of Harlem, and the all people of the seemingly eternal Struggle, who continue to persevere despite the many obstacles placed before them.