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The Long-Distance International Commerce of the Roman Empire Upon the Roman East

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The Long-Distance International Commerce of the Roman Empire Upon the Roman East LONG-DISTANCE "INTERNATIONAL" TRADE IN THE ROMAN EAST AND ITS POLITICAL EFFECTS 3113.C. A D.305 by Gary K. Young B.A. (Hons.) Submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy University of Tasmania October 1998 DECLARATION I declare that this thesis contains no material which has been accepted for the award of another higher degree or diploma in any tertiary institution nor, so far as I am aware, any material published or written by others, except where due reference is made in the text of the thesis. Gary K. Young 15 February 1999 This thesis may be made available for loan and limited copying in accordance with the Copyright Act 1968. 15 February 1999 2 ABSTRACT The aim of this thesis is to evaluate the political effects of the long-distance international commerce of the Roman Empire upon the Roman East. Two areas of possible effect are studied: first, on local societies in the East which were likely to have been affected by the trade, and second, on the policy of the imperial government in the East. Attention is given to the opinions expressed by many historians who have envisaged a strongly proactive policy toward the trade by the Romans, both at an imperial and local level. These theories are compared with the sources of data available, especially that which has recently come to light in archaeological investigation, in order-to see if they are supportible from this evidence. The thesis commences with an introductory chapter which deals with various topics essential to the understanding of the commerce. These topics include a note on the available sources and a study of the possible effect of the commerce on the economy of the Roman Empire. The chapter concludes with studies of the scope of the trade, demand for its wares, and the situation at Augustus' accession. The study then proceeds to an area-by-area overview of the trade, detailing the commerce in Egypt, Arabia, Palmyra and Syria-Mesopotamia. In each area the conduct of the commerce and what can be known about its participants is studied from the existing evidence, with special attention given to the evidence recently uncovered in archaeological and papyrological investigations. In all four areas, any information about the effect of the trade on local social conditions and political formations is considered and evaluated. In addition, any applicable activity of the 3 Roman central government in the area is considered for evidence that the commerce may have influenced imperial policy. The evidence indicates that in many cases, local political formations and economies may have been affected by the long-distance international commerce in the East. This is particularly the case where the commerce may have been a dominant factor in the local economy, such as at Palmyra and Petra. On the other hand, the evidence does not support the view that there was a strongly proactive policy on the part of the Roman government toward the eastern commerce. Roman government policy is summarised in the closing chapters, which consider the statements of Roman historians regarding the commerce, the revenue which the Romans gleaned from the trade, and other factors which may have influenced the Roman government's attitude to the trade. From the foregoing it is concluded that the commerce may have had a significant effect on local political formations in the Roman East in some isolated instances, particularly where the income from the commerce represented a significant proportion of the local economy. However, it appears that the Roman government was only interested in the trade as a source of revenue, and took no proactive measures to encourage or direct the trade. The evidence indicates that they instead preferred to protect and exploit the developing trade with minimal interference. 4 TABLE OF CONTENTS TABLE OF CONTENTS 5 PREFACE AND ACKNOWLEDGEMENT 13 ABBREVIATIONS 15 LIST OF MAPS, CHARTS & ILLUSTRATIONS 17 LIST OF MAPS 17 LIST OF TABLES 17 LIST OF GRAPHS 18 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS 18 I. INTRODUCTION 19 1.1 GENERAL INTRODUCTION 19 1.2 A NOTE ON THE SOURCES 25 LITERARY SOURCES 26 PAPYRI & OSTRAKA 30 INSCRIPTIONS 33 ARCHAEOLOGY 36 CONCLUSION 39 1.3 MODELS OF TRADE IN THE ROMAN ECONOMY 41 MODELS OF THE ROMAN ECONOMY 41 THE RELEVANCE OF ECONOMIC MODELS TO THE EASTERN LONG-DISTANCE TRADE 43 CONCLUSION 46 5 1.4 THE COMMERCE IN EASTERN GOODS WITHIN THE ROMAN EMPIRE 46 GENUINE LUXURY GOODS 48 GOODS OF A RELIGIOUS NATURE 54 GOODS USED FOR MEDICINAL PURPOSES 56 THE TRADE IN EASTERN GOODS WITHIN THE ROMAN EMPIRE 59 THE VOLUME OF THE TRADE 61 CONCLUSION 63 1.5 THE SITUATION AT AUGUSTUS' ACCESSION 64 THE ROUTES OF THE SOUTH 65 THE ROUTES OF THE NORTH _ 70 THE EFFECT OF THE PAX ROMANA UPON THE TRADE 73 CONCLUSION 76 H. THE RED SEA TRADE IN EGYPT 80 II. 1 ROUTES AND COMMODITIES OF THE RED SEA TRADE 82 THE TRADE WITH INDIA 84 TRADE IN THE EAST BEYOND INDIA 91 THE TRADE WITH ARABIA 95 THE TRADE WITH AFRICA 99 CONCLUSION 103 11.2 THE RED SEA TRADE IN EGYPT UNDER THE JULIO-CLAUDIANS AND THE FLAVIANS 104 THE RED SEA PORTS 106 THE DESERT ROADS 118 COPTOS 123 ALEXANDRIA AND THE JOURNEY TO ROME 130 CONCLUSION 136 11.3 THE CONDUCT OF THE EGYPTIAN RED SEA TRADE 137 THE MERCHANTS OF THE EGYPTIAN RED SEA TRADE 137 6 DIRECT IMPERIAL INVOLVEMENT IN THE TRADE 150 NON-RESIDENTS OF THE EMPIRE INVOLVED IN THE TRADE 152 SHIPS AND SHIPPING OF THE RED SEA TRADE 154 CARAVAN TRANSPORT WITHIN EGYPT 156 CONCLUSION 160 11.4 GOVERNMENT INVOLVEMENT IN THE RED SEA TRADE 161 GOVERNMENT OFFICIALS AND THE COLLECTION OF CUSTOMS DUTIES 162 PROTECTION OF CARAVANS IN THE EASTERN DESERT 170 THE NEED FOR A SECURITY SYSTEM IN THE EASTERN DESERT 1 75 WAS THERE A ROMAN 'TRADE POLICY' IN EGYPT? _ 1 80 CONCLUSION 184 11.5 EGYPTIAN TRADE IN THE ANTONINE PERIOD 185 RED SEA COMMERCE IN THE SECOND CENTURY 186 TRAJAN'S CANAL FROM THE NILE TO THE RED SEA 188 THE VIA HADRIANA 194 CONCLUSION 197 11.6 DECLINE OF THE TRADE IN THE THIRD CENTURY 198 PALMYRENE PARTICIPATION IN THE RED SEA COMMERCE AND TRADE IN THE SEVERAN PERIOD 199 DECLINE OF THE TRADE IN THE THIRD CENTURY 203 RECOVERY OF THE TRADE IN THE LATER PERIOD 211 CONCLUSION 216 11.7 CONCLUSION: THE SIGNIFICANCE OF THE TRADE IN EGYPT 218 HI. THE ARABIAN INCENSE TRADE 222 III.! THE TRADE ROUTES OF THE NABATAEAN KINGDOM 223 THE OVERLAND TRADE ROUTES OF THE NABATAEAN KINGDOM 225 LEUKE KOME 231 THE ROUTES TO THE MEDITERRANEAN 236 7 CONCLUSION 240 111.2 THE NABATAEAN AROMATICS TRADE IN THE FIRST CENTURY A.D. 241 ROMAN MILITARY ACTION AND NABATAEAN TRADE 244 THE LIKELIHOOD OF DELIBERATE ROMAN ECONOMIC PRESSURE 250 THE EFFECT OF EGYPTIAN TRADE ON THE COMMERCE OF THE NABATAEAN KINGDOM 253 THE CONTINUED EXISTENCE OF LAND-BASED COMMERCE IN THE FIRST CENTURY 255 THE PETRA - GAZA ROAD 262 THE SILVER CONTENT OF NABATAEAN COINS 265 THE DEVELOPMENT OF NABATAEAN AGRICULTURE AND THE IMPORTANCE OF THE HAU RAN 271 CONCLUSION 279 111.3 THE SIGNIFICANCE OF THE AROMATICS TRADE IN THE NABATAEAN KINGDOM 281 THE NABATAEANS AS TRADERS 282 THE INVOLVEMENT OF THE NABATAEAN GOVERNMENT IN THE TRADE 286 THE ECONOMIC SIGNIFICANCE OF THE TRADE IN THE NABATAEAN KINGDOM 289 WAS PETRA A 'CARAVAN CITY'? 292 CONCLUSION 294 111.4 TRADE IN PRO VINCIA ARABIA IN THE ANTONINE PERIOD 296 THE ANNEXATION OF THE NABATAEAN KINGDOM 297 TRADE IN THE ROMAN PROVINCE OF ARABIA 302 THE ROMAN POST AT HEGRA 307 CONCLUSION 309 111.5 THE CARAVAN TRADE AND THE ROMAN MILITARY IN ARABIA 310 THE TRADE AND THE ROMAN ADMINISTRATION IN ARABIA 311 THE LIMES ARAB ICUS 312 NATURE OF THE LIMES ARABICUS 314 NOMADS AND PASTORALISTS IN ROMAN ARABIA 323 THE SITUATION IN THIRD CENTURY ARABIA 331 8 CONCLUSION 334 111.6 THE SIGNIFICANCE OF THE INCENSE TRADE IN ROMAN ARABIA 335 TRADERS IN ROMAN ARABIA 336 THE ECONOMIC SIGNIFICANCE OF THE TRADE 338 CONCLUSION 341 111.7 ARABIAN TRADE UNDER THE SEVERANS AND LATER 342 TRADE IN THE SEVERAN PERIOD 343 THE SEVERAN GARRISONING OF THE DESERT AT JAWF AND MEDAIN SALEH 347 ARABIAN TRADE IN THE THIRD CENTURY 352 RECOVERY UNDER THE TETRARCHY 355 CONCLUSION 358 111.8 CONCLUSION 359 IV. THE TRADE OF PALMYRA 363 IV.! THE RISE OF PALMYRA 364 THE ORIGINS OF PALMYRENE TRADE 365 PALMYRENE COMMERCE IN THE GULF 370 THE KINGDOM OF MESENE 377 THE OVERLAND TRAFFIC TO THE MEDITERRANEAN 386 CONCLUSION 389 IV.2 THE ORGANISATION OF THE CARAVAN TRADE. 390 VIEWS OF PALMYRENE SOCIETY AND THE CARAVAN TRADE 390 THE ORGANISATION OF THE CARAVAN TRADE 394 THE SYNODIARCH 400 FINANCES 403 CONCLUSION 405 IV.3 THE PALMYRENE CARAVAN GUARDS 406 THE INSCRIPTIONAL EVIDENCE 407 THE NATURE OF THE PALMYRENE MILITARY FORCES 418 9 THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE PALMYRENE MILITIA IN THE SECOND AND THIRD CENTURIES. 422 CONCLUSION 427 IV.4 THE EFFECT OF THE TRADE ON PALMYRENE SOCIETY 428 THE RELATIVE SIGNIFICANCE OF THE CARAVAN TRADE AT PALMYRA 428 THE PLACE OF THE CARAVAN TRADERS IN PALMYRENE SOCIETY 434 PALMYRA'S EQUESTRIAN OFFICERS 438 CONCLUSION 440 IV.5 PALMYRA IN THE THIRD CENTURY: CRISIS, REVOLT AND AFTERMATH 443 PALMYRENE COMMERCE IN THE THIRD CENTURY 444 THE RISE OF PALMYRA AS AN INDEPENDENT POWER 449 ZENOBIA AND THE BREAK WITH ROME 455 COMMERCIAL MOTIVATIONS IN THE PALMYRENE REVOLT 458 THE EFFECTS OF PALMYRA'S FALL 466 CONCLUSION 469 IV.6 CONCLUSION 471 V. TRADE IN SYRIA AND THE NORTH 476 V.1 THE NORTHERN ROUTES AND THE "SILK ROAD" 477 THE EUPHRATES ROUTE 477 THE 'SILK ROAD' 480 HATRA 484 FROM THE EUPHRATES TO THE MEDITERRANEAN: THE TRADE IN ROMAN SYRIA 486 CONCLUSION 489 V.2 TRADE MOTIVES AND ROMAN RELATIONS WITH PARTHIA 490 PARTHIAN PARTICIPATION IN THE OVERLAND TRADE 492 THE IMPOSSIBILITY OF A PARTHIAN SILK MONOPOLY 496 CONCLUSION 498 V.3 CONCLUSION 499 10 VI.
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