ChapterChapter 66

AtmosphericAtmospheric MoistureMoisture andand PrecipitationPrecipitation TheThe HydrosphereHydrosphere ` Hydrosphere – water in the earth-atmosphere system ƒ Oceans and Salt Lakes 97.6% ƒ Ice Caps and Glaciers 1.9% (Not available for humans) 99.5% ƒ Subsurface Water (soil, groundwater) 0.5% ƒ Surface Water (rivers, freshwater lakes) 0.02% ƒ Atmosphere 0.0001%

` If all land were flat, the oceans would cover it to a depth of 3 km ` If all atmospheric water were precipitated, it would cover the earth to a depth of 25 mm (1 inch) ` Holt, MO -- 12 inches of rain in 42 minutes!

TheThe HydrosphereHydrosphere

` OverOver 70%70% ofof thethe planetplanet isis coveredcovered byby waterwater

` WaterWater isis uniqueunique inin thatthat itit cancan simultaneouslysimultaneously existexist inin allall threethree statesstates (solid,(solid, liquid,liquid, gas)gas) atat thethe samesame temperaturetemperature

` WaterWater isis ableable toto shiftshift betweenbetween statesstates veryvery easilyeasily

` HydrologicHydrologic cyclecycle definesdefines thethe movementmovement ofof waterwater amongamong thethe greatgreat globalglobal reservoirsreservoirs

ƒ Positive balance over land = more precipitation that evaporation ƒ Negative balance over water = more evaporation that precipitation EvaporationEvaporation

` moleculesmolecules escapeescape liquidliquid waterwater asas waterwater vaporvapor ` WaterWater vaporvapor increasesincreases inin airair asas surfacesurface waterwater evaporatesevaporates ` CondensationCondensation beginsbegins andand waterwater returnsreturns toto thethe surfacesurface ƒ Water vapor molecules become liquid Saturation

No Evaporation Evaporation >> Evaporation = Or Condensation Condensation Condensation AtmosphericAtmospheric HumidityHumidity

` Humidity – the amount of water vapor in the air

` When saturated, warm air contains more water vapor than cold air

` Thus, we erroneously say that warm air can “hold” more water vapor than cold air

` So, we would expect deserts near the poles due to the cold air temperatures PHYSICALLY IMPOSSIBLE!

Atmospheric Humidity AtmosphericAtmospheric HumidityHumidity

` Relative Humidity – the amount of water vapor in the air relative to the amount at saturation

` If air is saturated, we say that it has a relative humidity of 100%

` A relative humidity of 50% implies that the air has only half as much water vapor as it would have when saturated AtmosphericAtmospheric HumidityHumidity

` Since at saturation, warm air contains more water vapor than cold air, relative humidity is inversely related to air temperature

` As air temperature rises and the amount of moisture in the air remains the same, the relative humidity decreases

` As air temperature falls and the amount of moisture in the air remains the same, the relative humidity increases

DAILY CYCLES IN RELATIVE HUMIDITY AtmosphericAtmospheric HumidityHumidity

` Dew Point -- the temperature the air must reach for the air to become saturated. If you lower the air temperature until the relative humidity reaches 100%, you have reached the dew point. Lowering the air temperature below the dew point will result in condensation. PHYSICALLY IMPOSSIBLE!

Atmospheric Humidity

AtmosphericAtmospheric HumidityHumidity

` Relative humidity is strongly dependent on the air temperature; the dew point is a more conservative measure of the moisture content of the air.

` Therefore, dew point is a better way to represent the moisture content of the air. AtmosphericAtmospheric HumidityHumidity

` Relative humidity is inversely related to air temperature; the dew point is not

` The highest value of relative humidity usually occurs just after sunrise

` The lowest value of relative humidity usually occurs in the mid-afternoon

AirAir TemperatureTemperature andand HeightHeight AirAir TemperatureTemperature andand HeightHeight

` In the troposphere, air temperature decreases with height

` Rising air expands due to the decreasing atmospheric pressure and cools as it expands

` Similarly, descending air will warm as it compresses due to the increasing atmospheric pressure AirAir TemperatureTemperature andand HeightHeight

` The process by which changes in air temperature occur solely as a result of changes in atmospheric pressure is called an adiabatic process

` When air is heated or cooled adiabatically and no condensation occurs, air temperature will follow the dry adiabatic lapse rate which equals about 10°C per kilometer (or about 5.5°F per 1000 feet)

AirAir TemperatureTemperature andand HeightHeight ` However, rising air will cool and it is possible that it will reach the dew point temperature (a relative humidity of 100%)

` At that point, or the lifting condensation level, moisture will condense from the air and the air temperature will follow the wet adiabatic lapse rate which ranges from between 4°C and 9°C per kilometer

` The wet adiabatic lapse rate will be lower for warmer air since there is more moisture to condense

AirAir TemperatureTemperature andand HeightHeight

` Consider air flowing over a mountain that is 4 kilometers high (13,123 feet)

` For simplicity, we will assume the wet adiabatic lapse rate is 6°C per kilometer

` At sea level on the windward sideside ofof thethe mountain, the air temperature is 30°C and the dew point is 10°C rd a w e e

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AirAir TemperatureTemperature andand HeightHeight

` This demonstrates the rainshadow effect of mountain ranges

` Precipitation occurs on the windward side

` Warmer and drier conditions are found on the leeward side of the mountain range (e.g., Washington, Oregon, California)

` Downslope winds can be warm and dry – sometimes called Chinook Winds

PHYSICALLY IMPOSSIBLE!

Atmospheric Humidity

PrecipitationPrecipitation ToTo getget precipitation,precipitation, youyou need:need:

` MoistureMoisture inin thethe AtmosphereAtmosphere

` MechanismMechanism toto ReleaseRelease thethe MoistureMoisture ƒ Every Mechanism Causes Air to Cool Below the Dew Point Temperature PHYSICALLY IMPOSSIBLE!

Atmospheric Humidity ToTo getget precipitation,precipitation, youyou need:need:

` MoistureMoisture inin thethe AtmosphereAtmosphere

` MechanismMechanism toto ReleaseRelease thethe MoistureMoisture ƒ Every Mechanism Causes Air to Cool Below the Dew Point Temperature ƒ The Easiest Mechanism is to Force Air to Rise ƒ There are 4 Basic Mechanisms for Precipitation and 1 for Condensation ToTo getget precipitation,precipitation, youyou need:need:

1) MoistureMoisture inin thethe AtmosphereAtmosphere ƒ Clouds are the source of precipitation

ƒ In warm clouds, liquid droplets condense and collide

ƒ When the droplets become large enough, they fall as rain PrecipitationPrecipitation CausingCausing MechanismsMechanisms

`` `` `` `` PrecipitationPrecipitation CausingCausing MechanismsMechanisms

` OrographicOrographic PrecipitationPrecipitation `` `` `` 1)1) OrographicOrographic PrecipitationPrecipitation

`` WarmWarm moistmoist airair isis forcedforced overover aa mountainmountain barrierbarrier

`` ItIt coolscools adiabaticallyadiabatically

`` AtAt thethe LCLLCL condensationcondensation (and(and oftenoften precipitationprecipitation occursoccurs

PrecipitationPrecipitation CausingCausing MechanismsMechanisms

` OrographicOrographic PrecipitationPrecipitation ` ConvectiveConvective PrecipitationPrecipitation `` `` 2)2) ConvectiveConvective PrecipitationPrecipitation

` ConvectionConvection == upwardsupwards motionmotion ofof heatheat airair (convection(convection cells)cells)

` CausedCaused byby unevenuneven surfacesurface heatingheating

` ParcelParcel ofof warmer,warmer, lessless densedense airair risesrises

` AsAs thethe parcelparcel rises,rises, itit coolscools 2)2) ConvectiveConvective PrecipitationPrecipitation

` IfIf thethe airair isis quitequite moist,moist, thethe releaserelease ofof latentlatent heatheat willwill ensureensure thatthat thethe parcelparcel ofof airair remainsremains warmerwarmer thanthan thethe surroundingsurrounding airair

` IfIf conditionsconditions remainremain favorable,favorable, thethe risingrising thermalthermal willwill growgrow intointo aa thunderstormthunderstorm

PrecipitationPrecipitation CausingCausing MechanismsMechanisms

` OrographicOrographic PrecipitationPrecipitation ` ConvectiveConvective PrecipitationPrecipitation ` CyclonicCyclonic PrecipitationPrecipitation `` 3)3) CyclonicCyclonic PrecipitationPrecipitation

` PressurePressure differencesdifferences causecause airair motionmotion (wind)(wind)

` AA lowlow pressurepressure cellcell atat thethe surfacesurface causescauses convergenceconvergence

` LowLow levellevel convergenceconvergence causescauses upwardupward verticalvertical motion,motion, andand thereforetherefore precipitationprecipitation

PrecipitationPrecipitation CausingCausing MechanismsMechanisms

` OrographicOrographic PrecipitationPrecipitation ` ConvectiveConvective PrecipitationPrecipitation ` CyclonicCyclonic PrecipitationPrecipitation `` FrontalFrontal PrecipitationPrecipitation 4)4) FrontalFrontal PrecipitationPrecipitation

` FrontalFrontal upliftuplift –– airair cancan bebe forcedforced upwardupward throughthrough thethe movementmovement ofof airair massesmasses

` AirAir massesmasses == aa largelarge bodybody ofof air,air, withwith aa setset ofof relativelyrelatively uniformuniform temperaturetemperature andand moisturemoisture propertiesproperties 4)4) FrontalFrontal PrecipitationPrecipitation

` WhenWhen aa colder,colder, moremore densedense airair massmass advancesadvances onon aa warmer,warmer, lessless densedense airair massmass (a(a coldcold front),front), itit isis forcedforced toto riserise overover thethe coldcold airair massmass

PrecipitationPrecipitation CausingCausing MechanismsMechanisms

` OrographicOrographic PrecipitationPrecipitation ` ConvectiveConvective PrecipitationPrecipitation ` CyclonicCyclonic PrecipitationPrecipitation `` FrontalFrontal PrecipitationPrecipitation AtmosphericAtmospheric LiftingLifting MechanismsMechanisms CloudsClouds CloudsClouds andand CloudCloud FormationFormation

` CloudsClouds areare instrumentalinstrumental toto thethe Earth’sEarth’s energyenergy andand moisturemoisture balancesbalances

` MostMost cloudsclouds formform asas airair parcelsparcels areare liftedlifted andand cooledcooled toto saturationsaturation

` DifferentDifferent liftinglifting mechanismsmechanisms existexist toto liftlift airair andand formform cloudsclouds throughthrough condensationcondensation

` InIn thethe 1700s,1700s, aa BritishBritish PharmacistPharmacist developeddeveloped aa cloudcloud classificationclassification schemescheme thatthat wewe stillstill useuse todaytoday CloudsClouds andand CloudCloud FormationFormation

` CloudsClouds areare classifiedclassified onon thethe basisbasis ofof thethe presencepresence oror absenceabsence ofof verticalvertical developmentdevelopment

` CumuloformCumuloform cloudsclouds exhibitexhibit significantsignificant verticalvertical developmentdevelopment

` StratiformStratiform cloudsclouds dodo notnot exhibitexhibit significantsignificant verticalvertical developmentdevelopment CloudsClouds andand cloudcloud formationsformations

`` CirrusCirrus –– thin,thin, wispywispy cloudsclouds ofof iceice

`` NimbusNimbus –– rainrain producingproducing cloudsclouds CumuloformCumuloform CloudsClouds

`` CumulusCumulus CloudsClouds ƒƒ 11--22 kmkm thick,thick, 600600--12001200 metersmeters highhigh

FormationFormation ofof fairfair weatherweather cumuluscumulus CumuloformCumuloform CloudsClouds

`` CumulusCumulus CloudsClouds ƒƒ 11--22 kmkm thick,thick, basebase isis 600600--12001200 metersmeters highhigh `` CumulusCumulus CongestusCongestus ƒƒ 33--55 kmkm thickthick

CumuloformCumuloform CloudsClouds

` CumulusCumulus CloudsClouds ƒ 1-2 km thick, base is 600-1200 meters high ` CumulusCumulus CongestusCongestus ƒ 3-5 km thick ` CumulonimbusCumulonimbus ƒ 6-12 km thick – thunderstorm clouds

` ProgressionProgression occursoccurs withwith developmentdevelopment

StratiformStratiform CloudsClouds

` ClassifiedClassified onon thethe basisbasis ofof heightheight

HighHigh CloudsClouds –– moremore thanthan 66 kmkm highhigh MiddleMiddle CloudsClouds –– betweenbetween 22 andand 66 kmkm highhigh LowLow CloudsClouds –– lessless thanthan 22 kmkm highhigh StratiformStratiform CloudsClouds

HighHigh CloudsClouds –– moremore thanthan 66 kmkm highhigh ƒ Composed entirely of ice crystals ƒ Whitish appearance ƒ Temperature is around -35 C ƒ Little water vapor (0.025 g/m3)

` HighHigh cloudsclouds –– ƒ Cirrus: fine and wispy

CirrusCirrus cloudsclouds withwith fallfall streaksstreaks

StratiformStratiform CloudsClouds

HighHigh CloudsClouds –– moremore thanthan 66 kmkm highhigh ƒƒ ComposedComposed entirelyentirely ofof iceice crystalscrystals ƒƒ WhitishWhitish appearanceappearance ƒƒ CirrusCirrus –– finefine andand wispywispy ƒƒ CirrostratusCirrostratus –– formingforming aa completecomplete layerlayer

CirrostratusCirrostratus

When viewed through a layer of cirrostratus, the Moon or Sun has a whitish, milky appearance but a clear outline. A characteristic feature of cirrostratus clouds is the halo, a circular arc around the Sun or Moon formed by the refraction (bending) of light as it passes through the ice crystals. StratiformStratiform CloudsClouds

HighHigh CloudsClouds –– moremore thanthan 66 kmkm highhigh ƒƒ ComposedComposed entirelyentirely ofof iceice crystalscrystals ƒƒ WhitishWhitish appearanceappearance ƒƒ CirrusCirrus –– finefine andand wispywispy ƒƒ CirrostratusCirrostratus –– formingforming aa completecomplete layerlayer ƒƒ CirrocumulusCirrocumulus –– lightlight puffypuffy cloudsclouds f“Mackerel Sky”

StratiformStratiform CloudsClouds

MiddleMiddle CloudsClouds –– betweenbetween 22 andand 66 kmkm highhigh ƒƒ ComposedComposed ofof aa combinationcombination ofof iceice crystalscrystals andand waterwater dropletsdroplets ƒƒ ThickerThicker duedue toto higherhigher temperaturestemperatures ƒƒ AltostratusAltostratus –– formingforming aa nearnear completecomplete layerlayer

StratiformStratiform CloudsClouds

MiddleMiddle CloudsClouds –– betweenbetween 22 andand 66 kmkm highhigh ƒƒ ComposedComposed ofof aa combinationcombination ofof iceice crystalscrystals andand waterwater dropletsdroplets ƒƒ ThickerThicker duedue toto higherhigher temperaturestemperatures ƒƒ AltostratusAltostratus –– formingforming aa nearnear completecomplete layerlayer ƒƒ AltocumulusAltocumulus –– rowsrows ofof puffypuffy cloudsclouds

StratiformStratiform CloudsClouds

LowLow CloudsClouds –– lessless thanthan 22 kmkm highhigh ƒƒ ComposedComposed primarilyprimarily ofof waterwater dropletsdroplets ƒƒ ThickerThicker andand somewhatsomewhat darkerdarker ƒƒ StratusStratus –– aa nearlynearly unbrokenunbroken layerlayer ofof graygray

StratiformStratiform CloudsClouds

LowLow CloudsClouds –– lessless thanthan 22 kmkm highhigh ƒƒ ComposedComposed primarilyprimarily ofof waterwater dropletsdroplets ƒƒ ThickerThicker andand somewhatsomewhat darkerdarker ƒƒ StratusStratus –– aa nearlynearly unbrokenunbroken layerlayer ofof graygray ƒƒ StratocumulusStratocumulus –– rowsrows ofof puffypuffy cloudsclouds

CumulusCumulus oror Stratocumulus?Stratocumulus?

` CumulusCumulus ƒƒ flatflat bottomsbottoms ƒƒ occuroccur whenwhen significantsignificant liftinglifting isis presentpresent ` StratocumulusStratocumulus ƒƒ roundedrounded bottomsbottoms ƒƒ occuroccur whenwhen verticalvertical motionsmotions areare minimalminimal StratiformStratiform CloudsClouds

LowLow CloudsClouds –– lessless thanthan 22 kmkm highhigh ƒƒ ComposedComposed primarilyprimarily ofof waterwater dropletsdroplets ƒƒ ThickerThicker andand somewhatsomewhat darkerdarker ƒƒ StratusStratus –– aa nearlynearly unbrokenunbroken layerlayer ofof graygray ƒƒ StratocumulusStratocumulus –– rowsrows ofof puffypuffy cloudsclouds ƒƒ NimbostratusNimbostratus –– stratusstratus cloudcloud fromfrom whichwhich rainrain isis fallingfalling

LenticularLenticular CloudsClouds

`` FormForm downwinddownwind onon mountainmountain barriersbarriers

`` HaveHave aa curvedcurved (lense(lense--like)like) shapeshape altocumulusaltocumulus standingstanding lenticularuslenticularus

LenticularLenticular CloudsClouds

StratiformStratiform CloudsClouds

` FogFog –– stratusstratus cloudcloud atat thethe groundground

` AdvectionAdvection FogFog –– movingmoving airair overover aa coldercolder surfacesurface ƒ (e.g., the Grand Banks of Newfoundland)

` RadiationRadiation FogFog –– motionlessmotionless airair thatthat coolscools belowbelow thethe dewdew pointpoint duedue toto longwavelongwave radiationradiation lossloss atat nightnight

RadiationRadiation FogFog inin thethe CentralCentral ValleyValley ofof CaliforniaCalifornia StratiformStratiform CloudsClouds

` FogFog –– stratusstratus cloudcloud atat thethe groundground

` SeaSea FogFog –– formsforms whenwhen aa coolcool moistmoist airair parcelparcel comescomes inin contactcontact withwith coldcold oceanocean

OccursOccurs alongalong thethe coastscoasts ofof continentscontinents wherewhere coldcold currentscurrents movemove towardtoward thethe equatorequator (e.g.(e.g. California,California, Peru)Peru)

WhatWhat isis thethe differencedifference betweenbetween thethe environmentalenvironmental lapselapse raterate andand thethe drydry adiabaticadiabatic lapselapse rate?rate? EnvironmentalEnvironmental LapseLapse RateRate vs.vs. DALR/WALRDALR/WALR

` IsIs thethe averageaverage temperaturetemperature lapselapse rate,rate, anan expressionexpression ofof howhow temperaturetemperature ofof stillstill airair variesvaries withwith altitudealtitude

` ThisThis raterate willwill varyvary fromfrom timetime toto timetime andand fromfrom oneone placeplace toto another,another, dependingdepending onon thethe statestate ofof thethe atmosphereatmosphere

` NoNo motionmotion ifif airair isis impliedimplied forfor thethe environmentalenvironmental lapselapse raterate (both(both DALRDALR andand WALRWALR relyrely onon motion)motion)