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AN ANALYSIS OF CANADIAN EDUCATIONAL ASSISTANCE TO THE COMMONWEALTH CARIBBEAN LEEWARD AND WINDWARD ISLANDS, 1960-1970 by Mavis E. Burke

Thesis presented to the School of Graduate Studies of the University of Ottawa as partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy

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The researcher wishes to thank Dr. Mary Mulcahy, Chairman of the Department of Educational Foundations, University of Ottawa, for her unfailing support and encouragement in the preparation of this thesis. The project could not have been completed without the cooperation of officials representing the sources of development assistance included in this study. A special debt of gratitude is due to Mr. W.A. Teager, Director of the Overseas Book Centre,and his staff, for permission to make the fullest use of OBC material for purposes of this research. The assistance of Dr. Gerald Nason, formerly of Professional Development Associates, has been invaluable, as has that provided by Mrs. Gladys Rutherford, formerly Administrative Assistant with the Canadian Teachers' Federation,and Miss Helen Sissons who served in the Caribbean with CTF»s Project Overseas. Mrs. Carolyn Hibberd of the Canadian Council for International Co-operation has generously provided research facilities. Caribbean educators and government officials have over the years provided the information and insight necessary for research in the field of development assistance and the researcher owes them all a special debt of gratitude. CURRICULUM STUDIORUM

Mavis E. Burke was born in Caimanera, Cuba on September 10, 1928. She received the Bachelor of Arts Degree from the University College of The West Indies, Kingston, Jamaica in 1958, (B.A. Lond.-U.C.W.I.), the Diploma in Education from the University College of The West Indies in 1962, and a Master of Arts Degree from the University of London, England, in 1965 (M.A. Education). TABLE OF CONTENTS

Chapter page INTRODUCTION xi I.- CANADA-COMMONWEALTH CARIBBEAN: BACKGROUND TO THE AID RELATIONSHIP 1 1. Origins and Extensions of Canadian Interest in the area 2 2. Development of Canadian External Aid Policy re the Caribbean 9 3. Canadian Government External Aid Procedures 22 4. The Special Case for External Aid to The Leewards and Windwards 34 5. Review of the Aid Relationship 45 II.- CANADIAN GOVERNMENT BILATERAL AID TO EDUCATION IN THE LEEWARD AND WINDWARD ISLANDS 55 1. Capital Assistance 55 2. Technical Assistance - Personnel 88 3. Technical Assistance - Training Awards 113 4. Summary 134 III.- CANADIAN NON-GOVERNMENTAL EDUCATIONAL INVOLVEMENT IN THE LEEWARD AND WINDWARD ISLANDS 136 1. Personnel 138 2. Educational Materials - Books 165 3. School Supplies and Equipment 191 4. Sponsorship of Educational Services and Activities 198 5. Summary 213 IV.- EDUCATIONAL AID PRIORITIES: LEEWARD AND WINDWARD ISLANDS 215 1. Educational Needs - Diagnosis and Prescription 218 2. Requests and Response as Guides to Educational Aid Priorities 253 3. Summary 282 TABLE OF CONTENTS v

Chapter page V.- A PERSPECTIVE ON CANADIAN EDUCATIONAL ASSISTANCE: LEEWARD AND WINDWARD ISLANDS, 1960-1970 283 1. Building Construction as a Form of Educational Assistance 288 2. Provision of Canadian Educational Personnel 301 3. Educational Assistance as Donor Competition 313 4. An Integrated Approach to Educational Assistance 318 5* Request and Response as Measure of Effectiveness In Planning of Educational Assistance 323 6. A New Perspective on External Educational Assistance 327 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS 332 BIBLIOGRAPHY 338 Appendix 1. CANADA: RELATIVE BILATERAL AID AND TRADE POSITIONS, 1971 360 2. COMMONWEALTH CARIBBEAN ASSISTANCE PROGRAM EXPENDITURE ON STUDIES, SURVEYS, ETC. 1958-70 361 3. CUSO PERSONNEL - LEEWARD AND WINDWARD ISLANDS DETAILS OF 1969, 1970 ASSIGNMENTS 362 4. CANADIAN GOVERNMENT EDUCATIONAL PERSONNEL 363 5. AID DONOR PROVISION OF SCHOOL PLACES IN THE LEEWARDS & WINDWARDS 1966-70 364 6. CANADIAN MAPLE LEAF SCHOOL ANNOUNCEMENT 365 7. ABSTRACT OF An Analysis of Canadian Educational Assistance to the Commonwealth Caribbean Leeward and Windward Islands 1960 to 1970 366 LIST OF TABLES Table page I.- Canadian Government Capital Project Expenditure Commonwealth Caribbean 1958-64 ••••• 8 II.- Commonwealth Caribbean Assistance Program Expenditures* •••••••••••••••••••• 10 III.- Canadian Government Aid Allocations to the Commonwealth Caribbean 1958-1970 13 IV.- Commonwealth Caribbean Assistance Program Cabinet Allocations 1958-1971 19 V.- Commonwealth Caribbean Assistance Program Disbursements: Sectoral Distribution - 1958-68. ... 20 VI.- Canada-Leeward and Windward Island Trade Statistics 1966-70 44 VII.- Canadian Education Sector Allocations Leeward and Windward Islands 1958-70. •••••••• 57 VIII.- Maple Leaf Schools - St. Lucia 1970-1973 Accommodation Schedule • 77 IX.- Technical Assistance - Canadian Government Education Assignments, Leeward and Windward Islands 1965-1971 90 X.- Canadian Government Education Sector Assignments Antigua/St. Vincent 1965-1971 93 XI.- Antigua: Technical Assistance Position 1963-1966. ... 96 XII.- Canadian Principals of Leeward and Windward Island Educational Institutions 1969-70 101 XIII.- CCAP Training Awards: Leeward and Windward Islands 1965-1971 119 XIV.- Students and Trainees Arriving in Canada Under Commonwealth Caribbean Aid Program 1964-1966 121 XV.- CCAP - Study Awards to St. Vincent 1963-1971 125 LIST OF TABLES vii

Table page XVI.- CCAP Awards to the University of the West Indies 1966-1970 129 XVII.- U.W.I. Diploma in Education Students Leeward and Windward Islands 1953-1966 130 XVIII.- CCAP Expenditure - Training Awards Leeward and Windward Islands 1965-1970 132 XIX.- CUSO Personnel: Leeward and Windward Islands 1963-1969 140 XX.- Canadian Catholic Personnel: Leewards and Windwards 1970 . 163 XXI.- Overseas Book Centre: Leeward and Windward Islands Shipments 1963 to 1970 169 XXII.- OBC Statement - Amount on Consignment of Shipments 1971-1972 170 XXIII.- Canadian Save The Children Fund Programs in the Windward Islands 1970 200 XXIV.- Educational Attainment 1960: Population 15 years and Over • • 221 XXV.- Educational Statistics: Leeward and Windward Islands 1966 .224 XXVI.- Summary of Capital Costs of Educational Expansion Proposed In The Five Year Development Plans 1966 Through 1970 232 XXVII.- Summary of Position Re Trained Teachers In Leeward and Windward Islands 1966 234 XXVIII.- Summary of Education Expenditure Estimates for Leeward and Windward Islands in Tripartite Survey Report • 252 LIST OF TABLES viii

Table page XXIX.- Education Sector: Capital Assistance Requests 255 XXX.- Canadian Capital Assistance - Water Sector: Leeward and Windward Islands 1958-1970 279 ABBREVIATIONS

BDD British Development Division CANSAVE Canadian Save The Children Fund CARIFTA Caribbean Free Trade Association CBC Canadian Broadcasting Corporation CCAP Commonwealth Caribbean Assistance Program CCIC Canadian Council for International Co-operation CEO Chief Education Officer CIDA Canadian International Development Agency CIIA Canadian Institute of International Affairs CNE Canadian National Exhibition CSCF Canadian Save the Children Fund CTF Canadian Teachers' Federation CUSO Canadian University Service Overseas CVCS Canadian Voluntary Commonwealth Service EAO External Aid Office EO Education Officer GUT Grenada Union of Teachers GNP Gross National Product HMSO Her Majesty's Stationery Office IDOC International Documentation on the Contemporary Church IEY International Education Year ILO International Labour Office IODE Imperial Order of the Daughters of the Empire MAWD Manitoba Association for World Development ABBREVIATIONS x

OBC Overseas Book Centre ODM Ministry of Overseas Development OIC Overseas Institute of Canada PDA Professional Development Associates PS Permanent Secretary RCAF Royal Canadian Air Force RDA Regional Development Agency SAID Student Action for International Dialogue SVTU St. Vincent Teachers' Union TES Tripartite Economic Survey UCWI University College of the West Indies UNDP United Nations Development Program UNESCO United Nations Educational Scientific and Cultural Organization UNICEF United Nations International Children*s Emergency Fund UWI University of the West Indies VSO Voluntary Service Overseas W.I. West Indies INTRODUCTION

The problem which this thesis examines is the extent to which the policies, procedures and performance of Canadian external aid to education contributed to the educational development plans and requirements of the area selected, in the period under review, i960 to 1970. Development assistance assumed a sharper focus with the declaration of the Second United Nations Development Decade. The appraisal studies at the end of the 1960's pointed up the need for donors and recipient countries to establish on-going evaluative procedures and develop a more rational basis for aid activities. The education sector has become an increasingly significant part of development assistance strategy but there have been few attempts at a detailed examination of educational aid performance. Scientific analysis of educational assistance is a relatively new field of enquiry. Previous research and writing have tended towards prescriptions for recipient country improve ment in respect of educational goals, planning and administration, as perceived by donor agencies. The problems and conditions for effective use of technical assistance have also been a major area of concern. There appears to have been very little attention paid to the objective appraisal of donor activities in terms of the declared educational goals and the perceptions of recipient countries. This is the kind of perspective which this study proposes to pursue. INTRODUCTION xii

There has been a long tradition of good relations between Canada and the Commonwealth Caribbean. This was the first area to which Canadian aid was extended outside the Colombo Plan countries. Canadian Government statistics indicate that in the period under review the Commonwealth Caribbean was awarded the highest per capita allocation of all Canadian bilateral develop ment assistance funds to the Third World. Of the territories comprising this region the Leeward and Windward Islands have been designated an area of special concern and contribution, as being less developed economically than the larger units. The co-ordination of aid from governmental and non governmental sources in Canada has been a problem within the Caribbean context, since no agency with an effective consultative, supervisory or even informational role has existed in Canada or in the Caribbean. The Leewards and Windwards have become seven separately administered states, a fact which belies the seeming convenience of grouping them together as the 'Little Seven'. The analysis of Canadian educational assistance to the area is a challenging research assignment and an important task. Other aid donors such as Britain and, to a lesser extent, the United States, have also been actively engaged in education and in other sectors in the Leeward and Windward Islands. The multilateral agencies such as UNESCO and UNDP have provided development assistance mainly to the Caribbean region. Recipient perceptions of the Canadian role will therefore indicate a INTRODUCTION xiii comparative appraisal of participation. The research design has been formulated within the framework of the factors presented in this summary. The following questions have been investigated: 1. What have been the priorities in Canadian governmental and non-governmental aid to Caribbean education? 2. To what extent has aid allocation reflected the emphases of Leeward and Windward Islands plans for educational development? 3. What criteria appear to have guided project selection in each island and the relative concentration of aid resources in different islands? 4. What estimate can be formed of the recipients' perception of Canada's contribution to education in the Caribbean? 5. To what extent has Canada's educational aid performance related to the objectives identified by donors and recipients? 6. What are the implications of the Canada-Caribbean educational aid experience in the selected area in the First Development Decade? Canadian development assistance strategies have not been treated to a great deal of exacting scrutiny outside the scope of official in-house studies. Little research has been done on Canadian educational aid in general and, as far as the researcher has been able to ascertain, there has been no detailed compre hensive analysis of Leeward, and Windward Islands educational aid INTRODUCTION xiv in the period under review. The chief value of this documentary case study is the following: (a) comprehensive documentation of governmental and non governmental aid to education in the area (b) investigation of aid procedures and performance (c) estimate of Caribbean perceptians of Canada's educational participation (d) analysis of Canada's contribution in terms of Caribbean educational development plans and requirements (e) development of guidelines for future action based on the results of empirical research. The term "educational assistance" is used to refer to any category of aid to formal education. By this definition emphasis is placed on capital assistance for items such as buildings, equipment and school supplies; support of educational services and activities; and technical assistance through the provision of educational personnel and the award of scholarships and training grants. Observation tours and exchange visits are not included in this overview. "Canadian" sources of "educational assistance" consist of a variety of sponsors. Government aid refers to bilateral assistance, between governments, provided by the Government of Canada. Other channels of the official Canadian contribution through multilateral agencies and Commonwealth agreements are not included in the study. Nor is educational assistance through the University of the West Indies. INTRODUCTION xv

The "non-governmental" sources, for the purposes of this presentation, include provincial assistance as distinct from the federal in-put. Voluntary agencies, professional groups, religious bodies and independent groups such as service clubs, etc. are also placed in this category even where they receive federal government funding assistance for international develop ment activities.

"Commonwealth Caribbean" delineates the English-speaking territories which were formerly British colonial possessions in the West Indies. In this area, the "Leeward and Windward Islands" are located in the Eastern Caribbean, stretching from north to south in an arc between Puerto Rico and Trinidad. Also referred to as the "Little Seven", the two groups are as follows: L^eWflrt ISlandg Windward Islands St. Kitts-Nevis-(Anguilla) Dominica Antigua St. Lucia Montserrat St. Vincent Grenada Their precise location is represented on the map which is shown on the following page. The time span covered by this study has chronological significance as the period of the First United Nations Develop ment Decade. For Canada, the years 1960 to 1970 marked the formation of an agency charged with special responsibility for development assistance. In 1960, the External Aid Office was established under H.O. Moran. Under his successor, Maurice Strong, the Canadian International Development Agency replaced the External PUERTO RICO wa^AnegaJa U.K. I Br.) 31.Si. j Ton,lortalQ *» Virti* Ctrjt/Mr.) Thamaf, ".&£/,*. Anguillg 1 .harlotte Amalle Croon HJ&* VIRGIN Mariiu&'St. Martin S^ ^••hiliBjburf Pone. Guayama ISLANDS Gwto.io*""5'- BartMlemy

•oiumt *•** Co15jijBlIrAl«/

"^ 5/. Christopher (Si. Kiln) Basseterrei\ Ch.rte«o»nB|JV"'i. . . .fAStJiuigua St. John ^ "ingfuh Harbour

LEEWARD HymautJk MoHtSemi

TV Barbados INTRODUCTION xvii

Data on Leeward and Windward Islands

Country Area Population GNP per Capita Status (Sq. Miles) (Thousands) (U.S. $)

Antigua 170 71 310

Dominica 290 77 250

Grenada 133 109 210

St.Kitts-Nevis U.K. (Incl. Anguilla) 136 60 270 Associated

St. Lucia 238 123 210

St. Vincent 150 102 200

Montserrat 39 15 N.A. U.K. (Col.)

Source: World Facts, Canadian Council For International Co-operation, Ottawa, 1972. INTRODUCTION xviii

Aid Office in 1968 and received a new President at the end of 1970. For the Caribbean, the ten year span was a crucial period in changing political relationships. The Federation of The West Indies lasted from 1958 to 1962. The ensuing years brought independence to the larger territories and Associated Statehood with Great Britain for the Leeward and Windward Islands, except Montserrat which remained a Crown Colony. The first part of the presentation sets out the context of the aid relationship between Canada and the Commonwealth Caribbean region pointing up the developmental features of the connection. Within this framework a case was made for aid to the Leewards and Windwards. Government and non-governmental educational assistance is detailed and examined in the major portion of the work. The educational aid procedures in implementation of policies receive special attention. Performance is examined by reference to the participating groups involved in a particular activity or project. Priorities for external educational assistance are next reviewed in order to form an estimate of the extent to which education aid activities met the plans and requirements of the Leeward and Windward Islands. The final stage of the presentation provides a perspective on Canadian educational assistance from all sources to the area selected, taking into account the cumulative effect of educational aid involvement in the islands. INTRODUCTION xix

The main sources used for this study are documentary. To produce a contemporary history of educational aid in the context and time frame selected, it has been necessary to collect documentation in a number of geographical locations over a period of year8. In the course of researching the problem, a major limitation has been the extent to which almost every item has been classified confidential by agencies, governments and institutions, almost as a routine procedure. As a developing area, the Commonwealth Caribbean has been subjected to a vast number of studies and reports by external agencies, the results of which have had only limited distribution in the islands. Lacking research facilities of their own, the islands tend to operate without firm data and without the benefit of objective assessments made by outside researchers. On the rare occasions on which reports have been provided for island perusal, govern ment officials and local politicians have also treated these as confidential documents not for public knowledge. A number of sources used will therefore not be accessible for public scrutiny at the present time. A further limitation has been the lack of specificity in the Canadian non-governmental accounting of the categories of assistance referred to vaguely as "Caribbean"and as "educational". The researcher has found it necessary to conduct informal interviews for the purpose of bridging gaps in information and arriving at a clearer understanding of some of the relation ships analysed in this study. INTRODUCTION xx

A great deal of the literature on educational assistance to developing countries relates to American development assistance programs and works by U.S. writers about aid problems and strategies. Several critics have noted that Canadian assessments of the country's own foreign policy and aid efforts have not been reflected in the increasing international literature on these activities in general and on educational assistance in particular. Denis Stairs of Dalhousie University, in a CIIA book review,2 observed that "the literature of postwar Canadian foreign policy suffers from a surfeit of think-pieces and a shortage of carefully documented empirical studies", for which situation he blamed the "covetous secrecy withtfiich the government guards its diplomatic files" as one of the factors involved. As far as development assistance is concerned, there has not been any considerable writing of either kind. Speaking at the University of Ottawa on March 5, 1970 the President of the Canadian International; Development Agency acknowledged the fact that "in the past the Canadian aid program has been subject to a minimum of public scrutiny and criticism."

1 See for example. Mathew Zachariah, An Illustrative Bibliography On International Educational Assistance With Special Reference Tn American Educational Aid To India 1950 to 1967T prepared for the Third Annual Meeting of the Comparative and International Education Society of Canada, York University, Toronto, June 4, 1969. 2 Denis Stairs, Book Review of Canada and Thr*»e Crises bv Robert Reford, in International Journal. Vol. 25, No.l, Winter 1969-70, p.220. 3 CIDA, Notes for a speech by M.F. Strong. President, Canadian International Development Agency, at University of Ottawa, March 5, 1970.p.10. INTRODUCTION ^

Mr. Strong recognised that "as the program grows, it will undoubtedly receive more public attention and almost inevitably there will be more specific instances of criticism,"4 and made a connection between the effectiveness of the program and its capacity to command public support. The major work on external assistance as a feature of Canada's foreign policy is that published by Keith Spicer in 1966. The author's review extends to mid-1965, providing a thoughtful examination of the motivations and political rationale for Canada's aid program through the previous fifteen years. Case studies of selected projects illustrate the implementation of aid policy and Spicer describes the administrative machinery of the External Aid Office. Educational assistance receives cursory attention in the overall context of Canadian aid, being treated to generalised description and comment rather than a detailed critique. The author acknowledged that "a meaningful global judgement on the numerous activities of Canada's aid programme" appeared to be "objectively impossible" but expressed the view that it would be "easy enough to assess each kind of aid separately on its own merits", detailed criticism being necessary for any precise evaluation. Concluding with suggestions for

4 Ibid. 5 Keith Spicer, A Samaritan State? External Aid In Canada's Foreign Policy. Toronto, University of Toronto Press, 1966. INTRODUCTION xxii a "rational statecraft" Spicer emphasises the need for, and techniques of policy review for an integrated approach to Canada's external aid.

A later attempt to provide an informed basis for public questioning about Canada's contribution to international develop ment can be found in Clyde Sanger's review of selected Canadian aid operations. Written in the context of observations in the field, the presentation sets each country's aid projects within a unified framework of factors relevant to development efforts. Educational assistance is treated as one element in the local situation and Sanger manages to provide a brief perspective on Canadian sources of provision, forms of contribution and local response. Adopting a free style rather than an academic approach with scholarly documentation, Sanger, nevertheless,leaves the reader in no doubt about the breadth of knowledge and the range of research which forms the background of this perspective on Canada's aid performance.

The Canadian Institute of International Affairs has published various works on Canada's foreign policy and develop ment assistance. The Winter 1969-70 issue of International Journal,, for example, was devoted to "Aid, Trade and Development."

6 Ibid., p.243-250. INTRODUCTION xxiii

Articles by Reuber, Reid and Helleiner8 examined features of Canada's external relations, calling for re-assessment and establishment of new priorities for the seventies. Articles in other publications deal more precisely with educational assistance, one of the most relevant for this study being that by Professor Mathew Zachariah in the June 1970 issue of Comparative Education. This work challenges researchers to develop new perspectives in investigating educational aid to Third World countries. For the purpose of historical documentation, H.O, Moran's 1961 article in Canadian Education and Research Digest,10 records the increased emphasis placed on educational assistance by the Director General of the External Aid Office in the formative years of EAO, Other important sources of reference for the study of Canada's educational effort are the works produced by the Overseas Institute of Canada which provide important landmarks in the development of public and

8 Grant L, Reuber, "The Trade-Offs among the Objectives of Canadian Foreign Aid"; Escott Reid, "Canada and the Struggle against World Poverty"; G.K. Hellexner, "The Development Business: Next Steps", in International Journal, Vol. 25, No.l, Winter 1969-70, p.129-141, p.142-157, p.158-177. 9 Mathew Zachariah, "Educational Aid: A Bibliographic Essay and a Plea for New Lines of Enquiry", in Comparative Education. Vol. 6, No.2, June 1970, p.115-123. 10 H.O. Moran, "Canada's Educational Aid Program". Canadian Education and Research Digest. Vol. 1, No.4, December 1961, p.5-12. 11 For example, Overseas Institute of Canada, Canada's Participation in International Development, a report based on the second national workshop on Canada's participation in international development, Esterel, P.Q., November 18-21, 1965, Ottawa, OIC, £1966:), vii-123p. INTRODUCTION ^^

professional attitudes to, and assessments of, Canada's participation in international development. There are very few published works in respect of Canada's contemporary relationships with the Commonwealth Caribbean region. The study commissioned by the Private Planning Association of Canada and the Centre for Developing-Area Studies, McGill University, on Canada-West Indies Economic Relations,12 investi gates important features of the total relationship. Aid is detailed in quantitative terms with brief consideration of its educational component. The study was extended to record and review the decisions of the 1966 Commonwealth Caribbean-Canada 13 Conference in Ottawa, which established the formal basis of the aid connection for the rest of the decade. The report of the conference held in Halifax, The West 14 Indies and The Atlantic Provinces of Canadar* also provides a perspective on the relationship in the middle years of the decade,

12 Kari Levitt and Alister Mclntyre, Canada-West Indies Economic Relations. Montreal, Private Planning Association of Canada and Centre for Developing-Area Studies, McGill University, November 1967. 13 "Final Communique of the Commonwealth Caribbean-Canada Conference, Ottawa, July 6-8, 1966," in Ibid.r p.141-149. 14 The West Indies And The Atlantic Provinces of Canada, Papers from A Conference Organized by Canadian National Commission For UNESCO and Institute Of Public Affairs, Dalhousie University in association with Atlantic Provinces Economic Council and Department of Trade and Industry, Province of Nova Scotia, May 18-20, 1966, Halifax, Dalhousie University, 1966. INTRODUCTION xxv as does D.G.L. Fraser's Canada's Role In The West Indies.15 The most comprehensive investigation of Canada's relationship with the Commonwealth Caribbean was that held by the Standing Senate Committee on Foreign Affairs between 1969 and 1970. The papers presented by various witnesses appearing at the hearings are, in many cases, more instructive than the minutes of proceedings. For the purposes of this study the most relevant presentations were those by CIDA,16 CUSO,17 and the Canadian church groups.18 19 In addition to these hearings, the concluding Report gave a concise account of the Committee's findings. This analysis showed considerable insight into the factors involved in both sides of the aid relationship and recommended a course of action which, in the opinion of the Senate Committee, would improve Canada's development strategy in the Caribbean.

15 D.G.L. Fraser, Cane's Role If) Tfte, We,gt Indjej, Toronto, Canadian Institute of International Affairs, (Behind the Headlines, Vol. 23, No.3), January 1964. 16 Senate of Canada, Proceedings of the Standing Senate Committee on Foreign Affairs. Respecting The Caribbean Area. No. 1, Tuesday, November 4, 1969. 17 Ibid.. No. 7, Wednesday, February 25, 1970. 18 Ibid.. No. 5, Tuesday, February 10, 1970. 19 Report of The Standing Committee on Foreign Affairs of the Senate of Canada on Canada-Caribbean Relations, Ottawa, Queen's Printer, 1970. CHAPTER 1

CANADA-COMMONWEALTH CARIBBEAN: BACKGROUND TO THE AID RELATIONSHIP

The United Nations designation of the period 1960 to 1970 as the First Development Decade found Canada already engaged in providing overseas aid to the Commonwealth Caribbean. There had been a long tradition of trading relations, particularly between the Maritime Provinces of Canada and the more accessible parts of the area formerly known as the British West Indies. The consti tutional changes which gathered momentum in the Caribbean area during the middle years of the twentieth century resulted in a revision and subsequent re-direction of the relationship between Canada and the Commonwealth Caribbean. In the gap left by the gra dual withdrawal of Colonial Office authority in the administration of the majority of the territories, Canada opted for the creation of a special bilateral connection with the area. In the absence of a recognised regional entity representing the whole Commonwealth Caribbean, Canadian development assistance pblicies and procedures were invented to suit project needs iden tified from time to time in relation to the separate political units which emerged after the Federation of the West Indies ended in 1962. As a donor nation Canada had the Colombo Plan experience as a guide to one pattern of the aid relationship. However, as the emphasis placed on external aid in Canada's foreign policy became more pronounced and the level of Cabinet allocations increased BACKGROUND TO THE AID RELATIONSHIP 2 between i960 and 1970, it became necessary for both donor and re cipients to develop more effective procedures for bilateral as sistance. In 1966 the Commonwealth Caribbean made its case to Ottawa for an arrangement which would give a more equitable balance to aid and trade. This chapter is intended to establish the back ground to the aid relationship during the Decade and to provide a perspective on the predicament of the Leeward and Windward Islands during this period.

1. Origins and Extension of Canadian Interest in the Area

Canada's first formal venture into the aid relationship with the Commonwealth Caribbean was the 1958 announcement1 of a $10 million grant to the newly created Federation of the West 2 Indies , for the period 1958-63. The major portion of this amount was allocated to provision of two Canadian ships for inter-island trade and travel. The symbolically named "Federal Palm" and "Federal Maple" were delivered in 1960 and 1961, having accounted for the expenditure of approximately 6 million dollars from the

1 Canada, House of Commons Debates, Second Session, Twenty- fourth Parliament, Vol. 11, 1959, p.1405, 5762, re disposition of the amount and p.2053, 3509, re gift to the Federation of two clerk's tables. 2 The Federation consisted of Jamaica, Trinidad, Barbados and the Leeward and Windward Islands - British Honduras and British Guiana were not a part of the agreement and other British colonial territories in the area, such as the Bahamas, the British Virgin Islands and Bermuda were not considered a part of the core area at that time. BACKGROUND TO THE AID RELATIONSHIP 3 original grant. Though providing an essential service to the region, the ships proved expensive to operate and were subsequent ly referred to in the Caribbean as a "white elephant which provided half a million man hours of work for Canadian shipyards." Canada had good reason to be aware of the problems of Caribbean shipping. In fact the Canadian government had been in volved in different levels of subsidized shipping service to the area since 1890 and the Canadian National Steamship West Indies fleet was only withdrawn in 1957. Shipping had been an important means of communication between the two areas in a long-standing relationship which began as an exchange between trading partners. Pioneered in the eighteenth century by Nova Scotia and later c. shared by the other Maritime Provinces and Newfoundland, the trade in fish, lumber and estate provisions in exchange for West

3 B.S. Kierstead and Kan Levitt, Inter-Territorial Freight Ra.teg a.tW tfre Federal; Shipping Service, Jamaica, University of the West Indies, 1963. 4 Kari Levitt and Alister Mclntyre, Canada-West Indies Economic Relations. Montreal, Private Planning Association of Canada and Centre for Developing-Area Studies, McGill University, November 1967, p.109. 5 Duncan Fraser, "The West Indies and Canada: The Present Relationship," in The West Indies and The Atlantic Provinces of Canada, papers from A Conference Organized by Canadian National Commission for UNESCO and Institute of Public Affairs Dalhousie University, May 18-20, 1966, Halifax, Dalhousie University, 1966, p.36-37, for a brief discussion of Canadian shipping in the Caribbean. 6 C.Bruce Fergusson,"The West Indies and the Atlantic Provinces: Background of the Present Relationship" in ibid., p.23-32. BACKGROUND TO THE AID RELATIONSHIP 4

Indies sugar, rum, molasses and spices gained ground in the mid- nineteenth century. By 1875 the Maritime Provinces' trade with the British West Indies totalled $2,213,800 in exports as against $526,561 in imports. In spite of the mutual economic benefits expected of the first bilateral trade agreement between Canada and the British West Indies in 1912 and the updated versions of 1920 and 1926 which governed relations until 1966, no substantial ex pansion in trade resulted. Early Canadian financial interest in the region was not limited to trade. The Bank of Nova Scotia began operating in Jamaica in 1889 and the Union Bank of Halifax in Trinidad in 1902, These developments were the beginning of a major involve ment of Canadian banks in servicing the Canada-West Indies trade and in providing internal banking services for the area. Invest ment by the Sun Life Assurance Company was also followed, after its initial operation in Trinidad and Jamaica in 1880, by the p arrival of other Canadian insurance companies. The twentieth century brought new opportunities for Canadian investment in Caribbean industrial and mineral develop- 9 ment (particularly bauxite), as well as in the tourist trade.

7 Levitt and Mclntyre, "The Pattern of Canada-West Indies Trade" in op.cit., p.14-23, 8 Ibli., p.25. 9 University of the West Indies, "Canada-West Indies Re lations", Institute of Social and Economic Research, Special Issue, 1967, for an important examination of the factors involved in the relationship. BACKGROUND TO THE AID RELATIONSHIP 5

The exact amount of this private investment was one of the ques tions to which the 1970 Senate Committee investigating Canada's relations with the Caribbean could find no answer.10 The radical press in the islands within recent years has accused Canada of neo-colonialisro and the image of the foreign investor taking the profits on local resources out of these developing countries has done much to contribute to the deterioration of that aura of good will with which Canada was formerly unreservedly welcomed to the Caribbean.12 The evidence at hand does not lead to the conclusion that Canada's $10 million grant to the West Indies Federation in 1958 was intended to initiate a pattern of long-term direct aid for the 13 region. As it happened, the time span of the grant actually

10 Senate of Canada, Report of the Standing Committee on Foreign Affairs on Canada-Caribbean Relations, Ottawa, 1970, p,35-40, discusses the need for this information and the problems involved in Canadian private investment in the Caribbean.

11 For example, "Canada's White Lies" in AbengT Vol. 1, No. 7, Jamaica, March 15, 1969, p.l, observed that the good re lations between Canada and the Caribbean were a myth, commenting that Canada's trade benefits for a year exceeded the total amount of aid which had been given to the area between 1958 and 1966. 12 Reporting from Port of Spain, Trinidad, Paul Kidd's article for Southam News Services in the Ottawa Citizen. March 20, 1970, appeared under the byline, "Trinidad now sees Canada as exploiter of its people." 13 John Mordecai, The West Indies: The Federal Negotiations. Epilogue by W, Arthur Lewis, London, Allen and Unwin, 1968, p.73, reported pre-Federation negotiations by Caribbean Regional Economic Committee officials on a special visit to Canada and the later announcement of the gift to suit the political purposes of the Canadian Government and of the government of the newly-created Federation. BACKGROUND TO THE AID RELATIONSHIP 6 outlasted the Federation itself. The breakup of the Federation 14 in 1962 forced the Canadian Government into the position of having to make decisions about the future relationship with sep arate entities which remained in various political postures after the dissolution. The plan for a continued program of aid brought the Commonwealth Caribbean into the fold of Canadian overseas aid as the first region outside the Colombo Plan area to which Canada's concern was formally and purposefully extended.

The federal grant's original five year commitment was scheduled to come to an end at the end of the 1963 fiscal year (March 31, 1963). In addition to the Canadian-designed passenger- cargo vessels already mentioned, attention was paid to other features of the transportation sector, such as improving dock facilities and providing harbour equipment. Port warehouses were later built in St. Kitts and in St. Lucia. Water supply develop ment was financed in Montserrat, St. Kitts, and St. Vincent and a resource study undertaken in Dominica.

14 Ibid.T for the careful account of the author, who served as Federal Secretary and later Deputy Governor General to the West Indies Federation, in relation to the complexity of the reasons for the breakup. 15 Ibid., p.53, where reference is made to a 1956 memo randum by Norman Manley, then Government leader in Jamaica, pro posing that an international plan for aid to the region, a West Indian Colombo Plan, be instituted. The British Delegation at the 1956 Conference undertook to consult Canada and other Common wealth Governments about this proposal. BACKGROUND TO THE AID RELATIONSHIP 7

Canada's active interest in the development of education in the Commonwealth Caribbean emerged very clearly during the government's involvement with the short-lived Federation of The West Indies. As the only regional institution of higher learning the then University College of the West Indies was an obvious choice for educational assistance. UCWI had preceded the Feder ation by ten years and had its own charter and statutes as a College of the University of London, England. Plans were underway for the incorporation of the Imperial College of Tropical Agri culture in Trinidad as the first Faculty sited outside the Jamaica campus. The requirement of full-time residence on the university campus was expected to be carried on in Trinidad, A students' residence, Canada Hall, was built with Canadian grant funds as part of the federal program. The expenditure, amounting to $696,423,78, provided tangible evidence of Canada's educational support, The total cost of completed capital projects in Canada's aid to the Commonwealth Caribbean during and immediately after the West Indies Federation showed the emergence of building construc tion for educational purposes as a significant item of Canadian assistance expenditure. Table 1 indicates that contribution to the education sector amounted to approximately $2 million and was exceeded only by involvement in the provision of transportation facilities. TABLE 1,- Canadian Government Capital Project Expenditure Commonwealth Caribbean 1958-64 (GRANT FUNDS)

Period Sector Item Location Expenditure s? 1958-62 Transportation 2 Passenger Cargo Vessels Federation $5,868,092.31 « Q Dock St, Vincent 1,005,364.01 SO Dock & Harbour Equipment Little Eight 285,044.44 O Education University Residence Trinidad 696,423,78 o H Vocational School Equipment St. Kitts 29,499.91 O Water Water Development ) Montserrat 30,000.00 storage 6c distribution ) St. Kitts 371,053.88 w ) St. Vincent 16,331.05 Miscellaneous Film on Federation Federation 10,000.00 o Resource Study Dominica 34,717.34 W > H M 1962-64 Transportation Port Warehouse St. Kitts ) 100,000.00 O Port Warehouse St. Lucia ) CO M Education School Antigua ) School Dominica ) 1,339,740.03 -a Schools (2) Grenada ) Miscellaneous Feasibility Study 10,225.68 Survey Equipment Br. Honduras 53,428.45 Front End Loaders Guyana 29,176.65 Total $9,879,097.53

Source: Compiled from Camadia n International Development Agency, Cotnplete d Capital oo ProiectsL , Ottawa, CIDA, October 29, 1969. BACKGROUND TO THE AID RELATIONSHIP 9

The other major form of educational aid was the provision of technical assistance, Canadian teachers and advisers were sent to the Caribbean usually on two-year contracts, and were paid Canadian rate salaries by their home government for the duration of service. Scholarships and training awards were also granted initially for Caribbean students to attend Canadian institutions. Table 11 indicates the amount expended for technical assistance to the Caribbean area between 1958 and 1964 relative to capital expenditure, 2, Development of Canadian External Aid Policy Re The Caribbean

After a measure of political uncertainty in the years after 1962, the status of the former federal territories became that of independence from Britain for Jamaica and Trinidad (1962), and for Barbados (1966), By a gradual process of accommodation the Leeward and Windward Islands became States in Association with Britain - a new relationship which guaranteed internal self-government while maintaining the British connection in matters of defense and ex ternal affairs. The one exception to this group by 1969 was Montserrat which opted to remain a Crown Colony, Guyana became independent in 1966 and declared itself a Republic in 1970. Canada responded to the evolution of these new political arrangements by setting up country programs for the independent territories and grouping Barbados and British Honduras with the BACKGROUND TO THE AID RELATIONSHIP 10

Table 11.- Commonwealth Caribbean Assistance Program Expenditures (Prior to 1963-64 West Indies Assistance Program) Fiscal Years 1958-1964

Years Capital Aid Teachers & Scholarships Total Advisers and Training ($ Canadian) Awards

1958-59 12,359.55 66,801.45 8,134.60 87,295.60 1959-60 35,980.47 86,028.67 47,756.64 169,765.78 1960-61 4,690,884.32 126,645.92 33,150.82 4,850,681.06 1961-62 1,276,822.06 129,306.52 7,947.46 1,414,076.04 1962-63 819,948.86 157,708.90 37,823.32 1,015,481.08 1963-64 1,366,493.30 239,066.99 161,349.42 1,766,909.71 Total 8,202,488,56 805,558.45 296,162.26 9,304,209.27

Source: External Aid Office, Assistance to Commonwealth Caribbean Area, (Confidential), Ottawa, July 29, 1965. BACKGROUND TO THE AID RELATIONSHIP 11

Leewards and Windwards for aid administration from a common fund though responding to requests from the separate units. By the time that the first grant to the Federation ended in 1963, an eff ort had been made to complete the capital projects which had been undertaken. As previously shown in Tables 1 and 11, the technical assistance program had been continued and primary schools had been allocated to Grenada, Dominica and Antigua, With: the decision to erect a port warehouse in St. Kitts and one in St. Lucia it appears that a conscious effort had been made to spread the Canadian grant around so that it had touched each of the territories. British Guiana and British Honduras were both recipients of Canadian equip ment, being included in the new allocation.

Canadian aid policy announced by the Secretary of State for External Affairs in 1963, determined that the country's foreign aid program should generally be expanded for the 1964-65 fiscal year. An important policy decision with significance for the whole Commonwealth Caribbean program was the creation of special Canadian development loans on soft terms. The terms were 50 year non- interest bearing with a ten year grace period and 3/4 of one per-cent

16 Canadian International Development Agency, Commonwealth Caribbean Assistance Programme. Ottawa, CIDA. Information Division, Q1970J, p.2. After 1969/1970 Barbados and British Honduras received separate allocations. 17 External Aid Office, Assistance to Commonwealth Caribbean Area. (Confidential), July 29, 1965, p.l, reported approval of a substantially increased aid program for the Commonwealth Caribbean area, a planning allocation of $9 million - $3.5 million grant and $5.5 million special development loans, the first loans of this kind offered by Canada. BACKGROUND TO THE AID RELATIONSHIP 12

service charge. Another innovation was that appropriations were to become non-lapsing, so that annual allocations could be credited to a recipient's use until needed to meet agreed commitments. These coromonsense administrative arrangements made planning more possible and appeared to meet the desire of the newly independent Caribbean territories to exercise some measure of initiative in aid decisions. Continuation of the grant system for the non-independent territories as well as for providing additional assistance to those negotiating loans placed the onus on Canada's aid administration to develop criteria for this level of aid allocation. Table 111 shows the relative amount of grants and loans to Commonwealth Caribbean territories from the 1964-65 fiscal year to the 1969-70 fiscal year. The figures indicate that Jamaica and Trinidad had their alloca tions divided in the same proportions, with the major portion in loans andalimited amount as grant funds. Guyana had an almost equal proportion of grants and loans, with grants slightly in excess. On the other hand, the Little Steven, the dependent territories, were significant grant recipients. A key point in determining some features of the relation ship between Canada and the Commonwealth Caribbean was the decision to hold a conference of the heads of government of all the territories 18 involved, in Ottawa in July 1966, Reportedly negotiated on the

18 The ground was prepared by the inclusion of a statement in the Speech from the Throne at the beginning of the 1966 Parlia mentary session to the effect that Canada was determined to improve economic relations with the Caribbean, Table 111.- Canadian Government Aid Allocations to the Commonwealth Caribbean 1958 - 1970 (Fiscal Year Ending March 31)

Recipients Funding Allocations 1958-60 1961-65 1966 1967 1968 1969 1970

West Indies Federationi Grants 257.1 7,092.7 .... _-_- ---- __-_ ** M «• a* Loans M w» «• w Total 257.1 7,092.7 W W ** *• •• M M «• Jamaica Grants 4.0 607.9 500.0 500,0 1,000.0 1,850.0 1,750.0 Loans 2,375.0 2,875.0 3,000.0 3,000.0 3,500.0 3,500.0 Total 2,982.9 3,375.0 3,500.0 4,000.0 5,350.0 5,250.0 Trinidad and Tobago Grants 585.4 500.0 600.0 1,000.0 1,750.0 1,750.0 Loans 3,000,0 2,390.0 3,000.0 3,000.0 3,500.0 3,500.0 Total «• MM «• mm 3,585.4 2,890.0 3,600.0 4,000.0 5,250.0 5,250.0 Guyana Grants 1,126.9 1,000,0 1,205.0 1,200.0 2,000.0 2,000.0 Loans M •• «• M 1,000.0 2,000.0 2,500.0 2,500.0 Total 1,126.9 1,000,0 2,205.0 3,200.0 4,500.0 4,500.0 British Honduras Grants 3,131.0 2,500.0 3,630.0 5,050.0 6,010.0 7,000.0 Barbados Loans «• W •» M 250.0 M M «• •• 1,000,0 Little Seven Total 3,131.0 2,500.0 3,880.0 5,050.0 6,010.0 8,000.0 University of the Grants 1,000.0 1,000.0 1,000.0 1,000.0 West Indies Loans «••*•••• Total ••*•«•«* mm m» •* «• •• M «• M 1,000.0 1,000.0 1,000.0 1,000.0 Total Allocations 261.1 17,918.9 9,765.0 14,185.0 17,250.0 22,110.0 24,000.0

Source: Canadian International Development Agency, Annual Review '69, Ottawa, Queen's Printer, 1969, p.28. Compiled from: Canadian Aid To The Commonwealth Caribbean,, paper presented to the Standing Senate Committee on Foreign Affairs by Canadian International Development Agency, £ 1969. BACKGROUND TO THE AID RELATIONSHIP 14 initiative of the Prime Minister of Trinidad who proposed the idea to the Prime Minister of Canada in 1964, preparatory meetings were held in the Caribbean in the first half of the year 1966.19 The interim period provided an opportunity for groups re presenting the many interests involved in such a relationship to examine the situation and express themselves on various aspects of future co-operation. One such forum was provided by the important conference on The West Indies and The Atlantic Provinces of Canada, organised by the Canadian National Commission for UNESCO and the Institute of Public Affairs, Dalhousie University, in association with the Atlantic Provinces Economic Council and the Nova Scotia Department of Trade and Industry, May 18-20, 1966,20 The Canadian Government was represented by the Hon, Robert H. Winters, Minister of Trade and Commerce, Caribbean government spokesmen were the Jamaican Minister of Trade and Industry, the Hon. Robert Lightbourne, and the Barbados Minister of Education, the Hon. Errol Barrow. The Conference adopted a formal resolution requesting the Association of Atlantic Universities, (which had been recently joined by the University of The West Indies), to study the possi bility of establishing a Canada-West Indies Institute and make a

19 Levitt and Mclntyre, oo.cit.. p.28. 20 Dalhousie University, Institute of Public Affairs, The West Indies And The Atlantic Provinces of CanadaT Halifax, Dalhousie University, 1966, BACKGROUND TO THE AID RELATIONSHIP 15 presentation to the Ottawa Conference. The Association of Atlantic Universities subsequently pre pared a submission to the Canadian government in support of the proposal for a permanent co-operating body "to assist in the for mulation of policies directed to the development of the West Indies and furtherance of Canada-West Indies relations." As the Associa tion noted, research was being done in both areas and the task of a permanent Canada-West Indies Committee was defined as that of applying this research to the practical problems of the area, commissioning additional research, concerning itself "with the for mation of practical policies" and advising the governments of both areas "on practical measures for mutual co-operation." In support of its approach to adopting a positive policy toward any future relationship,the Association made the following statement: The Association of Atlantic Universities believes that relations between Canada and the West Indies must be strengthened. Every possible assistance must be pro vided to enable the Commonwealth Caribbean to build a sound social and economic basis that would enable these new nations to develop rapidly and take their rightful place in the Commonwealth, This will not come about without enlightened and far-reaching measures to promote education, industry, trade and close cultural relations. The Association believes that Canada has a unique role and great opportunity for mutual co-operation with the people of the West Indies, whose friendship and good will towards Canadians are very evident.22

21 Ibid., p.68.

22 Ibid.T p.69. BACKGROUND TO THE AID RELATIONSHIP 16

Aid was one of the subjects which occupied the special attention of the Ottawa Conference in July 1966. Conference de- 23 cisions appeared extremely supportive of the kind of views being generally expressed in Canada as to the opportunity for develop ment of a special relationship with the Commonwealth Caribbean. In many respects the problems raised by Caribbean economists and government representatives were taken into account in establish ing changes in aid policy. The over-all decision made by the Canadian government was that it would strengthen its aid efforts in Commonwealth Caribbean countries with which Canada had special links. This decision was justified, according to the Conference Communique, by the commit ment of the Caribbean Heads of Government to develop their own re sources and their demonstrated ability to use available resources effectively. One of the ways in which aid would be expanded would be quantitatively, in terms of the level of aid over the ensuing 25 five-year period. This was in line with the criticisms which had been made by many that more needed to be contributed by Canada as a percentage of her Gross National Product as well as in con sideration of the aid requirements of developing areas such as the

23 Final Communique of the Commonwealth Caribbean-Canada Conference. Ottawa, July 6-8, 1966. 24 Ibid., para. 7. 25 Ibid., para. 8. BACKGROUND TO THE AID RELATIONSHIP 17

Caribbean, The Conference decision was to provide about $65 million for the next five year period and to arrange for separate assistance programs to the University of the West Indies and the new University of Guyana, in addition to support of a Caribbean Broadcasting Service, the Communique indicating that the minimum figure could go up to $75 million for that period. The further assurance was given that with "good and practicable projects", the Commonwealth Caribbean portion ofCanada' s expanding aid program would rise substantially above that figure. Although the criteria for "good and practicable projects" remained obscure, it seemed likely that transport and communica tions would be acceptable fields for future assistance. The im provement of regional air services, including airport facilities, was recognised as a possibility for future bilateral co-operation. Conference discussions resulted in the suggestion that technical training and advice for telecommunication services could also come within the Canadian external aid program. The overall procedure for decision on support of projects was based on the claim that Canadian aid would continue to be "responsive". This appears to have been meant in the terms described in the brief presented to the Senate Committee on Foreign Affairs respecting the Caribbean area by the Canadian International Development Agency in 1970,

26 Ibid., paras. 13, 14, BACKGROUND TO THE AID RELATIONSHIP 18 as follows: Commitment of each territory's allocation to spe cific projects is based upon consultations with in dividual governments to identify developmental objec tives which can be supported by the provision of Canadian goods and services, A project selected for Canadian aid support would normally be a component of a total programme in a specific sector of the economy which both Canada and the government concerned agree will result in expansion of national income.27

Whatever the criteria subsequently used to decide on the features of Canada's Commonwealth Caribbean aid program, there can be no doubt about the fact that the level of aid allocated by the Cabinet increased appreciably during the period which followed. Table IV shows the sharp upswing in the amount allo cated between the fiscal years 1966-67 and 1968-69. Between 1969 and 1971 there was an observable proportionate slow down, but even during this period the annual increase in allocation was about one million dollars. Canadian aid allocated to the area from the start of the program in 1958 up to the end of the 1970- 71 fiscal year totalled just under $131 million. Table V in dicates sectoral distribution of funds disbursed between 1958 and '68, According to the figures shown, technical assistance and transportation outranked all other aid sectors and the total dis bursement of funds amounted to only $28,8 million. In the period

27 Canadian Aid To The Commonwealth Caribbean, paper pre sented to the Standing Senate Committee on Foreign Affairs by Canadian International Development Agency 1969, October 29, 1969. BACKGROUND TO THE AID RELATIONSHIP 19

Table IV.- Commonwealth Caribbean Assistance Program Cabinet Allocations (by Fiscal Year) 1958-1971 ($Millions Canadian)

Period Amount Allocated

1958 - 1963 10.00 1963 - 1964 2.10 1964 - 1965 9.00 1965 - 1966 10.00 1966 - 1967 13.00 1967 - 1968 17.20 1968 - 1969 22.21 1969 - 1970 23.24 1970 - 1971 24.00 Total 130.75

Source: Compiled from External Aid Office and CIDA, Commonwealth Caribbean Assistance Program. Quarterly Reports, (Confidential), Ottawa, 1965-70. BACKGROUND TO THE AID RELATIONSHIP 20

Table V.- Commonwealth Caribbean Assistance Program Disbursements: Sectoral Distribution - 1958-68. ($ Thousands Canadian)

Sectors Amount Disbursed

Technical Assistance 10,383.4 Transportation 9,791.6 Education 3,119.1 Public Utilities 2,606.1 Natural Resources 1,606.9 Agriculture c. Rural Devt. 556.7 Industrial Plants c. Related Works 518.9 Health & Social Services 185.8 Commodities 65.8 Total 28,834.3

Source: International Development. Vol. 2, No. 5, Ottawa, C.I.D.A., 1969, p.8. BACKGROUND TO THE AID RELATIONSHIP 21

ending in 1970, expenditure on surveys and studies of various kinds totalled just over $8.5 million, nearly half of these within the 28 1969-70 period. By the time that the Senate Committee investi gating Canada-Commonwealth Caribbean relations inquired about the disparity between the allocation and the actual disbursement of Canadian aid funds, it was evident that there was a considerable gap between commitment and spending. In reply to Senator Grosart's question on the matter, the President of the Canadian International 29 Development Agency explained that it often took several years for a project to move through the necessary stages from being approved in principle, through design studies, the letting of contracts and eventual implementation, with expenditures phased over two or three years. Beyond this the more recent slow-down was ascribed by Mr, Strong to organisational change in the expectation of being required by the government "to produce more quality and more 30 quantity in terms of its activities,"

28 See Appendix 2 for itemised list of expenditure on surveys, studies, etc, 29 Senate of Canada, Proceedings of the Standing Senate Committee on Foreign Affairs, respecting The Caribbean Area, No. 1, Tuesday, November 4, 1969, p.16, BACKGROUND TO THE AID RELATIONSHIP 22

3. Canadian Government External Aid Procedures

The question of Canadian aid procedures engaged the anx ious attention of Caribbean representatives at the time of the Ottawa Commonwealth Caribbean-Canada Conference. Some concessions were made in 1966 but important features of Caribbean concern had remained unresolved. The vexed question of tied aid kept recur ring in Caribbean complaints. It is of some relevance to note the explicit objections to Canadian policy in this respect made at the Halifax Conference in 1966 and at the Ottawa Conference later in the same year by the highly regarded West Indian economist and planner, Mr, William Demas.3 1 The two features of Canadian policy which lessened the impact of any level of financial aid allocated, were Canada's insistence on 80 percent Canadian content in goods supplied with aid funds and restriction of aid to the direct for- 32 eign-exchange component of each project. The Ottawa Conference did not change the Canadian content requirement, but an important concession appeared to be made in the decision to adopt a more flexible policy, expressing the Canadian government's "willingness, in appropriate cases, to finance a portion of local costs of development projects." 33

31 See for example, William G, Demas, in The West Indies and The Atlantic Provinces of CanadaT 1966, p.55. 32 Ifeid., p.54. BACKGROUND TO THE AID RELATIONSHIP 23

The promised flexibility eventually resulted in the provision that up to 25 per cent of total contribution to a project could be applied to the financing of local costs. Aid remained coupled with the purchase of Canadian goods and services in Canada,but as a result of a general review of external aid policies in the follow ing year, there was a reduction of the 80 per cent Canadian content 35 requirement to 66 2/3 per cent. Asked by Senator Aird, Chairman of the 1970 Senate Foreign Affairs Committee meeting, whether he was satisfied with this reduction, the CIDA President answered in the affirmative, on the strength of his belief that this was Va very important step in the right direction." Senator Cameron ob served: - "This has been one of the sensitive areas in the coun tries; that this is actually not an aid program, it is an aid to Canadian exporters." It was not only in the recipient countries that this crit icism continued to be made. Studies of Canada's tied aid policies such as those done by Grant L. Reuber, G.K. Helleiner and others went even further in condemning the basis of donor countries' economic aid to developing countries.3 7 Helleiner observed in an

•\L International Development. Foreign Policy for Canadians, Ottawa. Queen's Priner, 1970, p.17; indicated intention to untie up to 20 per cent of bilateral allocations.

35 External Aid Office, Quarterly Letter to all Aid MissionsT (Confidential), Ottawa, October 30, 1967,reported the intent of a memorandum on the matter to give consideration to special exemptions for Agricultural, Educational and Medical projects. 36 Senate Committee on Foreign Affairs Proceedings, No.l, Tuesday, November 4, 1969, p.11. 37 See for example Escott Reid,"Canada and the Struggle Against World Poverty" in International JournalT Vol.25, No.l, Winter 1969-70, p.142-157. BACKGROUND TO THE AID RELATIONSHIP 24

important 1969 article on aid donor practices that "what is today statistically recorded as aid and served up for our self-congrat ulation and the applause of the recipients is quite different from this simple concept of a giveaway."38 The Pearson Commission's pro- 39 posal to end the tying of aid was not the immediate solution re commended for Canada by the Senate Foreign Affairs Committee in 1970, but an interim arrangement for greater flexibility which it felt the Caribbean countries would receive "with enthusiasm." The Committee also urged further relaxation of the contribution to local costs, recommending specially that shipping costs be treated as a non- 40 local component.

As the level of Canadian aid increased, administrative arr angements were introduced to cope with the expanding program. Ac cording to Raymond Piche's analysis of the situation, "the admin istrative policies and techniques of Canada's External Aid Office irrefutably made a giant step forward in 1966. "^ The appointment of Maurice Strong as Director General, EAO, resulted in major re organisation of the administrative arrangements for external aid. In the first of his newly instituted quarterly letters to all Aid Missions to keep them informed about the Aid program, the Director

38 G.K. Helleiner, "The Development Business: Next Steps" in International Journal. Vol. 25, No.l, Winter 1969-70, p.162. 39 Partners in Development: Report of the Commission on International Development. New York, Praeger Press, 1969, p.191. 40 Senate Committee on Foreign Affairs, Report, p.34. 41 Raymond Piche, "The Structure of Canadian Aid" in International Develonment, June 1969, p.7. BACKGROUND TO THE AID RELATIONSHIP 25

General, writing on October 30, 1967, confided that field represen tatives would shortly be joining the mission staff in India, Paki stan, the Caribbean and West Africa, "to assist with supervision of capital projects and other aspects of aid administration." Senior engineers from EAO had apparently been selected for the assignment. The Caribbean assignee would be stationed in Trinidad with responsibility for the Commonwealth Caribbean. There were evidently to be special conditions relating to his responsibility for Jamaica. The arrangement for field representation was later followed by the decision announced to Missions re Mission-admin istered aid funds,in a subsequent quarterly letter, that it would be possible for small sums to be spent in the field to support the activities of External Aid personnel and to finance small projects which were consistent with Canadian policies but were not directly related to other Canadian aid projects. The Canadian International Development Agency which re placed the External Aid Office became a revitalised aid operation, with modern management techniques, new professional and career personnel and division of responsibility for planning program co ordination and implementation, and the necessary supporting services.

42 Director General, EAO, Quarterly Letter, to all Aid Missions, (Confidential), Ottawa, October 30, 1967, p.2.

43 Director General, EAO, Quarterly LetterT (Confidential), Ottawa, July 1968, p.6. BACKGROUND TO THE AID RELATIONSHIP 26

The change of name and status was instituted by Order-in-Council in May 1968.44 As the Director General himself explained, the new concept emerged from the searching foreign policy review being conducted by the re-elected Government in mid-1968. His interpretation of the situation was as follows: As a part of this review, the Government has already undertaken to change the name of the External Aid Office to the Canadian International Development Agency (CIDA) reflecting changes in program emphasis and philosophy which have already been taking place for some time within the organization and, more generally, the more sophisti cated approach which most donor nations are now coming to adopt toward development work. ^ In order to carry out this updated mandate, a number of in novations had already been set in motion. Special attention was being paid to staff recruitment;4 6 the processes of project request 48 and analysis began to be more clearly defined; and the first of a

44 Government of Canada. Order-in-Council, P.C. 1968^923, May 8, 1968. 45 Director General, EAO, Quarterly LetterT (Confidential), July 1968, p.l.

46 Director General, EAO, Quarterly LetterT (Confidential), January 1968, p.l, hoped that the new Personnel Division would make it possible for EAO to emphasise personnel and career development and mentioned the possibility of further training, education and overseas service for EAO staff. 47 Ibid., p.2, reported that a new procedure had been de veloped for documenting and processing requests from developing countries.

48 Director General, EAO, Quarterly Letter? (Confidential), April 1968, p.4, announced the introduction of a Liaison and Evaluation Division within the EAO. BACKGROUND TO THE AID RELATIONSHIP 27 series of Task Forces was appointed for in-depth studies of the de velopment problems of areas in which Canada's aid program was in operation.4 9

The new arrangement was characterised in one report as "a quiet revolution", changing EAO from "a fairly typical bureaucratic branch of a bureaucratic government department (External Affairs) into a modern business-oriented operation." ° CIDA was expected to achieve, according to another report, "a more comprehensive and pro fessional approach to the administration of aid," including better project assessment and evaluation. Studies and on-the-spot diag nosis and, on occasion, prescription in the field were to replace previous centralised bureaucratic decision-making procedures. At

49 Director General, EAO, Quarterly LetterT (Confidential), April 1968, p.3, 4, re Task Forces to India, on engineering and agricultural problems; p.5, re country studies on all areas to improve background knowledge of countries in Canada's assistance program. 50 "New face on external aid" in Canadian Business, May 1969, p.12. 51 "External Aid News, Reorganization of the External Aid Office", in Industrial Canada. May 1968, p.66. 52 The notable example was the Chevrier Special Aid Mission to Francophone Africa reporting to the Secretary of State for External Affairs, May 15, 1968, with an expanded and diversified aid program, mucn of which had apparently been committed on the trip. That the Mission had this authority can be supported by reference to Director General, EAO, Quarterly Letterf April 1968, p.l, con firming that the success of the mission was due partly to the fact that it was "armed with the somewhat unusual authority" to commit funds to projects in the field. BACKGROUND TO THE AID RELATIONSHIP 28

home, the scope of government financial assistance was expanded to include the possibility of support for projects initiated by 51 non-governmental sources. J A Special Programs Division, insti tuted in 1967, developed this area of cooperation in aid activity. The reorganisation of Canada's aid administration and the accompanying investigation and re-direction of policies and pro grams of development assistance could be expected to affect the Commonwealth Caribbean Assistance Program in various ways. The most obvious mark of the adoption of a more businesslike approach was the long overdue re-formulation of formal aid agreements with this area and with others. The fact that the old agreement which had been concluded with the Federation of The West Indies in 1958 had not been re-framed to meet the change in political status of member territories was noted by the Director General in his report to Missions in mid-1968 in relation to the re-drafting of the External Aid Umbrella Agreements. The Commonwealth Caribbean pro gram appeared to have gained considerable impetus from the devel opment of negotiations for the Caribbean Development Bank to.which Canada had decided to contribute 20 per cent of equity capital in 56 addition to soft funds. Canada had also taken a special interest

53 Ibid., p.2. 54 CIDA, Annual Review '69. Ottawa, Queen's Printer, 1969, p.49.

55 Director General, EAO, Quarterly LetterT (Confidential), July 1968, p.2, 3.

56 Director General, EAO, Quarterly LetterT January 1968, p.4. BACKGROUND TO THE AID RELATIONSHIP 29

in the creation of the Regional Development Agency which had been proposed by the Tripartite Economic Survey of the Eastern Carib bean in 1966 as the medium for coordination of development planning 57 and assistance. Other regional developments such as the Caribbean Free Trade Association (CARIFTA) established in May 1968 and the later Caribbean Regional Secretariat were also indications of changes within the area to which Canada might have to adjust.58 It seemed likely that the establishment of a Business and Industry Division in CIDA in April 1969 would also have repercus sions on the Caribbean program. The purpose of this Division was reported to be the development of a program of assistance and sup port to Canadian business and industrial firms interested in in- 59 vesting in developing countries. The Division was apparently in tended to assume the kind of appraisal of investment opportunities previously undertaken by contract personnel. One such avenue of investigation appeared to be the possible resumption of UNDP/CIDA

57 Report of the Tripartite Economic Survey of the Eastern Caribbean, London, H.M.S.O., 1966, p.250 251.

58 Senate Foreign Affairs Committee, ProceedingsT No.2, Wednesday, November 19, 1969, p.26-28, Appendix B, recognised the significance of the movement towards regional integration and co operation in the Commonwealth Caribbean.

59 CIDA, Annual Review '69T Ottawa, Queen's Printer, 1969, p.51. 60 For example, in 1968, Professor Melville Watkins, Uni versity of Toronto and Professor Stephen Hymer, Yale University Growth Centre, were consulted in respect of an appraisal of Canadian investment opportunities in the Caribbean. Director General, EAO, Quarterly Letter. (Confidential) April 1968, p.5. BACKGROUND TO THE AID RELATIONSHIP 30 discussions with regard to a marketing survey of the Caribbean area, to determine possible Canadian support of food processing industries. As a part of the general review of policies and practices in Canada's external aid program, the education component came in for further scrutiny. The provision of technical assistance had steadily increased, and new approaches were taken to increase the efficiency of this part of the Canadian aid operation. A de briefing procedure was introduced in order to use feedback on pro fit ject operations more effectively. "Third country" training was seen to have wider applicability than in the case of Canada's sponsorship of Eastern Caribbean students attending the three camp uses of the University of the West Indies. The possibility of Canadian support of nationals from one developing country to study in another developing country, preferably in the same region, was considered to have the following advantages:

61 CIDA, Commonwealth Caribbean Assistance ProgrammeT (Confidential), Ottawa, July 1, 1969, p.36, lists this among pro jects being considered.

62 Director General, EAO, Quarterly Letterf (Confidential), January 1968, p.2. BACKGROUND TO THE AID RELATIONSHIP 31

&..J it would help to develop indigenous institu tions. Through this program the EAO may also be able to assist in providing institutions for middle level man power training, £...J Third country training might well prove to be more relevant to the needs of the trainees than training currently provided in Canada; and the per trainee cost would likely be a good deal lower. Finally, students who spend a considerable length of time study ing here often face considerable problems of social and professional adjustment upon return to their own country. Hopefully, third country training would help to alleviate such difficulties.63

In Canada the External Aid Office sought greater co-oper ation between the Government's aid administration and Canadian universities as well as provincial Departments of Education.65 It was suggested that the administration of trainees from abroad under Canadian assistance programs should be de-centralised, with the universities taking more responsibility.66 The help of univer sity professors was enlisted in a number of ways, such as in the conduct of seminars and on contract work.

* .. ,«f2 Director General, EAO, Quarterly Letter, (Confidential), April 19oo, p»59 o, 64 Director General, EAO, Quarterly Lette^ (Confidential), October 30, 1967, p.3, noted that EAO had arranged with the Associa tion of Universities and Colleges of Canada for a study of Canadian university resources available for the support of the Government's educational assistance programs. 65 Director General, EAO, Quarterly Letter, (Confidential). January 1968, p.3. 66 Ibid., p.2,

67 For example? the team under Dr. Grant Reuber, University of Western Ontario, which held an EAO staff seminar on project appraisal and analysis in Ottawa, mentioned in Director, EAO, Quarterly Letter, (Confidential), p.31, BACKGROUND TO THE AID RELATIONSHIP 32

In the Commonwealth Caribbean program, a major proportion of funding during the period 1960-1970 was devoted to this form of assistance. In many cases Caribbean comments suggested that Canada was to be congratulated on this feature of the aid program. In 1966 Levitt and Mclntyre commented: Canadian technical aid to the West Indies, by all available evidence, has proven most useful. However, there have been occasional complaints to the effect that technical advisors were poorly chosen in relation to the job for which they had been requested. Perhaps improvements can be made in the selection of such personnel,"8 As far SB personnel were concerned, the movement of Carib bean teachers to Canada was noted. It was recommended that the obvious need for local teachers who were more familiar with the local customs and with the traditions of their own people, might be met by Canada with assistance to local teacher training insti tutions and other means of providing incentives for Caribbean teachers to remain in the area (e.g. laboratory and library equip- 69 ment). In 1966 Duncan Fraser's opinion was that technical assist ance was one sector in which a worthwhile contribution was already being made, though he characterised Canada's aid relationship with the Commonwealth Caribbean as "good intentions tempered by confusion,"

68 K. Levitt and A. Mclntyre, op.cit.r p.118-119, where a joint selection committee of West Indian and Canadian University representatives is recommended, 69 Ibid. 70 Duncan Fraser, op.cit.. p.38. BACKGROUND TO THE AID RELATIONSHIP 33

There was no over-riding concern in 1966 that the granting of large numbers of awards for study in Canada to Commonwealth Caribbean scholars and trainees might further denude the region of skilled people. Immigration itself appeared to be regarded by Caribbean leaders as an essential means of relief for population pressures and consequent local social and economic problems. The question was more often broached from the point of equal terms of admission to Canada with all the nuances and overt accusations of discriminatory practices based on colour and race prejudice. At the Halifax Conference in 1966 William Demas' approach was that be cause of the region's severe unemployment problem and in spite of great efforts to cope with this, it appeared inescapable that in the forseeable future a certain amount of emigration would be ess- 72 ential to the economic and social stability of the area. In 1966 the Canadian Government was at pains to state that Canada's Immi gration laws were non-discriminatory and the Ottawa Conference Communique considered extension of the season farm labour arrange ment and an increase (1007.) in the special household service scheme, as well as extension to the Commonwealth Caribbean of the Canadian Immigration Assisted Passage Loan Scheme.7 3 Statistics on subsequent

71 K. Levitt and A. Mclntyre, op.cit.T p.91-105, for a detailed study of the effect of the operation of Canada's immigra tion laws before 1966. 72 William Demas in The West Indies And The Atlantic Prov inces of Canada (Previously cited), p. 55, 73 Final Communique of Commonwealth Caribbean-Canada Confer ence T Ottawa, July 6-8, 1966, para. 15. BACKGROUND TO THE AID RELATIONSHIP 34

immigration from the Commonwealth Caribbean to Canada indicate that after 1966 there was a significant increase in arrivals. For exam ple, whereas the totals for the entire area amounted to 4,582 per sons in 1966, the number for 1967 was 8,910 and arrivals for 1968 fell just below this at 1,007. 4 By 1970, greater concern was being expressed, both in Canada and in the Caribbean, about the extent of the "brain drain" of skilled people who were being attracted to Canada from the area.

4. The Special Case for External Aid To The Leewards and Windwards

One of the significant points which emerged at the 1966 Ottawa Conference was recognition of the great disparity in the lo cal resources available for development between the larger terri tories and the smaller islands. The Leeward and Windward Islands had hoped for much from membership in The West Indies Federation. From 1932 Eastern Carib bean political leaders had staunchly supported the idea of a federal

74 Notes on Immigration to Canada From Countries Of The Caribbeant paper prepared by the Canada Department of Manpower and Immigration for Standing Senate Committee appearance, Proceedings, No.8, Wednesday, June 25, 1969. 75 Ibid. Although this danger was also raised in 1966 by Levitt and Mclntyre, op.cit., p.104, 105, suggesting compensation to the Caribbean for loss of skilled personnel to Canada. BACKGROUND TO THE AID RELATIONSHIP 35

76 relationship. For a time it appeared that the small islands would be able to use their bargaining power to ensure the commitment of the 1958 Federation to the development of the smaller units.7 One of the first blows to these expectations was the rejection of the 78 Leewards and Windwards as the possible site of the federal capital. The circumstances which resulted in the selection of Trinidad could only have heightened the determination of the Little Seven to con tinue to seek assistance in improving their own social and economic conditions. The question of external economic aid to the Federation con tinued to be pressed by the small islands. However, this was a mat ter which remained unresolved throughout the federal period and which can with some justification be regarded as one of the basic elements in the failure of the West Indies Federation. Certainly the evid- 79 ence cited by Mordecai as the only authoritative reporter to date with access to the unpublished federal records, indicates that British Colonial Office representatives were determined to avoid

76 West Indian Conference Reportr Roseau. Dominicar October- November 1932. St. Lucia. The Voice Printerv. 1933. records a meeting of Eastern Caribbean representatives held under the auspices of the Dominica Tax-payers Reform Association, to support the idea of a federation,

77 See for example, John Mordecai, op.cit.T p.65, 69. 78 Ibid., p.67, 68. 79 John Mordecai, op.cit. BACKGROUND TO THE AID RELATIONSHIP 36 making any firm financial commitment to the Federatinn until the differences between the units over such basic issues as customs union and freedom of movement were resolved. According to Mordecai, "Money was the one direction in which Britain seemed determined to 80 avoid commitment." Although Norman Manley's West Indian Colombo Plan idea for an international aid program to which reference has already been made, was reportedly well-received by the British del egation at the 1956 Conference, there were complaints from him two years later that the promised British-initiated consultations with 81 Canada and other Commonwealth countries had not been pursued. The West Indian Federal Prime Minister's excursion to Canada in 1958 did not appear to be concerned with such matters, although he was castigated by Caribbean students in Vancouver for his "servile and undignified" remarks in replying to the Canadian press in res pect of further aid from Canada, "We are not beggars, but our hands are always stretched out. While we are not going to ask: for futher 82 aid, we will not refuse it. It was evidently the decision of the Colonial Office that a joint aid plan would not be feasible and that British aid should

80 Ibid., p.337. 81 Ibid., p.53. 82 Canadian press account reported in Trinidad Guardian, news item, November 9, 1958, cited in Ibid.T p.131. BACKGROUND TO THE AID RELATIONSHIP 37 be regarded as a separate entity from that of Canada, and, more particularly, from that of the United States. Discussions about British aid continued to be deferred, as for example, at the i960 Lancaster House Meeting of Ministers and Financial Officers where, although it was agreed that West Indian needs should be studied and tabulated, the aid question was put off until the following year.8 3 The matter of economic aid was again raised by the Little Seven at the May 1961 Inter Governmental Conference at Lancaster House, when the final constitutional arrangements for an independent West Indian Federation were being discussed. 84 The demand for a "crash program of interim development aid" was so insistent that the British government cabled Washington to obtain an assur ance of the United States position. Mordecai reports that the immediate reply of US commitment of US $3 million if the amount were matched by Britain was purposely with-held from the Confer ence and no firm assurances of British aid were forthcoming, I Instead it was announced that a special Conference on this matter would be convened in January of the following year, 1962, However, the stand taken by the Little Seven was not without effect. It

83 Report of Meeting of Ministers and Financial OfficersT Lancaster House, London, November 8, 1960 (unpublished; cited in John Mordecai, op.cit. p.305, 306. 84 Ibid., p.360-376. BACKGROUND TO THE AID RELATIONSHIP 38 was also announced that a team of economic experts would visit the Leeward and Windward Islands to prepare a plan for aid before the January Conference. The leisurely pace of British aid negotiations was destined to be brought to an abrupt conclusion by the Jamaica Referendum de cision against Federation and the subsequent resolution of the General Council of the People's National Movement in Trinidad to the effect that an Eastern Caribbean Federation would not be feas ible for Trinidad, Political campaigners in both islands empha sised that the 1958 arrangement and the proposed independent status of The West Indies Federation would have been an unsupportable burden on their own meagre resources to finance the smaller islands of the Eastern Caribbean. The Trinidad Resolution, reported in the island newspaper, The Nationr on January 15, 1962, specifically gave as one of the reasons for rejecting membership in a continued Eastern Caribbean Federation without Jamaica, the fact that there had been no indication given by Britain or the United States of the extent of assistance that they would be prepared to give to make up the "deficiencies of the smaller islands". Whatever strength may be ascribed to this argument, the certainty is that the breakup of the Federation of the West Indies left the Leeward and Windward Islands demoralised, frustrated and with a sense of betrayal from BACKGROUND TO THE AID RELATIONSHIP 39

the experience of rejection by the larger islands. The 1966 Ottawa Conference Communique gave strong support to the representations made by Caribbean leaders that Barbados and the Leeward and Windward Islands be considered by Canada for spec ial development assistance. Their need for higher levels of assistance was recognised. The three metropolitan countries with in terests in the Caribbean-Britain, the United States and Canada - had already undertaken a jointly sponsored economic survey of these islands. The Communique announced the Conference agreement that this report "should be useful in promoting co-ordinated development efforts in the Caribbean and in mobilizing additional foreign re sources to assist in fulfilling the potential for development in the dependent territories," The idea of a regional development financial institution was considered to be of particular importance as a method of assisting these territories. In the years which followed the 1966 Conference, Canada pursued these lines of develop ment. The Tripartite Economic Survey governed Canadian aid policy

85 Sir Arthur Lewis, The Agony of the EightT Barbados, Barbados Advocate Printery, October 1965, for a first hand out line of the negotiations which he undertook to assist the islands in arriving at some form of unified existence after the Jamaica referendum. 86 Ottawa Conference Communique,, para. 10. 87 Report of the Tripartite Economic Survey of the Eastern Caribbean. London, H.M.S.O., 1966, produced by a seven-man team of representatives selected by the three governments, 88 Ottawa Conference Communique, para. 7, BACKGROUND TO THE AID RELATIONSHIP 40

on for the non-independent territories. The idea of regional co operation as a solution to Eastern Caribbean problems was fol lowed with interest and at times with vigor by Canadian external 90 aid administrators. After Barbados became independent in 1966, Canadian aid records began to reflect more precisely the separate allocations to the Leewards and Windwards. It seems clear that, from the out set of Canada's assistance program to the region, the problem of the inaccessibility of the islands was viewed with concern. Can ada's contribution to the transportation sector received addition al emphasis because of the Tripartite Survey's conclusion that tourism was the only viable means of economic development for these 91 islands. The water sector also fitted into this pattern, though undoubtedly the infrastructure thus provided by Canadian capital and technical assistance would have been essential to the islanders

89 Canadian International Development Agency, Canadian Aid To The Commonwealth CaribbeanT paper presented to Standing Senate Committee on Foreign Affairs, Ottawa, CIDA, 1969. 90 For example, in the case of the Regional Development Agency and the Regional Development Bank, the Eastern Caribbean aid program being held back for regional approval. EAO, CCAP, October 1, 1967. 91 Senate of Canada, Report of The Standing Committee on Foreign Affairs on Canada-Caribbean Relations^ 1970, p.27, for opinion on Canada's acceptance of the Tripartite Survey's emphasis on tourism as basis of the assistance program. BACKGROUND TO THE AID RELATIONSHIP 41 themselves even if the Tripartite's prognostications did not mater ialise.92 By the end of the period under study, concerned persons such as Senator Grosart and an interested businessman like K.R, Patrick, President of Marigot Investments Limited, Montreal, still found it necessary to make a case for the "Little Seven." At the 1970 CIDA Senate Foreign Affairs Committee appearance the following exchange took place: Senator Grosart: As a self appointed special pleader for the Little Seven, this disturbs me because not only are they not getting official aid from the U.S. but they are getting none from the World Bank or any multi-lateral agency that I know of, Mr, Strong: They are dependent territories. They are semi-autonomous and have not yet gained the status inter nationally of sovereign nations. Also they do receive, on a per capita basis, a rather larger amount of aid than many other countries, and their per capita incomes are reason ably high in relation to per capita incomes in many other less developed countries. Senator Grosart: Is this a consideration in reaching a decision to grant aid to a particular country, the level of per capita income? 9? Mr. Strong: Yes, it is a factor.

92 Conference Papers Nos. ;-9T Windward and Leeward Islands, prepared by The British Development Division In The Caribbean, Bridgetown, Barbados for Caribbean Aid Donors Conference, London, May 1970, for a precise estimate of Eastern Caribbean development in terms of the Tripartite recommendations.

93 Senate Foreign Affairs Committee, ProceedingsT No. 1 Tuesday, November 4, 1969, p.18. The per capita income level to which the Director Gen eral refers was as follows in 1972: GNP per capita - Antigua $170; Dominica $290; Grenada $133; St. Kitts-Nevis', Anguilla $136; St. Lucia $238; St. Vincent $150. (CCIC, World Facts. Ottawa, CCIC, April 1972.) BACKGROUND TO THE AID RELATIONSHIP 42

The case for the Little Seven and Barbados as an area de serving of special consideration by Canada was most emphatically put by the President of Marigot Investments Limited at his December 94 1969 appearance before the Senate Committee. As a businessman who claimed to be operating as a good corporate citizen in the Eastern Caribbean, K.R. Patrick also saw the future of the area as a tour ist centre for North America, but the real interest of his presen tation for this study is in the role he prescribed for Canada. Advocating a separate aid program for these islands, he made the following recommendations to the Senate Committee: 1. That your Committee look favourably on the pro position that the islands, r../) are areas of special interest to Canada.

2. That these areas represent a project of the right size for Canada. 3. That Canada is able to put enough money and ex pertise into these islands to enable them to become viable. 4. That a five-year program at an average level of $20 million a year, a little over 5 per cent of our curr ent aid budget - that is total aid budget - would make a great success of the eight islands.95

94 Senate Foreign Affairs Committee, Proceedings, No.4, Tuesday, December 9, 1969. 95 Ibid., p.11. BACKGROUND TO THE AID RELATIONSHIP 43

Patrick estimated that this would amount to about $27 per capita annually for the inhabitants of these islands and expressed his assurance that at the end of this five-year period the neces sary capital would have been generated, Canada would then be able to concentrate its aid office on other developing areas. One of the sectors which would have been singled out for attention under the Patrick plan would have been agricultural production and mar keting assistance, with training programs to support the new de mands. It is of interest to note that many features of the trade in agricultural products had been left in abeyance by the 1966 Ottawa Conference for future consultation.9 6 The Levitt-Mclntyre study pointed out that whereas in 1938 the Leewards and Windwards had a favourable balance of trade with Canada amounting to over half a million dollars, in 1964 the islands had an unfavourable $7 million balance of trade with 97 Canada, Table VI shows the continuing decline in the islands' trading pattern with Canada between the years 1966 to 1969. The Senate Committee's Report regarded CIDA's aid policy of special concentration on the Eastern Caribbean as "well-founded", approved

96 The 1966 Canada-West Indies Trade Agreement Protocol provided for future consultation. 97 Levitt, Mclntyre, op.cit.. p.115. BACKGROUND TO THE AID RELATIONSHIP 44

Table VI.- Canada-Leeward and Windward Island Trade Statistics 1966-70

Year Canadian Canadian Balance of Trade Exports Imports (Leewards c. Windwards)

1966 8.8 .9 - 7.9 1967 8.7 1.4 - 7.3 1968 8.4 1.3 - 7.3 1969 10.3 2.4 - 7.9 1970 14.0 3.2 -10.8

Source: Compiled from Report of The Standing Committee on Foreign Affairs of The Senate of Canada on Canada-Caribbean Relations, Ottawa, 1970, Appendix B, p.55, and CIDA. Canada and the Developing World. CIDA Annual Review 1970-1971, Ottawa, Information Canada, 1971, p.78. BACKGROUND TO THE AID RELATIONSHIP 45

the principle of five year planning, expressed its concern about too great a reliance on tourism for development potential and ur ged favourable response to requests for expansion of assistance no to the agricultural sector. ° This did not appear to be an enthus iastic endorsement of K.R, Patrick's Canadian "blueprint for the success of future external aid programs" but a part of the Comm ittee's support for the adoption of a more flexible policy with in the Commonwealth Caribbean's special status in Canadian devel opment assistance relationships. 5, Review of the Aid Relationship

As the second United Nations Development Decade approach- 99 ed, there were many attempts by international and bilateral donor agencies to assess development assistance activities prior to 1970. Critics like Denis Goulet and Michael Hudson100 ques tioned the basis on which some of the development studies and re ports commissioned by the agencies were founded, concluding that under existing policies aid was only a myth. In Canada and else where the report of the Commission chaired by former Prime Minister

98 Senate of Canada, Report of The Standing Committee on Foreign Affairs on Canada-Caribbean RelationsT 1970, p.33, para.3. 99 Towards, Accelerated Development, Proposals for the Second United Nations Development Decade, New York, United Nations, 1970, 100 Denis Goulet and Michael Hudson, The Myth of Aid, the hidden agenda of the development reports. New York, ID0C, Orbis Books, 1971 , BACKGROUND TO THE AID RELATIONSHIP 46

Lester Pearson received a great deal of attention. Among the recommendations which appeared to strike home forcibly was that calling for an increase in the level of aid funding.102 The appeal for attention to research in the development field was in line with Canada's plans for an International Development Research Centre.10 The Honourable Mitchell Sharp>speaking to the House of Commons about the Centre early in 1970, termed the Act to establish the International Development Research Centre of Canada "one of the most promising and exciting proposals" to have been presented to the House for some time. Mr. Sharp observed that the Centre could be "a new and dynamic element in Canada's contribution to the global struggle to improve the quality of life in the less privi leged areas of the world."

The greatest challenge to the idea of development assist ance came from the admission that there was a sense of disillu sionment about the possibilities of aid among the developed

101 Lester B. Pearson, Chairman, Partners in Development, Report of the Commission on International Development, New York, Praeger, 19b9. 102 Ibid., p.143-151. 103 See W. David Hopper, Statement to the Inaugural Meet ing of the Board of Governors of the International Development Research Centre. Ottawa. October 26. 1970. for the kind of pro gram which was envisaged for the Centre. 104 Establishment of International Development Research Centre of Canada. Speech in the House of Commons by the Hon. Mitchell Sharp, Secretary of State for External Affairs, January 11, 1970, Ottawa, CIDA, 1970., p.l. BACKGROUND TO THE AID RELATIONSHIP 47 countries and about the nature of the aid relationship by the de veloping world. In the case of Canada's assistance to the Commonwealth Caribbean, it was still possible for the Canadian Government to point to this region as receiving priority in aid funding. The 1970 Senate Foreign Affairs Committee Report noted with exactitude that this was "currently the area of highest per capita allocation of Canadian development assistance funds", taking care to tread warily through the question of area dis bursements. The Government's 1968 foreign policy review had not yet resulted in any basic change in the Commonwealth Caribbean pro gram. In spite of the hopeful signs emanating from Prime Minister Trudeau's statements, such as the remarks made in his speech at the University of Alberta's Convocation Ceremony of May 13, 1968, there were few indications of a new form of international co-operation in the shape of preferential trade arrangements. As Mr. Trudeau

105 Ibid., p.5. 106 Senate Foreign Affairs Committee Report, p.33. 107 See Appendix 1 for relative position of Canada's aid and trading partners. BACKGROUND TO THE AID RELATIONSHIP 48 pointed out on this occasion £..7 this kind of aid, these preferential trade ar rangements, have no glamour attached to them. This kind of aid is competition and it bears little evidence of the sweet philanthropy which we have sometimes employed in the past to coat the cost of our aid "pill". Unless Canadians are aware of the vital goal our aid is seeking to achieve, they.may not be sympathetic to a change of this sort £...7 10b

It seems reasonable to conclude that Canada's development assistance during the First Development Decade was expected by many Canadians to achieve significant changes in Caribbean con ditions. In examining the theory of an aid-stability relation ship as a possible aim of Canada's foreign policy, Keith Spicer referred to the Canadian gift ships to The West Indies Federa tion as follows: Q..^ Canada's stabilizing policy was scarcely vindi cated by the dissolution of the West Indies Federation, to which country Canada had given two large passenger ships with the avowed aim of strengthening inter-island political and economic cohesion. Of course, the break up of this embryonic state was no proof that the ships did not tend to unite the islands; after some years of service the vessels might well have contributed modestly to the Federation's unity.1°9

If Spicer is right in his statement of the gift's expec tation, the least that can be said is that the means do not seem commensurate with such far-reaching ends. Professor Duncan Fraser,

108 Address by Prime Minister Trudeau to Convocation Ceremony, University of Alberta, May 13, 1968, 109 Keith Spicer, A Samaritan State? External Aid in Canada's Foreign Policy. Toronto, University of Toronto Press, 1966. p.17. BACKGROUND TO THE AID RELATIONSHIP 49 warning in 1964 that the expansion of the Canadian export trade to the Caribbean was an unlikely probability, expressed the be lief that -

the experience and assistance of Canada might well be the decisive factor in creating the material environ ment within which this (political and social) stability could develop and the West Indian people thereby brought to an enduring solution to their many problems.^10 By 1966 Fraser was expressing his concern about the future of Canada - Commonwealth Caribbean relations and urging the gov ernment to "match its fine words with really solid deeds." Re ferring to criticisms of the Canadian external aid program in the region, by Caribbean leaders and a Financial Post (June 6, 1964) report that "Ottawa has been slightly discouraged by the snappish 112 tone some West Indian politicians have displayed", Fraser won dered that there had not been more of it, as, in his opinion, Canada had over the years promised the moon, given "only a very little green cheese" and "over the years given the West Indians little reason to take (Canada) West Indian policy seriously," The Ottawa Conference in 1966 undertook a great deal of fence-mending activity in Canada-Commonwealth Caribbean relations.

110 D.G.L, Fraser, Canada's Role In The West IndiesT Behind the Headlines, Vol, 23 - No. 3, Canadian Institute of International Affairs, January 1964, p.l. 111 Duncan Fraser, "The West Indies and Canada: The Present Relationship" in The West Indies And The Atlantic Prov inces of Canada, op.cit.. p.41. 112 Ibid BACKGROUND TO THE AID RELATIONSHIP 50

The level of aid was increased appreciably and included a commit ment to provide assistance to education in general and to higher education in particular through agreements with the University of the West Indies, (with its three campuses in Jamaica, Trinidad and Barbados), and the more recently established University of Guyana. The regional institution was offered an allocation of $1 million annual grant over the five-year period, 1961 to 1971. Aid to this sector was to be expended on a construction program, a scholarship scheme at U.W.I, for undergradutates and postgrad uate awards to be taken up at Canadian institutions, as well as the provision of a limited number of Canadian staff to serve at U.W.I. Throughout the remaining years of the Decade, Canada con tinued to include the education sector as one of the main .prior ities for development assistance to the area. There was there fore a particular sense of irony in the anti-Canadian demonstra tions which erupted in the Caribbean on the occasion of the Sir George Williams University disturbances and subsequent trials in Montreal. The series of well-publicised occurrences which took place involved both the growing Black Power Movement in the

114 Final Communique of the Commonwealth Caribbean-Canada Conference. Ottawa, July 6-8, 1966, Annexes 11

Caribbean as well as more moderate nationalist groups who saw Canada as the new exploiter of Caribbean resources and used this opportunity to voice concerns which went far beyond the accusa- 116 tion of racial prejudice in a Canadian University institution. However, no one event at the end of the Decade highlighted the growing gap in communication between the Canadian Government and the Commonwealth Caribbean more than did Canada's unilateral announcement of the end of the 1966 sugar rebate agreement. The merits of the proposed alternative of a $5 million aid allo cation to promote agricultural development through the region were lost in the ensuing contention between Caribbean Heads of Govern- 1 io ment and Canada's representatives. In spite of the withdrawal of the proposal, serious doubt was cast on Canada's intentions to pursue a^olicy of partnership and consultation in providing de velopment assistance. The disagreement seemed unfortunate in view of the careful concern expressed by the Canadian Government and

116 See The Caribbean,4 The people rebel against Canadian control',1 in Last Post 1 (3), April 1970, p.45-50, for an analysis of the situation, 117 The Secretary of State for External Affairs defended the decision in the House of Commons in terms of the rebate having been a temporary arrangement and, with the negotiation of an international sugar agreement, no longer necessary. The further observation was made that Canada considered the aid to agriculture more valuable in the light of Caribbean needs, adding that he understood the objection since the rebate went directly to Caribbean governments while the agricultural aid fund would be applicable to development projects. (House of Commons Debates, April 22, 1970). 118 Senate Committee on Foreign Affairs, Proceedings, No.11, April 21, 1970, at which Dr. George Eaton, Jamaican born Professor of Economics, York University, Toronto, discussed this question and its possible repercussions as well as Caribbean resentment of Canada's sugar policy. BACKGROUND TO THE AID RELATIONSHIP 52 public in the process of the foreign policy review and the con tinued emphasis placed on the Commonwealth Caribbean in the allo cation of bilateral assistance. The sudden announcement may well have appeared unnecessary to those officials who were aware that the Canadian Government's decision to end the sugar rebate to the Caribbean had been made in the previous year. CIDA's record of the decision was as fol lows: Cabinet has directed that payments made to Common wealth Caribbean countries on the basis of sugar imports by Canada in the 1967 and 1968 calendar years should cease in their present form at the end of the 1969 cal endar year and be substituted by project or other pro gramme assistance used for constructive purposes in line with the general direction of the Canadian aid effort in Caribbean countries.H9

The Secretary of State for External Affairs, presenting in 1970 the pblicies which the Government intended to pursue for the Second Development Decade, committed the major portion (807.) of Canadian bilateral funds to "selected 'countries of concentration', and to specialize in assisting particular sectors within those 1 on countries in which Canada has special competence." In view of the fact that the foreign policy review did not include special

119 CIDA, Commonwealth Caribbean Assistance Programme, (Confidential), July 1, 1969, p.37. 120 International Development. Foreign Policy for Can adians published by authority of the Honourable Mitchell Sharp Secretary of State for External Affairs, Ottawa, 1970, p.18, 1 BACKGROUND TO THE AID RELATIONSHIP 53

consideration of Canada's role in the Caribbean, the Senate Foreign Affairs Committee's investigation and strong recommendation that the Canadian Government should continue its intensive concentration of CIDA funds in the Commonwealth Caribbean,with special attention to the smaller islands of the Eastern Caribbean,11 appeared to assure the future of the Canada-Commonwealth Caribbean aid relationship. The quality of the future connection would depend on factors other than statements, studies and conferences, if the experience of the years after the 1966 Ottawa Conference may be taken as a guide, de spite the record of improved quality of Canadian aid operations claimed by the out-going President of the Canadian International Development Agency,at the International Teach-in at the University of Toronto in October, 1970.122 Under new leadership,123 the dir ection of Canada's development assistance program seemed likely to be re-formulated as the Second Development Decade progressed. How ever the Canadian aid agency's earlier summary of the Leeward and Windward Islands' situation appeared likely to remain constant, even if the role of these islands and the other territories of the

121 Senate Committee on Foreign Affairs, Report, p.33.

122 CIDA, International DevelopmentT Vol.3, No. 10, October 1970, p.5, reports Mr. Strong as pointing to the recruitment of professionals at CIDA and posting of CIDA field personnel at over seas missions as some of the factors contributing to this improvement. 123 Ibid., p.l, announcing the appointment of M, Paul Gerin- Lajoie as the new President of CIDA from November 16, 1970, to succeed CIDA's first President, Maurice F, Strong, who had been chosen UN Under-Secretary General for environmental affairs. BACKGROUND TO THE AID RELATIONSHIP 54

Commonwealth Caribbean in Canada's foreign policy might be subject to change. According to this summary, The financial capability of these islands C Leewards and Windwardsjto contribute to their development is, at best, marginal, f.,.J Their small size also restricts their ability to offer interesting careers to skilled personnel, who are attracted to the larger islands or to North America, These limitations will require a contin ued technical assistance program to help encourage de velopment of basic skills necessary for the islands ad ministration and a major and close involvement by Canad ians in the planning of programmes and projects. The effective limitations on the future level of Canadian aid will be each islands capacity to finance from local resources the expenses of operating projects established with aid funds and to develop local capabilities which can assume responsibility for the projects' physical operation.1"

124 As was in fact suspected by critics such as Anthony Patterson. "Is Canada closing aid, trade doors on Caribbean interests?" in The Financial Post, Toronto, January 23, 1971, p.29, 30, in which it was noted that there was still no evidence that the Canadian Government intended to implement the 1970 Report of the Senate Committee on Foreign Affairs, 125 CIDA, Commonwealth Caribbean Assistance Programme, (Confidential), July, 1, 1969, p.6. CHAPTER 11

CANADIAN GOVERNMENT BILATERAL AID TO EDUCATION IN THE LEEWARD AND WINDWARD ISLANDS

Educational assistance to the Leeward and Windward Is lands became one of the major areas of concern in Canada's pro gram of development assistance to the Eastern Caribbean. Al though this was not a declared policy position until 1967, the emphasis can be discerned from an analysis of projects under taken in the islands even before that time. The decision, sub sequently taken by the Canadian Government,was to concentrate its bilarteral aid to these islands over a five year period in three main sectors, education being one of the most significant 2 components. Capital assistance accounted for major expenditure in the education sector between i960 and 1970, with nearly all funding provided in grants for school construction.

1. Capital Assistance

Canada's initial capital assistance to education in the Leeward and Windward Islands took the form of a gift of vocational

1 External Aid Office, Commonwealth Caribbean Assistance Programme. (Confidential), June 30, 1967, p.18. 2 These sectors were air transport, water suoply develop ment and education, with agriculture receiving less funding but included as the fourth area of concentration. CANADIAN GOVERNMENT BILATERAL AID TO EDUCATION 56 school equipment, valued at $29,499.91, to the St. T>itts school system in the early years of the West Indies Federation. The choice of equipment was in keeping with the kind of capital assistance provided by Canada to the education sector in other developing areas of the world between 1955 and 1965. The Leeward and Windward Islands were the recipients of the first school buildings given to the Commonwealth Caribbean by the Government of Canada. In the immediate post-Federation period it was decided that four primary schools would be built - two in Grenada and one each in Antigua and Dominica, scheduled for completion in early September 1965. This was in fact the only new capital project undertaken by Canada in this area during the two year period 1962 to 1964, but the decision ushered in a ten year phase during which,as can be seen from Table VI1, the donation of school buildings became a major emphasis in Canadian Government bilateral aid to education in the Leeward and Windward Islands.

3 CIDA, Canadian Aid To The Commonwealth Caribbean, paper presented to Standing Senate Committee on Foreign Affairs, Ottawa, May 20, 1969. 4 Keith Spicer, op.cit.. p.163, Table 6. 5, for a list of Canadian capital projects in education and other sectors from 1950 to March 31, 1965. 5 External Aid Office, Canadian Assistance to the Common wealth Caribbean. Progress Report, (Confidential), Ottawa, August 23, 1965, p.5. 6 Appendix 1, Canadian Aid to Commonwealth Caribbean Countries, indicates that this was also an important factor of Canada's educational assistance program in other Commonwealth Caribbean territories. CANADIAN GOVERNMENT BILATERAL AID TO EDUCATION 57

TABLE Vll.- Canadian Education Sector Allocations Leeward and Windward Islands 1958-70 (Canadian Dollars)

Territory Item Estimated Expenditure

Antigua Jennings primary school 362,500.00 Pares Village school 790,000.00 Prefabricated primary schools (2): (Cedar Grove Primary Seatons Primary) 226,000.00 Dominica Goodwill primary school 362,500.00 Grand Bay school 850,000.00 Prefabricated primary schools (3): (Vielle Case, Castle Bruce, La Plaine) 339,000.00 Grenada Sauteurs primary school 725,000.00 Gouyave primary school Prefabricated primary schools (3): (St. George's Govt. School, Wesley Hall School, Grand Bras) 339,000.00 Montserrat Prefabricated primary school (1): (Plymouth School) St. Kitts Vocational school equipment 24,499.91 Prefabricated primary schools (2): (Basseterre, Lowlands-Nevis) 226,000.00

St. Lucia Technical High School 1,000,000.00 Prefabricated "primary" schools (3): (Micoud, Vieux-Fort, Soufriere) 339,000.00 St. Vincent Prefabricated primary schools(3): (Cane End, Stubbs (Carapan), Barrouallie) 339,000.00 Total 5,922,499.91

Sources: compiled from External Aid Office, Commonwealth Caribbean Assistance Program reports. Ottawa, 1965-68. CIDA, CCAP, Ottawa, 1968-70. Defence Construction (1951) Limited of Canada, Project Completion Schedule, Ottawa, 1970. CANADIAN GOVERNMENT BILATERAL AID TO EDUCATION 58-

The first Eastern Caribbean school venture cost $1,339,740.03 and the experience proved sufficiently encouraging for the External Aid Office to contemplate inclusion of more Q school construction in its program planning for the islands. The favourable comments about the two first Canadian-aid Grenada schools subsequently made by the UNESCO school building evaluator in 1969, support the External Aid Office opinion of the success of the first 9 venture. As relations between the islands as Associated States and the Canadian Government became more formalised, requests were made for assistance with various projects. A review of the scatter of requests in mid-1965 suggests that Canada's interest in the edu cation sector was already recognised. St. Lucia wanted two new secondary schools. Montserrat, (still a Crown Colony), requested a primary school to be built at Plymouth, the capital. Dominica asked for two school buses and Barbados for educational broad casting equipment. None of these requests was initially approved,

7 Canadian International Development Agency, Canadian Aid To The Commonwealth Caribbean, paper presented to The Standing Senate Committee on Foreign Affairs, Ottawa, May 20, 1969. 8 External Aid Office, Commonwealth Caribbean Assistance Program (confidential), March 22, 1965, p.6, 9 D.I. White, Survey and Evaluation of Existing School Buildings. Grenada, (Distribution: Limited), Paris, UNESCO, 1969, p.12, 14. 10 External Aid Office, Assistance To Commonwealth Caribbean Area, (confidential), July 29, 1965, p.8. CANADIAN GOVERNMENT BILATERAL AID TO EDUCATION 59

since, as it was pointed out, the allocations for that fiscal year had already been made. In any event, a tentative decision had previously been made at EAO, that two additional schools would be built, one in Dominica and one in Antigua, at a cost of approximately $275,000 each,11 a sum later raised to $360,000 at the time at which the project was accepted. (a) Antigua/Dominica.- The two new schools were allotted to islands in which some experience of school building had already been gained by Canada. It seems possible that one factor in sel ection may have been that Antigua was from the Leeward group and Dominica represented the Windwards. The first mention of "more school construction" leads one to believe that primary level pro vision was intended, particularly as the two primary schools al ready under construction in those islands were costed at $362,500 each and it was intended that a saving be made on the new build ings which were being proposed. The idea of building two new schools was first broached at the External Aid Office in mid-1965 and received Cabinet approval in November, 1965. By January, 1966, the architect had

11 Ibid., p.6. 12 External Aid Office, Assitance to Commonwealth Carib bean Area, (confidential), January 15, 1966, p.6, where the indications were that project allocation at $360,000 would exceed the original projection. CANADIAN GOVERNMENT BILATERAL AID TO EDUCATION 60 been selected and at the end of the next six month period it was reported that the plans were being prepared, following on-site inspection. 13 Johnson-McWhinnie of Windsor apparently found the proposed locations at Pares Village, Antigua and Grand Bay, Dom inica suitable - site provision being an island government res ponsibility. The company subsequently submitted a preliminary design costing approximately three times as much as the External Aid Office originally contemplated. It appears that, in the full flush of the aftermath of the July 1966 Canada-Commonwealth Caribbean Heads of Government Conference in Ottawa, the Ex ternal Aid Office was evidently not daunted by the architect's design costs, and the school project was revised accordingly. Discussions were conducted with both islands. In the re-negotia tions Antigua was asked to contribute $30,000 to support the Canadian contribution of $580,000.

13 External Aid Office, Assistance To The Commonwealth Caribbean Area, (confidential), 30 June 1966, p,9, which documents this sequence of events. 14 External Aid Office, Commonwealth Caribbean Assistance Program, (confidential), March 31, 1967, p.11, has the following note on the status of the Grand Bay School: "Preliminary design submitted by Johnson-McWhinnie approximately three times as expensive as originally contemplated, irroject will be discussed with Dominica after Antigua project is renegotiated." 15 See Final Communique of The Commonwealth Caribbean- Canada Conference. Ottawa, July 6-8, 1966. 16 External Aid Office, Commonwealth Caribbean Assistance Program, (confidential), March 31, 1967, p.11. CANADIAN GOVERNMENT BILATERAL AID TO EDUCATION 61

Both islands were concerned about the project and their representatives visited the External Aid Office in Ottawa for 17 further clarification. These discussions were held in the first six months of 1967, and finally received agreement by the end of that year. As the new year, 1968, began, Canada's additional contribution of $420,000 was added to the first allocation of $180,000 and received ministerial approval.1 The architects then set about preparing the final designs, with scheduled dates for design completion August, 1968, for Antigua and October, 1968 for Dominica. The Construction Contract was subsequently awarded to W.A. McDougall of London, Ontario, May 1969, with completion scheduled for April to May, 1970. It seems clear that the whole concept of the kind of school to be provided changed appreciably during the five-year period between the initial decision and eventual implementation. As far as can be ascertained the first impetus to change came

17 External Aid Office, Commonwealth Caribbean Assist ance Program (Confidential), June 30, 1967, p.16, reports forthcoming Dominica visit to discuss Grand Bay School.

External Aid Office, addendum No.2r to CCAP December 30f 1966 Quarterly Report. March 8, 1967, Antigua visit to discuss Pares Village school. 18 External Aid Office, Commonwealth Caribbean Assist ance Program. (Confidential), January 1, 1968, p.13. Allocations: Pares Village School, Antigua - Total $600,000 < Tentative Approval , . 1965/66 -fl80,000 : 1968/69 -?300,000 : 1969/70 -7120,000 Grand Bay,School, Dominica - Total $600,000 1965/66 -£l80,000 : 1968/69 -H50,000 : 1969/70 -^270,000 19 Canadian International Development Agency, Common wealth Caribbean Assistance Program (Confidential), July 1, 1%9, p.23. CANADIAN GOVERNMENT BILATERAL AID TO EDUCATION 62 from the design submitted by the architect. The evidence suggests that, asked to design a $250,000 school, the company submitted a $750,000 design. At the same time it must also be recognised that the whole pattern and scope of aid relations between Canada and the Commonwealth Caribbean changed during the period in which the school project was pursued with varying degrees of vigor. The Johnson-McWhinnie design probably reflected a likely shift in the External Aid Office's aid emphasis in line with the well-public- 20 ised promises of the 1966 Ottawa Conference. It coincidedI witw h 21 local thinking on educational aid provision in the islands,' giving priority to junior secondary provision - with twenty^one classrooms, library and woodwork shop for Dominica and sixteen classrooms, library, lecture rooms and three laboratories for Antigua. It was later recorded by the External Aid Office that "In November, 1965, Cabinet agreed that Canada should assist in construction of a combined primary and junior secondary school for ages 5 to 15."2 2 Even if the unexplained "protracted delays" in production of the final design are taken into account, it seems unlikely that the original intention was in line with the

20 The Conference did not produce a published report of proceedings but the Final Communique indicated topics of dis cussion and set out decisions which had been taken. 21 See Chapter IV: Educational Aid Priorities: Leeward and Windward Islands. 1960-1970. 22 Canadian International Development Agency,- Commonwealth Caribbea n Assistance Program, (Confidential), July 1, 1%9,, p.,23. CANADIAN GOVERNMENT BILATERAL AID TO EDUCATION 63

eventual estimated cost to Canada of $850,000 for the Dominica school and $790,000 for the Antigua school.23 In addition to the mutual frustrations in Canada and in the islands over the delays, it appears that W.A. McDougall of London had problems in fulfill ing the joint contractual obligations of the two schools. Accord ing to the report of a consulting team which visited Pares Village School in Antigua in 1971, there were deficiencies "either in con tract or in design." Those noted included the absence of basic equipment such as laboratory sinks and typewriter desks as well as more serious structural lacks such as gas outlets for the physics laboratory and walls without soundproofing capacity, though, as the consultants conceded, "architecturally beautiful." The Home Economics and Industrial Arts rooms had been left out of the Pares plan on the grounds of expense. However, these two items for the Pares Village School headed the list of education aid requests formulated by Antigua for consideration by the Canadian International Development Agency in 1971.

23 Canadian International Development Agency, Canadian Aid To The Commonwealth Caribbean, paper'presented to Standing Senate Committee on Foreign Affairs, May 20, 1969, Appendix A. 24 Professional Development Associates, Consultants' Field Report on Antigua. Ottawa, 1971. Although the consultants did not investigate the reasons for this situation, it seems relevant to note that at the Tuesday, November 4, 1969, hearings of the Standing Senate Committee on Foreign Affairs respecting the Caribbean Area, Senator Robichaud referred to information he had received on a visit to Antigua that the Pares Village School shipment from Canada had been left on the docks for weeks and items were subsequently found to be missing.

25 Antigua Ministry of Education, Summary of Educational Requirements in Antigua, April 1971, p.l. CANADIAN GOVERNMENT BILATERAL AID TO EDUCATION 64

(b) St, Lucia School Project.- The Antigua/Dominica school project was developed within the period of the External Aid Office's announcement that, within the five years beginning in 1967, "Canada would prefer to concentrate on aid to air transport, education, water development and agriculture" in the Eastern 26 Caribbean. Even before the Canadian Government's announced emphasis on education among other sectors, St, Lucia had requested two secondary schools.2 7 Through preliminary discussion a project had been developed for Canadian assistance with a second ary technical school, expenditure $200,000, approved by Cabinet, 28 January 12, 1967, for the 1966/67 program. It was decided that the project required the appointment of a Canadian technical education expert to go to St. Lucia to review the situation and 29 define the scope of the project. In January, 1968, the appointee visited the island and his report and recommendations were under study by the External Aid Office from April until near the end

26 External Aid Office, Commonwealth Caribbean Assistance Program (Confidential), June 30, 1967, p.18. 27 External Aid Office, Assitance to Commonwealth Carib bean Area. (Confidential), July 29, 1965, p.8, 28 External Aid Office, Commonwealth Caribbean Assistance Program. (Confidential), addendum to CCAP February 6, 1967. 29 External Aid Office, Commonwealth Caribbean Assistance Program. (Confidential), October 1, 1967, p.12, where the technical expert was still being recruited and when an appointment was made the appointee was unable to carry out the assignment for some months. The process from decision to send an expert to receiving his report took sixteen months. CANADIAN GOVERNMENT BILATERAL AID TO EDUCATION 65 of 1968. At this point they were then considered by the St. Lucia government and final agreement was evidently reached in March, 1969. The school would accomodate six hundred students, aged 14 to 17, in Grades 8 to 11. There was an agreed curriculum and a 'package' agreement for St. Lucians to be trained in Canada to teach technical subjects, Canadian staff being provided for the formative stages of the school's operation.

It was later explained by the Canadian International Development Agency that "Cabinet agreed [.. ,J to allot $200,000 to meet design costs and preliminary construction expenses for a secondary technical school on the understanding that additional allotments would be required as construction proceeded," Prelim inary cost estimates of $1,3 million for building and equipping the school were cited. At this point, July 1, 1969, design had not been finalized. The schedule called for construction con tract to be awarded by March 1970, with completion in December of the same year.

30 Canadian International Development Agency, Common wealth Caribbean Assistance Program, (Confidential), July 1, 1969, p.26-27, where the St. Lucia Technical School is' listed under Education Projects Being Considered. See also Memorandum of Understanding Between The Government Of St. Lucia And The Government of Canada For A Comprehensive Secondary School Project, signed 8th March, 1971, which set out details of a Capital Assistance and a Technical Assistance Component for the Project. 31 Ibid., p.26. CANADIAN GOVERNMENT BILATERAL AID TO EDUCATION 66

The precise nature of the school to be built was the sub ject of considerable discussion between CIDA officials and the St. Lucia Government, Canada's plans were considered in the overall context of the Commonwealth Caribbean trend toward technical- vocational education, and, more specifically, in terms of the British Development Division's plans and recommendations for 32 Eastern Caribbean technical provision. The decision that Britain would build separate technical education institutions on each is land had important repercussions on the Canadian offer of a St, Lucia technical school, which was revised to incorporate a com- 33 prehensive school. In spite of direct communication between CIDA's technical education representatives and the St, Lucia government about dif ferent aspects of the school to be built, clarification was still being sought about details of the scheme at the end of 1970, A full scale meeting was held in St. Lucia between CIDA representa tives, Canadian Education Advisers to the St. Lucia Government and St. Lucia Government officials for presentation of school construc tion plans. A preliminary session between the CIDA visiting team, the representative of the Canadian High Commissioner's Office in

32 See Chanter IV Educational Aid Priorities: Leeward and Windward Islands, for information on this development. 33 Memorandum of Understanding Between The Government of St. Lucia And The Government Of Canada For A Comprehensive Secon dary School Project, March 8, 1971, 34 CIDA officers, Visit to St. Lucia for Presentation of Comprehensive School Plans, November 14-19, 1970, Ottawa, fL970j . CANADIAN GOVERNMENT BILATERAL AID TO EDUCATION 67

Trinidad, and Mr. R. Dick of Marani Rounthwaite and Dick of Canada, the architects, appears to have settled the basis of Mr, Dick's 35 presentation of these plans to the St. Lucians. The meeting, held on Tuesday, November 17, 1970, was attended by the Prime Minister of St. Lucia, Mr. J. Compton; the Minister of Education, Mr. H, Francois; Permanent Secretary, Mr. I, Simoons Assistant Permanent Secretary, Mr. G. Theophilus; other Ministry of Educa tion supporting staff; representatives of the St. Lucia Public Works Department, The official CIDA report on this meeting stated that the architect's presentation "was enthusiastically received by the St, Lucians." CIDA's representatives felt that the meeting itself had conveyed the impression "that CIDA wished to offer the St, Lucia authorities every opportunity to fully discuss the project and make recommendations for changes, if required," 36 It is apparent that a great deal of the "frank and open" discussion at this meeting was concerned with the sensitive ques tions of local responsibility for site provision and aspects of site preparation. Assurances were subsequently sought from the 37 St. Lucia Government on the matter of obtaining clear title of

35 Ibid. 36 Ibid. 37 Letter from Office of High Commissioner for Canada to Premier of St. Lucia, Trinidad, November 20, 1970. CANADIAN GOVERNMENT BILATERAL AID TO EDUCATION 68

ownership to the property on which the school was to be constructed. Permission to encroach on an adjacent property would have to be obtained to transport land fill and for drainage purposes. The St. Lucia Government indicated its preferences for a drainage channel to an existing pond and expressed its reservations about the dredging of sea sand as back fill. There was agreement on site drainage but the site preparation decision was not as easily settled, CIDA's visiting team made the following revealing statement of the situation! A supply of fill is required for the site. The fill can be acquired in two ways, either by pumping sand from the ocean or by hauling earth from a near by hill. Although pumping sand appears to be the least costly at the moment, the St. Lucians requested that the Architect investigate the alternative method before proceeding with preparation of the site.38 In its concern about possible damage or erosion to the beach if sea sand were used as back fill, the St. Lucia Government evidently agreed to provide the contractor with material from the Bisee Quarry free of charge if this fill were found suitable for the school site. Investigation of both land fill possibilities was to be carried out by the consulting architects, in order to"ascertain OQ the most economical method of site preparation." The November

38 CIDA officers, Visit To St. Lucia For Presentation Of Comprehensive School Plans. November 14-19, 1970 Ottawa .,n970 J 39 Ibid. Marani, Rounthwaite and Dick were prepared to undertake a contract for a site reconnaissance survey in December 1970. A contract for supervision of construction was also required by the architects. CANADIAN GOVERNMENT BILATERAL AID TO EDUCATION 69

1970 follow-up letter from the Canadian High Commissioner's Office in Trinidad summarizing the points raised at the St. Lucia meeting, indicated that the options on choice of land fill were still open and would depend on the findings of the consultant's site recon naissance survey. In keeping with the policy line which had been growing among the donor countries concerned with the Commonwealth Caribbean since the end of the West Indian Federation, the Canadian Govern ment preferred to deal with a regional entity representing the Eastern Caribbean islands than to make separate negotiations. There is some evidence that the general slowdown of aid expenditure after the Ottawa Conference resulted, in part, from a purposeful waiting for the formation of the Regional Development Agency so that aid projects for the Eastern Caribbean could be undertaken on 41 a regional basis. Canada's aid emphasis for the region had been clearly enunciated by the External Aid Office and communicated to the islands. The amount of five million dollars allotted to the

40 Canadian International Development Agency, Commonwealth Caribbean Assistance Program. January 1,1969, p.13 - Canadian interest in an effective Regional Development Agency and emphasis on a joint approach to the development efforts in the small is lands was drawn to the attention of the island governments. 41 This preference had been expressed, for example, in External Aid Office Quarterly Newsletter, (Confidential), June 30, 1967, p.18. 42 External Aid Office, Commonwealth Caribbean Assistance Frogram, (Confidential), June 30, 1967, p.18, reported a five-year program: $5 million each for Air Transport, Education, Water and $1 million for Agriculture. CANADIAN GOVERNMENT BILATERAL AID TO EDUCATION 70

education sector over the ensuing five year period was assessed by EAO as being already partly committed to the three schools in Antigua, Dominica and St. Lucia, .for' approximately two million dollars. Faced with an ill-assorted backlog of separate requests for school buses, equipment and primary schools,(from different is lands), the External Aid Office began to feel its way towards a regional project to meet school building needs.4 3 (c) The Maple Leaf Schools.- The Capital Assistance Div ision of the External Aid Office set about developing plans for a prefabricated primary school building to house four hundred child ren and scheduled to cost about $80,000, The saga of the Maple Leaf Schools began in June, 1967, It was not without its precedent in that an earlier loan arrangement had been made by Canada with 45 Jamaica for the provision of prefabricated rural schools. The External Aid Office intended to improve on the cost and the design of the prototype accepted by the Jamaica government from General Structures of Montreal. Shortly after the Regional Development Agency was established, the External Aid Office, (soon to become the Canadian International Development Agency), submitted the

43 Ibid., p.18. 44 Ibid., p.18. 45 External Aid Office, Commonwealth Caribbean Assistance Program. (Confidential), 30 September 1966, p.5, reported July 19, 1966 loan agreement, amounting to $600,000 and forty rural schools ordered from the Canadian contractor. CANADIAN GOVERNMENT BILATERAL AID TO EDUCATION 71

school plan for its consideration.^6 It was reported that the reaction of the Regional Development Agency was "that the schools were too expensive in relation to locally constructed schools, the British Cosley models and our Jamaican prefabricated schools."^7 The matter came under inter-divisional consideration and the model was revised, the new design providing for an additional hundred children at extra cost, amounting to five hundred children at $113,000 per school.

The Regional Development Agency was evidently satisfied with this revision since it accepted the model and allocated the schools as follows: 3 each - Barbados Dominica Grenada St. Lucia St. Vincent 2 each Antigua St. Kitts 1 only Montserrat - (enlarged to fifteen classrooms) The agreement was reached in January 1969, with the expectation of

46 External Aid Office, CCAP, (Confidential), July 1, 1968, p.17. * ' * 47 Canadian International Development Agency, Commonwealth Caribbean Assistance Program, (Confidential), January 1, 1969, p.18.This first refusal seems ironical when one reads the CIDA press release on the school project. See Appendix 6^ p.365. School Designed For Caribbean Area.

48 Canadian International Development Agency, Commonwealth Caribbean Assistance Program. (Confidential), January 1, 1969, and July 1, 1969, reported the decisions of the Regional Development Agency made at a meeting in November, 1968. CANADIAN GOVERNMENT BILATERAL AID TO EDUCATION 72

having the twenty schools ready for fell of the same year. The construction contract was eventually awarded in June, 1969, to the firm offering the lowest tender, Ron Engineering of Ottawa, in June, 1969, with a revised schedule for completion in April, 49 1970. The expectation was that the average cost of each school would approximate $135,000, in addition to the cost of land pro vided by the individual governments as a local contribution. The Maple Leaf plan provided for a standard prefabricated one-storey school of ten classrooms equipped with classroom fur niture, one library, administrative facilities and washrooms, ex pected to accommodate five hundred primary age (six to twelve) children. The design was developed by staff architects within the Engineering Division of the Canadian International Develop ment Agency. The intention was clearly set out in the Intro duction to the design layout which announced:

The Canadian Government propose^ to offer prefab ricated elementary schools to territories of the Eastern Caribbean as a contribution towards meeting some of the needs of their educational programs. In doing this, the Canadian Government will utilize the capacity of Canadian industry to prefabricate and manufacture in quantity generally robust and adaptable building components suitable for the assembly of stan dard school units. The benefits of economy resulting therefrom will be transferred directly to recipient countries,51

49 Canadian International Development Agency, Commonwealth Caribbean Assistance Program. (Confidential), July 1, 1969, p.24. 50 Canadian International Development Agency, Commonwea1th Caribbean Assistance Program. July 1, 1969, p.23. 51 Canadian International Development Agency, Canadian Prefabricated Maple Leaf School, (Ottawa, (no date). CANADIAN GOVERNMENT BILATERAL AID TO EDUCATION 73

The design was specially created for the Eastern Caribbean but, as the chief architect for the Canadian International Develop- ment Agency noted, 52 it was necessary to make different adjustments to the plan after the prospective sites had been visited. There had apparently been some measure of disagreement about the suit ability of some of the locations proposed by the island govern ments but it remained in doubt where the final authority should lie in this matter. The architect was concerned about problems such as inadequate site preparation and increased costs due to delays in site selection. There was also concern because some islands had refused to accept Canadian electrical wiring, and even more problematic were requests for changes such as a common indoor assembly area and installation of sinks in order to convert a classroom to use for home economics.5 3 The opinion was expressed that, with proper maintenance, the prefabricated build ings would withstand the sea air and they were built to be re sistant to hurricanes and to the rainy season. As the project developed, it became apparent that some of the island governments were hoping to use the new schools as Junior secondary schools rather than primary or elementary schools.

52 Interview held by researcher with Mr. W.J. Lewandowski of CIDA Engineering Division, Ottawa, May 13, 1970. 53 Interviewee pointed out that these requests had been legitimately rejected on the basis that the schools were piven as primary schools without need for these requirements. CANADIAN GOVERNMENT BILATERAL AID TO EDUCATION 74

This would mean that the three sizes of furniture provided might not be suitable and that the rooms might be needed for other purposes than those for which they had been designed. The school population would be a further consideration. The original design allowed 19 sq.ft. per student but the final plan provided 12.5 sq. ft. as an improvement on the traditional 8 sq.ft. in Caribbean primary schools, with the innovation of separate classrooms rather than a barn-type structure. In 1970 important lessons in Caribbean school building had apparently been learned by the Canadian International Development Agency. It was noted, for example, that Canada would have to pay more careful attention to site selection. Design should allow for greater flexibility rather than relying on a single prototype. It was recommended that design should allow for inclusion of local material to reduce costs, one such possibility being the avail ability of metal louvres from Trinidad. Another important consider ation would have to be water supply needs which, in at least two schools, had to be provided at extra cost. There were, however, encouraging features of the school venture, and a second "prefabricated primary school program" was given consideration for

54 See D.J. White, on.cit., p,9-10, for observations on space allocation in Caribbean primary schools. 55 Observations made in interview with Mr. Alan J. Darling, Planning Division, CIDA, Ottawa, March 5, 1970, in which the views expressed echoed many of the observations and recommendations made previously to CIDA by Eastern Caribbean representatives and re ported in Canadian International Development Agency, Report on Visit to Eastern Caribbean Islands. November 30 - December 10, 1969, Appendix A, School Building Programme. CANADIAN GOVERNMENT BILATERAL AID TO EDUCATION 75 the 1970-71 fiscal year. CIDA staff architects designed a two- storey ten classroom model "expected to be more applicable to terrain conditions in several of the islands," the 20 school pro ject being estimated to cost $2.7 million.5 It remained to be seen whether the proposed new undertaking would meet other cri ticisms beyond the need for architectural flexibility. The St. Lucia example can be taken as illustrative of some of the factors involved in Canada's educational assistance to the Leeward and Windward Islands. The first of the island's Maple Leaf Schools was officially opened with pomp and ceremony on 13 December, 1970. The printed program, without subterfuge, related: In 1966, the Canadian Commonwealth Caribbean Assoc iation gave three Maple Leaf Primary Schools to the St. Lucian Government which decided to convert those schools into the Junior Secondary Schools. In September 1970, the Micoud Junior Secondary School became the first St. Lucian Junior Secondary School to begin classes for five hundred and six (506) students,"

The Premier, the Honourable John G.M. Coropton, gave full credit to Canada, noting that "the presence of this Junior Second ary School at Kicoud is physical evidence of the co-operation in education between the Government of St. Lucia and the Government of Canada."58

56 Canadian International Development Agency, Commonwealth Caribbean Assistance Program, July 1, 1969, p.29. 57 Program. Official Opening Ceremony, Micoud Junior Secondary School, St. Lucia, 13 December, 1970. 58 Ibid. CANADIAN GOVERNMENT BILATERAL AID TO EDUCATION J&

It appears that these courtesies were neglected at the official openings of the other two "converted" schools. One member of Canada's technical assistance team working in St. Lucia at the time observed that at these ceremonies the situation was as follows: No Canadian was included in the official platform group, but the local British Representative and his wife were included. Canada's image and role on these two occasions seemed to be that the High Commissioner had forgotten to come. This was the impression given the audience.59 As well as the matter of Canada's image in the island, there was the urgent question of extensions to the school facil ities to meet curriculum needs and to cope with the projected increase in the student population from the feeder schools in the respective areas. The first priority request from the St. Lucia Government through the consulting team, Professional Development Associates, sent by CIDA to the islands in the following year, 1971, was for extensions to the three Maple Leaf Schools, inclu ding facilities for Industrial Arts, Home Economics, etc., at an estimated cost of $700,OOO.60 Theaccommodation schedule represented in Table VI11 supports the PDA consulting team's agreement with the conclusion

59 CIDA Teacher, Educational Aid to St. Lucia, St. Lucia, March 1st, 1971, p.3. 60 Outline of Educational Proposals for Consideration by CIDA/RDA Survey Team. St. Lucia, fno date") . P.5. 8. CANADIAN GOVERNMENT BILATERAL AID TO EDUCATION 77

TABLE VI11.- Maple Leaf Schools - St. Lucia, 1970-1973 Accommodation Schedule

Name of School Actual Estimated Estimated Total No. Enrollment Enrollment 1970/71 1971/72 1972/73

Micoud Junior Secondary 501 259 304 1,064

Vieux-Fort Junior Secondary 240 518 556 1,314

Soufriere Junior Secondary 245 274 364 883

Source: Outline of Educational Proposals for Consideration by CIDA/RDA Survey Team, St. Lucia,no date , p.4. CANADIAN GOVERNMENT BILATERAL AID TO EDUCATION 73

that an emergency situation existed. The situation, unless rem edied, seemed likely to defy even that "imagination and flexi bility" with which CIDA's Engineering Division was reported to have planned the Eastern Caribbean school project. The need to remedy the situation was clearly recognised by the CIDA officers most closely in touch with education projects in the Leewards and Windwards. Reporting on a 1970 visit to St. Lucia, CIDA representatives had observed that the Soufriere Junior Secondary School had "several shortcomings which required attention, among these being the lack of "facilities for the teaching of Science, Industrial Arts and Home Economics." In the event that this basic educational point was not taken, (that is, that the school "was originally intended to be a primary school" and that as "a primary school the building would serve reasonably well" - but as a Junior Secondary it needed changes -), there were other cir cumstances of a political nature which appeared to give added sup port to the recommendations made. The argument was couched in the

61 Professional Development Associates, Draft Report on Educational Requirements in St. Lucia. (Confidential), Ottawa, 1972, p.196. 62 CIDA, International Development, No. 14, Ottawa, August 1969, p.7, col. 1. 63 CIDA, Notes on Visit to Soufriere Junior Secondary School. St. Lucia, 1970. CANADIAN GOVERNMENT BILATERAL AID TO EDUCATION 79

following terms: In this connection it should be noted that the Junior-secondary school being built in Castries with assistance from the U.K. will be provided with all the Science, Industrial Arts and Home Economics facilities required by the Junior-secondary Curriculum. Moreover, Mr. Compton, the Premier stated that he was under the impression that Canada will provide these facilities following his recent discussions in Ottawa with Prime Minister Trudeau. Accordingly, it is recommended that Canada consider supplying the additional buildings, furniture and equipment required to convert the schools to Junior-Secondary Institutions.64 A similar development took place in St. Vincent. The Chief Minister and Minister of Finance, the Honourable R. Milton Cato, in his 1969 Budget Address, reported as follows:- Mr. Speaker, My Government has accepted an offer by the Canadian Government to build and equip 3 new primary schools to accommodate a total of approximately 1,500 pupils. These schools which it is expected will be ready for use by September 1969, will be located at Stubbs, Mariaqua and Barrouallie."5

Two of the Schools, at Carapan and Cane End in the first two districts named by the Chief Minister, had their official

fifi opening in mid-January, 1971. Both primary schools were de clared open by the Chief Minister's wife, with senior officers of the Ministry of Education and Health officiating. The Minister

64 Ibid. 65 Government of St. Vincent, Budget Address. St. Vincent, 1969. 66 St. Vincent Newsletter. Premier's Office, Infor mation Division, January 23, 1971, P.7, 9. CANADIAN\ GOVERNMENT BILATERAL AID TO EDUCATION 80

for Communication, Works and Labour, the Honourable L.C. Latham, handed over the key to each building to the Minister of Education and Health, the Honourable H.K. Tannis. Both Ministers gave credit to the Canadian Government for the school contribution, Mr. Latham describing the Cane End Kaple Leaf structure as 'a magnificent building'. The Minister of Education and Health stressed the importance of making primary education available to all children in the state and outlined the assistance being rec- ceived from Britain and Canada in meeting the overcrowding in St. Vincent schools. The Barrouallie Maple Leaf School had been the first one completed. On Thursday, September 17, 1970, the keys were handed over to the Permanent Secretary, Ministry for Communications, Works and Labour, by Kr. H.W. Willcoth, representing Defence Con- 67 struction Ltd. of Canada. The occasion was important enough to warrant the presence of the Minister for Communications, Works and Labour, the Chief Technical Officer, the Clerk of Works and Mr. Hammond of Ron Engineering Company, the Contractors. The fortnightly St. Vincent Newsletter issued by the Premier's Office, in recording the event referred to the *new Maple Leaf Primary School at Barrouallie1'. However, by a process of silent

67 St. Vincent Newsletter, Premier's Office, Information Division, (no date), p.13. 68 Ibid. CANADIAN GOVERNMENT BILATERAL AID TO EDUCATION .81

conversion, by the time of the Official opening on Sunday, Jan uary 10, 1971, the school became the first junior secondary school in St. Vincent. This ceremony was attended by the Governor, His Excellency Sir Rupert John, whose wife officially declared the school open. Speeches were made by the Hon. Latham, the Hon. Tannis and Mr. Foggarty, the Canadian High Commission Representative, in addi tion to the Governor's address. The Official report of these pro- 69 ceedings referred to the fact that Mr. Tannis expressed his pleasure at Mr. Foggarty's presence and "wished him to convey the deepest appreciation of the Government and people of St. Vincent for the great part Canada was playing in the Educational develop ment of St. Vincent". In his reply, Mr. Foggarty "stressed the cooperative nature of the undertaking and saw as greatly signifi cant that education was one of the areas of cooperation between St. Vincent and Canada." Subsequent developments cast doubt as to the degree of co operation which had obtained in the school venture. The Chief Minister, in his 1969 Budget Address to the Legislative Council,

69 St. Vincent Newsletter, Premier's Office, Information Division, January 23, 1971, p.6, 7, 70 Ibid. 71 Ibid. CANADIAN GOVERNMENT BILATERAL AID TO EDUCATION 82 had accepted three Maple Leaf primary schools from Canada, and the change of Barrouallie to junior secondary status had been authorised at a later date. As elsewhere in the Eastern Caribbean region, it was subsequently recognised that the junior secondary program could not be carried out without substantial modifications to the original structure. The Barrouallie Principal, a Vincentian specially trained in England in junior secondary methods, found it impossible to carry out the requirements of the new curricula de veloped by local committees, as there were shortages of books and materials as well as staffing problems, in addition to the absence 72 of basic equipment. Agriculture could not be introduced as a pmdiical subject due to the fact that there was at the outset no land made available in the school vicinity. The Premier and Minister of Finance, in his 1971 Budget Address to the House of Assembly, indicated some of the arrange ments relative to the Barrouallie school.

72 Interview held by researcher and associate with Principal, Barrouallie School, St. Vincent, February 1971. CANADIAN GOVERNMENT BILATERAL AID TO EDUCATION 83

I wish also to draw attention in particular to the provision which has been made for the transportation and feeding of the school children who will attend the Junior High School at Barrouallie from the outlying districts of Layou and Spring Village. It became obvious to the Minis ter of Education, and Government, that in order to ensure that the children from these areas are in a position to benefit fully from the tuition to be offered at the Barrouallie Junior Secondary School, it will be necessary for them to be transported to school and also to provide them with a light snack at the luncheon interval. Govern ment has therefore, in this instance only - undertaken to meet the major cost of such transportation and feeding to which the parents and guardians of the children will be required to contribute the sum of 5 cents per day for lunch and $2.50 per month towards the transportation costs. It is expected that later this year - through the gener osity of the Canadian Government, suitable school buses will be provided for the transportation of these children, and also that this facility will be extended to other areas of the State where transportation poses difficul ties for children.73

Designed toaccommodate 500 students, the school began with an initial admission of 491. CIDA was requested to provide additional classrooms (4) for an increased student intake (360), as well as specialist rooms - a general science laboratory, an industrial arts room and a home economics room. The St. Vincent Government pointed out that, unless additional facilities were provided by the fall of 1971, it would not be possible to admit students from most of the feeder schools in the new school year.

73 Government of St. Vincent, Budget Address. St. Vincent, 1971, p.23. 74 Ministry of Social Services and Education, Irolect Description and Request - St. Vincent Junior Secondary Schools, St. Vincent, October 25, 1971. CANADIAN GOVERNMENT BILATERAL AID TO EDUCATION 34

In some islands which used the prefabricated structure for the primary grades as intended, it was not possible to cope with increased enrolment within the new space allotment deemed to be the minimum acceptable from the standpoints of both health and education. In Grenada for example, the design capacity (480) was immediately exceeded (785) in both the schools at St. George's. On the other hand,it appeared that the 15-room Manle Leaf school built in Montserrat as an all-age primary school was too large for the purpose.The Government requested that it be 76 converted to a junior secondary school with specialist rooms. The Montserrat situation is somewhat difficult to under stand, since the need for a large primary school in Plymouth appears to have been well-established by the island Government. The plan was set out in the Ministry of Social Services Education Report for the Year 1968. which noted the following decision:

75 Professional Development Associates, Draft Report on Educational Requirements in Grenada, (Confidential), Ottawa, 1972, p.101. 76 Professional Development Associates, Draft Report on Educational Requirements in Montserrat, (Confidential), Ottawa, 1971, p.97 - 101. 77 See, for example, request for primary school at Plymouth, reported in External Aid Office, Assistance To Commonwealth'Caribbean Area, (Confidential), July 29, 1965, P.8, CANADIAN GOVERNMENT BILATERAL AID TO EDUCATION 85

Government had decided as a matter of urgency to build a new school in the Plymouth Area. The proposed school, a gift of the Canadian Government will make it possible to amalgamate the two Government schools in Plymouth and in addition, a Post Primary section to the school will serve the population of Plymouth, Kinsale, Lees, St. Patrick's and Cork Hill. This will prove economical to the Government and will be conducive to more effective teaching.'"

At the time of the visit to Montserrat by the British Development Division's Education Adviser in 1969, the new school was erroneously referred to as a "new Canadian-aid junior 79 secondary school." The adviser noted in his report that the new school looked as though it would be bursting at the seams, without space for free movement or expansion. His recommendation to the British Government was that British aid be given to a new primary school in Plymouth for about 300 pupils, to ease this problem. The Maple Leaf School was subsequently reported 80 to have 478 on roll after it was opened in September 1970. Of this number, 253 were in the Infant and Junior Department, 225 were Seniors.

/8 Ministry of Social Services, Education Report for the Year 1968, Montserrat, 1969, p.4. 79 Report on Visit to Montserrat by Education Adviser, British Development Division in the Caribbean. Barbados, December, 1969, p.3. 80 Professional Development Associates, Draft Report on Educational Requirements of Montserrat, Ottawa, 1971, CANADIAN GOVERNMENT BILATERAL AID TO EDUCATION 86

There was evidently some dissatisfaction about the finish of the building even after the formal handover on March 12, 1971. The 'minor blemishes and deficiences to be attended to' noted in the 1970 Education Report, had not been remedied when the 1971 consulting team visited the island. An interview with the Dir ector of Public Works Department revealed the kind of problems 81 encountered with the school. A faulty storage tank would have to be replaced and one toilet unit had not arrived and it was not clear whether there would be any obligations to correct these faults. The major problem, however, was with the electricity, the wiring provided in the school not being compatible with the local power supply 220 volts, 60 cycles. Installation of Canadian electrical outlets unable to fit British style appliances was • judged to be unsuitable. One of the consultants summed up the dispute as follows: The question has arisen whether the lighting quality is actually a deficiency or not. The Canadians are taking the position that it is not a deficiency and that it is up to the Montserratians to fix. The Kontserratians are taking the opposite opinion C,, .J The plain fact is that the lighting will not work.82 The request for 'conversion' of the iiaple Leaf School to a Junior Secondary was accompanied by a joint proposal for a prim ary school in Plymouth to house 300 students. The alternative

81 Professional Development Associates, Report of Interview on consultants' visit to Montserrat. Ottawa, 1971. 82 Ibid CANADIAN GOVERNMENT BILATERAL AID TO EDUCATION 87

8 ? presented was the construction of a new Junior Secondary school.

It appears that Dominica was initially the most enthus

iastic about the idea of the prefabricated structure. At any rate, in 1969 Government officials were already proposing to CIDA 84 representatives an extension of the program. It was also sug gested that the congestion at the Goodwill school provided by Canada earlier in the aid program, be relieved by using prefab ricated extensions. However, other factors developed which resul ted in a reordering of priorities. The Dominica Draft Educational Development Plan, 1971-75, urged Canada to add three practical rooms each to two of the three Maple Leaf Schools at an estimated cost of $37,612 each for building and $4,500 for equipment. The Goodwill School would join these for a junior secondary program, a new infant school being built in Roseau to facilitate the arrangement. The pattern was clear. Dominica, in common with the other six islands of the Leeward and Windward group, was re designing the contribution which Canadian school construction assistance had been developed to fill.

83 Professional Development Associates, Draft Report on Educational Requirements of Montserrat. Ottawa, 1971, n.97-103. 84 Canadian International Development Agency, Renort on Visit to Eastern Caribbean Islands, November 30-December 10, 1969, (Confidential), £l970j, Dominica Annex P.3. 85 Government of Dominica, Dominica Draft Educational Plan, 1971-75. (Confidential) Dominica, 1971, p.7. Also Ministry Education and Health, Dominica, Chief Educational Officer to Professional Development Associates of Ottawa, letter of 23 March, 1971, gave detailed information on proposed projects for CIEA aid. CANADIAN GOVERNMENT BILATERAL AID TC EDUCATION 88

In the period under review, Canadian Government bilateral aid to education involved the expenditure of $5.9 million in cap ital assistance grants to the Leeward and Windward Islands. Ad hoc projects in school construction were, in the.main, replaced by standardised production of a snecially-desi^ned prototype for primary school provision. A total amount of $4.9 million was spent to build 23 schools of various design in the seven islands, and a special High School project for St. Lucia was costed at $1 million for construction and equipment. Differences in approach to the solution of educational problems were accentuated by an apparent gap in communication between Canadian external aid representatives and the governments of the different islands. The school construction experience pro vided donor and recipient territories with challenges that were both financial and political that opened new vistas of educational possibility and yet gave important lessons in tropical school design as well as in the nature of the aid relationship.

2. Technical Assistance - Personnel

In addition to Capital Assistance in school construction and provision of equipment, the Canadian Government was also an important source of Technical Assistance to education in the Leeward and Windward Islands during the survey period. This form of educational aid accounted for a significant proportion of Canadian development assistance expenditure for the Eastern Caribbean. Unlike Capital Assistance, it was not subject to the CANADIAN GOVERNMENT BILATERAL AID TO EDUCATION 89

same lengthy delays in implementation and disparities between allocation and disbursements, since funds were used to provide for Canadian teachers and advisers serving abroad and to support trainees studying in Canada and elsewhere under Canadian Govern ment sponsorship. (a) Number and Nature of Assignments.- As shown by Table IX, a total number of 182 man/years of assignments in the Leeward and Windward Islands were held by Canadian teachers and advisers between 1965 and 1971. St, Vincent and Antigua received most of this assistance, amounting to 41 and 40 man/years respec tively. Dominica had the least number of assignments, numbering only 6, with St. Kitts being also at the bottom of the list with only 13 assignments. The following list indicates the relative distribution of assignments: 1. St. Vincent 41 2. Antigua 40 3. Grenada 31 4. Montserrat 27 5. St. Lucia 24 6. St. Kitts 13 7. Dominica 6 It has been claimed that the nature of teaching assign or ments shifted appreciably during the ten year period. Initially the major emphasis was reported to be at the primary level and on

86 CIDA, Canada and the Developing World, CIDA Annual Review 1970-1971. Ottawa, Information Canada, 19/1, p.45, reviewing Technical Assistance trends. TABLE IX.- Technical Assistance - Canadian Government Education Assignments, a, b, Leeward and Windward Islands 1965-1971

Antigua Dominica Grenada Montserrat o Year No. Assignment No. Assignment No. Assignment No. Assignment > S TT T/V S TT T/V S TT T/V S TT T/V O O < 1965-66 6 3 3 4 9 1966-67 7 5 2 5 8 2! 1967-68 7 5 2 1 - 1 4 2 1 3 1 H W l-l 1968-69 8 4 4 1 - 1 6 3 2 3 1 £ 1969-70 6 3 3 2-2 6 3 2 2 1 1970-71 6 1 3 2-2 6 5 2 1

40 31 27 O H O a: Fey to Assignments: S=Secondary TT=Teacher Training T/V=Technical/Vocational. PI b: Totals represent number of assignments or man/years not total personnel (average assignment 2 year duration). H M O 2!

vO o TABLE IX Cont'd: Education Assignments, a, b,

St. Kitts St. Lucia St. Vincent > Year No. Assignment No. Assignment No. Assignment M

I.. i • i I,, I... > S TT T/V S TT T/V S TT T/V 2S 3 1965-66 - 2 4 2 1 1 | 1966-67 1 1 3 4 2 1 1 I

1967-68 1 1-- 4 13- 7 4 2 1 w 1968-69 2 11- 4 13- 9 6 2 1 £ H 1969-70 4 -4- 5 23- 8 62-g 1970-71 5 -41 6 33- 9 522>

13 24 41 H

Source: Compiled from Professional Development Associates, Reports on Educational a Requirements in the Leeward and Windward Islands, Ottawa, PDA, 1972. O a: Key to Assignments: S*Secondary TT=Teacher Training T/V=Technical/Vocational. H b: Totals represent number of assignments or man/years not total personnel o (average assignment 2 year duration). ^

o CANADIAN GOVERNMENT BILATERAL AID TC EDUCATION 92-

"secondary education", which, in Caribbean terms, meant high school education of an academic type, provided by a variety of government and government-assisted sources for students mainly in the age range eleven to sixteen or eighteen. Teacher training was pointed out as a later area of concern, reflecting in part international aid agency demand for a "multiplier effect" in pro vision of foreign teaching personnel. At the end of the Decade, technical and vocational education and junior secondary institu tions became the focal points of Eastern Caribbean requests and op Canadian response by way of technical assistance. A comparison of Canadian Government education aid assign ments in Antigua and St. Vincent for the period 1965-71 reveals the distribution shown in Table X. It can be further observed from Table IX that the number of assignments to secondary schools in St. Vincent increased during the later years of the survey period, whereas there had been a steady reduction of assistance at that level in Antigua during the same time span. The earlier

87 As far as the researcher has been able to ascertain, no scientific research has ever been done to establish the truth of the theory that expatriate teacher training does have a "multiplier" effect or any other on teacher training practices in developing countries. Some educators, for example L.J. Lewis, conclude that the theory of the multiplier effect of traditional modes of teacher training assistance stands in need of revision. See L.J. Lewis, "Getting good teachers for developing countries'1, in International Review of Education, Vol. 16, No. 4, 1970, P.393-407. 88 Professional Development Associates, Educational Require ments in the Leeward and Windward Islands. (Confidential), Ottawa, April 1972 includes Tables summarizing island requests for Canadian Educational assistance. CANADIAN GOVERNMENT BILATERAL AID TO EDUCATION

TABLE X .-

Canadian Government Education Sector Assignments Antigua/St. Vincent 1965-1971

Nature and Number of Assignments Secondary Teacher Technical/ Territory Training Vocational Antigua 21 17 2

St. Vincent 25 10 6

Total 46 27 8 CANADIAN GOVERNMENT BILATERAL AID TO EDUCATION 94

existence of the regional Leeward Islands Teacher Training College in Antigua may provide one explanation of the difference in over seas teacher trainer assignments to the two islands. St. Vincent, with its later UNDP request for assistance in vocational training apparently began to emphasise this form of provision earlier than Antigua did, so the discrepancy in numbers there is not surprising. (b) Relative Contribution of Canadian Technical Assist ance.- An analysis of total expatriate teacher provision in Antigua during a consecutive three year period, 1963-64 to 1965-66, furnishes a detailed breakdown of technical assistance to the education sector in one island. As carefully recorded by Antigua's Education Officer, the situation was described as follows: Many teachers were recruited from abroad during the period under review (1964, 1965, 1966) in an effort to solve some of the problems in teacher shortage which were concomitant upon the rapid expansion in the Educa tional System, and the need to upgrade teaching techni ques in certain specialised areas. Such teachers came mainly from:-

(i) Canada-under the External Aid Scheme (ii) Canada-under the Canadian Universities Service Overseas (CUSO) scheme. (iii) The United Fingdom-under the Graduate Voluntary Service Overseas Scheme.90 Of these three sources of technical assistance, Canada's provision under the government's bilateral aid program was the

89 Government of The State of St. Vincent, Request To The United Nations Development Programme For Assistance In The Establishment Of A National Vocational Training Scheme, (Draft), St. Vincent, July 1971. 90 C.M. O'Mard, Education Report for period January 1964 to December 1966. Ministry of Home Affairs and Social Services, Antigua, L19677 , p.11. CANADIAN GOVERNMENT BILATERAL AID TO EDUCATION 95

chief channel used to meet the needs identified by the Antigua government. Under this Scheme, fourteen teachers taught on two- year assignments, as did six CUSO teachers, while the nine British volunteers were on one year assignments. Canada's External Aid teachers consisted of eleven men and three women (one being the wife of an assignee); CUSO had 3 single women and two men; the VSO had seven single women and two men. EAO teachers were the only expatriate aid personnel in teacher training posts, five of them giving training in subject areas including Home Economics, Science and Industrial Arts. In secondary teaching there appeared to be little to choose between assignees if subjects are used as a guide. Most external assistance was given to the teaching of subjects indi cated in Table XI. In addition to the subjects shown other ao- pointments were made in History, Geography and Latin. There were several instances of dual subject assignments and at least two VSOs undertook three subjects each. During the 1964-1966 period represented in Antigua, CUSO teachers were recruited from 1965, while the VSO's first assignment came in 1964. EAO teachers worked in Antigua throughout the period. The total number of foreign aid teachers (29), stationed in the island between 1964 and 1966 was evidently not enough to meet Antigua's needs, and the 1967 Education Report indicated that plans were made to extend the range of assistance, as follows: CANADIAN GOVERNMENT BILATERAL AID TC EDUCATION 96

TABLE XI._

Antigua: Technical Assistance Position 1963-1966

*" Foreign Technical Assistance Personnel

Subjects Source Number

English EAO 2 (Language and CUSO 2 Literature) VSO 3 French CIDA 2 CUSO 2 VSO 2 Sciences CIDA 1 CUSO 2 VSO 2 Mathematics CIDA 2 CUSO 1

Source: C.M. 0»Mard, Education Report for period January 1964 to December 1966, Ministry of Home Affairs and Social Services, Antigua, [ 1967] , p.11. CANADIAN GOVERNMENT BILATERAL AID TO EDUCATION 97

By December 1966, negotiations were well underway for the recruitment of teachers under the United States Peace Corps Scheme for work in Antigua. The negotiations were based upon a decision of Government made in September 1965 for the submission of a formal application for teachers under the scheme. This ap plication was supported by a detailed project submitted by the Education Officer in December 1965, upon the re quest of Mr. Jack Scott, Director of Peace Corps in Barbados.91 (c) Significance of Canadian Education Assignments:- Canadian government technical assistance personnel serving over seas have been paid Canadian-level salaries by the External Aid 92 administration. This arrangement may have acted as a measure of savings to the education budget of the country receiving this form of assistance. There appeared to be a general expectation that this would be a temporary relief until the replacement of the foreign educator by the return of a counterpart, trained GO under Canadian or other auspices. However, the Eastern Carib bean experience indicates that implementation of what in theory

91 Ibid., p.14. 92 CIDA, Opportunities For Service Abroad Under The Canadian Programmes For International Development, Ottawa, (no date) p.3, Item 6, setting out Fees and Allowances, states, "Under the terms of the service contract a teacher or professor will receive a fee-approximating his Canadian salary together with an overseas allowance designed to compensate for the additional expenses in serving abroad over"those normally in curred in Canada."

93 CIDA, Philosophy of Our Technical Assistance Programme in the field of Education. Ottawa,f19691 in which it is claimed that "Canada's educational assistance programmes stress developmental projects in which Canadian Capital and Technical Assitance operate on a previously agreed timetable. As soon as it is feasible to do so, CIDA personnel will be phased out of a particular project to be replaced by local personnel." CANADIAN GOVERNMENT BILATERAL AID TO EDUCATION 98 seemed a straight-forward scheme was not a simple matter to put into effect. In many instances throughout the survey rteriod Canadian personnel filled posts which were significant. In Montserrat, for example, no local teacher could be found to provide instruc tion in Woodwork and Metal work to the boys at the St. John's and Brades Schools when the Canadian External Aid teacher returned 94 home early in 1967. His local counterpart was still in train ing in Canada at the time and returned on schedule in the follow- 95 ing year. Even with the addition of a Peace Corps Volunteer and a Canadian External Aid teacher it was not possible to pro vide instruction in Woodwork and Metalwork for all the schools in the island. During the next school year there were still com plaints of a shortage of Woodwork teachers, neither Art nor Woodwork being offered in at least one school for this reason. 96 In addition to providing expertise in special subject areas, Canadian educators were assigned to positions of leader- shin in a number of Eastern Caribbean educational institutions, very often at the formative stages of inception. Wontserrat provides a further example of the role assigned to Canadian

94 Ministry of Social Services, Education Report for the year 1967. Montserrat, 1968, P.12. 95 Ministry of Social Services, Education Report for the year 1968. Montserrat, 1969, P.3. 96 Kinistry of Social Services, Education Peport for the year 1969. Montserrat, 1970, p.3. CANADIAN GOVERNMENT BILATERAL AID TO EDUCATION 99 technical assistance personnel. Lacking a teachers' college of its own, the government organised the Cork Hill Teacher Train ing Centre to provide in-service training for primary school teacher??. In 1967-68 the Centre was run by a Canadian teacher trainer with the assistance of the former Headteacher of a local 97 school. However, the new school year began without the services of either lady, another Canadian teacher trainer having replaced her compatriot who had returned to Canada on completion of con tract. The local assistant had left the island for the University of the West Indies to pursue an undergraduate course towards the B.A. degree. Her place was taken by a Peace Corps Volunteer and 98 later by another local tutor. A third Canadian teacher trainer 99 headed the Centre in 1969. The government regarded Cork Hill as a "small but pivotal institution", and under its new head, with 3 part-time assistants, (the local tutor having been appointed Acting Inspector of Schools), important changes in direction were introduced, placing greater emphasis on academic levels, partic ularly in science and mathematics. The data given in Appendix 3 on the technical assistance position in the Leewards and Windwards, 1969 to 1970, indicate

97 Ministry of Social Services, Education Report for the year 1968, Montserrat, p,3, 98 Ministry of Social Services, Education Report for the year 1969. Montserrat, 1970, p.3. 99 Ministry of Social Services, Education Report for the year 1970. Montserrat, 1971, P.3. CANADIAN GOVERNMENT BILATERAL AID TO EDUCATION 100 that, in that year, married males from Ontario were predominant in CIDA assig nments to the Eastern Caribbean, There were five women appointees and seven of the total number of persons assigned were unmarried, three being single women. Three Canadians were serving as advisers to Ministries of Education, in Dominica, St. Kitts and St. Lucia respectively. There were nine Canadian principals in charge of educational institutions, as shown by Table XI1. The subjects with which assistance was provided in that year were mainly English, the Sciences, Mathematics and Industrial Arts, with some attention to French, In St, Vincent the expedient of sharing teachers between institutions attempted to meet the need for teaching in Industrial Arts and also in Advanced level Geography. There appeared to be a policy of concentrating Canad ian personnel in institutions, as in the case of four of the full complement of six Canadians in Antigua being assigned to Jennings School. This was one of the schools built in Antigua by Canada, as was the Micoud Junior Secondary School, provided with a principal for the 1969-70 school year.

100 See this chapter, Table Vll, p.57. 101 Ibid. CANADIAN GOVERNMENT BILATERAL AID TO EDUCATION 101

TABLE XI1.-

Canadian Principals of Leeward and Windward Island Educational Institutions in year 1969-70

Island Number Institutions

Grenada 2 Technical Centre Commercial and Domestic Arts Institute Dominica 1 Teachers' Centre Montserrat 1 Cork Hill Teacher Training Centre St. Kitts 1 St. Kitts Teachers College St, Lucia 2 St. Lucia Teachers College Micoud Junior Secondary School St. Vincent 2 St, Vincent Teachers College Bishops' College (grammar school)

Source: Compiled from CIDA, Teachers, Technical and Vocat al Inatructora and Profeaaora* English Sneaking Countries. |, Education Division, September 30, 1969, CANADIAN GOVERNMENT BILATERAL AID TO EDUCATION 102

(d) Canadian Technical Assistance Policies and Implemen tation Problems.- A review of the technical assistance position in the islands at the end of 1969 provides considerable insight into the operation of this form of educational assistance and the trends which were developing in Eastern Caribbean requests and Canadian government responses. 102 Although requests for classroom teachers for the tradi tional secondary schools had been substantially reduced, CIDA's visiting representatives did not feel justified in recommending that all such assistance be completely stopped. 103 While being conscious of the general official policy of not filling staff shortages in Caribbean secondary schools, they were flexible enough to consider such requests on their merit and in terms of island aid priorities. For example, Canadian teaching assistance was being gradually phased out of Jennings School in Antigua, but, in the interim, a request for extension of the service of the CIDA mathematics teacher was viewed favourably since the basis for the request was that no local teacher was available. Canadian provision of Industrial Arts teachers would be continued and

102 Canadian International Development Agency, Report on Visit to Eastern Caribbean Islands. November 30-Decrember 10, 1969, (Confidential) Education Division, ZT1970.7, provides the basis for this review. 103 Reports on islands in Ibid. CANADIAN GOVERNMENT BILATERAL AID TO EDUCATION 103 requests for counterpart training for one local teacher in math ematics and one in industrial arts would be recommended, if the Antiguan government followed through with nominations to Ottawa. St. Vincent's requests, for extension of contract and provision of an additional member of staff for St. Martin's Roman Catholic School under the direction of the Christian Brothers, were regarded as being timely support of an increasingly effic ient institution. The new Canadian principal of Bishop's Angli can School, coping with complete staff turnover, was put in the way of receiving project assistance to help him to cope with the needs of the school situation. Caught in the aftermath of the St. Vincent government's decision to amalgamate the Boys' Grammar School and the Girls' High School, Canadian staff probably had no serious objection to the decision that technical assistance at this level should be phased out. Nor did the Minister of Educa tion who agreed, when approached in the matter "local teachers should be ready to take over from Canadians".

St. Lucia's request for staffing for the new government A level College was countered with the proposal that Canadian staff at the Training College could provide assistance, since the enrolment of the A level College was still low. Montserrat's

104 Antigua Report, in Ibid., p.2, 3, 105 St, Vincent Report in Ibid., P.1, 2, 3. 106 St. Lucia Report in Ibid., p.5. CANADIAN GOVERNMENT BILATERAL AID TO EDUCATION 104

request for a classroom teacher of Physics and Biology was turned down, partly because of the island's own ordering of aid prior ities, in that requests in the field of teacher education ,and technical/vocational education had been emphasised. Local govern ment officials were also reported to have expressed preference for a more experienced teacher than could be provided by a sug gested CUSO alternative source.

It was reportedly recognised by both CIDA representatives and Eastern Caribbean Ministry officials that staff shortages, particularly in secondary schools, could not continue to be met by funding through the Canadian Government's bilateral aid pro- 108 gram. This point was being stressed at about the same time by the President of the Canadian International Development Agency in his appearance before the Senate Foreign Affairs Committee respecting the Caribbean area when he noted that Canada was not extending "provision of line teachers, teachers simply taking 109 over assignments." Mr. Strong went on to make the following observation:

107 Montserrat Report in Ibid., p.3. 108 Ibid., p.5. 109 Senate of Canada, Proceedings of the Standing Senate Committee on Foreign Affairs. Respecting The Caribbean Area, No, 1, Tuesday, November 4, 1969, p.21. CANADIAN GOVERNMENT BILATERAL AID TO EDUCATION 105

One of the arguments that impresses me is that by providing line teachers to the Caribbean we might be said to be making it more difficult for West Indian countries to retain their own teachers. If they can get teachers at relatively low salaries or as volun teers free, there is not quite the same incentive to increase the salaries of their local teachers. This means,that more of those teachers are likely to be lost.HO

However, there was a teacher shortage problem, and the suggestion that a scheme be developed to encourage Canadian tea chers to spend part of their professional careers in Eastern Caribbean secondary schools was recommended by CIDA's represen tatives for further discussion in the following terms: To consider ways and means other than through the official aid programme of helping to meet severe staff shortages in secondary schools by making it possible for Canadian teachers with professional qualifications to spend some part of their profess ional careers in the Eastern Caribbean. Hi By 1969, most of the Leeward and Windward Islands were in the process of developing their own teacher training colleges 112 built with British funds. The regional institution which had previously served a part of the area, the Leeward Islands Teacher Training College in Antigua, was becoming a locally governed Antiguan institution. Montserrat and Dominica were in the early

110 Ibid. 111 CIDA, Report on Visit to Eastern Caribbean Islands, November 30-December 10, 1969, p.2. 112 Ibid., p.2. CANADIAN GOVERNMENT BILATERAL AID TO EDUCATION 106 stages of setting up their own training facility. In the opinion of CIDA's visiting representatives, it appeared that several of the islands expected to be able to function without Canadian assistance in teacher training within one or two years, while those just beginning would require Canadian help for some time. 113 The situation reported by CIDA officers at the end of 1969 may be summarised as follows: 1. Antigua 2 Canadian tutors - (fully utilised) 2. Dominica (being built) requests Canadian Principal and tutors especially science and maths - planning to phase in local being trained at U.W.I, as future principal. 3. Grenada 1 Canadian tutor (formerly had Canadian Principals) Planning to be completely locally staffed by 1971. 4. Montserrat (no college) 5. St. Kitts Canadian Principal + 3 Canadian tutors Kittitians being trained at U.W.I, and elsewhere, 6. St. Lucia Canadian Principal + 3 Canadian tutors. Recommended phase out of Canadians as soon as local Principal obtained. 7. St. Vincent Canadian Principal + 1 Canadian tutor. Requesting counterpart training in Canada for prospective local principal.

113 Ibid., p.3. CANADIAN GOVERNMENT BILATERAL AID TO EDUCATION 107

As well as the above, Canadians were staffing the Teach ers' Institute in Dominica and the Cork Hill Teachers' Centre in Montserrat. CIDA's representatives recommended that this assist ance be continued in Dominica until the Dominica Teachers' College was in operation. The focus of the work at the Montserrat Centre would evidently continue to be towards preparing teachers for entry to the Antigua and Barbados colleges. The Government of Montserrat's request for continued Canadian assistance was viewed favourably since none of the local staff at the Centre were yet deemed ready to assume the principalship. The gerieral recommendation in respect of teacher training in the Leeward and Windward Islands was as follows: To continue providing assistance to teacher educa tion in the islands in terms of provision of tutors and principals, training for local counterparts, and provision of equipment.^1° In technical-vocational education there was a similar movement towards the establishment of separate island facilities, as against earlier ideas of regional provision. Canada's initial involvement in this area of learning had been by way of supplying a small number of industrial arts teachers to secondary schools and helping to organise small technical centres such as those in Grenada and St. Vincent. In Montserrat, for example, Mr. J.

114 Dominica Report in Ibid., p.4. 115 Montserrat Report in Ibid.. p.3. 116 Ibid., p.l. CANADIAN GOVERNMENT BILATERAL AID TO EDUCATION 108

Armstrong, a Canadian teacher, served the maximum extension per iod allowed by the external aid administration, a five-year span, as a CID2 secondary school teacher of industrial arts. CIDA representatives, on the basis of information from local officials, reported that he had "made a major contribution in developing interest in technical training. His students have produced high quality work which has attracted attention and is praised through out the island".117 The two technical centres in Grenada and St. Vincent had been designed to meet a different kind of need and indications were that Canada would continue technical assistance until the I I o new institutions were in operation. Although the British government's longstanding interest and involvement in the technical colleges being built with British funds appears to have been well established throughout the region,11 9 the island governments acted on the assumption that there was considerable room left for external aid negotia tion in respect of staffing. A scaled-down version of the Gailer 120 Plans had facilitated the start of the building program and

117 Montserrat Report in Ibid.. p.2. 118 Ibid. 119 J.G. Lavender, Technical and Vocational Education in the Commonwealth Leeward and Windward Islands, A Summary of Proposals. Barbados, British Development Division, July 1970. 120 Ibid., p.5-11, for summary of Gailer Plans 1 and 11. CANADIAN GOVERNMENT BILATERAL AID TO EDUCATION 109

supervisory responsibility for the colleges on behalf of the 121 British Development Division was exercised by Dr. J.G. Lavender. There were British principals appointed for the colleges in Dominica, St. Lucia and St. Fitts by the end of 1969 when the visiting CIDA team received a request from Montserrat for a Canadian principal.12 2 Grenada announced its intention to have the Canadian head of their Technical Centre appointed principal of their new technical college, and requested that CIDA adjust his assignment accordingly. 123 Requests for CIDA staffing assistance were made in terms calculated to act as a spur to Canadian educational involvement. The St. Kitts government was reportedly anxious to have a North American input in addition to its British staff allocation. Canad ian involvement was requested in three specific areas - mathematics, science and hotel trades -.ito be taught by two staff members.

121 Dr. J.G, Lavender, Department of Education and Science, U.K., and member of the Inspectorate was appointed to the post established by U.W.I, Senate, 11th April 1968, Honorary Consul tant to the Faculty of Engineering for an Adviser to Eastern Caribbean Governments in Technical Education, See Chapter IV, p.259, for background to development of technical and vocational education as an educational aid priority. 122 CIDA, Report on Visit to Eastern Caribbean Islands, November 30-December 10. 1969. 123 Grenada Report in Ibid., p.2. 124 St. Kitts Report in Ibid., p.l, 2. In fact it was recommended that 3 persons be supplied. The request (to the 1971 PDA consulting team),'was again made by St. Kitts, with the addition of a teacher of air conditioning and refrigeration, for the 1971-72 school year. CANADIAN GOVERNMENT BILATERAL AID TO EDUCATION 110

Dominica was reported as being even more emphatic about "their desire not to rely entirely on the British approach to technical 125 education, preferring to have a Canadian in-put if possible," In St, Lucia it was possible for CIDA's team to work out the staffing situation with the British principal who was already at his post. St, Lucia's original request to CIDA for eleven Canadian aid teachers for the new technical college was revised by the principal to a request for assistance with five priority 127 Te< areas. The St, Lucia Technical College eventually opened in 128 1970 with the following: British Principal Staff: 12 British 4 Canadian 2 American 1 Barbadian 1 Swede 3 St. Lucians In other islands there was as yet no precise delineation of staffing requirements for the colleges, but a broad commitment to consider future requests was indicated by the CIDA team,

125 Dominica Report in Ibid., p.2. 126 Formerly Vice Principal of a large technical college in Nigeria. 127 It was observed by the CIDA team that, as this was done in the presence of the St. Lucia Minister of Education who had made no objection it could presumably be regarded as the official position, CIDA representatives reported that they had indicated that, because of commitments to St, Lucia's Comprehensive School, their technical assistance for the Technical College would be reduced, 128 Press release on Eastern Caribbean Technical Colleges, British Development Division, Barbados, November, 1970, CANADIAN GOVERNMENT BILATERAL AID TO EDUCATION 111 recommending that the aid administration: Assist in the expansion of technical-vocational training by providing some principals and staff for the new technical colleges and training for local technical-vocational teachers.129 A growing trend towards integrated projects rather than isolated items of Canadian Capital or Technical Assistance began 1 30 to be discernible at the end of the survey period. For ex ample, the Antigua government's requests in 1969 for Canadian senior staff and training for local counterparts for the Canadian- built Pares Village Secondary School^were interpreted by the CIDA as the kind of integrated project which CIDA was trying to develop. The need for a more closely co-ordinated approach to technical assistance was also recognised in response to Grenada's proposal in 1969 for provision of a training program in Canada for the Grenadian instructor at the Technical Centre being groomed to become the local principal of the British-built technical college, as the eventual replacement for its Canadian principal. In the case of the Canadian Maple Leaf Schools, to which the original commitment had been an equipped primary school building, 131 it also began to be acknowledged that their conversion

129 CIDA, Report on Visit to Eastern Caribbean Islands, 1969, p.l. 130 A trend which was emphasised as an essential component of all technical assistance efforts in Lester B. Pearson, Partners in Development. Report of the Commission on International Develop ment. New Yorl-, Praeger Publishers, 1969, p. 181. 131 CIDA, Prefabricated Maple Leaf School, Ottawa, (no date). CANADIAN GOVERNMENT BILATERAL AID TO EDUCATION 112 to Junior Secondary education had staffing implications for 132 Canada. St. Lucia was sent a principal for the Micoud School and requested another for the Soufriere School, in addition to a six-month training program in Canada for two local counterparts 133 to become principals. The new direction was approved by one of CIDA's teachers from the vantage point of an extended con tract in Antigua, when he wrote: There seems to be a trend in foreign aid programs to tie aid into a total project. Thisisavery good thing. There is no point in spending a million dollars building a school unless we are prepared to fill it with teachers for at least five years. In spite of what government officials may say, they haven't the human resources to provide an adequate supply of teachers for some time in the future.134 As far as educational assistance to the Eastern Caribbean was concerned, the new trend had been slow in gaining momentum. Its ultimate success required more than a statement of intention to the effect that, Canada is concentrating its efforts on integrated projects. These embrace capital assistance, the dis patch of advisers to the developing nation: and the provision of awards to bring trainees to Canada. The integration of these elements ensures the project will be carried on successfully when the Canadian advisers leave,I35

132 CIDA, Report on Visit to Eastern Caribbean Islands, 1269, p.5. 133 St. Lucia Report in Ibid., p.5. 134 CIDA Teacher, Analysis of Antigua's Education Sit uation, Antigua, 1971. 135 CIDA, Booklet No.2, Training Division, >'Information Division.., Ottawa, 1968. CANADIAN GOVERNMENT BILATERAL AID TO EDUCATION 113

3, Technical Assistance - Training Awards

One of the points about which the President of the Canad

ian International Development Agency was most emphatic during his

appearance before the Senate Committee on Foreign Affairs in 1969,

was the return of students and trainees under CIDA programs, from

Canada to the Caribbean,

Mr. Strong: C,. .J I do not know the percentage, but a relatively high percentage of people trained in Canada have stayed in the Caribbean.

Mr. Strong: In the case of the people we bring into Canada, we extract commitments from them and we require them to return, and we do enforce those com mitments. By and large, 95, 98 per cent a very high percentage, of these do in fact return, and we do know this, we have the information.137

The position appeared to be somewhat different from that taken by the Minister of Manpower and Immigration when he had 1 38 appeared before the same Senate Committee earlier in that year. The Minister expressed his concern about Caribbean students on

scholarships who were not returning to carry out their obligations to their own countries. In reply to Senator Carter's question as to whether Canada did not "have a responsibility to send them back

136 Senate of Canada, Proceedings of the Standing Senate Committee on Foreign Affairs, respecting the Caribbean Area, No.l, Tuesday, November 4, 1969,

137 Ibid., p.22, 2.3.

138 Ibid.. No. 8, Wednesday, June 25, 1969. Surprisingly enough, the opposite point was erroneously ascribed to the Minister in the summary Report of The Standing Committee on Foreign Affairs of The Senate of Canada on Canada-Caribbean Relations. Ottawa, 1970, p.26, para. 5. CANADIAN GOVERNMENT BILATERAL AID TO EDUCATION 114 under those circumstances", the Hon. Mr. MacEachen observed: We do and we try, but it is not easy to enforce. We may refuse to land the student, for example, as a permanent resident in Canada, but we have no control over his departure from Canada into another country. If we took action unilaterally in a very restric tive way we would be subject to the kind of criticism that arises from the declaration of human rights and the movement of people C.•.7 That is why I come back to the case of students, whether it is not worth care ful consideration by the originating countries to establish their own control over students who are assisted under certain conditions so that they will return for a period of time to their own country and help them out. It is a real problem.139

The question was evidently not sufficiently clarified by subsequent discussion to satisfy Senator Carter, who asked whether students in Canada on Commonwealth Scholarships or Canadian Govern ment scholarship were "admissible as immigrants without approval being required from their own government." The Assistant Deputy Minister replied that such a person would have to "be cleared by the agency that granted him the help." The impression that holders of Canadian Government scho larships who came from developing countries were not returning from Canada to their own countries was not limited to members of the Senate Committee investigating the Caribbean area. The matter had, for example, come to the attention of participants in the

139 Ibid., p.155. 140 Ibid., p.160. CANADIAN GOVERNMENT BILATERAL AID TO EDUCATION 115

Second National Workshop on Canada's participation in internat ional development, held at Esterel in 1965,* The workshop which discussed the reception of overseas students and trainees raised a number of "problems requiring action." Among these was the following item:

Another continuing problem is whether or not we should provide so much reception or orientation that the student becomes so oriented that he does not or almost cannot go home. How can the overseas student continue to identify with his home country and be ,,~ motivated to participate in his country's problems? At another point in the Esterel discussions the problem of inappropriate training offered at Canadian institutions was cited by a University of Montreal professor as a contributory factor in the reluctance of foreign students to return home. This consideration and that of economy were prime features of Mr. Strong's explanation to the Senate Committee of the program spec ially designed in 1966 to meet the needs of the Caribbean situation.

141 Canada's Participation in International Development, a report based on the second'.national workshop, Esterel, P.Q., November 18-21, 1965, Ottawa, Overseas Institute of Canada. C1966J, 142 Ibid., p.29. 143 Ibid., p.63, in which Robert Garry, Department of Geography, University of Montreal, in a critical analysis of international aid, makes the point that, to a large extent, scholarships do not seem to be achieving the desired objective. CANADIAN GOVERNMENT BILATERAL AID TO EDUCATION 116

In the Caribbean we have a very interesting program which I think is one of the best examples of what is called third country training. We provide 130 scholar ships a year for students from all of the Commonwealth Caribbean area to participate and attend the University of the West Indies. This means that these people are receiving Canadian scholarships so they will be able to attend their own regional institutions at less cost than we would incur if we brought them to Canada. We are also providing training in an institution which is more able to give them the kind of education and provide them with the kind of environment that they will be living in and need when they graduate. 1^ There were still conditions under which Caribbean schol ars received awards to study in Canada, but more selective criteria were claimed to be in vogue throughout the awards program. 145 Post-graduate awards and training in those fields which were needed in the area and for which training could not be pro vided in the region were to be given priority. For the Leeward and Windward Islands "third country training" meant leaving home to study at one of the three campuses

144 Senate Committee on Foreign Affairs, Proceedings. No. 1, Tuesday, November 4, 1969, p.21, 22. 145 Many awards did not fit into stated criteria, par ticularly awards in Arts and Education, which continued to be given to Canadian institutions while regional facilities were in existence at the University of the West Indies, a point raised by the researcher at interviews with CIDA's Training Division officers in Ottawa, in 1969. Examples can be cited from CIDA's published information on trainees. (Listed in CIDA's International Development, Vol. 2, No. 1, 1968 were outstanding students, Lilian Eileen Tyrell of St. Kitts, registered for the B.A. French and Mathematics at the University of Calgary, Ursel Mclntyre of Grenada reading for the BA Education). CANADIAN GOVERNMENT BILATERAL AID TO EDUCATION 117

of the University of The West Indies - in Barbados, Trinidad or Jamaica. The island governments usually couched their requests for counterpart training and other awards in terms which implied the expectation that persons trained would return to their island •I AC of origin. However, under the Commonwealth Caribbean Assist ance Program, Canada's bonding requirement called for the return of scholars to the Caribbean region generally, rather than to individual places of origin. The most pronounced evidence of dissatisfaction with the regional proviso emerged during dis cussions between island governments and the University of The West Indies Appraisal Committee in 1969. St. Lucia, working out plans to establish its own College of Education and Applied Science, evidently convinced the UWI Working Party to make the following recommendations: CCAP CCanadianJ be re-examined after the expiry of the current five-year term C1971J7 to allow for the fin ancing of students undertaking non-degree work in non- campus territories and for a possible change in the bonding requirements laid down by Canada that scholars return to the WI generally rather than to individual territories of origin.148

146 See, for example, the earlier analysis of technical assistance and counterpart requests in Section 2 of this chapter. 147 Memorandum of Understanding, Canada and the University of The West Indies. 148 Report of Appraisal Committee, Working Party 11 On the Needs of St. Lucia, /"University of the West Indies_J, £ 19702. CANADIAN GOVERNMENT BILATERAL AID TO EDUCATION 118

As the UWI Working Party travelled through the area it became obvious that this approach would not be limited to the St. Lucian situation. For example, a similar stance was adop ted by the Grenada government, though not included in the Working Party recommendations. It was also proposed that the University should seek a revision of the terms of the Canadian International Development Agency Programme when the current agreement expires, to provide for the bonding of Grenadian students awarded Canadian Bursaries to return to Grenada rather than to the West Indies in general.149 This development indicates that the transfer of under graduate awards from Canadian institutions to the University of The West Indies was not in itself considered to be a solution to the shortage of trained personnel in the Leeward and Windward Islands. As pointed out by Maurice Strong in his Senate appear ance, it was still too early to assess the impact of this policy in 1969, as there had not yet been time for many students to graduate from the three year program. As shown in Table Xlll, in the period 1965 to 1971, a total number of 718 students and trainees from the Leeward and Windward Islands received Canadian Government awards under the

149 Report of Appraisal Committee, Working Party 11 on The Needs of Grenada, CUniversity of the West IndiesJ, C1970J, p.4, 150 Senate Committee on Foreign Affairs, Proceedings, No. 1, Tuesday, November 4, 1969, p.22. Although the decision to apply CCAP undergraduate awards to the University of the West Indies was made in 1966, the plan did not begin to operate fully until 1967. CANADIAN GOVERNMENT BILATERAL AID TO EDUCATION 119

TABLE XI11.-

CCAP Training Awards: Leeward and Windward Islands 1965-1971

Island 1965-66 1966-67 1967-68 1968-69 1969-70 1970-71 Total

Antigua 31 38 37 19 35 20 180 Dominica 17 15 13 5 20 20 90 Grenada 13 13 18 20 20 20 104 Montserrat 13 6 8 4 4 10 45 St. Kitts 11 17 8 3 15 15 69 St. Lucia 9 5 11 16 20 20 81 St. Vincent 23 34 24 30 13 25 149 Sub Totals 117 128 119 97 127 130 718

Source: Compiled from CIDA, Statistics on Training Awards, 1963-1971, Training Division, 1970. CANADIAN GOVERNMENT BILATERAL AID TO EDUCATION 120

Commonwealth Caribbean Assistance Program. There were 372 per sons from these seven islands trained in Canada from the begin ning of the aid program in 1958 to the end of >'.arch, 1969,151 and the majority of these students (nearly 200), were brought over in the calendar years 1964, '65 and '66 to pursue various fields of study. The information in Table XIV shows that the largest number of CCAP training awards during the period, 1965 to 1971 went to St. Vincent and Antigua. These were the two islands in the Leewards and Windwards which had the largest number of Canadian external aid education personnel assignments 153 in the survey period. However, it has not been possible to isolate specific counterpart arrangements from general training awards, so no equation can be worked out at this point. In any case, as at least one Canadian education adviser has observed, the counterpart plan was not always interpreted as a firm commitment. From the vantage point of his assignment in

151 CIDA, Number of Persons Trained in Canada Through Technical Co-operation Service From 1958, Ottawa, 1969 . 152 External Aid Office, Annual Review 1966-1967, Ottawa, P.26. Queen1s Printer, 1967, p.26. " 153 See this Chapter, Section 2 - Technical assistance, p. 89. CANADIAN GOVERNMENT BILATERAL AID TO EDUCATION

TABLE XIV.- Students and Trainees Arriving in Canada Under Commonwealth Caribbean Aid Program 1964-66 (by calendar year)

1964 1965 1966 Totals

Antigua 13 21 22 56 Dominica 7 11 10 28 Grenada 5 8 9 22 Montserrat 4 6 7 17 St. Kitts 3 4 4 11 St. Lucia 4 9 3 16 St. Vincent 9 15 20 44 Sub-Total 45 74 75 194

Source: EAO, Annual Review 1966-1967, Ottawa, Queen's Printer, 1967, p.26. CANADIAN GOVERNMENT BILATERAL AID TO EDUCATION 122

St. Lucia the situation appeared to him to be the following: There are some vague possibilities, for replacements being trained abroad for several of them,C Canadian teachersj, but if the present trend continues they will be absorbed into some other position before they can return. It is a standard joke in government circles that one of the St. Lucians away training at the moment is going to fill three (3) positions when he returns because that is how many times he has been listed as a counterpart for a foreign aid.154

There were, in fact, many considerations which might prevent fulfillment of the planned scenario in which the local counterpart returned from Canada on schedule to replace the Canadian aid teacher. Interviewed on this subject in 1970, one of CIDA's Training Division officers pointed out that delays sometimes occurred when Caribbean governments did not nominate trainees at the specified time and it became impossible to secure admission to Canadian institutions or other places of training; on other occasions no training assistance was required until the CIDA teacher's contract was nearing completion and an emergency was claimed to exist; on the other hand, trainees sometimes requested extensions on academic and other grounds, while a certain number married Canadians and indicated their

154 CIDA, Education Adviser, Educational Aid to St. Lucia. St. Lucia, 1st March, 19/1, p.2. 155 Interview between researcher and CIDA officers, Training Division, Ottawa, Feb. 26, 1970. CANADIAN GOVERNMENT BILATERAL AID TO EDUCATION 123

preference to remain in Canada on completion of their course of study.

There can be no doubt about the Canadian Government's expectation that foreign students would return home to contribute to their country's development. The Memorandum of Understanding between Canada and other governments ^ave recognition to this expectation at the official level. Publications such as the CIDA Handbook For Scholars and Fellows made it equally clear at student level, with a section on "Preparation for Return Home", as well as the final exhortation that "the real measure of the effectiveness of your program is the extent to which ypu have the opportunity to put your training to use in your home country."157

As far as the Commonwealth Caribbean was concerned, Canada's educational assistance program received an endorsement from the Senate Committee on Foreign Affairs which leaves little

156 Canadian International Development Agency, Handbook for Scholars and Fellows. Ottawa, CIDA, 1970, p.29-32, 157 Ibid., p.32. CANADIAN GOVERNMENT BILATERAL AID TO EDUCATION 124 doubt about its interpretation of the evidence presented. The initiatives being taken by C.I.D.A. to reduce the immigration of Caribbean students brought to Canadian institutions are very useful. By providing scholarships for study at the University of the West Indies, particularly at the undergraduate level, equally effective help is provided at lower cost with out inducing emigration. The Committee was encouraged by the improvement in the proportion of Caribbean , ,-o students returning to work in their home countries. The basic question which remains to be examined at this point is whether the evidence supports the unsubstantiated claims made, both in Canada and in the Caribbean, that the early years of CCAP awards had not achieved their objective in providing trained personnel for the region. According to St. 1 59 Vincent's record of Canadian External Aid awards, from which Table XV has been compiled, a total number of 105 awards were made to St. Vincent students for study at Canadian institutions between the years 1963 and 1971. Of these students, a total of eighty-three were due back in the island by the end of the survey period, 1970. While 6.6 per cent of award holders either broke their bond or were released in Canada, 91.5 per cent of those due back by 1970 actually returned to work in St. Vincent. However,

158 Report of the Standing Committee of The Senate of Canada on Canada-Caribbean Relations, Ottawa, 1970, p.xxi. 159 Ministry of Education and Health, Canadian External Aid: Canada. St, Vincent, February 20, 1971, CANADIAN GOVERNMENT BILATERAL AID TO EDUCATION 125

TABLE XV.-

CCAP - Study Awards to St. Vincent 1963-1971

Categories Number

Scholarships Granted 105 Persons due to return by 1970 83 Returnees 76 Subsequent Resignations 30 Broken Bonds in Canada 7

Source: Ministry of Education and Health Canadian External Aid: Canada. St. Vincent, February 20, 1971. CANADIAN GOVERNMENT BILATERAL AID TO EDUCATION 126

over.. 15 per cent (15.7) of those who returned, having served for an average period of two to three years, left to return to Canada. Of the 91.5 returnees, 39 per cent resigned from the government service, either to return to Canada, to work in private enterprise or elsewhere. Taking into account those who did not return to work in St, Vincent in the first place, (6.6), a total of 22.8 per cent of those who held Canadian awards and were due to return home by 1970, became residents of Canada. Only two of those who had broken their bond were listed as repaying the amount required and St. Vincent education officials expressed concern about this problem when the matter was discussed early in 1971. ° A total number of 44.6 per cent of Vincentians holding Canadian awards tenable in Canada and who were due to return home by 1970 were lost to the St. Vincent government service by 1971.

Of the Canadian awards received by Vincentians during the period of 1963-71, there were eleven subjects of study directly related to the educational field, 1 and the awards

160 Interview held by researcher with St. Vincent education officials, Kingstown, St. Vincent, February 1971. 161 Ministry of Education and Health, Canadian External Aid: Canada. St. Vincent, February 20, 1971. CANADIAN GOVERNMENT BILATERAL AID TO EDUCATION 127

in these subjects are listed below: 4 History 3 Geography 3 English 3 French 3 Science (Biology, Botany, Chemistry) 1 Mathematics 4 Economics 4 Industrial Arts 3 Woodwork 1 Home Economics 1 Education Early awards (1963-66) seemed closely linked to the provision of educators and both the government grammar schools benefitted from the services of returnees - Boys' Grammar School (7); Girls' High School (3). However, by 1971, six of these teachers had returned to Canada, The one award of a four year course towards the B.Sc. in Home Economics did not improve the local situation, as the trainee married and remained in Canada, The holders of the four awards in Industrial Arts were also lost to St. Vincent primary schools - the first two trainees followed three year courses and returned home, serving two years and three years respectively before leaving for Canada; the second set of (2) trainees were given two year courses and also returned to Canada. Under the Canadian Government's "third country program", a total number of 130 students from the Leeward and Windward Islands received awards for courses at the University of the West Indies CANADIAN GOVERNMENT BILATERAL AID TO EDUCATION 128

1 69 between 1966 and 1970. Table XVI shows a predominance of Arts awards (47%), followed by Natural Sciences (27%), and Social Science (97»). Awards for the study of Law were made at the end of the survey period, in 1970, at which time this discipline was introduced at the three campuses of the University of The West Indies. The same cannot be claimed for courses in Education, for which there was one Canadian award, to a Grenadian student in 1970, for the Postgraduate Diploma in Education. This Department, with its activities concentrated on the Mona Campus in Jamaica, provided training at this level for only twenty-five prospective secondary school teachers from the Leeward and Windward Islands 1 c q in its first thirteen years of existence. The Canadian awards did nothing to alter the established pattern, as shown in Table XVI1, for graduate students funded under private auspices or by Caribbean governments. The Canadian aid dollar stretched further in providing training scholarships to the University of The West Indies than it did for attendance at Canadian institutions. No allowance was made for transportation in the Caribbean awards, whereas return passage to Canada was provided in the other case.

162 University of The West Indies, CCAP Trainees at UWI. U.W.I.,£l97i:/. 163 University of The West Indies, Diploma In Education Students 1953/66. U.W.I. Department of Education, [1970J. TABLE XVI.-

CCAP Awards to the University of The West Indies 1966-1970

Natural Social Island Arts Science Science Medicine Agriculture Engineering Law Education Total Antigua 6 5 1 1 13 Dominica 10 6 3 2 21 Grenada 5 7 2 2 3 1 20 Montserrat 4 1 1 1 1 8 St. Kitts 18 2 2 1 23 St, Lucia 7 5 2 2 1 17 St, Vincent 11 9 2 4 1 1 28 61 35 12 8 4 4 5 1 130 Source: University of the West Indies, CCAP Training Awards to U.W.I. 1966-70, (Mona), (1971). CANADIAN GOVERNMENT BILATERAL AID TO EDUCATION 130

TABLE XVI1.-

U.W.I. Diploma in Education Students Leeward and Windward Islands 1953-1966

Island No. of Students Antigua 7 Dominica 1 Grenada 6 Montserrat 2 St. Kitts 2 St. Lucia 3 St. Vincent 4 Total 25

Source: UWI, Department of Education Students 1953-66, Department of Education, 1971. CANADIAN' GOVERNMENT BILATERAL AID TO EDUCATION 131

According to Professional Development Associates, in 1971 CIDA estimated the cost of training a Caribbean student in Canada at approximately $4,080. per year, excluding transportation costs. The equivalent cost at UWI was reported to be valued at $1,530. a year. UWI records of Canadian aid scholars (1966-70), listed an average amount of $1,000. as the annual cost to Canada per student - for the B.A. and B.Sc, programs, with charges at the Medical Faculty in Jamaica at about $1,500, Whatever the method of computation per student, CIDA's records as represented in Table XV111 show a total expenditure of approximately $1,900,000 on the provision of scholarships, counterpart training and other awards to 683 persons from the Leeward and Windward Islands under the Commonwealth Caribbean Assistance Program (1965-70), The Canadian government's program of bilateral aid to education was outlined by the Director-General of the External Aid Office in his 1968 speech to the University Women's Club, 165 Ottawa, Describing the government's "basic objective in providing educational and technical assistance" as helping "with the establishment, expansion, and improvement of local facilities so that most of the training required by the developing countries can ultimately be carried out at home", he went on to give the

164 Professional Development Associates, cited in Notes on Educational Requirements, Leeward and Windward Islands, Ottawa, 1971. 165 M.F. Strong, Director-General, External Aid Office, Canadian Development Assistance In The Field of Education, Speech To The University Women's Club, Ottawa, Ontario, March 11, 1968. CANADIAN GOVERNMENT BILATERAL AID TO EDUCATION 132

TABLE XVI11.-

CCAP Expenditure - Training Awards a Leeward and Windward Islands 1965-1970

Island 1965-66 1966-67 1967-68 1968-69 1969-70 Total

Antigua - - 168,215 123,605 73,542 365,362 Dominica 41,310 68,850 44,652 33,317 40,902 229,031 Grenada 59,670 59,670 55,515 63,367 56,100 294,322

Montserrat m* - 38,760 38,914 27,846 105,520

St. Kitts - - 45,813 38,826 34,680 119,319 1 St. Lucia 41,310 22,950 14,543 34,658 39,270 152,731 St. Vincent 105,570 156,060 123,420 107,814 124,746 617,610 Total 247,860 307,530 490,918 440,501 397,086 1,883,895

Source: Compiled from Commonwealth Caribbean Assistance Programme Statistics, 1965-70. a Scholarships, counterpart training, etc. CANADIAN GOVERNMENT BILATERAL AID TO EDUCATION 133 official view of Canada's contribution: Our efforts in this respect fall into two main categories. The first is the provision of personnel: teachers, teacher-trainers and university professors and of buildings and equipment, in what might be regarded as a direct effort to support local institutions. The second is a training programme for students from developing nations as an indirect way of strengthening local facilities. The increase in the magnitude of our efforts is clearly reflected in the growing number of Canadian personnel serving abroad and of foreign students receiving their training in Canada.

Evidences of the success of our teachers and professors are the number of requests we receive for more Canadian personnel.

Our training programmes have been remarkably successful despite the problems involved.1"° Although the Commonwealth Caribbean was only mentioned in passing, and school construction assistance to the Leeward and Windwards Islands was the only point of direct reference in this general presentation on "Canadian Development Assistance In The Field of Education", it seems reasonable to assume that the Director-General's remarks about the success of Canadian Government bilateral aid to education wen intended to include educational assistance to the Leeward and Windward Islands during the First Development Decade.

166 Ibid., p.7, 9, 12. CANADIAN GOVERNMENT BILATERAL AID TO EDUCATION 134

4. Summary

The Canadian Government's program of bilateral educational assistance to the islands expanded rapidly during the Decade. School construction commanded nearly all capital expenditure through grant funds allocated to building plans. The need for buildings to be equipped with furniture and supplied with basic requirements for specialist subjects came to be recognised in the process of the school experience. Canada's emphasis on financing these projects through the purchase of Canadian goods and services made school provision a more expensive proposition than the islands envisaged, though providing each of the Leeward and Windwards with substantial school buildings which gave practical proof of Canada's assistance. The other significant area of external educational activity was in the service of teaching personnel. Canadians filled posts in specialist subject areas for which there were no local teachers available. Canadians also manned important positions heading teacher training institutions and other new areas of provision such as small technical centres. In many cases arrangements were made for counterpart training but the phased program did not materialise, for a number of reasons. Island governments gradually became concerned that the cadre of graduates expected from Canadian training programs was not available to provide the skills necessary to development. Pressure for graduates to be bonded to return to their country of origin rather than the Caribbean area in general began to be exerted by CANADIAN GOVERNMENT BILATERAL AID TO EDUCATION 135 some island governments. Added to this was a movement towards having facilities for advanced education instituted locally on an island basis. The question of the brain drain from the Caribbean area was also a matter of concern to Canada's aid agency and immigration officials. "Third country" training which began as an obvious solution to the need to utilise and develop the regional University of the West Indies, was adopted as a general principle of Canada's educational assistance. As the Decade developed, the island governments became more experienced in aid negotiations and countered offers from the aid donors in the area with requirements for adjustments to meet new needs identified. Canada appeared to be at a disadvantage in having limited field representation in respect of educational activity as against the U.K. Government's British Development Division in the Caribbean. However, the islands were also exercising their new found independence from British colonial status and for the most part welcomed the Canadian relationship in educational assistance. CHAPTER 111

CANADIAN NON-GOVERNMENTAL EDUCATIONAL INVOLVEMENT IN THE LEEWARD AND WINDWARD ISLANDS

Up to the mid-point of the First Development Decade it was still regarded as "almost impossible to calculate the amount of work done by Canadian agencies, both governmental and non- governmental, in the area of education (overseas)", Efforts at fact-finding about the details of Canadian non-governmental overseas aid operations did not result in the kind of definition needed for any detailed comprehensive stock taking activity. However, it is generally conceded that a large number of religious and secular private agencies have been involved in providing various forms of educational aid to developing countries, in addition to the Canadian Government's "extensive program of 3 educational assistance,"

1 Overseas Institute of Canada, Canada's Participation in International Development, a report based on the second national workshop on Canada's participation in international development, Esterel, P.Q., November 18-21, 1965, Ottawa, OIC,£l966j , p.10. 2 See for example, Canada's participation in social development abroad. Ottawa, National Committee on Canada's Participation in Social Welfare abroad, September 1963,p.36-47. Also, Directory of Canadian Non-Governmental Organizations Engaged in International Development Assistance. Ottawa, Canadian Council for International Co-operation, 1970. 3 Overseas Institute of Canada, op.cit., p.11. This general view was substantiated by Muriel Jacobson, Voluntary Agency Aid Programs Abroad. OIC, September, 1963. CANADIAN NON-GOVERNMENTAL EDUCATIONAL INVOLVEMENT 137

Speaking to the University Women's Club of Ottawa in 1968, the Director-General of the External Aid Office acknowledged the support provided by a number of sources for EAO's education assistance program, Mr, Strong stressed the role of provincial boards of education and the professional organizations. His mention of the voluntary agencies appears somewhat routed in comparison to the vigorous presentation of his earlier Quarterly Letter to all aid missions, in which the work of the non governmental organizations was cited as "a very important aspect of Canadian foreign aid." The "matching grant" system was proclaimed a means of complementing and supplementing Canada's bilateral aid projects. This co-operative approach was later supported by the Senate Committee investigating the Caribbean area. The opinion was expressed that "the Canadian Government had recognized the invaluable and often unique contribution of Canadian voluntary 7 agencies in assisting developing countries." The Committee

4 M.F. Strong, Canadian Development Assistance In The Field of Education, speech to University Women's Club, Ottawa, March 11, 1968, p.3, 13. 5 Ibid., p.3, where reference is made to Hon, Paul Martin's announcement of a $5 million grant by the Department of External Affairs to support the work of the voluntary agencies. 6 EAO, Quarterly Newsletter, (Confidential), October 30, 1967, p.3. 7 Senate of Canada, Report of The Standing Committee on Foreign Affairs, on Canada-Caribbean Relations. 1970. p.41. CANADIAN NON-GOVERNMENTAL EDUCATIONAL INVOLVEMENT 138 observed that, in the second year in which the Special Programs Division was operating, 1968-69, CIDA had contributed almost $200,000 to specific projects in the Caribbean - half this allocation going to assist two Canadian missionary orders in Haiti in school-construction projects. Taking the view that the matching grants had been "a very effective use of official development assistance funds in the Caribbean", the Committee recommended expansion of the program. For the purposes of this study, the various agencies will be grouped according to the nature of educational assistance provided to the Leeward and Windward Islands - in terms of personnel; books and other forms of material aid; and support for education services or activities. These .kinds of assistance were being provided before the "matching grants" were introduced, and Canadian non-governmental educational involvement in these islands will be traced through the period 1960-1970.

1, Personnel

(a) Canadian University Service Overseas (CUSO).- Foremost among Canadian non-governmental agencies providing technical assistance to Caribbean education has been the Canadian University Service Overseas.

8 Ibid., p.42 CANADIAN NON-GOVERNMENTAL EDUCATIONAL INVOLVEMENT 139

As a private, non-profit organization, CUSO's Caribbean connection was inherited from the activities of the Canadian o Voluntary Commonwealth Service under Guy Arnold. The CVCS was absorbed by CUSO in 1964 and the program of technical assistance was developed and expanded by CUSO along somewhat different lines. Important principles of CUSO service were established with Caribbean governments. Foremost among these were the requirements of local level salary payment by the local government as employer and well-defined two-year assignments in accordance with government development plans. As shown by Table XIX there were sixty-nine assignments undertaken by CUSO personnel in the Leeward and Windward Islands up to 1969, in addition to the three CVCS teachers who had preceded them. THE CVCS commitment to St. Kitts was not renewed beyond 1964 and the St. Kitts program, described as "dormant" in CUSO's 1970 Caribbean Report, was being reviewed by the organization. Dominica had no CUSO volunteers until 1967, Montserrat had no CUSO placements until 1968, when there were two placements which were not renewed for a second year, Antigua

9 CUSO, History of CUSO In Caribbean, paper presented to The Senate Committee on Foreign Affairs Respecting The Caribbean Area, February, 1970. This source has been used for this description of CUSO's origins. 10 CUSO, CUSO Caribbean Report, Overseas Operations Committee of The Board, February 27. 1970. Ottawa, p.3. CANADIAN NON-GOVERNMENTAL EDUCATIONAL INVOLVEMENT 140

TABLE XIX.-

CUSO Personnel: Leeward and Windward Islands 1963-1969

Islands 1963a 1964 1965 1966 1967 1968 1969 Total

Antigua - 1 2 4 6 4 5 22 Dominica 2 ..-21-5 ib i Grenada - 32224- 13 Montserrat - .--.2-2 St. Kitts 1 1-----2 St. Lucia - 3-4354 19 St. Vincent - 2-1-328 3 10 4 11 13 20 11 72

Source: Senate of Canada, Proceedings of the Standing Senate Committee on Foreign Affairs, No. 7, Wednesday, February 25, 1970, Appendix 1, p.45. a: CVCS, Canadian Voluntary Commonwealth Service. b: Carriacou, a Grenada dependency. CANADIAN NON-GOVERNMENTAL EDUCATIONAL INVOLVEMENT 141 received the largest number of CUSO placements, twenty-two, followed by St. Lucia with a total of nineteen assignments, between 1964 and 1969. During this period there were never more than five or six CUSO personnel in any one of the Leeward and Windward Islands in any given year, as can be seen from Table

The whole Caribbean program proved difficult for CUSO to administer. Various methods were developed to meet the changing needs of the relationship. Between January 1968 and April 1969, Antigua, St. Lucia, Montserrat, Dominica and St. Kitts were the responsibility of the CUSO regional representative who administered Jamaica, Grand Cayman and British Honduras in the northerly sweep of Commonwealth Caribbean territories. Grenada, with its dependency Carriacou, St. Vincent and Barbados came within the responsibility of a second regional representative who also administered Trinidad and Tobago and Guyana, According to CUSO's own estimate of the situation, the Caribbean program began with very young, inexperienced teachers and the two field officers found themselves preoccupied with visiting to provide support for the volunteers. In order to decentralise the program in 1969 the CUSO Caribbean program director was located in the Caribbean with a

11 Ibid., p.l. CANADIAN NON-GOVERNMENTAL EDUCATIONAL INVOLVEMENT 142

Barbados regional office and there were three field officers, located in Jamaica, Barbados and Guyana respectively, In Ottawa an administrative assistant was appointed to act as co-ordinator, facilitating communication between the Caribbean and the Ottawa headquarters. In spite of more rigorous selection criteria and greater attention to orientation procedures and teacher preparation, there were still problems with the Caribbean assisgnments. The 1 9 Senate Foreign Affairs Committee was told that, whereas the total CUSO attrition rate for the 1968 fiscal year had been 5 per cent, because of the rise in the Caribbean program's dropout rate for the year 1969, there was an overall increase to 9 per cent. What the Committee was not told, was that of the seventy- nine volunteers who departed for the Caribbean in September 1967, a total number of seventeen (21%) returned to Canada prematurely. Of the eighty-nine volunteers who left in September 1968, eighteen (20%) returned to Canada in the first ten months. The majority of early returnees came back between September 1968 and 13 June 1969. The director of the program, Father Gardiner, cited particular reasons for the dropout in this area. As an

12 Senate of Cavada, Proceedings of the Standing Senate Committee on Foreign Affairs, respecting The Caribbean Area, No. 7, Wednesday, February 25, 1970, Ottawa, p.12. 13 CUSO, Caribbean Programme Report. /Ottawa/, December, 1969, p.3. -' 14 Senate Committee on Foreign Affairs, Proceedings, No. 7, p.22. CANADIAN NON-COVERNMENTAL EDUCATIONAL INVOLVEMENT 143 experiment, young Canadian technical school graduates had been placed in local high schools and they had difficulties. Black power problems also were a concern and had led to a series of withdrawals as the result of a particular situation. The Executive Director, Mr. Frank Eogdasavich, supported the case for raising the age of CUSO volunteers assigned to the Caribbean in the following terms, introducing yet another element in the situation: ...Frankly, the Caribbean program because of its proximity to us made us feel that we know the area well. That was the situation when we started there. We felt it was a known factor and that we could send some of our weaker candidates there. We were inclined to regard it-32 the sunny part of the world. We know better now.l5 CUSO's constant soul searching and practical evaluation of its ongoing programmes led to the decision to phase out of five Caribbean islands by June, 1970. Four of these were among the Leeward and Windward group - Dominica, Grenada, Carriacou and Montserrat. The reasons given for this decision are significant, if not as obvious as CUSO officials appeared to think. [•.Jthe impact that four or five teachers have on the development of one small island is almost negligible. Administratively, it costs too high to service an island with only 4 CUSO personnel. Other volunteer agencies in some cases, are able to supply personnel to the island governments at less cost than CUSO personnel.1°

15 Ibid., p.23. 16 Ibid., p.37. CANADIAN NON-GOVERNMENTAL EDUCATIONAL INVOLVEMENT 144

The requests from the Leewards and Windwards which were filled by CUSO in the period covered by this study were mainly teaching assignments. Antigua, for example, had CUSO teachers at the elementary, secondary and technical levels between 1968 and 1970. Grenada had two CUSO secondary teachers and Carriacou one CUSO person at the same level. Montserrat received one elementary and one secondary teacher from CUSO. St. Lucia and St. Vincent assignments saw the emergence of a wider base for CUSO assistance. St. Lucia had one nursing tutor, a pharmacist and X-Ray technician, as well as two secondary teachers , from CUSO. The Manitoba Association for World Development had sponsored four CUSO volunteers to St. Lucia in 1968, among them two X-Ray technicians and two secondary school teachers. St. Vincent received a CUSO nurse and an X-Ray technician as well as three secondary teacher placements. A review of CUSO's 1967-70 Caribbean program statistics leads to the conclusion that, in addition to providing teachers at various levels of the school system, CUSO responded to a few requests for assistance in the medical field in the Leeward and Windward Islands.

In common with other aid agencies, CUSO had definite ideas about the ways in which its assistance could best be utilised.

17 CUSO, Caribbean Programme Statistics, ^Ottawa"7. December 1969, p.9-11. CANADIAN NON-GOVERNMENTAL EDUCATIONAL INVOLVEMENT 145

In St. Vincent, for example, it was recommended "that CUSC phase out of St. Vincent in 1970 if we are not able to get into the agricultural and technical fields. This proposal has been put to the government [_ St. Vincent./ and they are examining it." A similar decision was made to phase out in respect of technical assistance to Grenada - "since it is not possible to contribute in the agricultural and technical fields as this is being supplied by other volunteer agencies at less cost to the Grenadian government. "•1L9 CUSO's obvious desire to move into new directions in the Caribbean appears to have resulted from a number of factors. Provision of inexperienced volunteers to fill teaching posts had not met with initial success. Training, of however superficial a nature, added another dimension of responsibility to CUSO's administrative costs and concerns. Caribbean governments were not anxious to receive inexperienced or non-degreed persons as teachers.2 0 In addition in some islands Caribbean teachers were beginning to resist the use of expatriate volunteers in schools as a source of cheap labour which might help to prevent the

18 CUSO, Caribbean Programme Report,£ Ottawa7» December 1969, p.2. 19 Ibid., p.2. 20 A point still being made by the Montserrat government to CIDA representatives on their 1969 visit to the Eastern Caribbean Islands, when CUSO teachers were suggested. CIDA, Report on Visit to Eastern Caribbean Islands November 30-December 10, 1969. Montserrat Report, p.3. CANADIAN-NON-GOVERNMENTAL EDUCATIONAL INVOLVEMENT 146 raising of salary levels even for local trained personnel. CUSO teachers were in fact no cheaper to the local government than were Caribbean teachers, but some teachers' organizations were aware that without an alternative source of supply their pressure for improvement of local conditions of service might be more effective. Development of a West Indian curriculum in such subject areas as English language and literature as well as history also had repercussions on CUSO placements, as it was considered ill-advised to continue to fill posts in these subject areas. At the same time new trends were developing in Caribbean education. The emphasis on junior secondary education, on the maths and science curriculum, and on technical education was being reflected in technical assistance requests to outside agencies. CUSO's problems in meeting more specialized demands resulted in the organization's questioning the relevance of the basis on which it had framed its Caribbean operations up to 1970. More highly qualified personnel would probably mean a higher age level for the CUSO volunteer and the likelihood that this person 21 would be married and have a family. This might have financial implications, both for CUSO and for Caribbean governments.

21 According to CUSO's 1969 recruitment literature, married couples with not more than one child could be considered, provided both husband and wife were suitably qualified and child would remain below school age for duration of assignment. CANADIAN NON-GOVERNMENTAL EDUCATIONAL INVOLVEMENT 147

The arrangement for CUSO workers to receive counterpart salaries paid by the overseas employing agency was, in fact, an article of faith for CUSO during this period. As explained to the Senate Foreign Affairs Committee, there were two main objectives of this arrangement. One was that countries overseas would be.more careful in requesting and utilizing CUSO people if they were finding the money to pay them. 22 The rationale as far as the level of salary was concerned was read into the record of the Senate Foreign Affairs Committee's proceedings by Mr. Bogdasavich, as follows: A high proportion of the all too scarce capital available for development is going to maintain the personnel of donor agencies at the level to which they are accustomed at home. Not only is this a serious drain on a scarce resource, but it also forces on the recipient countries the allocation of money on in appropriate priorities. CUSO's policy of approximate counterpart salaries for this personnel must be under stood in this light and it is one of the features which distinguishes us from many other manpower resource agencies.^3

In the Leeward and Windward Islands, up to 1970 no clear 24 pattern of new CUSO requests appears to have emerged. It was

22 Senate Foreign Affairs Committee, Proceedings,No.7, p.21. 23 Ibid., p.24. 24 CUSO's own uncertainty about the future of their Eastern Caribbean program appears to have been a factor here. CUSO's own interpretation of the situation was that future requests would be for persons with special qualifications, e.g. maths and science, and there wa:s°the expectation of involvement in the staffing of the new technical colleges. CUSO Caribbean Report. February 27, 1970, p.2. CANADIAN NON-GOVERNMENTAL EDUCATIONAL INVOLVEMENT 148

reported that St. Lucia wanted CUSO to continue to provide secondary school teachers until they could meet their needs 25 locally; Antigua wanted a continuation of teacher provision. The Antigua situation should have been clear to CUSO administrators, since, as previously illustrated by Table XIX, CUSO teachers had worked in that island every year since the program began in 1964. It was recognized that there was, as the 1970 CUSO Report stated, 9 6 "a pronounced need for teachers in Antigua." However, the Report continued, "It is a particularly hard island to volunteer in because of its size and the number of other volunteers or 27 expatriates." CUSO's twenty-two placements there between 1965 28 and 1969 were all teachers. The first five volunteers, arriving in Antigua on two year contracts, were as follows: Anne Wadge - English Teacher 1965-67 Linda Smyth - Biology and French 1965-67 Awan Contractor - French 1966-68 Inge Solty - English 1966-68 Donna Weatherhead - Maths and Science 1966-68 These volunteers joined the Canadian teachers already serving in the island under the auspices of the External Aid Office, as well as the VSO's who began to be placed in Antigua

25 CUSO, Caribbean Programme Report.£ OttawaJ, December 1969, p.3. 26 Ibid. 27 Ibid. 28 C.M. O'Mard, Education Reoort for period January 1964 to December 1966. Ministry of Home Affairs and Social Services, Antigua, £l967J, p.11, where source of external aid teachers is recorded. CANADIAN NON-GOVERNMENTAL EDUCATIONAL INVOLVEMENT 149 in 1964, The two groups of Canadian teachers and the British VSO's were joined in 1967 by teachers under the United States on Peace Corps Scheme. According to CUSO's comments, the mixture of uncoordinated expatriate aid personnel was problematic in the Caribbean area generally, but made CUSO service in Antigua particularly difficult. It is not surprising that the end of 1969 and the following year, 1970, were marked by a lengthy re-assessment by CUSO of the effectiveness or otherwise of the CUSO program in on the Leeward and Windward Islands. Early in 1970 it became clear that most of the CUSO program in the small islands was scheduled to be phased out, although the CUSO Caribbean program director backed off somewhat from this stand when openly

29 Senate Foreign Affairs Committee, Proceedings, No. 7, p.43. 30 CUSO, CUSO Caribbean Report, Overseas Operations Committee of The Board, February 27, 1970, p.2, refers to i six months review. CANADIAN NON-GOVERNMENTAL EDUCATIONAL INVOLVEMENT 150 challenged by Senator Grosart at the February 1970 Senate Committee hearing in the following interchange: Senator Grosart: Are you not concerned that you are phasing out of small countries, in favour of large countries down there? Father Gardiner: I am concerned about phasing out in certain places, but with the program we have in the ten islands, with the limited resources we have, we just cannot spread ourselves sufficiently. Senator Grosart: Are you not in danger of doing exactly the same thing as you are criticizing in the big corporations - you are going where the going is good. You are going out of Dominica, Grand Cayman, Grenada, Montserrat. Are you not doing the same thing as you say the big corporation is doing - taking the easy way?

Father Gardiner: We have not closed the door on negotiations, but we have not received any requests from them CJGrenada'j. In Dominica, our experience has been that of receiving requests for only one or two, and we could not continue to go there.31 The brief presented to the Senate Foreign Affairs"Committee •30 by CUSO set out the organization's position in the Eastern Caribbean in terms which reflected the ambiguous situation in which the volunteers were finding themselves. In the racial conflicts occurring in the smaller islands at that time it was

31 Senate Committee on Foreign Affairs, Proceedings. No.7, Wednesday, February 25, 1970, p.33. 32 Senate Committee on Foreign Affairs, Proceedings. No.7, Wednesday, February 25, 1970, Appendix "F", p.38. CANADIAN NON-GOVERNMENTAL EDUCATIONAL INVOLVEMENT 151

pointed out that "CUSO people have been singled out by local organizations as examples of the white expatriates in favoured 33 positions." The point was made that, though these attacks were not personal, CUSC had felt it necessary to assess the impact on the effectiveness of the CUSO contribution. A special conference had been held to discuss the situation and consultations were undertaken with Eastern Caribbean government officials. It was reported that the islands were satisfied with the performance of CUSO, but that they were all being more specific about the kind of assistance they wanted. Amongst the suggestions made was that CUSO revert to line teacher provision, while CIDA could provide the specialized personnel. CUSO volunteers were aware of the fact that they were identified with the Caribbean's general image of Canadian influence in the area, even though they were themselves opposed 35 to Canadian exploitation of the islands. Operating within a limited budget and with difficult choices to be made, it appeared

33 Ibid. For example, in Dominica and elsewhere at the time of the Sir George Williams computer destruction and related problems, an anti-white attitude was apparently displayed in a number of situations, although this cannot be documented effectively by the researcher. 34 One CIDA education adviser preferred the idea of CIDA withdrawing and CUSO providing technical teachers for future technical assistance. CIDA Adviser, Educational Aid to St. Lucia. St. Lucia, 1971, p.5. 35 See for example, R.D.N. Sallery, Having The Have Nots: Aid and Exploitation, 1, 11, Ottawa, 1969. (mimeo.) CANADIAN NON-GOVERNMENTAL EDUCATIONAL INVOLVEMENT 152 that the Canadian University Service Overseas decided to opt for withdrawal of its services from the Leeward and Windward Islands after 1970. The cost factor appeared to be one of the significant elements in the situation which governed this decision. As had been pointed out by CUSO's Caribbean Program director, it was expensive to administer small numbers of volunteers spread across the smaller islands. The administrative cost per CUSO Caribbean volunteer for the year ending March 1970 was estimated at $2,031, about the same amount which the CUSO worker was receiving as yearly ?6 salary from some Caribbean governments. According to CUSO's 37 budget estimates for 1970-71, field administration of the Caribbean program was the most costly item funded by CUSO, followed by transportation costs and various allowances. Together with the cost of orientation in Canada and training overseas, the total budgetary commitment was estimated at $265,300, a slight increase over the 1969-70 cost of $262,000 to maintain 129 CUSO personnel in the Caribbean. Another financial consideration was the cost of CUSO workers to the governments of the small islands. Other volunteers such as Peace Corps workers, did not have to be paid by local

36 Senate Foreign Affairs Committee of Canada, Proceedings, No.7, Wednesday, February 25, 1970, p.12, 13. 37 Ibid., Appendix "F", p.40. CANADIAN NON-GOVERNMENTAL EDUCATIONAL INVOLVEMENT 153 governments and CUSO officers were aware of this situation. On the basis of these financial realities it seemed advisable to CUSO to phase out of the Leewards and Windwards. For the 1970- 71 year, St, Kitts received one CUSO teacher of Industrial Arts, and St, Lucia had two secondary teacher placements as well as two nursing educators, one hotel instructor, and a District Medical Officer. In Antigua and St. Vincent their 1969 to 1971 teacher placements, (three and one respectively), were completing the second year of their assignments. As the First Development Decade ended, it seemed doubtful that CUSO would continue to send volunteers to the Leeward and Windward Islands. The organization had apparently concluded that it could not provide the governments with the "effective and productive technical assistance" which was the stated aim of its Caribbean 39 program,*" at least not under the arrangements by which CUSO volunteers had operated up to 197C. (b) The Canadian Teachers' Federation.- Provision of experienced professional personnel to meet short-term educational needs of developing countries has been the special approach used by the Canadian Teachers' Federation. In 1967, Sir Ronald Gould,

38 CUSO, CUSO Caribbean Programme Statistics,[Cttawa~l 1970 . 7 39 CUSO, CUSO Caribbean Report, Overseas Operations Committee of the Board, February 27, 1970, Ottawa, p.l. CANADIAN NON-GOVERNMENTAL EDUCATIONAL INVOLVEMENT 154 president of the World Confederation of Organizations of the Teaching Profession, paid tribute to CTF's overseas activities in terms which high-lighted the nature of this form of assistance. He observed that Canadian teachers were "performing a service in the international field unequalled by teachers in any other 40 country", noting also that they were working quietly without any fanfare and at their own expense. CTF's own description of Project Overseas is instructive. It was defined in 1970 as a co-operative program with overseas teachers' organizations and with the help of CTF member associations, by which CTF responded to requests for staffing in-service teacher-training courses by supplying highly qualified Canadian teachers during the summer vacation period. Its aims were set out as follows: 1. To help teachers raise their own academic and professional qualifications. 2. To help teachers strengthen their professional organization. / 0 3. To promote understanding and good will. The Project took shape during the early 'sixties and by 1970 had expanded considerably in scope but retained the initial

40 Educational Courier, November-December 1967, Toronto, 1967, p.57, report of speech to WCOTP Assembly in Vancouver. 41 Canadian Teachers' Federation, Report of Project Overseas 1969, Ottawa, CTF, fl970j, Appendix A, p.121. 42 Ibid. CANADIAN NON-GOVERNMENTAL EDUCATIONAL INVOLVEMENT 155 framework within which its operations began. Between 1962 and 1966 Canadian teachers were sent to many parts of Africa, with a French-speaking team included in 1966. The Commonwealth Caribbean became a part of the CTF program in 1967 when a team of five Canadian teachers participated j in a primary teachers in-service course with the Jamaica Teachers' Association. The following year brought CTF assistance to the Bahamas and also saw considerable expansion of the international program as the result of a grant from the External Aid Office. Inclusion of the Leeward and Windward Islands in Project Overseas began with Grenada in 1969, followed by St. Vincent in 1970. The 1969 Grenada in-service teachers' course followed the pattern developed for much of CTF's Project Overseas activity. CTF responded to a request from the Grenada Union of Teachers to assist with a summer training course. Pre-planning was done by correspondence and further facilitated by a visit to Grenada 45 by the CTF Co-ordinator of Project Overseas. CTF agreed to provide a team of highly qualified teachers, paying their travel and living expenses. GUT was responsible for local staffing arrangements, including appointment of a Course Director as well

43 Ibid., p.122, 123. 44 Ibid., Appendix A, Background Information, p.121-128, See also CTF International Program Report, presented to CTF Board, February 1969. 45 Information obtained from interview held by researcher with former CTF Overseas Program Co-ordinator, Ottawa, 1972. CANADIAN NON-GOVERNMENTAL EDUCATIONAL INVOLVEMENT 156 as teacher/student selection, course content and course location. GUT was also responsible for an orientation program for the Canadian teachers. CTF's team for the 1969 Grenada course consisted of three experienced teachers for the subject areas requested - New Mathematics, Social Studies and Language Arts. As CTF reported, "the GUT planned the Course to provide an opportunity for under- qualified Grenadian teachers to raise their academic qualifications and also to demonstrate to them new methodology consistent with the facilities available in the local schools." CTF felt confident that its participants would be able to adapt to the needs of the educational situation in most countries. The basic requirements for Canadian teachers selected to participate in Project Overseas included a university degree; a professional teaching certificate; at least five years teaching experience - some elementary school experience preferred; subject specialization in Mathematics, Science, English or Social Studies. In addition to good health, "evidence of flexibility and mature judgement" were also specified requirements. In addition to an orientation program in Canada, CTF placed a great deal of emphasis on local orientation as a means

46 CTF, Report of Project Overseas. 1969, p.77. 47 Ibid., p.124, re Selection of Participants. CANADIAN NON-GOVERNMENTAL EDUCATIONAL INVOLVEMENT 157 of making the Canadian participants aware of local conditions in general and the school situation in particular. In Grenada, 48 visits were paid to elementary schools in session. These included the two schools at Sauteurs and Gouyave donated by the Canadian Government, and the St. George's Government School which was twinned with Huron Heights Secondary School, York County, Ontario. In the period before the course began, the CTF team was taken to meet government officials and participated in local activities. Meetings were held with the GUT Executive and there were several meetings of the joint teaching staff of the summer session to review course content and methodology and prepare course outlines. CTF team members reported that these consultations and visits to schools in session "made it easier to design a meaningful course. It was also helpful in selecting materials and demonstrating methods which would have immediate relevance to the Grenadian classrooms."4 9 The CTF team was impressed by the sustained interest and enthusiasm of the teacher/students. There were seventy-six participants, ranging from pupil teachers to head teachers, with

48 Ibid., p.77, 78. 49 Ibid., p.84. 50 Ibid., p.83. CANADIAN NON-GOVERNMENTAL EDUCATIONAL INVOLVEMENT 158 the GUT president serving as Course Director. It was reported that, as a result of the Course, a new Social Studies syllabus was being drafted by a Grenada-Canada team, and would be tried out in Grenada schools. It was also felt by the Canadian? that the "presence and contribution of the CTF team seemed to stimulate serious thought about the need for a strong Grenada 52 teachers* organization." The 1969 GUT/CTF sponsored Summer Course was equally well endorsed by those responsible for education in Grenada. The Chief Education Officer noted that the "dedication, keen interest and competencies of the three Canadian educationists provided positive proof that the Federation was genuinely interested in our educational development and was not providing 53 help 'merely to project an international image'." The Acting President of the GUT expressed appreciation of the co-operative effort in promoting the professional development of Grenadian 54 teachers. The Grenadian Course Director paid tribute to the effectiveness of the Canadian tutors and was aware of the fact that the extent to which teachers were able to put their new learning into practice in the schools would be the measure

51 Ibid.. o.84. See also "A New Approach to Teaching Social Studies in Grenada", in CTF, Learning in Unity. Ottawa, 1970, p.9. 52 Ibid., p.84 53 Canadian Teachers' Federation, Learning in Unity, Ottawa, CTF, 1970, p.5, in which the CEO's remarks are recorded. 54 Ibid., p.l. CANADIAN NON-GOVERNMENTAL EDUCATIONAL INVOLVEMENT 1 of the effectiveness of the summer course. The summer course students themselves supported the view that the venture had been successful in exposing them to new ideas. Their enthusiasm expressed itself in the following poem: Canada's trio .... Grenada's three Extricated mysteries 'Twas wonder .,,. fun .... discovery In an atmosphere of harmony. God bless you for the pains you took To give us this awakening ->6 Perhaps the best measure of the summer course can be obtained from the comment made by the Grenadian co-tutor of the Language Arts group, when she observed: A word about conditions in our schools. Classes of fifty are not unusual and in the lower school the number may be high as seventy or eighty. In most schools teachers are expected to teach all the subjects on the curriculum. During the early stages of the Course some teachers had doubts as to how applicable the things they were being told were to their own situations. As the Course progressed teachers began to see that the most important thing was to get started.57

The 1970 Grenada in-service summer course involved Grenadian teachers at the secondary level as well as at the CO elementary level. CTF again sponsored three Canadian tutors

55 Ibid., p.3. 56 Ibid., p.29. 57 Ibid., p.8. 58 CTF, Report of Project Overseas. 1970. Ottawa, CTF, ri97lj, p.35, showed that two of the Canadian tutors from the 1969 Grenada course returned for the 1970 course. The Foreword to this Report pointed out that CIDA's grant for the program made it possible for CTF to select participants outside Member sponsorship?which did not provide for "repeaters". CANADIAN NON-GOVERNMENTAL EDUCATIONAL INVOLVEMENT 160 in Science, Mathematics and English. The Course Director of the elementary course was an official from the Grenada Ministry of Culture and Education but the pattern of GUT-CTF co-operation was followed. Pre-course activities in the island included program planning and visits to schools in session. New features of the two-week course were practical teaching with teacher- students teaching their colleagues, followed by class discussion, and practical work in Science, students rotating in the use of the labs set up to study air, water and electricity. Approximately 163 teachers registered for the elementary course and average daily attendance was 157. The secondary course appeared to have been less well organized (or, perhaps, accepted), and average daily attendance numbered about twelve out of twenty teachers registeredA . 59 In 1970 the first joint in-service course arranged by 6f the St. Vincent Union of Teachers and CTF was organized. CTF's three man team operated with local co-tutors in the areas of Mathematics and Social Studies with special Visual Aids in-put, The course was attended by the headmaster and two junior level teachers of each school and appears to have provided new opportunities for communication between the 105 teacher-students. Among the most significant contributions made by the course were

59 Ibid., p.35-40. 60 Ibid., p.47-51, which provides the information given on the St. Vincent summer course. CANADIAN NON-GOVERNMENTAL EDUCATIONAL INVOLVEMENT 161

reported to be the improvement of the image of the SVTU, the interpretation of the new Mathematics syllabus being introduced in Mathematics at grades 2 to 6, and new Social Studies experiences in co-operative planning, practical activities involving student participation,and examination of the local environment. Visual Aids activities added an important dimension.

(c) Canadian Churches.- In one sense it could be claimed that most of the work done overseas by religious organizations is of an educational nature. As Senator Connally observed at the Senate Foreign Affairs Committee appearance of church repressntatives, "perhaps the generalization can be made that governments in the field of foreign aid have a great deal to learn from all the churches, who have been in the field longer".62 Even if one attempts to isolate the role of the churches in formal education provision, as the present study has set out to do, it seems clear that supplying education personnel may be only one facet of the educational assistance to developing countries provided by the religious organizations. However, there is little documentation avilable to provide an accurate estimate of this contribution.

61 See for example, Father E. Troudeau, S.J,, A Working Bocuroent for the Specialized Committee on Education, notes prepared for the Second National Workshop on Canada's Participation in International Development, Esterel, 1965, in which an attempt was made to assess the work being done in education. 62 Senate Foreign Affairs Committee, Proceedings, No.5, Tuesday, February 10, 1970, p.14. CANADIAN NON-GOVERNMENTAL EDUCATIONAL INVOLVEMENT 162

The Roman Catholic Church has had a longstanding connection with the Caribbean. Statistics submitted to the Senate Foreign Affairs Committee by the Canadian Catholic Office for Latin America documented the assignment of Canadian Catholic go personnel to the Caribbean in 1970. As shown by Table XX there were twenty-eight persons working in the Leeward and Windward Islands. Half of this number were involved in teaching activities and most of the remainder were responsible for the parish ministry. The smaller islands of Anguilla and Carriacou were included in this listing. The Presbyterian Church of Canada had a longstanding commitment by which it concentrated its important educational efforts in the Caribbean in the territories of Trinidad and Gfeyana, with some attention to Jamaica. There is little evidence of activity in the Leeward and Windward Islands. The Anglican Church of Canada reported to the Senate Committee that it had only been associated with the Caribbean since 1965. Its involvement with the diocese of Antigua, which included St. Kitts, Nevis and Montserrat, and the diocese of the Windward Islands,

63 Ibid.. Appendix E, p.33-38. 64 Paper From The Presbyterian Church In Canada To Standing Senate Committee on Foreign Affairs respecting The Caribbean Area, in Ibid., p.44, 65 Ibid., p.17. CANADIAN NON-GOVERNMENTAL EDUCATIONAL INVOLVEMENT 163

TABLE XX.-

Canadian Catholic Personnel: Leewards and Windwards 1970

Location Personnel Work

Anguilla3 1 priest parish ministry Antigua 3 friars teaching Carriacou 2 (Secular Inst.) training centre for women in cooperatives Dominica 6-4 friars teaching 2 laymen care of sick Grenada 2 (Secular Inst.) Adult education centre cooperatives, credit unions St. Kitts 2 nuns teaching St. Lucia 3 priests parish ministry St. Vincent 9-8 priests parish ministry 1 friar

Source: Canadian Catholic Office for Latin America, A Brief submitted to the Standing Senate Committee on Foreign Affairs, Ottawa, February 10, 1970. a Formerly attached to the St. Kitts-Nevis-Anguilla Associated State, governed from St. Kitts, but since 1967 declared its independent status; separate administration provided for under the Anguilla Act and the Anguilla Administration Order, 1971, which maintain the U.K. connection. b Dependency of Grenada. CANADIAN NON-GOVERNMENTAL EDUCATION INVOLVEMENT 164 including St. Vincent, St. Lucia, Grenada and the Grenadines, was reported to be basically non-educational. According to Rev. Woeller, Area Secretary for the Caribbean and Latin America, the Anglican Church of Canada in 1970 was not supporting directly "any work in the areas of health, primary or secondary education, 66 or communication." The United Church of Canada maintained only a small degree of involvement in the Caribbean and despite its interest in education in the Caribbean, active involvement was apparently limited to obtaining financial support for Knox 67 College, Jamaica.

66 A Paper submitted by The Anglican Church of Canada; Some Policy Thoughts About The Overseas Program Of The Anglican Church of Canada, in ibid., p.47. 67 Ibj,d.., p.25. CANADIAN NON-GOVERNMENTAL EDUCATIONAL INVOLVEMENT 165

2. Educational Materials - Books

(a) The Overseas Book Centre.- A non-profit, voluntary organization, incorporated under the Canada Corporations Act and registered with the Canadian Department of Revenue, the Overseas Book Centre began as a project of the Overseas Institute of Canada on the initiative of Dr. J.R. Kidd and others. From small beginnings the work of the Centre expanded in scope and has undergone a gradual refinement in procedure. As the result of a meeting in Toronto (1963) of a number of organizations involved in sending books overseas,6 9 it was decided that all teajor Canadian book-sending operations would be co-ordinated and expanded under the auspices of the Overseas Institute of Canada. It was felt that a "united Canadian Book sending operation" would "eliminate any duplication of effort" and make it "easier to appeal to donor? of books, shipping space, and materials." The program, Bpoks for Developing. Countries,

67 Information obtained by researcher from interviewsheld in 1970 with a number of persons associated with the Overseas Institute of Canada - Dr. Roby Kidd, Mrs. Marian McFarland, Mrs. Carolyn Hibberd. 68 See, for example, OBC pamphlets on the work of the Centre, eg. Kind of Books to Send to Developing Countries: Standards for Books going fo Developing Countries: rac'/cing and Shipping Books for Developing Countries. 69 Overseas Institute of Canada, Books for Developing Countries. CIC, Ottawa, 1964, p.2, reporting this meeting mentions World University Service, YM-YWCA, Canadian Teachers' Federation, I.O.D.E. 70 Ibid. CANADIAN NON-GOVERNMENTAL EDUCATIONAL INVOLVEMENT 166 operated as a project of the OIC71 and, subsequently, of the Canadian Council for International Co-operation which absorbed much of the work of the OIC. Since 1968 the Overseas Book Centre has been a separate entity, with National Headquarters in Ottawa and nine centres in major cities across most of the provinces 72 of Canada. Experience proved that operating the Project was far more complex than the simple problem of logistics - "how to collect, sort and pack the books in Canada, and ship them overseas" - envisaged in 1964.7 3

The Overseas Book Centre has stated as its purpose: "To cooperate with developing countries in helping them to achieve their aims in the fields of education and culture in its broadest 74 sense." The Centre undertakes to assist institutions, such as schools, colleges and public libraries. Its primary concern is with provision of books but it has found it necessary to expand its program to include other educational materials such as school supplies and equipment. A special Projects Grant has been designed to meet special circumstances, especially in terms of

71 Adventure In Development. Stage Two, Ottawa, Overseas Institute of Canada, £1965JJ, p.11, reporting that the book program was no longer a pilot project but "a fully developed service that has grown rapidly in dimension and significance and can be expanded much further." 72 OBC, Annual Report 1959-70. Ottawa, 1970. 73 OIC, Books for Developing Countries, p.l. 74 OBC, Statement Approved by Board of Directors, Ottawa, September 21, 1972, p.l. CANADIAN NON-GOVERNMENTAL EDUCATIONAL INVOLVEMENT 167 resource book purchases and non-book requests, OBC has claimed to be "essentially an organization of 76 volunteers," It recruits and mobilises a variety of sources in Canada to provide educational assistance to the developing countries. Books are donated by every available source and delivered to one of the Centre's depots across Canada, Volunteers sort and pack the books and the Centre assumes responsibility for packing, handling and shipping costs. Books are supplied in response to requests from overseas, OBC has increasingly encouraged developing countries to be specific as to numbers, 7 reading level, content and subject areas in forwarding requests. Acknowledgement from recipients and even cursory evaluation of each shipment is now required before further shipments are dispatched, OBC has through the years sought and obtained the co operation of many business firms in carrying out its program. Packaging material has been donated and shipping space provided free or at reduced freight rates. The real value of OBC educational aid is therefore considerably in excess of the actual financial expenditure of the organization, even with the addition of an annual "matching" government grant through CIDA's support

75 OBC, Annual Report 1969-70, Ottawa, 1970 recognized that surplus goods only partially meet the needs identified, and that special grants would make it possible to respond more effectively to these needs, 76 OBC, Statement Approved Bv Board of Directors. Ottawa, September 21, 1972, p.l. 77 See for example OBC form, Request for Educational Books, sent out to institutions requesting books. CANADIAN NON-GOVERNMENTAL EDUCATIONAL INVOLVEMENT 168

78 program. The 1970-71 OBC Annual Report attempted to estimate the value of the program by assessing voluntary service at $2.00 per hour and placing a nominal value on the books shipped, arriving at an overall estimate of $2,200,000 as the worth of the program for that fiscal year. OBC co-operates with other organizations in Canada wishing to send books and educational materials overseas. It has developed a special response geared to helping Canadians serving overseas by means of supplying essential educational materials requested for effective performance of their 79 assignments. The Overseas Book Centre was actively involved in the Leeward and Windward Islands throughout the major portion of the period under study. Table XXI shows the number of shipments made to the seven islands between 1963 and 1970, Table XXI1 provides further details re actual amounts involved in shipments. An examination of the correspondence files recording the exchange of communications between the islands and the Centre in Ottawa is

78 OBC, Annual Report 1969-70, Ottawa, 1970, registers CIDA grant $55,740 and Department of External Affairs rental concession for OBC National Office; Miles for Millions contribution $66,034, and public donations $32,112, The Report notes goods could be estimated conservatively at well over $1 million and services would also amount to a substantial sum, 79 OBC, Memorandum To Canadians Going to Developing Cpuntries. Ottawa, re possibility of requesting from OBC books, equipment and resource materials to carry out their assignment. TABLE XXI.-

Overseas Bookcentre: Leeward & Windward Islands Shipments to 1970

Year Antigua Dominica Grenada Montserrat St.Kitts St.Lucia St.Vincei

1963 2TC 8TC 2TC - 4TC - -

1964 11TC 15TC 5B 24TC 34TC 13TC 12TC 7B 1TC 1965 54TC 113TC 68TC 162TC 22B 64TC 3TC 12B 12TC

1966 2TC 39TC 26TC - 47TC 8TC 27TC 1967 60TC 32TC 32B 9TC 9B 4TC 45TC 96TC 43B 25TC 51B

1968 3B - 248TC 66B 1TC 11B •• 17B 37TC 1969 62B 38TC 49B 54TC 99B 6B 24TC 12TC 10B 15TC 1970 12TC 8B 49B 36TC 50B 117B 7B 15B (+ 8 type writers)

Source: Compiled from OBC files re consignments, Ottawa, 1963-1970. TOTeachests; B*Box or carton.

vo r« i 1 WH cn CO CO C-< C-. (D II (DO «t ft rt H o a c c OO 1 < rt . . . ro a rt S H* ro 1 a to a H* •* ro vj a a i-» < r* 0) 9 OQ ft a %^ H« c f5 a H* CO O M •• ^"N 9 o rt co n 6 o «• r O H* rt a «* H* H H* ro Co a r-» vO ft a vO -«J ° ft ft *J l-» H M ro » ro 0> o ro Cn 1r+ H» ro No. CO 00 &> O Cn •P* •P* f* Shipments rt m o co H* M No. «^l l-» CA ro -P* CO M Recipients ow CO ft 5* HH M No. 0) H* OU3 i-> o> i-»ro\o H» O Cn ft s 00l-» •P-O-P*00 OOVO CA© CO^J ««jro ro OV ro OH OWS:H OWH nwijH WS:H H g fct Cases Books O OO o OO OO O roa o rt fi> "*J ro M H* M CO CA •—• H» vO CO vO Total • © 00 o VO •p* «*l Weight > w* O ro to CA o •p* Cn Pounds a Cn o o o o O o * § w it Cn CO Cn School 8 Q> » l-» CnM 4> OV ->J or 3 n O 00 •P»Ot-» vo ro r-»4> Cn Q. 00£»CA 0 00 to 0-P*C/i oro OCA Library OS:H OH 3CH H H o o OO O OO O O o 3 °II •-• Commercial n ON Agent OQ ft to oro o s: « oa ro a o o a CO rr o ro CA t-» •P* 00 Ministry • of ro •p* •P* o H* ro CO t-»M oro o*> OM-* CA OV CO ocn Education a* CA*«J OH OO vO ©CAM o ro 23H o*H* H OH OH H OO O O a o o o s a «t r-» m ro r-» 00 M CIDA <• <• vO r-» 00 Cn Teacher NH o coro OOVO oor o co 00 M MH OH OO ooo O-^J 1 WH H w WH w O O o vO ro 4f» Other Co •P* r-» co O ro COM CO •P-OCOV0 ou cn*»ro OOCO-P* OWJIH H OH WSH OO O o OO 1

OZX 1N3WSA10ANI NOIXVDnaa 1V1N3HNH3A00-N0N NVIdVNVO CANADIAN NON-GOVERNMENTAL EDUCATIONAL INVOLVEMENT 171 instructive in revealing the realities of a relationship which, up to 1970, was almost entirely dependent on this interchange. Caribbean requests definitely established that there was a great need for books in the islands and early letters were filled with comments on the need for 'general reading material*• However, there was a quick response to the idea that the OBC might be interested in meeting school book needs, as can be observed in the reply of the Education Officer, Dominica, in 1963, as follows: Now that you have raised the question, I must state that forty-six of our Primary Schools are in dire need of books which would be suitable for general reading as well as for libraries. I have said this to indicate that our need is very great. We have fifteen thousand children in school, and can replace books only at a pe*g0 capita rate of about fourteen Canadian cents per annum. As OBC's program became better known in the islands, requests came from many schools and the Centre became increasingly concerned with the provision of basic textual material for use at primary and secondary level and teachers1 resource material. Although the Ministry responsible for Education in each of the islands was often used as the consignee for OBC shipments, the Centre was dealing primarily with schools and other institutions in which the initiative had been taken by the head of the particular institution. This resulted in situations which sometimes

80 Education Officer, Dominica, to OBC, Ottawa, 6 June, 1963. CANADIAN NON-GOVERNMENTAL EDUCATIONAL INVOLVEMENT 172 took months to resolve. At times an arrangement was worked out with a CUSO volunteer or a Canadian aid teacher in the island to act as consignee and be responsible for distribution of material sent to specific institutions. The first stage in the Centre's relationship with the institution began with the request. This was sometimes regarded by the Caribbean contact as a personal relationship in which the OBC's interest would be transferred to another school if the 81 head of an institution were transferred. However, the OBC tried to maintain an institutional connection. Requests depended mainly on the level of the institution. Subject areas most frequently cited 82 were the following: 1. Language 2. Remedial reading (slow readers, backward readers, simple adult material) 3. Mathematics 4. Science 5. Geography In addition to these there were requests for reference books, such as encyclopaedias, dictionaries, etc. Professional education books - philosophy, psychology and teaching methods were a separate area of need expressed at the professional level.

81 As for example in the case of the transer of the head of the St, Johns' Boys School, Antigua, letter to OBC, Ottawa, 24 April 1972, 82 Analysis of requests from Caribbean islands to OBC, 1963-1970. CANADIAN NON-GOVERNMENTAL EDUCATIONAL INVOLVEMENT 173

Some requests were very specific, as for example the appeals from Canadian teachers who found themselves in situations in which the students had to function without even basic texts. The Centre found that it was moving away from the kind of stand taken in 1963, that "textbooks are not included unless specially 83 requested", in the face of the need for basic texts in Caribbean schools, A Canadian teacher serving in Grenada in 1964 supported the need for primary school texts and workbooks in the following terms: A Canadian teacher wouldn't last two hours in a rimary school here. Just visualize a large room where § 00-400 boys and girls are jammed in with some standing and others seated, and no partitions but each teacher shouting out their messages and the children repeating what they have heard.°^ Recognition of the crucial difference which a book supply could make in island schools gradually led the Overseas Book Centre to encourage specific requests and to try to organize its response to meet these needs. The question became one of not only providing texts but of supplying these in sufficient numbers to be used on an island-wide basis. In some instances, graded sets of suitable basic texts seemed to hold most possibility of making an impact on the school situation. By 1970 the magnitude of the problem of furnishing reading material

83 McFarland, OBC, Toronto, to Head, Grenada Boys' Secondary School, March 13, 1963. 84 J.A. Dunster, Grenada, to L.C, Curtis, Vancouver, November 15, 1964. CANADIAN NON-GOVERNMENTAL EDUCATIONAL INVOLVEMENT 174

for the schools of the Leeward and Windward Islands was recognized by the Overseas Book Centre and confirmed by the Executive Director's first visit to the Caribbean to obtain a first hand knowledge of the situation in which the program had been operating 85 since the early 1960's. The Centre had always encouraged response from the islands as to the arrival and the utility of the material sent from Canada. This was a crucial area of the Centre's operations for two main reasons. One was that some shipments were special gifts of particular schools and organizations in Canada which had to be acknowledged. The second was that each of the nine Centres across Canada sorted, selected, and sent out its material and the Ottawa Centre had no way of judging the extent to which this material filled the needs which had been identified. One obvious concern was that the quality of material should be acceptable. Judging from the correspondence received by OBC from the Caribbean up to the 1970*s, there were not many complaints about the condition in which shipments arrived, Montserrat in 1964 reported a shipment of books, some with damaged binding which 86 would not last long; Dominica reported some books damaged by

85 W.A. Teager, Report of Director's Trip To The Caribbean Area. February 8th to 22ndf 1970T (Confidential>, Ottawa, OBC, March 31, 1970.The Director's itinerary included Antigua, Dominica, and St. Kitts as well as the three more developed islands, Jamaica,,,Trinidad, Barbados, and Guyana. 86 Education Officer, Montserrat to Program Officer. OIC, Ottawa, July 6, 1964. CANADIAN NON-GOVERNMENTAL EDUCATIONAL INVOLVEMENT 175

87 nails in the packing process (1963). Acknowledging photographs of a book collection received from Dominica in 1967, OBC expressed its concern that "some of the books in one of the pictures seem rather tattered. This is something we do not want."88 A major area of concern which developed in the larger Caribbean territories, especially Jamaica, was the extent to which books from Canada and elsewhere, particularly school text books, would be suitable for use in the Caribbean. In the OBC's relations with the Leeward and Windward Islands in the period under review, however, there is little evidence of objection on these grounds. In 1971, it was noted in a request from the Cork Hill Training Centre, Montserrat, that "novels should not refer to snow, gophers, wolves, foxes, etc. which 90 are unknown here". This was a CIDA teacher's interpretation of the local situation. In 1970 St. Martin's Primary School, Dominica, observed that the OBC shipment received was not useful,

87 Principal, Convent High School, Dominica to Program Officer, OIC, Ottawa, December 8, 1963. 880BC to E.O. Ministry of Health and Education, Dominica, May 15, 1967. 89 Positive concern about the need for a regional program of textbook publications designed to meet the needs of Caribbean children was expressed in the recommendations of the Report Of The Caribbean Textbook Survey. 27 Januarv-7Februarv 1969. (Confidential), (no date), produced by Publications Officer, UWI Institute of Education, Secretary to survey team , survey financed by Ford Foundation. 90 Principal, Cork Hill Training Centre, Montserrat to OBC, Ottawa, February 6, 1971. CANADIAN NON-GOVERNMENTAL EDUCATIONAL INVOLVEMENT 176 including Canadian Facts, History of Canada, French Encyclopaedias and Chemistry books.9 1 Dominica on one occasion received some 92 volumes of the Iliad in Arabic. However, by 1970 there had been tentative enquiries about the inclusion of West Indian novels and in the case of Dominica school texts the National Director, OBC, on the strength of his Caribbean tour, (March 3, 1970), reminded the CEO "that our Board of Directors would be receptive to a request for assistance in providing some of the Caribbean 93 books which you wish to use in your schools." The major frustrations identified from a review of correspondence in the period under survey were - the transportation delays in delivering shipments to the islands; further delays in clearing the goods from the customs and the slowness of island authorities in acknowledging receipt of consignments. Shipments to the islands were mainly out of Montreal, Halifax and Kitimat, This usually meant transshipment from the port of one of the larger Caribbean islands. In the case of Kitimat this meant the involvement of one of the bauxite companies shipping out of Jamaica, One of many such examples was the ten teatchest consignment on the Sunek out of Kitimat, September 12, 1966, arriving at Port Esquivel, Jamaica for transshipment to

91 Head, St. Martin's Primary, Dominica to OBC, Ottawa, November 30, 1970. 92 Head, St. Mary's Academy, Dominica to OBC, Ottawa, January 1973. 93 National Director, OBC, Ottawa to CEO, Dominica, March 3, 1970. CANADIAN NON-GOVERNMENTAL EDUCATIONAL INVOLVEMENT 177

Antigua, in the hope that either the aluminum company or its Kingston shipping agency would carry out the necessary arrange ments, including forwarding of clearance papers and .notice of 94 arrival. The shipment eventually left Jamaica on the inter- island ship, the Federal Palm, and was received in Antigua on April 26, 1967, a period of eight months having intervened, OBC staff probably found it more frustrating when shipments that arrived at their destination could not be speedily cleared through the local customs9.5 In some instances, the news came from the islands to Ottawa that there was a delay at this stage in proceedings. One Antigua correspondent reported that q "goods were kept on the lighters but this is normal for Antigua," Another complained that some of the shipment was "misplaced in 97 the warehouse." Dominica reported "some trouble at the Customs" as the reason for delay in acknowledgement of a July 9, 1970 shipment, notifying OBC of its receipt in a letter of Marach 3, 1971. In Grenada a dispute between the Anglican High School in St. George's and the Grenada Ministry of Education over customs charges on a shipment involved OBC in correspondence with the

94 OBC, Ottawa to Librarian, Antigua, September 26, 1966. 95 OBC tried to send advance notification re arrival of shipments. 96 Head, Christ the King High School, Antigua to OBC, Ottawa, Aug. 31, 1970. 97 Head, All SAnts Secondary School, Antigua, to OBC, Ottawa, April 5, 1971. CANADIAN NON-GOVERNMENTAL EDUCATIONAL INVOLVEMENT 178

Ministry and the Collector of Customs, with a copy to the Cabinet 98 Secretary in the Premier's Office. Requesting release of the shipment to either the Anglican High School or the Ministry of Education, the Executive Director, OBC, pointed out, "volunteers in this country have put much work into collecting, packing and shipping the books and we do not like to feel that their work 99 has been for nothing," The impasse between the High School and the authorities was the subject of a Memorandum from the Permanent Secretary, Finance to the Permanent Secretary, Education and Culture on the subject of warehouse rent on books of secondary schools. It was pointed out that school principals evidently had the "mistaken;notion that warehouse rent was not chargeable on educational material consigned to secondary schools." The High School had not cleared the shipment because the warehouse rent was due and in the opinion of the P.S. Finance, the rent should have been paid and an approach made to the Government for a refund. The P.S. added: It is indeed a shame that goods which could be used for the benefit of children should be permitted to remain in the warehouse uncleared. This can be no fault of the Government but of the consignee.102

98 National Director, OBC, Ottawa to Collector of Customs, Grenada, April 10, 1973. 99 Ibid. 100 Contained in letter, CEO, Grenada to National Director, OBC, Ottawa, November 21, 1972. 101 Ibid. 102 Ibid. CANADIAN NON-GOVERNMENTAL EDUCATIONAL INVOLVEMENT 179

Although other problems with the Grenada customs had not involved the upper levels of the bureaucracy, there were many 103 other instances of delay in notification and in clearance. The advice given to OBC by a Canadian teacher in Grenada in 1964 - that books should be consigned to the Education Officer - was not without its point throughout the decade. "A customs officer is like a god in this area so you will understand about not sending them to anyone outside the government." The uncertain situation between the dispatch and arrival of books made the OBC even more anxious to receive acknowledge ments from local consignees and recipients. The main tenor of correspondence between Ottawa and the Caribbean during this period was an increasingly firm stand on receiving acknowledge ments and assessment of shipments before considering any further l fifi requests. The frequent changes in OBC program officers did

103 For example, it was reported that the Sunpolynesia had landed November 1968 and goods were not cleared until mid- January in the following year. This was frustrating to the Commercial and Domestic Arts Institute, since they were •anxiously awaiting arrival' and subsequently found the shipment useful. Letter of January 29, 1969. 104 CIDA teacher, Grenada, to OBC representative, Vancouver, November 15, 1964. 105 In the Leeward and Windward Islands shipments tended to be grouped to the Ministry of Education and to a CIDA teacher in the area. In both cases boxes weiee consigned to specific recipients and involved distribution to these institutions and storage in the interim before distribution. 106 In the period 1971 to 1972 letters were sent out by 3 different program officers in the Ottawa National Office of OBC. CANADIAN NON-GOVERNMENTAL EDUCATIONAL INVOLVEMENT 180 not make communication any easier, and even the more threatening tones of later letters were slow in bringing the required response from the Caribbean. OBC laid it on the line with St. Kitts, writing to the Permanent Secretary, October 23, 1970, "We shall not send any more Cbooksl until we hear from you." In March, 1971, a list of shipments made between 1966 and 1970 was sent with the admonition, "failure to acknowledge will regretfully 108 force us to discontinue our shipments to you." A compromise was eventually reached through the intervention of a CIDA teacher 109 in St. Kitts in mid-1971 and a new period of co-operation began. The Dominica Education Department was also the subject of OBC concern. In January, 1970, the Education Officer was advised that no acknowledgements had been received since 1965 and that OBC was "prepared to continue but we must have some indication from you as to whether the books are received and how useful they prove to be as well as an indication of your most urgent needs for the future." No mention was made of the letter of 8 December 1969 in which the Permanent Secretary, Ministry of Education and Health, Dominica, was directed by the

107 OBC Program Officer to P.S.,St. Kitts, October 23, 1970. 108 OBC, Ottawa, to P.S.^St. Kitts, March 8, 1971. 109 Principal, St. Kitts Teachers' College to OBC, Ottawa, May 18, 1971, thanked the Ottawa Miles for Millions Committee and assumed responsibility for channelling requests and acknowledge ments to OBC. 110 OBC, Ottawa, to E.O., Education Dept., Dominica, January 2, 1970. CANADIAN NON-GOVERNMENTAL EDUCATIONAL INVOLVEMENT 181

Minister to express his thanks to OBC on behalf of the people of Dominica.11 However, a visit to Dominica by OBC's National Director in February, 1970, appeared to re-establish cordial 11? relations between OBC and the Ministry. A somewhat illogical intervention was the Program Officer's letter to the Chief Education Officer, Dominica, early in 1971, requiring acknowledge ment of the 1965-69 OBC shipments, noting that, "failure to « 113 acknowledge will regretfully force us to close our files. The letter brought a speedy reply from the CEO including a request for science material and technical texts. In September 1971 another new Program Officer dispatched a shipment. One of the reasons for the anguished appeals of OBC to the islands to acknowledge receipt of material was the fact that the Centre was soften acting as the agency through which various organizations operated in respect of book dispatch to the Caribbean. On such occasions it was essential to the continuance of good relations that the consignee respond directly to the agency responsible for book collection or financial contribution.

111 P.S., Office of the Ministry of Education and Health, Dominica to OBC, Ottawa, December 8, 1969. 112 OBC, Notes of National Director's Visit to Dominica, February 15-17, 1970. 113 OBC, Program Officer, Ottawa to CEO, Dominica, March 8, 1971. 114 CEO, Dominica to OBC, Ottawa, March 18, 1971. 115 OBC regarded its activities as pioneering a co-ordinated voluntary effort in Canada and this made the situation even more crucial in maintaining the co-operative approach to voluntary agency educational assistance. CANADIAN NON-GOVERNMENTAL EDUCATIONAL INVOLVEMENT 182

The Ontario Teachers' Federation, for example, offered new spellers in English for age 10 children in 1966, and OBC undertook to ship them without charge to Caribbean islands which wanted to receive them, in quantities of 500, 1000, 1500 or 116 more. The Ottawa Miles for Millions Committee funded book shipments to Antigua in 1969 , to St, Kitts and to Grenada in 1970.118 Until 1970 OBC relied mainly on correspondence to gauge the needs of Caribbean contacts, and the extent to which ship ments were proving useful. On occasion consignees admitted that there was no further capacity for book storage, as in the case % 119 of the Grenada Boys School in 1968. Montserrat had indicated in 1965 that they were "fairly well-stocked with books," 120 and when requests were later renewed, OBC was advised by a CIDA

116 OBC in turn extended the offer to the Leeward and Windward Islands, where it was enthusiastically received. For example, EO, Antigua to OBC, Ottawa, January 23, 1967. 117 Acknowledged, Antigua to OBC, Ottawa, November 26, 1969, 118 Acknowledged by Principal, St. Kitts' Teachers' College to OBC, Ottawa, May 18, 1971. Acknowledgement requested by OBC from CEO, Grenada, April 6, 1971, received, May 4, 1971. 119 Head, Grenada Boys' School to OBC, Ottawa, February 13, 1968 with the polite comment that older editions of books were not really useful. 120 Inspector of Schools, Montserrat to OIC, Ottawa, October 8, 1965. CANADIAN NON-GOVERNMENTAL EDUCATIONAL INVOLVEMENT 183 teacher in the island that there were "large quantities of books piled in the Ministry which have not been distributed to schools." In view of the fact that OBC was not the only organization sending books to the Caribbean, it was not a certainty that these were 122 OBC books. But this kind of waste was a possibility which never failed to alarm OBC officers, as in the case of the letter received from the Canadian High Commissioner in Trinidad, informing OBC that some 50tea-cheSts of books sent to the Grenada Ministry of Education for distribution to schools "have been 123 lying for many months exposed to the elements." As the National Director, OBC, pointed out: "We are surprised to learn that books sent at the request of your Ministry (and badly needed in your schools as we understand it) are so ignored." 124 125 The Grenada reply assured OBC that the accusation was false in that it did not apply to OBC books, and pointed out that the well-stocked libraries at two of the Junior Secondary schools were evidence of the use made of OBC's shipments.

121 OBC to CIDA teacher in Montserrat, February 13, 1973, 122 In 1965 OBC had eased off on book shipment to Montserrat because the British Ranfurly Library scheme was sending books there. OBC correspondence, August 16, 1965. 123 Reported in the letter from the National Director, OBC, to CEO, Grenada, October 20, 1972. 124 Ibid. 125 CEO. Grenada, to National Director, OBC, Ottawa, November 21, 1972, There was however a problem of unsatis factory books received from some unnamed source and a further problem of lack of storage facilities for books. CANADIAN NON-GOVERNMENTAL EDUCATIONAL INVOLVEMENT 184

The need for books and the inadequacy of Caribbean distribution methods received unfavourable publicity in published reports such as that which appeared in the Ottawa Journal in 1 eye. 1968, Pat Carney, Vancouver business writer, reporting on a visit to Dominica, determined the extent of the book shortage in the island*s schools, relating that in one of the better primary schools, Mahaut Government School, the school library was "crowded on to a few shelves," The contents were: the Complete Works of Robert Burns, a few tattered Canadian spellers and geography texts and one copy of Merry Hearts and Bold, Barclay's Bank Quarterly was the ohly reading material available to one of the teachers. There were few textbooks in use. The reporter visited Dominica's Minister of Education and Health Services and asked whether he wanted books. In the context of Canada's involvement in educational aid to Dominica, it seemed to Pat Carney that there was "money in Canada for books," However, the Minister is quoted as replying, "We're not so badly off for books. In fact, we have a whole building full. 127 You might say we lack methods of distribution,"

126 Pat Carney, "Few Books, Cramped Schools Stifle Education in Dominica," in Ottawa Journal. July 10, 1968, 127 Ibid. CANADIAN NON-GOVERNMENTAL EDUCATIONAL INVOLVEMENT 185

A private report out of St. Lucia in 1971 gave an even more devastating picture of the book situation there, leaving it in no doubt that the books were from Canada, though not pinpointing the origin of shipments. Tons of books from Canada were left to rot and be eaten by rats for a number of years. There were a number of desks sitting on the wharf which had been there for some time. There are books in the Customs which have been there since 1968. Yet there/Ls a great need for both of these in many schools.1^8 By the early 1970's Canada's interest in helping to meet Caribbean book needs was well-established. In some instances requests for assistance to the Leewards and Windwards came to OBC from persons in Canada, For example, Mr, Aurelius Jolly wrote from Montreal in 1972, enclosing a specific list of books on black culture to be sent to the "Dominica Movement Library" in that island. Enquiries made in Montreal and in Dominica yielded the information that there was no movement by that name in Dominica but there was a Dominica Black Power Movement which 129 was attempting to establish a library. Although many voluntary organizations, service clubs and individuals were prepared to work with the Overseas Book Centre in book collection, there were still groups which preferred to organize their own contribution.

128 CIDA Education Adviser, Educational Aid to St. LuciaT St. Lucia, 1 March, 1971, p.3. 129 CIDA teacher, Dominica to National Director, OBC, Ottawa, October 29, 1972. CANADIAN NON-GOVERNMENTAL EDUCATIONAL INVOLVEMENT 186

(b) Manitoba Association for World Development.- The

Manitoba Association for World Development?an organization which developed from the Centennial year international development activity in Winnipeg, shipped a book collection to Dominica through OBC in 1969.13° However, St. Lucia was the island which had been selected by the Winnipeg group as the most suitable recipient of a concentrated educational assistance effort from the funds collected on the Winnipeg Walk and through other 131 activities. OBC assisted with the establishment of a Central Book Depot in Winnipeg for storage, sorting and packaging of books collected by fifty MAWD committees in Manitoba, OBC assisted MAWD with transporting books by land to Montreal for shipment to St. Lucia. These books were intended for schools and for the Castries Central Library extension financed by MAWD with funds from Miles for Millions. MAWD's concern about the book shortage in St, Lucia was also expressed in its decision to provide a Bookmobile service to operate in the rural areas of 1 OO St, Lucia in association with the Manitoba Book Programme.

130 Chief Librarian, Public Library, Dominica to National Director, OBC, Ottawa, October 31, 1969,

131 Clyde Sanger, Half A LoafT Canada's Semi-Role Among Developing CountriesT Toronto, Ryerson Press, 1969, p.198-199, for information .-about MAWD's selection of St. Lucia and early activities in the island, p.206-210 re MAWD's development. 132 Manitoba Association for World Development, MAWD Overseas Development ProgramT MAWD, Winnipeg, 0-969J. CANADIAN NON-GOVERNMENTAL EDUCATIONAL INVOLVEMENT 187

(c) Imperial Order of Daughters of the Empire.- Canadian involvement in provision of books for the Caribbean was also a major concern of the Imperial Order of Daughters of the Empire, In a real sense OBC inherited some of the work done by IODE in this field in the Caribbean area. The continuing concern of IODE chapters is evident, for example, in the payment of OBC shipping expenses on over 2,000 tons of books consigned to the Angigua Girls' High School in 1972, by the Robert Burns McMicking Chapter, IODE, Victoria, B.C.133 IODE's Caribbean book connection emerges clearly in relation to OBC's Dominica communications. The Toronto-trained Dominican librarian at the Public Library appealed for OBC assistance to replace IODE help which was being phased out of the island at the end of the 1960's. The Education Secretary, IODE, on a visit to Dominica in 1969, was reported to be "very concerned with the shortage or inadequacy of the books" in the Public Library, and advised the Librarian to contact OBC, By 1971 the situation was even more crucial.

133 National Director, OBC, Ottawa to Head, Antigua Girls* High School, Antigua, December 13, 1972. 134 Chief Librarian, Public Library, Dominica, to OBC, Ottawa, February 22, 1969, CANADIAN NON-GOVERNMENTAL EDUCATIONAL INVOLVEMENT 188

The Librarian described it as follows: £•••3 for the past five years I.O.D.E. (Canada) have given us tremendous assistance with Books and other material, and it is through their efforts that we have been able to extend our Mobile Library Service to serve 14 Villages in the interior of our Island. C«»«3 I understand that they are now directing their good work to another area.135

The I.O.D.E.*s own account of its earlier educational involvement in the Caribbean is instructive, particularly as at the time of writing, in 1966, an end to the relationship was not envisaged. Titled "A Love Story With A Happy Ending", an account of the beginning of the relationship appeared in the

Spring Issue of EchoesT the IODE publication. According to this report, substantiated by the 137 researcher's interview fcith IODE officials, a number of IODE members who saw a CBC television program on the West Indies in 1957, were moved at the needs of the people and, after discussion, the Primary Chapter in Owen Sound forwarded a resolution to the National Chapter, "asking to have IODE educational assistance to the West Indies increased." When this resolution arrived, in spring 1958, the National Chapter had just received a letter from Dr. Roby Kidd, then Director of the Canadian Association for Adult Education, with

135 Chief Librarian, Public Library, Dominica, to OBC Ottawa, June 16, 1971.

136 IODE, "A Love Story With A Happy Ending" in EchoesT Spring Issue, 1966, from which this account is taken. 137 Interview, researcher and IODE National Education Secretary and President, Toronto, 1969. CANADIAN NON-GOVERNMENTAL EDUCATIONAL INVOLVEMENT 189 a similar request. The National Education Secretary, IODE, Mrs. D, McGibbon, consulted with Dr, Kidd who, it was reported, had recently completed a survey of Caribbean educational needs. Two main ideas emerged from these discussions - the possibility of IODE adopting secondary schools in the area, and the need for improving book supplies, especially in the smaller islands. After further consultations with Dr. Sherlock, then Vice Principal of the University College of the West Indies, who approved of the school adoption plan, the IODE put this plan into operation. Beginning with a pilot project of eleven schools in the Leeward Islands and Dominica, adopted by eleven chapters across 1 ?8 Canada, there were fifty adopted schools by 1966. In that year a new project was undertaken in Dominica. A fire destroyed the books to supply the new Bookmobile and, as the result of an appeal from Dominica to the IODE, the Junior Chapters of IODE adopted this project. It was reported - "they are packing up new books, used books, and volumes from their own bookshelves and sending them to Dominica - an act of understanding and affection towards the young people of another country."139

138 According to an article written by the National Educational Secretary, IODE 'school adoption' entailed regular correspondence and sending books and gifts valued at not less than $35 every year. 139 Echoes. Spring Issue 1966. It was later reported in Echoes that the book project was very successful. "Education Project by Junior Chapters A Tremendous Success" was the title of the article by the National Education Secretary, Mrs. J.A. Turner, with accompanying pictures of books, bookmobile and Dominicans. CANADIAN NON-GOVERNMENTAL EDUCATIONAL INVOLVEMENT 190

(d) The Ontario Department of Education.- A book project was initiated by the Ontario Department of Education as a part of its Operation School Supplies program for Commonwealth Caribbean schools. In the beginning, the Department had requested and received OBC assistance in organizing the books contributed by Ontario people for Caribbean schools. This help was later gratefully acknowledged by the Department, but a separate book project was later launched. The Department developed a project called Books for Empty Shelves, and gave the following assurance: In no way does the Books for Empty Shelves project duplicate services provided by Overseas Book Centres across Canada whereby millions of textbooks are shipped to developing countries. Books for Empty Shelves is an appeal for books other than textbooks. Books to read for pleasure as well as for learning,1^0 The Department's Caribbean link preceded the institution of this "new worthwhile project." As the same brochure pointed out, Operation School Supplies had, since 1966, been sending used school equipment to the Caribbean, and books had also been included, but there was still a shortage of reading material.

140 Ontario Department of Education, Brochure, Books for Erootv Shelves. Operation School Supplies, Toronto. CANADIAN NON-GOVERNMENTAL EDUCATIONAL INVOLVEMENT 191

3, School Supplies and Equipment

No one who has visited Commonwealth Caribbean schools, particularly primary schools, has failed to be struck by the absence of the most basic supplies and equipment. The National Director of the Overseas Book Centre, visiting the area for the first time in 1970, was alarmed by the conditions under which children were expected to learn. The consulting team, Professional Development Associates of Ottawa, reporting to CIDA, two years later, observed the "absence ;of basic school furniture, supplies and teaching materials." More detailed comments were made in the separate PDA reports on the Leeward and Windward Islands which had been made to CIDA following visits to the islands in 1971. Canadian teachersjserving under Canadian Government auspices or with non-governmental agencies, made requests both to private sources and to organizations in Canada for assistance with school supplies and equipment to carry out their work in Caribbean schools. Response to requests was organized in many different ways. It is not possible to document the donations made by service clubs and school groups sent directly to individual teachers working in the Caribbean. Instances of this kind of

141 PDA, Educational Requirements in the Leeward and Windward Islands, Ottawa, PDA, April 1972, p.26. CANADIAN NON-GOVERNMENTAL EDUCATIONAL INVOLVEMENT 192 co-operation in educational aid have been come on almost accidentally, and no attempt has been made to compile a compre- , . 142 hensive recording of such activity. For example, Mr. and Mrs, James Rapsey who spent three years as Principal and Librarian respectively of the St. Vincent Teacher Training College, appealed to friends in the Pickering and Ajax Rotary Clubs of Ontario, and received duplicating equipment for three schools. Another appeal to the children of Ontario schools brought more than a ton of pencils, pens, crayons, rulers and erasers to St, Vincent schools, Oshawa Community College was one of the institutions which collected pencils on behalf of the Rapseys. Another kind of impetus to providing educational assistance to the Caribbean was the decision of students at Bayview Junior High School in Willowdale, Ontario, to help schools in St, Lucia through their project, Operation HEART (Humanity, Education and Resourcefulness Triumphs), pledged to raise $2,000 for this purpose. The Ontario Ministry of Education's Operation School Supplies appears to be a unique example of an organized attempt 144 to provide this form of educational assistance. It began with

142 CIDA, "Teachers Give More Than Work" in International Development. Vol, 2, No, 18, December 1969, p.7, col. 1. 143 CIDA, "Students Start Assistance Plan" in International Development. Vol. 3, No. 3, March 1970, p.2, col. 2. 144 Ontario Department of Education, Operation School Supplies, an educational aid program, brochure, Toronto, C19673. CANADIAN NON-GOVERNMENTAL EDUCATIONAL INVOLVEMENT 193 an appeal from a Canadian missionary in a Bahamas Out-Island to the then Ontario Minister of Education, William G, Davis. Receiving the assurance of the Bahamas government that such aid was needed and would be willingly accepted, Mr. Davis appointed George J. Mason to serve as Co-ordinator of the project Operation School Supplies, Under the guidance of the Co-ordinator, the project mushroomed, seizing the imagination of Ontario's school boards and students as well as businessmen and ordinary citizens. Project One provided 50 tons of material - desks and books - to the Bahamas, It won for Mr. Davis the World Heritage Organiz ation's 1966 Award of Merit for promoting Ontario's educational assistance to Bahamas Schools. News of its success brought from the education authorities in the Leeward and Windward Islands inquiries as to whether their schools could be included in the benefits of the Ontario program.

145 R.C. Johnston, History Of Project School-To-School And Operation School SuppliesT Toronto, Ontario Department of Education, May 25, 1970, from which the account which follows is taken, 146 Information obtained by the researcher from 1971 interview with the first Project Co-ordinator^was that the appeal came from Fr. John M Goey of the Scarborough Foreign Mission and it appears that the Ontario Minister of Education was already interested in the educational needs of the Bahamas, having been in Harbour Island, Bahamas in the winter of 1964-5, where he visited a school run by Canadian nuns and saw conditions at first hand, 147 So successful was the initial appeal to Ontario school boards within a 150-mile radius that the CNE had to be approached for use of their Horticultural Building to store materials donated. CANADIAN NON-GOVERNMENTAL EDUCATIONAL INVOLVEMENT 194

The Ministry had no problem about obtaining material as the school boards were still delivering desks3and business companies donated pencils, erasers and rulers. The chief •I A O stumbling block of transportation to the Caribbean was temporarily solved by the favourable response of the federal Minister of National Defense in Ottawa to an appeal from Mr, Davis through the Ontario Legislature, The request coincided with the Commonwealth Caribbean-Canada Conference in Ottawa, 1966, and appears to have benefited from this conjunction of events. Project Two became a reality in July 1966, when 1200 desks and three tons of books were transported by four R.C.A.F. Hercules Aircraft to Antigua. The two federal ships, (given to the West Indies Federation by Canada in i960), were used to re distribute the cargo among the other six islands of the Leeward and Windward group. According to the Co-ordinator, the actual value of this first shipment to the islands was questionable but the door for educational assistance to the Leewards and Windwards 149 from Ontario was opened for the first time,

148 The Bahamas shipment was transported at nominal cost through the goodwill of the Canadian office of a Florida-based trucking company and, a U.S. shipping company transshipped to the islands. Even at the minimal rates offered, the Co-ordinator noted that the Department had bills totalling $30,000 which had not been budgeted for, 149 The desks were cast iron material and broke when moved, a matter of some importance in any communication with the Leeward and Windward Islands, since trans-shipment was usually necessary. CANADIAN NON-GOVERNMENTAL EDUCATIONAL INVOLVEMENT 195

During the period 1966-70, the program involved an increasing number of Commonwealth Caribbean territories,supplying Caribbean schools with "Ontario's surplus school supplies - used, but thoroughly serviceable for many years to come." It was reported in 1970 that: £..3 some 40,000 units of school furniture and some 300 tons of text and reference books from Ontario have been shared between the Bahama Islands, Antigua, Dominica, Grenada, Jamaica, Montserrat, St. Kitts, St. Lucia, St. Vincent, British Honduras and Turks and Caicos. In addition a number of duplicating machines, electronic equipment, crippled children's aids, hospital equipment, etc. has also been included in shipments sent to the islands.150

The Report of the new Minister of Education for the year 1971, indicated the continued success of Operation School Supplies in its fifth year of activity, with recipient governments paying transportation and shipping charges. A further development was reported with an extension of Operation School Supplies, known as Operation Eyeglasses. This was an extension of work already started by the Department. It became a co-operative effort, with participation from the Canadian Medical Association, the Ontario Optometrical Association, the Optometry Course at the University of Waterloo and Optical Course at Georgian College of Applied Arts and Technology, and supported by funds from CIDA -

150 R,C. Johnston, OP. cit.T p.3. 151 Ontario Department of Education, The Report: of the Minister of Education, 1971T Toronto, 1971, p.12. CANADIAN NON-GOVERNMENTAL EDUCATIONAL INVOLVEMENT 196

152 in a program of examination, treatment and eyeglass fittings. The Ontario Ministry of Education expressed its pride in a venture which demonstrated collaboration between two levels of government, professional associations and institutions of higher learning in providing an integrated program of assistance to Caribbean people. The possibility of providing new desks, made in Canada as an item of educational aid to the Caribbean was carefully investigated by the Overseas Book Centre just after the end of the period with which this study has concerned itself. CIDA education personnel in Dominica and in St. Kitts were asked 153 to make quiet unofficial enquiries about the acceptability of a prototype developed for Lesotho, of relatively inexpensive but durable design desks, each seating 5 students. The Canadian Penitentiary Service might be prepared to produce these at nominal cost and packaged units could be shipped for assembly, OBC subsequently requested a check on the comparative cost of local construction, seeking confirmation that the project would be justified on the basis of production costs.15 4 The answer

152 Ibid. 153 National Director, OBC, Ottawa to CIDA teacher, Dominica, November 18, 1971. National Director, OBC, Ottawa to CIDA teacher, St. Kitts, November 18, 1971. 154 National Director, OBC, Ottawa to CIDA teacher, Dominica, December 23, 1971. National Director, OBC, Ottawa to CIDA teacher, St. Kitts, December 23, 1971. CANADIAN NON-GOVERNMENTAL EDUCATIONAL INVOLVEMENT 197 from Dominica was that the local lumber mill had just gone into receivership, that lumber and metal parts would have to be imported and that local carpenters were few and usually very busy.1 In St. Kitts it was estimated by the Principal of the Technical College that the College could produce the desks at 156 $12 per 4 ft. desk. In both islands it appeared that Ministry of Education officials would support this project. OBC had gradually expanded the book program to include educational supplies and equipment requested by Canadian personnel in the islands. Among the items sent out were paper, pencils, typewriters, duplicating paper, stencils and machines, tape recorders, film strips. A seemingly straight forward matter such as sending the handles for a Ditto machine could assume major proportions, three being sent to Dominica on separate occasions to replace the original ones which had been mislaid in transit. When these were still not received, one of the CIDA teachers improvised a handle which was reported to be working in spring of the following year, at which time none had 158 yet arrived.

155 CIDA teacher, Dominica to OBC, Ottawa, Dominica, February 13, 1972. 156 CIDA teacher, St. Kitts to OBC, Ottawa, St. Kitts, May 29, 1972. 157 OBC, Request For Special Equipment, Ottawa, (no date). 158 No satisfactory explanation of the non-arrival was ever made. CANADIAN NON-GOVERNMENTAL EDUCATIONAL INVOLVEMENT 198

By the fiscal year 1969-70, OBC»s program of Special Grants was established in terms which appeared to presage new directions for the Centre's operations. As recorded in the Annual Report for that year: The Directors have realized that surplus goods - books and other supplies donated in Canada - only partially meet the need. More and more, ministries of education in developing countries are required to provide more than elementary and secondary academic education.

And, as programs expand in these ways, there is a growing need for teaching aids such as specialized libraries, audio-visual equipment, laboratory equip ment and so on. Also, developing countries are taking steps to secure books which are truly relevant to their own histories and cultures.159

4. Sponsorship of Educational Services and Activities

(a) Canadian Save The Children Fund.- A different kind and level of assistance, providing for the welfare of young children in an education-related way, has been sponsored in the Caribbean and elsewhere by the Canadian Save The Children Fund. A statement of this agency's objectives in 1970 declared its

159 OBC, Annual Report 1969-70, Ottawa, 1970. CANADIAN NON-GOVERNMENTAL EDUCATIONAL INVOLVEMENT 199

concern "with the total environment in which children live," and outlined its overall approach as follows: The policy of the Fund is to help children in need, regardless of race, creed or nationality, directly through the provision of medical services, food, clothing and education? and to help create conditions which assist children and families through improvement in child welfare services, training programs, demonstration projects and community development projects.160

It appears that in the period under review the organization operated in the Windward Islands and not in the Leewards, Up to 1967 its Caribbean work was based on Jamaica but by 1969 there were programs in the Windwards as well.1 l CIDA»s contribution for the program in the Windwards for the 1970-71 year was •I go $34,000. The distribution of projects and expenditures shown in Table XX111 was reported by the Canadian Save The Children Fund in 1970. The CANSAVE operation in the Windwards began in 1964 with a Day Care and Training Centre in St. Vincent, which provided training for girls from Grenada, St. Lucia and Dominica as well, in various aspects of child care so that they could return to 1 go their own islands to set up Centres. In 1969 CANSAVE reported

160 Canadian Council for International Co-operation, Directory of Canadian Non-Governmental Organizations Engaged in International Development Assistance, Ottawa, CCIC, June 1970, p.83. 161 CIDA, Annual Review '69, Ottawa, CIDA, 1969, p.33, lists special CIDA grant approved to the Fund for 1968-69 as $17,166 for work in Jamaica and the Windwards. 162 CIDA, Canada and the Developing World. CIDA Annual Review 1970-71. Ottawa, Information Canada, 1971, p.84.

163 CIDA, International DevelopmentT Ottawa, Information Division, October 1970, p.3. CANADIAN NON-GOVERNMENTAL EDUCATIONAL INVOLVEMENT 200

TABLE XXIII.-

Canadian Save The Children Fund Programs in the Windward Islands 1970

Island Project Expenditure

St. Lucia - Internal budget including operation and training 9,400 Grenada - powdered milk provision 17,500 Dominica - medicines 14,300 - St. Ann's Day Nursery 2,500 St. Vincent - day nurseries) - transport ) 82,200 - material aid, Canadian purchases 26,500 Total 152,400

Source: CANSAVE, Information compiled for CIDA, July 30, 1969. CANADIAN NON-GOVERNMENTAL EDUCATIONAL INVOLVEMENT 201 that additional projects being planned for the Caribbean included i fttt. support for day care centres in Guyana, Grenada and Montserrat. The educational Conference held by the Toronto Branch in 1970 emphasized the educational component of all the work undertaken by CANSAVE.165 In St. Lucia the Day Nursery opened in January, 1969, catering for twenty-five children from 6 months to 5 years old. As the supervisor, a St. Lucian, pointed out to representatives of Canadian organizations, the nursery had implications for the schooling of other children in the family who were freed from this duty to attend school.1 The St. Lucia Nursery was offered a year's operating costs by the Manitoba Association for World Development, as part of its contribution to the island of St. 167 Lucia. In Grenada, the Canadian Save The Children Fund had a day nursery and by 1970 was co-operating with the Grenada Inter-Church Council and the Grenada Women*s League in the expectation of a government sponsored National Child Care Committee with UNICEF input.168

164 Canadian Save The Children Fund, Information Compiled For CIDA. Toronto, CSCF, July 30, 1969, p.5. 165 Educational Conference, Toronto Branch, Canadian Save The Children Fund, held at Park Plaza Hotel, April 18, 1970. 166 MAWD Overseas Development Program, Winnipeg, MAWD, 0.969}, 167 Ibid. 168 Government of Grenada. Memorandum 1396. September 17, 1970. proposals for sponsorship by the Ministry or Education and Social Affairs and the Ministry of Health of a co-ordinated child care program, were accepted in principle by the Cabinet. CANADIAN NON-GOVERNMENTAL EDUCATIONAL INVOLVEMENT 202

The expansion of CANSAVE*s Caribbean program seems to have been made possible by the grants received from the Canadian International Development Agency through its Special Programs Division. Other sources of funding were also important, as, for example,the contribution of $22,000 from the Calgary and District International Aid Society in 1969. CIDA's monthly publication, International Development, noted that the day nursery provided an "educational experience" for the child, where the basics of learning, including play as a learning activity were taught through the "stimulating environment" created. CANSAVE's expectations in 1970 were impressively summarised as follows: CANSAVE officials believe that as more girls are trained in nursery care and as their program develops with increasing success, long-overdue social changes will be brought about that will eventually provide a sounder basis for economic and technological growth on the islands.I"9

(b) Manitoba Association for World Development.- In addition to its book program, mobile van and help with library extension in St. Lucia, MAWD supported the production of a nutrition guide for the Caribbean, a Work Camp project and a scholarship scheme, all centred on the island of St. Lucia.

169 tANSAVE Helps Caribbean Mothers And Children", in International Development, Ottawa, CIDA Information Division, October 1970, p.3. 170 Information on MAWD from MAWD Overseas Development Program. Winnipeg, MAWD, fl969j. CANADIAN NON-GOVERNMENTAL EDUCATIONAL INVOLVEMENT 203

In 1968 two St. Lucians attended the Coady International Institute, Antigonish, Nova Scotia on MAWD scholarships. A returned CUSO volunteer was given financial support to make it possible for her to complete the nutrition guides she had been preparing for the area and to adapt this work to the needs of St. Lucia, in association with the work being done at the St. Lucia Save The Children Fund's day nursery. MAWD's 1968 Work Camp program took six Manitoba high school students and one university student to St. Lucia for three weeks to live and work with St. Lucian students, assisting in the construction of the Vigie Field Recreation Centre. MAWD's president attended the official opening of the building at the end of the year and the project was regarded by MAWD officers as a rewarding experience for participants and a practical demonstration of Manitobans' concern for development assistance, MAWD's support of projects for short-term visits by Manitobans to St, Lucia, Jamaica and Guyana in the interest of furthering cultural understanding later received severe criticism from the Chairman of its own Development Programmes Committee,

171itHorace Patterson, "Direction and Programming Within MAWD" in MAWD Newsletter. Winnipeg, January 1971, p.2. CANADIAN NON-GOVERNMENTAL EDUCATIONAL INVOLVEMENT 204

on the grounds that exchanges were an inappropriate expenditure on an objective which could not be achieved by the means being employed. The Work Camp idea was also promoted in St. Lucia and in Bequia, St. Vincent, by the Caribbean project of Frontiers Foundation's Operation Beaver program. In the year 1969-70 CIDA contributed $5,500 to the Foundation's St. Lucia work camp and the same amount was contributed to the St. Vincent venture in 172 the following year. St. Vincent was also the location in which the Brothers of the Christian Schools sponsored the construction and equipment of St. Martin's High School, to which venture CIDA contributed $30,000 in 1968-69,173 and $1,100 174 towards equipment in the year 1969-70.

(c) Ontario Department of Education Project School-To- School.- Described as the "Ontario-Commonwealth Caribbean twinning program," the Department's Project School-To-School managed to combine several aspects of other aid program as well as to introduce elements unique to the operation of educational assistance projects.

172 CIDA, Canada and the Developing World, CIDA Annual Review 1970-71, Ottawa, Information Canada, 1971, p.84. 173 CIDA, Annual Review '69, Ottawa, Queen's Printer, 1969, p.33. CANADIAN NON-GOVERNMENTAL EDUCATIONAL INVOLVEMENT 205

The enthusiasm generated by Operation School Supplies, to which reference has previously been made, encouraged the then Minister of Education, Mr. Davis, to develop a project in which the children of the two areas would be involved. In 1967 a new co-ordinator of the School Supplies Project was appointed and the former co-ordinator became Co-ordinator of the Special Projects Unit, a special unit set up within the Curriculum Branch of the Department of Education, "in order to do justice to the Caribbean Program". Project School-To-School was officially launched in January, 1968, and quickly took shape under the guidance of its administrator. The educational value of sharing classroom projects and matching children and teachers developed the class room relationship rather than total school twinning. Visits paid by the Co-ordinator to Ontario schools and to the Caribbean islands served to re-inforce the concept of the project as a means of cultural understanding through participation in educational activity. By spring 1969 the Ontario Education Association was sufficiently interested in the project to fund the visit of a husband and wife teacher team from the Caribbean to discuss possibilities of the project at the OEA annual meeting.

175 Information obtained in interview held by researcher with Co-ordinator, Special Projects Unit, Toronto, in 1973. CANADIAN NON-GOVERNMENTAL EDUCATIONAL INVOLVEMENT 206

As the procedures involved became more clearly defined the objectives of Project School-To-School were outlined as follows: - To encourage both teachers and students to initiate classroom projects whereby a sense of involvement in international development is experienced. - To provide teachers with motivational ideas designed to encourage students to research and produce class room projects relating them to their ethnic, cultural and historical background for exchanging with students residing in a totally different environment. - To bridge the cultural and ethnic gap between black and white youth.1'" It soon became obvious to the Co-ordinator that, given the absence of facilities and the inadequate reflection of local experience and local environment in Caribbean study programs, the Department would have to provide various kinds of curriculum support to facilitate the kind of information exchange envisaged. In addition to obtaining free mailing facilities for practical purposes of exchange, the Department's Special Projects Unit produced a Teachers'Guide to the kind of activity which could be undertaken. Beginning with a list of 50 topics prepared by a West Indian in Toronto, a further refinement took place

176 R.C. Johnston, The History of Project Schoot-To- School and Operation School Supplies, p.8, address to First Annual Seminar of Ontario-Commonwealth Caribbean Project School-To-School Co-ordinators, Toronto, May 25, 1970. 177 Ontario Department of Education, Project School- To-School. Teachers' Guide. CToronto^i. CANADIAN NON-GOVERNMENTAL EDUCATIONAL INVOLVEMENT 207

with publication of separate student project lists designed to reflect the environment of each participating territory in the Caribbean. Thus St. Kitts - Nevis - Anguilla project listing178 had Brimstone Hill, the Gibraltar of the Caribbean and Pottery in Nevis as possible study projects; the St. Vincent class 179 project listed Fort Charlotte and the Crater Lake, etc. The Department produced curriculum notes including sets of pictures of Caribbean activities, for Commonwealth and Citizen- 1 80 ship Day, 1969,x furnishing some schools in the Caribbean with their first visual material reflecting their own environment. Special maps of the Caribbean and attached maps of North America were produced for the project. A Project School-To-School Information Kit collated all the material for the project, including all the special identification cum publicity items such as a Project progress chart, picture display card, and membership button with the project symbol of two white arrows on a brown background, suggesting, according to the accompanying brochure, "the two-way flight of communications required to make 181 Project School-To-School a success."

178 Ontario Department of Education, St. Kitts-Nevis- Anguilla Class Project. Toronto, (no date). 179 Ontario Department of Education, St. Vincent Class Project. Toronto, (no date). 180 Ontario Department of Education, The Commonwealth ribbean. Commonwealth and Citizenship Day publication, May. ffi 1969. Toronto, 1969. 181 Ontario Department of Education, Project School-To- Sohonl, Brochure, Toronto, (no date). CANADIAN NON-GOVERNMENTAL EDUCATIONAL INVOLVEMENT 208

Project publicity and media coverage soon put Ontario on the map in Caribbean schools and, among other things, brought the Ontario Minister of Education into prominence in Ontario and in the Caribbean, Exchanges took the form of letters, project books, 1 OO art work, shell collections, straw work, etc. Exchange visits 183 and tape recorded messages introduced Canadian and Caribbean school children to a new culture and a new mode of communication. Ontario schools provided tape recorders and other aids for their Caribbean counterparts so that dialogue could be maintained, A special feature of the Project was the development of a relation ship between Ontario community colleges and institutions in the 184 Caribbean, For example, George Brown College donated a walk- in cold storage system to Antigua and sent refrigeration students to do the installation; Centennial College of Applied Arts gave a bus to the Teachers' College in Dominica; Fanshawe College of Applied Arts donated a mobile library for use in Cayman,

182 Ontario Department of Education. Report of The Minister of Education 1968. Toronto, December 31, 1968, p,40, reported the project's first student visit, with three students from Wesley Preparatory School, Dominica, spending three weeks with Grade 4 students at Cummer Avenue Public School, North Yorkj June '68 and 5 Cummer students returning the visit in July'68, 183 Ontario Department of Education, Project School-To- School, Recording Tape ••• brochure, Ontario Department of Education, Student action for international dialogue, brochure, SAID. 184 Ontario Department of Education, Report of the Minister of Education. Ontario, 1969, Toronto, December 31, 1969, p.5, reported the development of these 'international partnerships' as well as Ontario teachers' college connections. CANADIAN NON-GOVERNMENTAL EDUCATIONAL INVOLVEMENT 209

Project School-To-School came to a peak in 1970 with Ontario's International Education Year activities. One project was the production of a Project School-To-School poetry book, Where better to begin. The preface, by William G. Davis, Minister of Education, claimed that, "The exchange of letters, taped messages, classroom projects and poetry has enabled the participants to build a bridge of understanding across the miles that separate 185 them". The Project was publicly endorsed by the Minister of Education in Dominica as a suitable prototype for the UN's Inter national Education year when he observed that, "Mr. Davis's little flame has been kindled by a spark of grace. Project School-To- School, in its very humble beginnings, is likely to develop into an international blaze for the purifying and healing of the 186 nations," The Caribbean Project Co-ordinators, attending a specially convened meeting on the project held in Canada, at the Park Plaza Hotel in Toronto, May 25-28, 1970, were extremely supportive of the Project's educational and cultural possibilities, 187 though critical of some of its procedures, including the control exercised over applications, etc, in Canada,

185 Ontario Department of Educationa, Where better to begin, an exchange of student poetry, Toronto, C19701. 186 Taken from the text of a radio.address by the Minister of Education, Dominica, and re-issued in Ontario Department of Education, News Release, March 1970, p.3. 187 Project School-To-School. Report of the First Annual Seminar of Ontario-Commonwealth Caribbean Project School-To- School Co-ordinators. Monday, May 25 to Thursday, May 28, 1970, Toronto, Ontario. The researcher attended as a resource person. CANADIAN NON-GOVERNMENTAL EDUCATIONAL INVOLVEMENT 210

The major decision taken in Ontario's educational assistance program in 1970 was that announced by the Minister of Education that "the Minister's Advisory Committee on Educational Assistance would undertake a campaign to raise $150,000 to build 188 and equip a school on the Caribbean island of St. Vincent." The school would be a ten-room trade and vocational school, the first for St. Vincent's school system. The Committee's recommendation, heartily endorsed by the Minister, was that a province-wide public campaign be undertaken, with the students of the province adopting the program as their contribution to International Education Year. "Project Schoolhouse" accounts were opened at chartered banks and provincial Savings Offices, and the school collection subsequently yielded a total of $50,000, the largest amount, $2,050, having been raised by Opeongeo High 189 School, a rural school in Douglas, Ontario. In spite of endorsement by its prestigious Advisory Committee of Ontario citizens, chaired by Mrs. Betty Kennedy, the IEY project was not without its problems. Preliminary discussions in St. Vincent revealed a new mood of independence in the island and an apparent determination to avoid a repetition of the Canadian Government's Maple Leaf School gift procedures.

188 Ontario Department of Education, News Release, News and Information Services, Feb, 27, 19/0, 189 Information from interview between researcher and Project School-to-School Co-ordinator, 1973, CANADIAN NON-GOVERNMENTAL EDUCATIONAL INVOLVEMENT 211

It was reported by a member of the Advisory Committee's eight- 190 man team which visited St, Vincent to assess the project early in 1970, that the Prime Minister of St. Vincent told the team that "if the money had been given to his government, they 191 would have built six schools good enough for their purposes" (i,e, instead of the 3 Maple Leaf schools). As far as "Project Schoolhouse" was concerned, the following was afterwards reported: Q. Now that the Ontario delegation has seen the need and the site, is it intended to prefabricate something up here to be put together down there? A, At the meeting we had with Prime Minister Cato, he misunderstood our presentation, as if we were going down there to run the show, tell them what to do. He made it quite clear that they appreciated all the help that anyone could give them, but they want to do what has to be done themselves. They feel capable, they want to do the building, provide the materials, give final approval to plans. All we will do is give advice and aid. Our job is to get the money and let them take it from there. They are very proud and only require opportunity to act.-"-92

By the time of the school's official opening, on Tuesday, January 16, 1973, the Honourable Mr. Cato had become Leader of the Opposition, but received the thanks of St, Vincent's new Minister of Education for the special interest he had taken in construction of the new school. It was announced that "in recognition of the people and school children of Ontario the new

190 Report of interview with Mr. Chris Asseff, executive director, Ontario Separate School Trustees Assn., published in The Canadian Register. March 21, 1970, p.16-17. 191 Ibid., p.17, col. 4. 192 Ibid., p.16, col. 4. CANADIAN NON-GOVERNMENTAL EDUCATIONAL INVOLVEMENT 212

school has been appropriately named the Ontario/Troumaca Junior i go Secondary High School," Representing the Ontario Ministry of Education, Mr, John Smith reportedly "expressed satisfaction with the construction of the school and praised the high standard of workmanship of Vincentians," promising continued assistance from 194 Ontario, including equipment for the school. The Acting Education Officer in his speech, noted that the district of Troumaca had contributed its recreation field to be used as the school site. However, the writing was already on the wall for Ontario's educational assistance to the Commonwealth Caribbean, The School- To-School Project had lost its exclusively Caribbean flavour in 1971 when it was extended to include schools in Japan, Korea, England and several Canadian provinces as well as between schools in different parts of Ontario.195 By 1973 Project School-To- School was being quietly phased out by the Ontario Ministry of Education. 196 A new program, Project Canada, "a social, cultural and educational program sponsored by the Ministry of Education,

193 Report carried by The Star. Organ of the St. Vincent Labour Party, No. 14, Saturday, January 20, 1973, p.l. 194 Ibid. 195 Ontario Department of Education, The Report of the Ministry of Education, 1971. December 1971, p.12. 196 Interview between researcher and Co-ordinator, Project School-to-School, Toronto, 1973, gave information on the new emphasis. CANADIAN NON-GOVERNMENTAL EDUCATIONAL INVOLVEMENT 213

197 Ontario, in the interest of national unity", replaced the enthusiastically undertaken venture in international educational partnership. The "spark of grace" which had reportedly "kindled Mr. Davis's little flame" had not survived his elevation to the Premiership. A new Ontario Minister of Education, forced to meet the new educational priorities identified for the seventies, saw the need for a new direction to be given to the activities of the Special Projects Unit.

5. Summary

By 1970, the various Canadian non-governmental organizations which were providing educational personnel, books and equipment, or supporting different kinds of education services and activities in the Leeward and Windward Islands, were receiving "matching grants" from the Canadian Government, but, for the most part, their Caribbean activities were completely separate undertakings. This chapter documented the educational involvement of professional associations, voluntary agencies with specialized interests, church groups and at least one provincial department of education. The unity of the presentation is artificial in that there has not been any cohesive approach to educational assistance for the Leewards and Windwards developed among Canadian non-governmental

197 Ontario Department of Education, Project Canada brochure, Toronto, 1973. CANADIAN NON-GOVERNMENTAL EDUCATIONAL INVOLVEMENT 214

organizations and the Leewards and Windwards are themselves separate entities requiring individual negotiation for development assistance. During the survey period both CUSO and CTF were actively involved in assistance to some of these islands. Whereas CUSO had decided that the potential impact of the limited number of personnel requested for island schools did not justify continuation of CUSO educational assistance after 1970, CTF had recently started to operate its summer program in two of the islands and was planning to expand its activities. The Overseas Book Centre improved its procedures through the Decade and was straining its resources to meet new needs identified both by the islands themselves and by Canadian personnel working over seas. There appeared to be a basic problem in rationalising a system which set out to meet specific requirements yet depended mainly on voluntary contributions and services. The Ontario Ministry of Education's Caribbean activities created goodwill in island schools, provided some useful school supplies, and for a time supported the development of local environmental studies in many classrooms. The educational contribution of each group differed in impact and by the end of the Decade some measure of co-ordination or co-operation seemed relevant for both the helping groups and those assisted. CHAPTER IV

EDUCATIONAL AID PRIORITIES: LEEWARD AND WINDWARD ISLANDS

Priorities for seeking or giving external assistance to education may reasonably be expected to bear some relation ship to the diagnosis of educational needs in developing countries. Within this context both donor and recipient would be expected to develop criteria for guiding decision-making in terms of educational aid priorities. Without the articulation of such criteria it becomes necessary to examine donor contributions as evidence of the relative balance of concerns within the education sector. If, as in the case of Canadian development assistance, it is claimed that all aid is 'responsive', (that is, as CIDA's President, Maurice Strong, pointed out emphatically to the Senate Foreign Affairs Committee in 1969, "the project is never supported, if it is not requested by the country concerned. This is basic"), then an investigation of requests from recipient countries may be expected to reveal the nature of aid priorities formulated by the developing countries.

1 Senate Foreign Affairs Committee, Proceedings. No. 1, Tuesday, November 4, 1969, p.14. EDUCATIONAL AID PRIORITIES 2

In addition to these positive proofs of participation in the aid process, priorities may also be revealed by rejection of requests, by refusal to become involved in aspects of education plans judged to be counter to the donor country's best interests. The lesson may be well learned by would-be recipients, relying, for various reasons, on external sources of capital and technical assistance. The items not requested may reflect the recipient country's understanding of how the aid process works for exchanges with particular aid agencies. On the other hand, recurrent costs may also act as a preventive lest local resources be unable to meet the future demands of innovative measures introduced without obvious immediate costs on the local budget.

Even if priorities are established for external educational assistance, there remains the likelihood that motivation may depend on a complex of factors such as political and economic considerations which may well be in conflict with the educational purposes identified. As observed by a Tanzanian educator, Mr. A.C. Mwingira, there may be other obstacles to arriving at decisions about external educational assistance, in that "though specific needs may exist, which external aid could help to alleviate; EDUCATIONAL AID PRIORITIES 217 it does not automatically follow that it will seem right to ask for it."2 In the Tanzanian context, he adds that "the first emphasis must always be on the responsibility of the people of the country for meeting the need by their own efforts,"^ a point which raises the whole question of rationalising ends and means in establishing priorities for external educational assistance. For both Canada and the Leeward and Windward Islands the period under review provided a learning experience in the appraisal of educational aid priorities and the problems of practical application. Commonwealth Caribbean educators, buoyed by the prospect of major donor financial assistance to education in the area, began to sort out priorities, many of their recommendations forming the basis of future education plans and requests for aid. However, at the end of the Decade, it was still necessary for the principle to be urged "that receiver countries should, to as large an extent as

2 A.C. Mwingira, "The Role and Rationale of Educational Aid in Developing Countries", address to the World Congress of Comparative Education Societies, Ottawa, 17-21 August, 1970 in Proceedings of the World Congress Of Comparative Education Societies on The Role And Rationale" For Educational Aid to Developing Countries. Ottawa. 1970. p. 75. 3 Ibid. EDUCATIONAL AID PRIORITIES 218 possible, participate in determining and planning the use of aid and in evaluating the effects of aid programmes."4'

1. Educational Needs - Diagnosis and Prescription

(a) Reports by Caribbean Educators:- In the early years of the West Indies Federation, it seemed likely that a substantial amount of external aid would be made available for educational development in general and to the Leeward and Windward Islands in particular. However, as early as I960, the frustrations of the aid relationship were making themselves felt in the education sector. The Federal Education Adviser, Mr. R.N. Murray, for example, in his Report on educational development in Dominica at that time, reacted to the disappointment of negotiations for a Colonial Development and Welfare sponsored Windward Islands Training College.

4 Reginald Murray, Director, University of the West Indies Institute of Education, in Ibid.. p.71. 5 One example which can be cited is the technical education assistance program launched by the United States Operations Mission in I960, by which construction agreements and technical assistance plans were concluded with Eastern Caribbean islands. See for example, Technical Education- Dominica. Status Report. October 15, 1961, p.l. 6 R.N. Murray, Federal Education Adviser, Educational Development-Dominica. April 20, I960, p.2. EDUCATIONAL AID PRIORITIES 219

Though admitting to knowledge of another donor agency's interest in the project, he expressed the opinion that "it would be shiftless merely to sit and wait" on the outcome of that interest as "the issues at stake" were "too vital to West Indian life."7 Except for the recommendation that the assistance of a temporary Adviser in adult education be sought from UNESCO,' the Federal Education Adviser placed his emphasis on local and regional solutions to the problems diagnosed. The novel suggestion was made that the Commonwealth Education Plan should be applied to the possible provision of replacements and home salaries in the event of recruitment of supervisory staff for an extended in-service teacher training program q from "one of the better off West Indian territories."^ Commenting shortly afterwards on the Murray Report, Dominica's Education Officer placed even greater hope on the prospect of local staff for the island's education program as U.C.W.I, had agreed to organise a short course for guiding

7 Ibid. 8 Ibid., p.9. 9 Ibid., p.5. EDUCATIONAL AID PRIORITIES 220

supervisory staff and there was the expectation that the required staff members would be provided within two years. The same optimistic view was taken of relieving the secondary school teacher shortage by absorbing returning teachers in training at U.C.W.I.12 The Federal Education Adviser found it difficult to reconcile the conflicting information on the school age population given by the Dominica Department of Education and that from Federal statistical experts.1 J^ He noted that it would be unwise for the Government to insist on compulsory attendance without obtaining accurate information about the situation. Projections re pupils, school buildings and teachers would also depend on these statistics. Table XXIV based on the I960 Census, indicates that Dominica's educational situation was in fact one of the most problematic in the Leeward and Windward Islands, with only St. Lucia

10 Comments By Education Officer On Mr. R.N. Murray' s Report. Dominica, [1961J , p.l. 11 Ibid., p.2. 12 Ibid., p.4. 13 Professional Development Associates, Educational Requirements in the Leeward and Windward Islands. (Confidential Report to CIDA) Ottawa, April 1972, p.5,6, comments on the problem of obtaining reliable educational data. EDUCATIONAL AID PRIORITIES 221

TABLE XXIV.-

Educational Attainment i960: Population 15 Years and Over

Percentage of Total Adult Population Secondary Secondary No Primary No School With School Island Education Education Certificate Certificate University

Antigua 3.3 83.1 9.4 1.9 0.4 Dominica 13.4 79.0 4.8 1.6 0.5 Grenada 6.7 84.7 5.4 2.3 0.5 Montserrat 11.1 81.1 2.3 2.0 0.4 St.Kitts-Nevis 3.8 89.1 4.1 1.8 0.4 St. Lucia 26.2 69.7 2.2 1.1 0.3 St. Vincent 7.9 85.4 4.2 1.6 0.3 All Islands - Average 10.3 81.7 4.6 1.7 0.4

Source: Compiled from G.W. Roberts and N. Abdulah, "Some Observations On The Educational Position Of The British Caribbean", based on Census Research Programme of the University of The West Indies (1960 Census), in Social and Economic Research. Vol. 14, No.l, March 1965, p.145. EDUCATIONAL AID PRIORITIES 222

having a higher percentage of total adult population without even minimal exposure to education. Working over the educational implications of the I960 Census, Roberts and Abdulah called attention to the fact that the age structure of the islands, particularly St. Vincent with a half of its population under age 15, meant that educational facilities would have to be on a rapidly expanding scale to keep up with population growth and to bring about an improvement in standards as an aid to economic development. It seems reasonable to conclude from the figures shown in Table A that there was a significant imbalance in primary and secondary attainment levels throughout the islands, with an average of 3.3 per cent in St. Lucia placing the island's secondary school attainment levels at the bottom of the scale. This was the context in which the educational recommendations of the Federal Team which visited St. Lucia were made,1 5 although financial considerations were also a factor in the suggestion that primary school building should be reduced and additional emphasis placed on creating

14 G.W. Roberts and N. Abdulah, "Some Observations On The Educational Position Of The British Caribbean", in Social and Economic Studies. Vol. 14, No. 1, 1965, p.144. 15 The Federal Education Adviser operated as part of the Federal team which visited the islands to conduct an economic survey as part of the overall estimate of needs. Education was still an island responsibility. EDUCATIONAL AID PRIORITIES 223 vocational facilities and on teacher training. Table XXV also indicates the low percentage of university graduates, averaging 0.4 per cent for the adult population of all the Leewards and Windwards, Roberts and Abdulah's statistics on the disposition of the school population in I960 appears to presage an improvement in future adult attainment levels. Table XXV shows a higher primary attendance figure, except for Antigua, which had stepped up secondary enrolment to 18.3 per cent. St. Lucia's improvement at this level still meant only 3.9 per cent of the school age population enrolled in secondary schools. One of the most significant opportunities provided for Caribbean educators to survey the educational needs of the islands developed out of the economic development planning activity undertaken by the Eastern Caribbean Branch of the University of the West Indies Institute of Social and 1 8 Economic Research. The University's Institute of

16 A bold decision to establish priorities within the financial restrictions of the island's situation rather than assume that development could proceed on all fronts. 17 G.W. Roberts and N. Abdulah, op. cit.. p.149. 18 Funded by the Ford Foundation, operating since 1963, with Dr. Carleen O'Loughlin as Head. TABLE XXV.-

Educational Statistics Leeward and Windward Islands 1966

Antigua Dominica Grenada Montserrat St.Kitts/ St.Lucia St.Vincent ^ N/A w o School Population 17,006 18,095 30,862 3,177 17,549 24,750 28,416 c No. of Schools H Primary 34 54 56 15 36 58 56 M Secondary 6 4 12 1 13 3 7 o 1 No. of Students r Primary/All Age 13,745 16,892 28,275 2,902 14,619 23,766 26,263 Secondary 3,261 1,203 2,587 275 2,930 984 2,153 pa No. of Teachers M Primary ? 314 444 690 104 380 743 854 Secondary 123 63 117 18 104 56 79 3 W Teacher-Pupil Ratio CO Primary 1:44 1:38 1:40 1:27 1:35 1:32 1:30 Secondary 1:46 1:19 1:21 1:15 1:28 1:17 1:27 Trained T-P Ratio Primary 1:114 1:175 1:188 1:69 1:127 1:143 Secondary8 1:407 1:60 1:123 1:69 1:586 1:89 iiilt

Source: James Maraj, Statistical Information Relating to Education in the Eastern Caribbean ,1966. " ~ a: Graduates

ro EDUCATIONAL AID PRIORITIES 225

1Q Education J was invited by the I.S.E.R. in 1965 to participate in proposals for a Five Year Development Program for the 20 islands. There is no doubt that the staff members who undertook to carry out the necessary island studies were aware that their proposals would be on firmer ground than previous studies because of the possibility of external financing. The 1966 Report on Education in Dominica gave notice of the intention to bring into focus some of the many urgent problems which could only be solved by a large injection of capital which may become available as a result of the schemes for aid being prepared for international benefactors.p.

19 Also funded by Ford in 1963 - a separate non-teaching arm of the University, with a few staff members resident in Jamaica, Trinidad and Barbados - specially concerned with the work of teachers colleges and in-service training for primary school teachers - represented physical presence of UWI by close involvement with education in the Leewards and Windwards.

20 Carleen O'Loughlin, A Survey of Economic Potential and Capital Needs of the Leeward Islands. Windward Islands and Barbados. Department of Technical Co-operation, Overseas Research Publication No. 5, London, HMSO, 1963, produced by the ISER, had included recommendations on education but the inclusion of the Institute of Education in the later report appeared to indicate a greater importance attached to education. R.A, Bent, G.H. Clough and R.S. Jordan were experienced Caribbean educators on the staff of the Institute of Education, 21 G.H. Clough and R.S. Jordan, Dominica Report, p.3 in Economic Development in the Eastern Caribbean Islands. Series 3: Education. Barbados. University of the V/est Indies Institute of Social and Economic Research (Eastern Caribbean), August, 1966. EDUCATIONAL AID PRIORITIES 226

In his report on St. Lucia, R.M. Bent pointed out that, while educational priorities had to be established for purposes of planning, attention must be given to all levels of provision. As he saw it, If primary education, which is the foundation, is inadequate and inefficient, then the varied types of post-primary education growing from it will be hampered and be unable to throw up the personnel needed to sustain the economy. If both stages of education are to fulfil these expectations, they can only flourish in suitable, adequate and equipped buildings. If there are not sufficient trained or partially trained teachers to service the schools provided at colossal cost, then the monejr spent will be partly wasted.2o

With varying degrees of emphasis the chief problems identified by the 1966 Reports were those of primary school accommodation, teacher preparation and training, and diversification of secondary provision.

(i) Primary school accommodation.- The problem of projecting expansion needs was compounded by the existing shortfall in primary school provision, in addition to the urgent need for replacement and repairs to inadequately maintained buildings. In St. Lucia, for example, Bent estimated that, allowing 8 sq. ft.

22 Rupert M. Bent, Report and Recommendations on St. Lucia's Educational Needs, (draft) , 1966. ~"~" 23 Ibid., p.5. EDUCATIONAL AID PRIORITIES 227 per place, 20,000 places would have to be built in the period 1966-1975 to accommodate at least 90 per cent of the 5-15 age group (Junior and Senior Departments). Clough and Jordan reckoned that Dominica needed 5,700 places, (at 10 sq. ft. per place), to meet 1966 enrolment and, further, that if no building took place by 1970 the shortfall would be nearly 9,000 places.2 J5 Clough's estimate for St. Vincent (at 10 sq. ft. per place) was that it would require at least 10,000 additional places to meet normal increase by 1970 and reduce the existing backlog.2 6 The cost of this provision was worked out at the rate of $60. per sq. ft. for St. Vincent and St. Lucia. Primary school buildings were not reported to be in the same state of crisis of need in Montserrat and Antigua. In the former island some attention was given to reorganizing the schools in the area of Plymouth, the capital, which would

24 Ibid., p.8. 25 G.H. Clough and R.S. Jordan, Dominica Report. p.7 in Economic Development in the Eastern Caribbean Islands, Series 3: Education. Barbados, University of The West Indies, Institute of Social and Economic Research (Eastern Caribbean) August, 1966. 26 G.H. Clough, St. Vincent Report, p.33 in ibid. EDUCATIONAL AID PRIORITIES 228 necessitate the building of a new primary school for 348 27 students aged 5 to 11, ' The net total school age population between ages 5 to 16 was expected to rise by only 1,900 pQ between 1966 and 1970. There was no great amount of pressure for major primary school or other level of construction evident in the Antigua Report. In fact, R.S. Jordan who eventually carried out the survey, made the point that the "position with regard to school buildings" was "one of the many bright spots of education in Antigua." ° It was reported that plans were already in hand for replacement of any dilapidated buildings. In addition to the existence of structures with sufficient space to accommodate the required number of students in the primary schools, the Reporters expressed concern about the unsatisfactory open-plan arrangements which made teaching and learning more difficult. Bent suggested that immediate steps be taken to remedy the situation in St. Lucia, partitioning by the use of upright blackboards.

27 R.S. Jordan, Montserrat Report, p.4, in op. cit. 28 R.S. Jordan, Antigua Report. p.l8, in op. cit. 29 R.S. Jordan, Antigua Report, p.18 in op. cit. 30 R. Bent, St. Lucia Report, p.8 in op. cit. EDUCATIONAL AID PRIORITIES 229

The concept of an equipped building was also considered an integral part of school provision. Clough's St. Vincent Report highlighted the problem, estimating that, at the time of writing, 4,000 (dual-type) sets of desks and benches were needed and that by the end of the period 1966 to 1970, at least 7,000 sets would be required if no action were taken in the intervening years. In framing their recommendations for primary school construction, the Reporters in those islands in which this was an obvious priority gave careful consideration to the financial implications of projected requirements. Clough referred to the commendation which St. Vincent's pioneering efforts to reduce building costs had earned from a previous Education Report.•j p He was in favour of continued efforts "to design plans and to use materials which will provide a hurricane-proof, all weather structure and yet an efficient lay-out at minimum cost." Bent's preference for St. Lucia was that, except where conditions prevented it on the wet,

31 G.H. Clough, St. Vincent Report, p.8, in op.cit. 32 Ibid.. p.7, referring to C.V.D. Hadley, Report on the Windward Islands Educational Survey. St. Vincent, p.3. 33 Ibid. EDUCATIONAL AID PRIORITIES 230 windward side of the island, a third of all future expansion should take the form of Open-Air Classrooms using pre-fabricated material and saving one or two walls. The Dominica situation was compounded by the fact that 30 of the island's 53 primary schools were in rented buildings which were also in need of repair.3 5^ It seemed to Clough and Jordan that drastic remedies were necessary for Dominica and the following recommendation was made: The long term solution would seem to be for Government, through the massive injection of capital earlier referred to, to assume responsibility for replacing these unsatisfactory rented buildings by erecting its own schools. If it did so there would be an immediate contribution to the possibilities of a more efficient primary school system without overcrowding and with proper amenities.^

The St. Vincent Report was also explicit in its view that a school building program should be regarded as a priority for external assistance. As Clough noted, If funds could be quickly made available to provide the additional class space, the school supplies and equipment and the desperately needed books, the same present expenditure on teachers' salaries, which constitute the major part of the total expenditure on primary education could produce better results.

34 R. Bent, St. Lucia Report, p.8, in op.cit. 35 G.H. Clough and R.S. Jordan, Dominica Report, p.7 in op.cit. 36 Ibid. EDUCATIONAL AID PRIORITIES 231

Every effort might therefore be made to bring forward as a matter of urgency whatever resources can be obtained, as grant or aid, to produce a Crash Programme of buildings and provide the bulk of the capital expenditure needed for books and equipment. ^„

Eastern Caribbean primary school accommodation problems had long been diagnosed but, without access to new sources of finance, recommendations would have continued to seem futile. Table XXVI shows the extent of capital expenditure estimated by these Reports to meet building costs and related items in order to provide equipped primary schools in the Leeward and Windward Islands for the five-year period 1965 to 1970. The scope of the program of educational assistance envisaged by the Reporters was indicated by Clough and Jordan's comment in the Dominica Report that five year plans made within the existing resources could only accomplish modest improvements. As they saw it, the deficiencies would keep growing unless positive attempts were made to finance crash programmes in education, expand teacher training and diversify secondary provision. . . 38

37 G.H. Clough, St. Vincent Report, p.17, in op.cit. 38 G.H. Clough and R.S. Jordan, Dominica Report, p.4, in op. cit. TABLE XXVI.-

SUMMARY OF CAPITAL COSTS OF EDUCATIONAL EXPAKSIOK PROPOSED IN THE FIVE YEAR DEVELOPMENT PLANS 1966 THROUGH 1970 S'000

Antigua Barbados" Dominica Grenada Montserrat St. Kitts St. Lucia St. Vincent Total Plant, facilities and equipment for exis w ting and new elemen o tary schools 7,800 875 1,785 1,759 595 1,083 1,396 1,582 16,875 a Plant, facilities and equipment fcr exis ting and new secon ~ dary schools, inclu ding modern or com - prehensive schools 1.250 1,540 1.109 991 165 331 1,028 1,285 7.699 1 Plant, facilities and r equipping vocational schools 1,500 1,161 750 100 800 420 50 4,781 > Plant, facilities and ' o equipment—teachers] colleges J *~ 400 63 484 350 208 279 1,784 to In-service and other teacher training faci lities "" 182 336 200 202 418 46 1,384 Education department expansion 50 50 w Teachers' quarters 217 70 89 376 cn Aauh education 30 30

TOTAL %.^ 10,950 3,639 3,807 .4,156 1,130 2,416 3,520 3,331 32,979

Capital expenditure on education as percen tage of total capital investment projected in Five Year Plans 26-0 11-5 13-5 10 17-5 6 10-5 8-5 9-5

° 1965-196S' Barbados in addition makes provision for expenditure or. other items such as educational broadcasting, U.W'.I. College of Arts znd Science and Public Library, School Meals, etc., not shown here.

•Kl'V."ar-Z"zr -*»«n*x*—>—- — s~- — - . Source: Report of Tripartite Economic.Survey, London, HMSO, 1966, p.87. ro EDUCATIONAL AID PRIORITIES 233

(ii) Teacher supply, teacher education and training.- In ordering their priorities for educational develop ment in the islands, the Reporters placed considerable emphasis on the quantity and quality of teacher supply at all levels of educational provision. Table XXVII indicates the percentage of trained teachers in Leeward and Windward Island schools in 1966, ranging from St. Vincent with 15 per cent to Antigua with 46 per cent. As shown in Table *™ the ratio of primary school teachers to students varied at the time that the Reports were produced, from 1:44 in Antigua to 1:27 in Montserrat. In these two islands particularly, a high priority in the Reports was placed on teacher supply- Jordan, writing on the Antigua situation, gave quantity and quality of teachers as his first named of four prerequisites for a successfully functioning education system. It was proposed that the Leeward Islands Training College located in Antigua be enlarged, with the approval of the other governments served by the College. This, in addition to relaxation of admission qualifications and residence requirements, would make it possible to provide for an increase in output for Antigua. The Report also recognised the need for

39 R.S. Jordan,Antigua Report, p.7, 15 in OP.cit. EDUCATIONAL AID PRIORITIES 234

TABLE XXVI1.-

Summary of Position Re Trained Teachers In Leeward and Windward Islands 1966

Island Percentage of Trained Teachers

Antigua 46 Dominica 21 Grenada 22 Montserrat 45 St. Kitts 30 St. Lucia 21 St. Vincent 15

Source: James Maragh, Statistical Information Relating to Education in the Eastern Caribbean. repared for Caribbean Education Project,AACTE/UWI, Suly/August 1968. EDUCATIONAL AID PRIORITIES 2

secondary school teachers to be trained. Proposals were made for eleven scholarships to be awarded annually for post-graduate teacher training during the next five years, possibly through the use of Commonwealth Bursaries. Mathematics and Science were selected as priority fields of study for awards, with allowances for a number of other subject areas. The Montserrat Report indicated that consultation was already in progress between the island's education officials, the Canadian External Aid Office and the U.W.I. Institute of Education to promote primary school in-service training at the local level. It was further proposed that the number of Montserrat graduates from the Leeward Islands Training College in Antigua be increased or Erdiston College (Barbados) be approached to take in students. Three teachers should be sent to the U.W.I. Department of Education in the next five-year period to pursue the post-graduate Diploma in Education or the Professional Certificate for experienced non-graduate teachers.4 3-' Commonwealth Bursary

40 Ibid., p.15. 41 R.S. Jordan, Montserrat Report, p.9, in op.cit. 42 Ibid. 43 Ibid. EDUCATIONAL AID PRIORITIES 236

Awards at the rate of three per year could be applied to practical subjects and specialist fields such as Infant Method, Physical Education, Visual Aids and Art, as well as secondary teacher education.4 4 The need for teachers of Science and Mathematics was recognized by provision for the training of four graduates in these subjects. As the Report noted, "the accent has been placed on training."4 5 The Montserrat priority was the basic training of the kind provided by Caribbean training colleges, though its special drive also included advanced and specialist training on Commonwealth Bursaries as well as at U.W.I. The Dominica Report expressed the conviction that the island needed its own Training College if the deficiency in primary teacher training were to be overcome,4 6 the existing rate of trained teachers reaching a percentage of only 21.6. In conjunction with the two-year In-Service Course to be offered by the U.W.I. Institute of Education, the College would be able to undertake an emergency program to cut down

44 Ibid. 45 Ibid., p.11. 46 G.H. Clough and R.S. Jordan, Dominica Report, p. 20, in op. cit. EDUCATIONAL AID PRIORITIES 237 the backlog of untrained teachers. Advanced training recommendations were framed in much the same way as the Montserrat proposals, providing as well for the training of degreed teachers for secondary school service. The suggestion was made that a Higher Education Loan Scheme be established to ensure the availability of teaching personnel for future development as well as to provide participants with the opportunity to contribute to their own education. Dominica was unique in having its one government grammar school staffed by twelve graduates out of fourteen teachers. The Grammar School had three well-equipped science laboratories which were not being used to the maximum and the Reporters recommended greater use of existing facilities. St. Lucia and St. Vincent had their own training colleges and further expansion was recommended for both these institutions. In the former island, a two-year course was about to begin and recruitment at a level of at least 50 students per year was recommended until 1970, rising to 75 after that year.4 9 The Supervisory Teachers' Scheme for

47 Ibid., p.24. 48 Ibid., p.18. 49 R. Bent, St. Lucia Report, p.15, in op.cit. EDUCATIONAL AID PRIORITIES 2 assisting pupil teachers operated in both islands. The St. Lucia Report recommended that it be retained and reorganized but envisaged abandonment of the use of Pupil Teachers by 1970. Clough recommended that the St. Vincent College be given a permanent site and that consideration be given to an immediate in-service "crash" program including holiday courses, to alleviate the extreme shortage of trained teachers in St. Vincent.5 1 It was also recommended that the size of college in-take be re-considered, as the scheduled number of 60 entrants per year would meet only the need for additions and replacements without leeway to provide for the backlog of untrained primary school teachers. 52 Both the St. Lucia and the St. Vincent Reports emphasised the need for advanced training to improve the quality of the teaching service. In common with the other islands, recommendations were made for scholarships to the University of the West Indies and expansion of the Commonwealth Scholarship and Fellowship Plan. Bent recommended that St. Lucia arrange to have the three capable

50 Ibid., Summary of Recommendations, No. 8. 51 G.H. Clough, St. Vincent Report, p.40, in op. cit. 52 Ibid., p.16 EDUCATIONAL AID PRIORITIES 239

St. Lucian women teachers at the Traimjqg College trained either at U.W.I., in Canada or the U.S.A. and that a male teacher be trained to succeed the Canadian External Aid principal then administering the College. ^ Clough also kept in mind the need for St. Vincent to select and train local staff to take over teacher training responsibilities when the Canadian aid scheme ended.5 4 Clough acknowledged in the St. Vincent situation "generous help by way of scholarships (had) been given under Aid Schemes", ^ but was convinced that additional scholarships or bursaries were needed to send students to the Colleges of Arts and Science in Barbados or Trinidad. Fields of study needed for teachers at the Government secondary schools were listed as Chemistry, Physics, Biology and Geography. It was recommended that Mathematics and Science awards be made to U.W.I, and that "efforts should be made through Canadian Aid to obtain scholarships in Geography."

53 R. Bent, St. Lucia Report, p.16. 54 G.H. Clough, St. Vincent Report, p.14. 55 Ibid.. p.20. Appendix 5 listed sponsorship categories of St. Vincent students studying abroad. 56 Ibid., p.21. EDUCATIONAL AID PRIORITIES 240

The general expectation of these Reports in respect of educational personnel in the Leeward and Windward Islands was that, within the foreseeable future, Caribbean scholarship holders would return to serve their own islands. As Clough expressed it in his St. Vincent Report, It is expected that these persons, on their return from study abroad, will be better prepared to serve as teachers in Primary and Secondary Schools and in Teacher Training Institutions, executive officers in posts of responsibility in the Government service? and generally to make a significant contribution to life in their own territory.5„

The Reports placed considerable reliance on the University of the West Indies to achieve much of the advanced training required for various branches of island administration as well as for the education service. The general expectation was that overseas scholarships would continue to be awarded by aid donors. Subject teaching in mathematics and the sciences was emphasized as a priority need and there was some attempt to identify other areas which needed external assistance as in the case of industrial arts and geography, for which Canadian aid was considered. Primary teacher upgrading and in-service training, as well as the future of

57 Ibid.. Appendix 5. EDUCATIONAL AID PRIORITIES 241 professional training at this level were considered to be a local responsibility with island-based institutional 58 solutions. In St. Lucia and St. Vincent, for example, recommendations were made that locals be groomed to assume responsibility for the running of the island teachers' colleges from Canadian aid staff and principals. Continued identification of interests was expected between the U.W.I. Institute of Education, which the Reporters all represented, and the educational development of the Leeward and Windward Islands. (iii) Extension and Diversification of Secondary Education.- As shown in Table XXV the total number of Leeward and Windward students receiving secondary education was only a small percentage of the number enrolled in the primary all age schools. "Secondary education" at that period still referred to the grammar school curriculum rather than to the level of learning activity. One of the major concerns of Caribbean educators was the need to provide post primary education of different types for a larger percentage of the school population. The chief trends which emerged were the

58 There was no doubt that the introduction of these institutional solutions might also entail further foreign assistance in construction and personnel, but these needs were not spelled out in these Reports. EDUCATIONAL AID PRIORITIES 242 development of the idea of the junior high or junior secondary school as a separate institution from the primary school, the place given to technical and vocational education at the post-primary level and for further education, and the extension of grammar school intake to accommodate a greater percentage of the school age population.

In all the islands the proposed changes had implications for construction of new buildings with adequate furniture and equipment, as well as increased recurrent expenditure for staffing and building maintenance. Bent favoured Comprehensive Schools for St. Lucia to develop broad-based secondary provision, accommodating a technical- vocational curriculum as well as the traditional academic 59 subjects. ^ His recommendation was that the number of the 11 to 19 age group receiving secondary education should be increased from 4 per cent to 8 per cent in 1970 and to 12 per cent by 1975. As he saw it, the "most economical and practical remedy" was to concentrate provision of new places in four Comprehensive Schools, each with 1,000 student

59 R. Bent, St. Lucia Report, p.10 in op. cit. EDUCATIONAL AID PRIORITIES 243 enrolment, located at Castries, Vieux Fort, Soufriere and 60 Micoud. To meet the island's urgent need for trade training Bent recommended that the U.S. AID workshops be expanded for 15 to 17 year olds. He specifically rejected the idea of a separate technical high school in favour of the Comprehensive School approach, and there seems no doubt that the St. Lucia Government's pursuit of the latter culminated in the Castries Comprehensive School project to which Canada's capital assistance commitment escalated to a M. 61 $1. million agreement at the end of the Decade. The other form of secondary school diversification was that involved in what was at first called Reorganisation. This term was used to mean the separation of the lower age group, or primary level, from the upper group which previously formed the top of the "All Age Primary School." In some cases the separation was seen as a marked difference in curricula, but during the period from 1965 to 1970 there was an increasing conviction of the need for physical separation in different buildings or in schools that might act as feeder schools for a district. The beginning of this movement can be discerned in the 1966 Caribbean Education Reports.

60 Ibid. 61 See Chapter 11, p. 6. EDUCATIONAL AID PRIORITIES 244

The new kind of provision was variously termed, but the name "Junior High School" was the most frequently-used name in the 1966 Reports. According to the descriptions of layout, curricula •* etc., the intention was to provide non-selective, free provision for age group 11 to 16+, with facilities for Woodwork, Metalwork, Handicrafts, Domestic Science, General (and/or Rural) Science. A more generous allowance of space than that of the primary schools included plans for separate classrooms, assembly hall or stage, library, art room and teachers' room.

(iv) Other Possibilities For External Assistance.- One important area of concern in the 1966 Reports was that related to libraries, books and school supplies. There were indications that external aid agencies were already taking an interest in some of these requirements and it was hoped that this would continue and be further developed. The Reporters made discouraging comparisons between island allowances for "school requisites" (20 cents per annum per child) and the level recommended for UK primary schools'

62 See for example, Monsterrat Report, Appendix 3, 4. 63 Antigua Report, p.8-11. EDUCATIONAL AID PRIORITIES 245 purchase of essential books and consumable supplies. (21/6 of a 44/ annual capitation allowance). As Clough pointed out, "The poorer the area and the less qualified the teacher the greater would appear to be the need to provide a well and carefully selected and graded selection of books for teachers and pupil use." 65 The level of provision by island governments was regarded as extremely unsatisfactory and the general consensus was that this allowance for supplies would have to be increased. While self-help in stocking small school libraries was not ruled out, other possibilities were also considered. One was the bookmobile and the other was a circulating book-box scheme which could be administered from a central location such as the public library. Some of the Reporters had been made aware of the fact that

64 See for example Dominica Report, p.8, in which it was strongly recommended that the grant be increased to 50 cents per child per annum. 65 St. Vincent Report, p.10. 66 Ibid. 67 Ibid., (also Dominica Report, p.9). EDUCATIONAL AID PRIORITIES 246

"international sources might be willing and able to provide such items as a bookmobile, (at a cost of $14,000), or the CO necessary capital to set up a book-box scheme..." Antigua was reported as having a good school library service. In the Dominica Report, Clough and Jordan also referred to the need that the trained teacher would have for supporting materials - "adequate supplies of work materials, work books, pictures, periodicals, etc.,"70 adding that training would be wasted without these materials. The gift of books under the Ranfurly Scheme was acknowledged as were "stocks of books from generous Canadian donors" which had increased since the fire which destroyed the island's Education Department and bookstock.7 '1 The other item for which the possibility of external aid was mentioned was Jordan's suggestion that international foundations might be approached for establishment of special schools for the handicapped in Antigua. As he recognised, there were no statistics available about the numbers of the handicapped and these would have to be compiled as a preliminary to such a request.'72

68 Ibid. 69 Antigua Report. p.l8, 70 Dominica Report, p.9. 71 Ibid. 72 Antigua Report, p.20. * An English voluntary organisation shipping books to developing countries since the 1950's. EDUCATIONAL AID PRIORITIES 247

(b) Educational Implications of The Tripartite Economic Survey of the Eastern Caribbean.- This Survey of the Eastern Caribbean, carried out between January and April, 1966,7 lJ3 was sponsored by Britain, Canada and the United States as prospective aid donors to the islands. In establishing priorities for economic development the Survey team hoped to make it possible for aid donors to identify projects to which their financial and technical resources could best be applied.7 4 Education was one of the sectors which received consideration as a restraint to economic development,7 5 although, as the British Development Division 7fi in the Caribbean was later at pains to point out, there was no attempt to quantify the overall training requirements of the islands. In the Survey Report's five-year program,

73 Report of the Tripartite Economic Survey of the Eastern Caribbean. London. HMSO. 1966. 74 Although the team's terms of reference cited in Ibid., p.iii, do not state this in so many words, this was the recognised context of the five year plan which was prepared on the basis of the study - Ibid., p.239. 75 Ibid., p.80-87. 76 Caribbean Aid Donors Conference, Marlborough House, London, May 1970, Conference Papers Nos. 1-9 Windward and Leeward Islands, Barbados, British Development Division in the Caribbean, p.7, for example. EDUCATIONAL AID PRIORITIES 248 education was classified most often with projects "which generally support and further economic growth,"7 7' and this was interpreted as meaning technical, vocational and teacher training. Primary and secondary education were placed in another category, consisting mainly of projects in social welfare, public utilities and administration. As the Report explained, Of these it cannot be said that they must have priority in order to enable the potential for (economic! growth to be realized, but they are projects for which there are varying degrees of social and political urgency.7g

The Survey Report identified teacher training as an area of need in all the islands, emphasising the importance of having qualified staff for the schools. Technical and vocational education were given priority as requirements for all islands except Dominica in which the need cited was for middle-level manpower which probably was intended to include this area of skill development. A Technical College was recommended for St. Kitts.7 9^ St. Lucia was urged to concentrate on production of hotel and construction workers

77 Tripartite Survey Report, p.xviii. 78 Ibid. 79 Ibid., p.123. EDUCATIONAL AID PRIORITIES 249

80 in the expectation of tourist development. The shortage of primary school places was recognised in all islands O-i except Montserrat which did not appear to have the same pressure as the other six on primary provision. Secondary school expansion was indicated for most islands, although not specifically mentioned as such for Dominica and St. Kitts and related to the rebuilding of the Government Boys' School Op in Grenada. There was no project planned at this level for Antigua. Other items which were considered for the education sector were development of a farm school in Montserrat, ^ library facilities in Grenada 4 and special attention to curriculum revision in St. Kitts8 J5 and St. LuciaT . .8 6

80 Ibid.. p.201. 81 Ibid., p.137. 82 Ibid., p.182. 83 Ibid.. p.137. This idea was proposed by R.S. Jordan in his Montserrat Report, p.12,14 in which a connection with the Agricultural Department was recommended. 84 Tripartite Survey. p.l8l. 85 Ibid., p.123. 86 Ibid., p.199. EDUCATIONAL AID PRIORITIES 250

The Tripartite Economic Survey Report proposed that the educational problems identified as priority needs of the islands be solved through adoption of a regional approach. The educational role of the Regional Development Agency proposed by the Survey Team was outlined as follows: A major contribution of the RDA would be that of initiating, co-ordinating, and sustaining discussion between the territories ... about curriculum changes and diversification, teaching methods, use and deployment of educational aids such as television, school construction and design, uniformity of standards of certification, and so on.o«

Co-operation in programming, specialist services and disposition of capital facilities was also intended. A limited role was prescribed for the University of the West Indies in increasing its training facilities for go teachers but by and large the chief emphasis was placed on regional co-operation. 89

87 Ibid., p.244. 88 Ibid., p.81, 83. 89 Ibid.. p.236, for the rationale for a regional development policy. EDUCATIONAL AID PRIORITIES 251

The Tripartite proposals presented in 1966 were evidently accepted by the aid donors who commissioned the study as the basis for decisions about aid to the 90 Eastern Caribbean over the ensuing five-year period. The British Development Division in the Caribbean, assessing the general situation in the Leeward and Windward Islands in 1970, found no fault with donor use of these guidelines for this purpose, commenting that The conclusion is that while the TES has - inevitably - been proved wrong on some specifics, its general diagnosis was as searching as its prescriptions generally correct. So that in basing their subsequent aid programmes on the TES foundations the British and Canadian Governments have not erred.Q.

90 Senate Foreign Affairs Committee, Proceedings. No. 1, Tuesday, November 4, 1969, p.31 in which CIDA gave this as Canada's position.

91 1970 Caribbean Aid Donors Conference Papers, No. 9. TABLE XXVI11.-

Summary of Education Expenditure Estimates for Leeward and Windward Islands in Tripartite Survey Report

Islands Category B Comments Category X Comments

w o Antigua 1,900 Technical College & 9,800 Liberal Arts College a Teacher Training 2 Model Infants Schoolt 2 Secondary Schools 16 Junior Education o Dominica 836 Teacher Training & 3,380 Education g Technical Education r Grenada 2,066 Technical/vocational 4,227 Primary and & Teacher Training Secondary Education Montserrat 146 Technical/vocational 1,217 Education B & Teacher Training MH HWI St. Kittsa 684 Teacher Training 2,194 Education C/3 St. Lucia 2,116 Vocational/technical 5,049 Education & Teacher Training St. Vincent 980 Teacher Training & 4,385 Education Vocational

Source: Compiled from Report of the Tripartite.Economic Survey, London, HMSO, 1966, Island Reports. a: Only island which rated additional Category A item - $1,400,000 for a Technical College. EDUCATIONAL AID PRIORITIES 253

2. Requests and Response as Guides to Educational Aid Priorities

(a) Island Requests to Canada.- Official documents on Canada's bilateral assistance have maintained that Canada's aid is responsive. The question of how projects were initiated does not lend itself easily to analysis. In the early years of the period under review there were complaints that Caribbean officials were slow in formulating feasible op projects for donor consideration. At the start of the Commonwealth Caribbean Assistance Programme it may well have seemed difficult for Caribbean politicians to gauge the nature of projects which Canada and other donor countries would find attractive.9 J3 In the absence of known criteria, it appears that selection of early aid projects was made by Canada on an ad hoc basis.9 4 As the Programme developed, there were some indications that a great deal of preliminary discussion was conducted on an informal basis on the periodic visits paid to the area by Canada's aid agency representatives.

92 Duncan Fraser, "The West Indies and Canada: The Present Relationship", in The West Indies and The Atlantic Provinces of Canada. Halifax, 1966, p.39. 93 Ibid, where Fraser comments that West Indies had complained that Canadian content requirements were unrealistic in view of the availability of local materials. 94 The External Aid Office began its operations in I960 and the Commonwealth Caribbean program was a new experience. 95 CIDA Teacher, Education in Antigua. Antigua 1971, doubted the utility of these "winter visits." EDUCATIONAL AID PRIORITIES 254

If the official record of requests from the Leeward and Windward Islands is taken as the starting point in the exercise of aid negotiation, it appears that at the start of the more well-defined program of assistance, not too many requests for educational assistance were made, and few of the refusals in the whole aid program were in the education sector.9 6 Table XXIX shows education requests recorded by EAO during the period 1965 to 1968, before the documentation of requests became formalised.

(b) Response by Canadian aid administration.- The treatment of these requests by EAO is instructive. The 1965 requests were initially rejected on the grounds that funds were not available, decisions as to the content of the 1965-66 program having been already made and financial allocation established.9 7 School transportation did not emerge as a priority for assistance but school construction had already begun to loom large as a potential item for oft Canadian educational assistance to the islands. After 1966,

96 EAO, Reports on Commonwealth Caribbean aid program, 1965 to 1967. 97 EAO, Canadian Assistance to Commonwealth Caribbean. Progress Report to Canadian Missions, Ottawa, August 23, 1965, p.9. 98 Ibid., p.7. EDUCATIONAL AID PRIORITIES 255

TABLE XXIX.-

Education Sector: Capital Assistance Requests

Year Island Item

1965 Dominica 2 school buses Montserrat primary school St. Lucia 2 secondary schools 1966 Montserrat primary school (Plymouth) 1967 Dominica primary school (Clifton) Montserrat trades training equipment

Source: EAO, CCAP Reports, 1965-1967. EDUCATIONAL AID PRIORITIES 256 primary school requests were viewed with favour but the Dominica request, for example, was rejected, pending development of a regional aid program for the Leewards and Windwards,9"9 presumably through the establishment of the Regional Development Agency proposed by the Tripartite Survey and accepted by the 1966 Commonwealth Caribbean - Canada Conference in Ottawa. Negotiations for a technical school for St. Lucia replaced the request for two secondary schools. Montserrat's trades training equipment was not provided. The long list of small items costed at a total of $6,600 was reportedly rejected, "partially because of the difficulty of procuring the items relative to the size of the project, and partially because the proposal could have been tackled by Montserrat as a self-help project.

99 EAO, Commonwealth Caribbean Assistance Programme. Ottawa, June 30, 1967, p.18 reported the possibility that Dominica would make this request and the next report, October 1, 1967, p.14 noted the decision to reject it, pending a regional program. 100 EAO, Addendum to CCAP. December 30. 1966. Ottawa, February 6, 1967. 101 EAO, Commonwealth Caribbean Assistance Programme. Ottawa, March 31, 1967, p.14. EDUCATIONAL AID PRIORITIES 257

There is some evidence to substantiate the claim that the External Aid Office was not hesitant about making its wishes known to prospective recipients of its aid. The language of the Quarterly Reports, for instance, suggests that there was usually a process of preliminary discussion during which projects unlikely to gain support were discouraged without need for formal request or for open confrontation.10 2 Since the Leeward and Windward Islands were grant recipients this was particularly the case with their aid relationship to Canada, Even the advent of the Regional Development Agency J as it was eventually structured did not preclude negotiations between the Canadian aid agency and the islands, but the RDA served as the medium through which two important education sector proposals were developed. The RDA was called upon to consider the design and decide on the allocation of the Canadian Maple Leaf Schools designed by CIDA's Capital Assistance Division to meet primary school conditions in the islands. After initially

102 As for example in the case of Trinidad's informal enquiries re Canada Hall additions, a formal request was discouraged "as there would be a very small Canadian content in most of the items requested." EAO, CCAP Progress Report. Ottawa, August 23, 1965, p.8. 103 1970 Caribbean Aid Donors Conference Paper No. 8. p.80, for one donor's estimate of the purpose served by the RDA, among the limited areas of its usefulness cited being that it enabled the "Canadian Government to obtain regional endorsement of its projects." EDUCATIONAL AID PRIORITIES 258 rejecting the design as too costly, agreement was reached between the RDA and CIDA about the scheme.104" The second item did not meet with the same result. In continuation of the movement towards development of a regional approach to education in the Eastern Caribbean, discussions took place between CIDA and the RDA about provision of a regional hotel school to be located in Barbados. It has been claimed that this project originated in cooperation with the RDA Secretariat. 5 It appears that the Barbados Hotel School, established with Canadian assistance in 1965, would have become the nucleus for regional provision. CIDA made it known that assistance would be provided in financing the design and construction of a hotel school and student residence. Ministerial approval was received for the allocation of up to $500,000 for this project.107 Canadian advisers would also have been available to staff the school initially. However, it was subsequently reported that the Board of the Regional Development Agency refused to endorse

104 CIDA, Commonwealth Caribbean Assistance Programme. Ottawa, October 1, 1968, p.15. 105 CIDA, Commonwealth Caribbean Assistance Programme, (Confidential), Ottawa, July 1, 19&9, P»30, which specifically states that the project was "developed under" Secretariat direction. 106 Antigua, Progressive Labour Movement Party Election Manifesto, iq70-71T p.8-10, made the question of a Hotel Training Centre for Antigua an election issue. 107 CIDA, CCAP, July 1, 1969, p.30. EDUCATIONAL AID PRIORITIES 259 the proposal. Instead, Canada was requested to build separate hotel schools in each island. This request was firmly resisted by the aid administration. According to the CIDA program report, CIDA countered by advising the governments that this recommendation was "not acceptable and that the original proposal should be reconsidered."

(b) Priorities in the development of technical- vocational education.- The experience of Britain, as the other chief aid donor operating in the Leeward and Windward Islands during the First Development Decade, might have been expected to provide Canada with some insight into the degree of acceptability of regional provision of educational facilities in the Eastern Caribbean.10 J9 Although the important field of technical/vocational education had been fairly consistently declared to be an educational priority and a suitable purpose for external assistance by both Caribbean educators and donor agencies, the regional approach was rejected by the Eastern Caribbean. A study of the circumstances relating to the development of technical education in the islands leads to the conclusion that the educational aid priorities of donor and recipients may have

108 Ibid. 109 Attempts to keep teacher training a regional rather than a separate island provision had already been abandoned by Britain. EDUCATIONAL AID PRIORITIES 260 been agreed in principle but implementation foundered on the intrusion of other factors such as island political purposes and donor financial considerations. The first positive movement towards providing vocational training in the Leewards and Windwards came from the addition of technical branches to a limited number of existing grammar schools in St. Lucia, St. Vincent, Antigua, Grenada and Dominica, as the result of a 1959 agreement between the West Indies Federation and the United States International Co-operation Administration. The proposal entailed an integrated project with temporary provision of foreign staff and arrangements for replacement by local staff trained for the purpose, with recurrent expenditure to be a local cost. In Dominica, for example, while the Technical Wing of the Grammar School was being built, the Grammar School headmaster and the Education Officer were sponsored by ICA on a three month tour of technical institutes in the U.S.A., Canada and Puerto Rico. The I.C.A. Technical Adviser was scheduled to begin teaching in I960 with the assistance of two Dominicans trained in Puerto Rico in woodwork and welding

110 Status Report, Technical Education - Dominica. October 5, 1961, apparently prepared by Mr. Theo. 0. Beach, Technical Education Advisor, United States Operations Mission, sets out the process by which the agreements were made. 111 Ibid.. p.2, outlining major problems which had impeded progress, several of which were related to the poor quality of local workmanship. EDUCATIONAL AID PRIORITIES 261 and another staff member who had received a six month course 11? in Vocational Agriculture in the U.S.A. According to the Annual Report of the Education Department for that year, "The present emphasis on technical education has created in the communities a keen desire for this institution which promises to produce skilled craftsmen for whom there is a great local demand." •* However, even the reported extension of technical education to include Vocational Agriculture in the Dominica setting, did not ensure the continued success of the new areas of learning activity. Teaching did not begin until 1962, and in 1964 it was observed by Dr. W.G. Fleming that the American shipyard machinery donated was not in use as teachers claimed it was too dangerous for school classes. In 1966 it was reported by Clough and Jordan that the facilities were being under-utilised.11 5 Similar reports 116 were made about other island Centres.

112 Dominica, Annual Report. Education Department. I960, [196j , p.5. 113 Ibid. 114 W.G. Fleming, Secondary And Adult Education In Dominica. Bulletin No. 19, Ontario College of Education, University of Toronto, 1964, p.12. 115 Clough and Jordan, Dominica Report, p.26. 116 Bent, St. Lucia Report, p.11,12, which suggests that there could be provision for trade training of up to 250 students using the same facilities with skillful organisation. EDUCATIONAL AID PRIORITIES 262

In the interim, technical/vocational education had received renewed impetus as a suitable purpose for external aid through the recommendations of the 1963 ISER Survey of the Leeward and Windward Islands and Barbados. ' It is not clear where the selection of St. Kitts as the site of a Regional Institute of Higher Technical Education originated. The proposal, presented by the Adviser on Technical Education to the U.K. Department of Technical Co-operation during his 1964 visit to the islands, was not favourably received by Island officials.lif t Grenada and St. Lucia expressed the desire to have their own technical institutions. In spite of the confused situation in which the islands complained that they had not been consulted about the matter, no one involved denied that technical and vocational training was a pressing need for Eastern Caribbean development. In fact, Barbados applied for British aid to develop technician courses11 9 and the Ministry of Overseas Development responded to the needs

117 Carleen O'Loughlin, A Survey of Economic Potential and Capital Needs of the Leeward Islands, Windward Islands and Barbados, London, Department of Technical Co-operation, H.M.S.O., 1963. 118 Dr. J.G. Lavender, Technical And Vocational Education In The Commonwealth Leeward and Windward Islands. A Summary Of Proposals, Barbados, July, 1970, p. 3.4-• 119 Ibid., p.5. EDUCATIONAL AID PRIORITIES 263 of the region by sending the ODM Adviser on Technical Education to the Eastern Caribbean in 1965 to develop a plan for training of craftsmen and technicians in the area. 120 Gailer's proposal attempted to meet the situation by recommending a technical college for Barbados and a special Island Technical College consisting of branches located in the seven Leeward and Windward Islands. The Barbados institution, estimated to cost £450,000 , was designed to have a regional component in electrical and electronic engineering, printing and commercial art, as well as technical teacher training. The Island branches with capital costs totalling £981,900 would offer technician courses in mechanical engineering, commerce and construction, as well as food technology and boat building, each branch having responsibility for a group of specialist subjects. After a delay in presentation, this plan evidently received general acceptance as a part of the consideration given to establishing priorities for Eastern Caribbean development in the context of the Tripartite Report. However, according to 121 a British report of the situation, other donors did not

120 J.A. Gailer, Proposals for the development of technical education in the Leeward and Windward Islands and in Barbados, Barbados, HDD, December 1965. 121 Dr. J.G. Lavender, op. cit.. p.6. EDUCATIONAL AID PRIORITIES 264

offer financial support at this Antigua Conference in November 1966, and Britain was left to make adjustments to the Gailer Plan in order to reduce the cost. These developments provide an opportunity for examination of the factors involved in the situation. In spite of long-standing agreement that technical/vocational education was a pressing necessity for the region 1 ?? and a priority for external educational assistance, donors, recipients and the regional institution for higher education were motivated by different purposes, as far as implementation was concerned. The United States had demonstrated initial interest in provision and, perhaps because the facilities provided were reported to be under-utilised, resisted further involvement in this field. Britain responded to area concerns by having the Gailer Plan prepared. According to an informed account of subsequent proceedings, "The ODM proceeded with attempts to find other aid donors and, when these attempts failed, with the preparation of a less expensive version of 123 the Gailer proposals." J However, if economic considerations were the prime concern, it would have been reasonable to

122 For example, Caribbean Commission, West Indian Conference, Sixth Session, 1955, Trinidad, Caribbean Commission, p.80, for Resolution 11., that practical subjects should be introduced into the primary and secondary school curriculum. 123 Dr. J.G. Lavender, op. cit.. p.6. -EDUCATIONAL AID PRIORITIES 2J65 expect that, when Barbados opted out of the arrangement by providing two levels of technical institutions from her own 124 resources, ^ the rest of the plan would have been put into effect on the scale originally envisaged or some similar adjustment made. However, the offer of £200,000 for the project from 1968-70 was maintained and, as no other aid

donor offered to participate, the plan went into operation 125 after revision of Gailer's second proposal by the joint

efforts of the British Development Division in the Caribbean

and Dr- J.G. Lavender of the U.K. Department of Education

and Science in his capacity as UWI Consultant and Eastern i 126 Caribbean GovernmentsTechnical Education Adviser.

As a donor agency in the Leeward and Windward Islands,

Canada did not initially become involved with any of these

schemes. In one of the Caribbean Reports on Education in

1966, Bent suggested that Canada might be one nation approached

to supply St. Lucia with industrial arts teachers and counter part awards for overseas training of local teachers, but there was no other mention of Canada in this field.

124 Barbados' independent status as of November 30, 1966 removed the island's eligibility for Colonial Development and Welfare capital assistance. A Community College was opened in 1969 and a Polytechnic in 1970.

125 See J.G. Lavender, op. cit.. p.9 for a brief comparison.

126 Ibid., p.17, 19. EDUCATIONAL AID PRIORITIES 266

EAO subsequently supplied Canadian teachers of industrial arts and gave counterpart training awards in several of the 127 islands. At some point after this period St. Lucia's needs appear to have made some impact, as EAO agreed to provide the island with a technical school, though insisting that a Canadian technical adviser make an on-the-spot report -i oO before further planning took place. It was subsequently decided to incorporate this into a large comprehensive 129 school. Although capital costs for the island technical colleges were provided by Britain,13 J 0 requests for technical assistance for these colleges were made by the islands to CIDA officials. It seems reasonable to conclude that up to that point capital assistance for the provision of technical/ vocational education facilities in the Leeward and Windward Islands had not been a priority in Canada's assistance

127 See Chapter II. 128 The events which preceded this visit make it likely that the visit of yet another expert may not have been welcomed by St. Lucia's education officials. See Development of Technical Education in St. Lucia, an accounting prepared by the St. Lucia Ministry of Education. 129 Outline of Educational Proposals For Consideration By The CIDA/ .RDA Survey Team. St. Lucia. £1970/711. P.198. 130 Press Release, No. 42, Big New Britain-Island Governments Education Project: Seven New Technical Colleges For The Associated States And Montserrat, Barbados. British Development Division in The Caribbean, November, 1970. EDUCATIONAL AID PRIORITIES 267 plans. 13-'1 However, goaded by the islands into a competitive situation with British aid agency staffing arrangements, and convinced that the islands were "unanimous in giving foremost priority to the development of technical-vocational 132 education", •J CIDA representatives arrived at the following conclusion in 1969: Since this is the major development plan for education in the next few years, the importance of Canada's input cannot be overemphasized at this stage and accordingly it is recommended that where possible we meet the requests for staff for the colleges and provide the training requested for local technical teachers.,...

On many occasions since the West Indies Federation the Leewards and Windwards themselves had expressed the opinion that technical-vocational education was vital to their future economic development.13 4 The failure of the U.S. sponsored plan undertaken in I960 to fulfil the proposed

131 Senate Committee on Foreign Affairs, Proceedings. No. 1, Tuesday, November 4, 1969, p. 21, where Maurice Strong cited technical-vocational training as a priority area for Canada's educational aid, but could only cite a 'fair amount' being done and intention to do more. Practical examples given were a Guyana vocational school being built and one to go up in St. Lucia. 132 CIDA, Report on Visit to Eastern Caribbean Islands. November 30-December 10, 1969, Ottawa 1970 , p.3. 133 Ibid., p.4. 134 Technical Education - Dominica, Status Report. October 15, 1961, refers to the December I960 meeting in Trinidad of all shop instructors, headmasters and education officers from Dominica, St. Lucia, Antigua, St. Vincent and Grenada to plan implementation of technical education. EDUCATIONAL AID PRIORITIES 268 purpose of meeting all industrial training needs of the five islands appears to have convinced the territories that a more positive approach than the Technical Wing solution was essential. Both St. Kitts and St. Lucia attempted to enlist the assistance of the University of the West Indies in promoting technical-vocational education in their respective islands. Though the 1963 St. Kitts proposal was for a regional Higher Technical College, a wider scheme for trade and vocational education, which included lower level university courses as well as secondary school classes and craft and technician training, was a declared feature of island education policy 135 in 1966. JJ St. Lucia's Minister of Education, the Honourable Hunter J. Francois, in 1964 invited the UWI Faculty of Engineering to carry out a survey of St. Lucia's training needs. * The results of this survey were reportedly intended to form the basis of Ministry planning for production of skilled workers as well as to provide the framework for an approach to the British Government for assistance in technical- vocational education. While the British Adviser on Technical

135 St. Christopher Nevis Anguilla. Education Policy, approved by Executive Council on the 31st August, 1966, p. 5,6,7. 136 Ministry of Education, Development of Technical Education In St. Lucia, St. Lucia, 1971 . EDUCATIONAL AID PRIORITIES 269

Education was producing his plan for two colleges to serve the Eastern Caribbean, St. Lucia obtained the services of Figueroa Colon of the International Labour Office, to study and evaluate training needs of the island. ^ Once the later Lavender proposals were presented, St. Lucia, according to the Ministry report, "lost no time in inviting him [Dr. Lavender] to plan the needs of the St. Lucia College." -* In the intervening period, an attempt had been made "to maximise the use of the Industrial Arts Facilities at St. Mary's College Technical Wing to provide part-time courses in some of the basic trades."13 JJ9 St. Lucia's determined action in pursuit of facilities for improving local competence in technical-vocational skills culminated in the opening of the Morne Fortune Technical College, 10th September, 1970, as the first of the seven Technical Colleges in the Leeward and Windward Islands. Dr. Lavender's comment on the significance of the occasion was as follows:

137 Ibid. 138 Ibid. 139 Ibid. The point needed to be made as St. Lucia's use of the Technical Wings had received severe criticism from the UK Technical Adviser in 1964. See J.G. Lavender, op.cit.. p.4, 5. EDUCATIONAL AID PRIORITIES 270

As the first students entered the Saint Lucia College, technical and vocational education had, at last, *began in earnest for this group of Commonwealth Islands. For twenty-five years voices had been raised urging that vocational training facilities be provided for the peoples of these territories. Advisers and planners, when compiling development programmes, had warned that economic growth would depend, to a large extent, upon the availability of trained local labour, while subsequent manpower surveys had revealed, more precisely, the large numbers of skilled and semi-skilled local personnel required.14Q *(sic)

The final agreement for British funding of island technical colleges was based on the recommendation made to the Regional Development Agency by a specially convened meeting of Island Education Officers.14"1 Meeting in Barbados, 28th March, 1968, the panel considered the British offer of funds for a revised version of the Gailer Reports. The 142 recommendations, which were accepted as the basis of future action, suggest that technical-vocational provision was regarded as a matter of urgency, but that the islands' priority was that each one of the Leeward and Windward Islands

140 J. G. Lavender, op. cit.. p.i. 141 Ibid.. p.18, reports thai; the meeting resulted from the failure of the meeting of the Council of Ministers of the Associated States (15 February, 1968), to arrive at a decision on the revised BDD proposals for technical provision. 142 Education Officers' Recommendations. 28th March 1968, in ibid., p.lo. EDUCATIONAL AID PRIORITIES 271

should receive an equal amount from the aid donor's funding and be provided with an equal level of facilities. Courses might differ in different islands but each Centre should provide the full range of trades, including specifically, "maintenance of agricultural machinery, welding, refrigeration and air-conditioning and basic hotel work." ^ It was also recognised that the British offer of financial resources was limited and the RDA would "intensify its search for finance to meet the shortfall." 44" As Lavender noted, building costs had escalated since project estimates were drawn up in 1965. Provision of the additional course requirements specifically indicated by the RDA had further implications for funding, added to which the insistence on equal division of the available money could operate as a further limitation. Separate schemes prepared for each of the seven Island Technical Centres were accepted in 1969 after amendment by each of the island Governments.14 ^5

143 Ibid. 144 Ibid., p.19. 145 See, for example, Draft Scheme For Technical Education On Grenada, [Barbados^ BDD , L1969J, Introduction, para. 6, explaining that the plan has been drawn up to provide for the maximum amount of training achievable within existing financial resources. EDUCATIONAL AID PRIORITIES 272

The process of technical-vocational education development in the Leeward and Windward Islands provided many opportunities for the University of the West Indies to give leadership or at least co-operation in an area of need which had evidently been recognised at the advanced level by the University itself. A certain ambivalence in approach is evident in the response elicited by island requests for assistance. According to one report,14 6 a University Mission to the islands indicated, prior to 1963, that university involvement in technician level education and training would be unlikely. The first direct approach was therefore, not surprisingly, a request to the University Grants Committee for co-operation in establishing a Higher Technical College by the St. Kitts government. This resulted in a survey and report, prepared by K. Everard, UWI Faculty of Engineering, and G. Bishop, UWI Department of Education, which could not have appeared particularly reassuring to the St. Kitts

146 Dr. J.G. Lavender, op. cit., p.14-16, reporting his findings on the University of the West Indies and Technical Education. This report has been used as the basis for the information which is given except where otherwise indicated. As University Consultant on Technical Education, Dr. Lavender apparently had access to the relevant files. EDUCATIONAL AID PRIORITIES 273 government. The Everard-Bishop proposals were for a University Institute of Technical Training to be responsible for development of technical training in the Caribbean, including technical teachers and examinations. However, the University Senate Committee appointed to investigate this possibility was reported to have been brought to an end in November, 1964, because of the fact that the UK Department of Technical Cooperation was negotiating in the matter with the St, Kitts government. The decision was based on the conclusion that "the proposed Institute of Technical Training was no longer necessary".14 7 It appears that this view of the situation was not found acceptable by those parts of the University which were likely to be most closely concerned with the future of technical-vocational education in the Eastern Caribbean. The St. Kitts proposal was, as already indicated above, unacceptable to the other islands and UWI again became involved, though at the Faculty level rather than that of the administration. Mr. G.H. Clough, Deputy Director, Institute of Education, and Mr. Richardson, Faculty of Engineering, visited the islands in the last two months of 1964 and recommended that

147 Reported in ibid.. p.14. EDUCATIONAL AID PRIORITIES 274 the University set up an Extension Service through the Faculty of Engineering, with the assistance of the Institute of Education. St. Lucia's invitation to the UWI Faculty of 148 Engineering ^ resulted in the Phelps, Richardson, Wilson Report in June, 1965, recommending a St. Lucia Technical Institute providing training in building, electrical and mechanical trades and commerical crafts, UWI's awareness of the conflicting interests evident in the technical-vocational education situation in the Eastern Caribbean was probably a major factor in the organization of the first regional conference on technical education in the Commonwealth Caribbean.14 9 Held at the Trinidad campus of the University, 6 to 10 September, 1965, the Conference agreed in principle on regional co-operation in technical education for the area.15 ^0 A UWI Chair of Technical Education was suggested. Conference resolutions were brought to the attention of the University Senate by the Academic Board of the Trinidad Campus. The Board took further

148 Reported in Development of Technical Education in St. Lucia. 149 Ibid.. noting that the St. Lucia Minister of Education had been invited to deliver the keynote address to the Conference. 150 Lavender, op. cit., p.15. EDUCATIONAL AID PRIORITIES 275 steps to examine the feasibility of Conference proposals, as a result of which a submission on technical education in the Leeward and Windward Islands was presented to the UWI Appraisals Committee by Mr. C.A.W. Deane, Vice Dean, Faculty of Engineering, June 1966. University involvement in craft and technician training in the Islands was recommended. It was proposed that two appointments be made for this purpose within the Faculty of Engineering - one person as Head of Engineering Advisory Services and the other with experience in technical-vocational education. However, it was not until nearly two years later that the University Senate gave formal approval to the establishment of a post related to technical education. The post of "Honorary Consultant to the Faculty of Engineering for an Adviser to the Governments in this area in Technical Education", was agreed on, April 11th, 1968 and Dr. J.G. Lavender of Her Majesty's Inspectorate was appointed later in the same month. By his own description of his duties, his responsibilities as Honorary Consultant on Technical Education were "to co-ordinate the development of technical education in the Windward and Leeward Islands and in Barbados, to formulate proposals for setting up regional advisory and examination committees and to establish EDUCATIONAL AID PRIORITIES 276 a regional Technical Teachers' Training Unit". In his advisory capacity, "his principal duties were involved with the establishment of seven Technical Centres on the British Commonwealth Windward and Leeward Islands."15 ^ 2 The Lavender appointment in 1968 appears to have effectively ended the UWI Faculty of Engineering's proposals for direct university involvement in the lower levels of craft and technician training.15" J} At any rate, the evidence at hand indicates that the ensuing period was pre-occupied with construction details and staffing negotiations, with the British Development Division in the Caribbean playing the part expected of the aid donor financing the operation and paying the Adviser's travelling and office expenses. Technical-vocational education as an educational aid priority

151 Ibid., p.16. 152 Ibid. 153 Press Release No. 42, from the British Develop ment Division in the Caribbean* November 1970, reported that Lavender was seconded to the UWI Cave Hill Campus in Barbados as Honorary Consultant on Technical Education, which may have indicated a shift in the center of gravity from close relations with the UWI Faculty of Engineering on the Trinidad Campus though also more convenient for purposes of commuting to the Leeward and Windward Islands. EDUCATIONAL AID PRIORITIES 277 for the Leeward and Windward Islands appears to have shifted away from any major Commonwealth Caribbean responsibility at the formative stages of implementation. 54" The change in the extent of UWI involvement in planning to meet technical training needs in the Eastern Caribbean is probably best illustrated by the Water Industry experience. In 1965 the UWI Faculty of Engineering co-sponsored, with the Pan American Health Organisation, a seminar on the water supply problems of the Eastern Caribbean.15 -5^ Water engineers from the Leeward and Windward Islands and Barbados participated in the Seminar and training needs were among the subjects discussed. Surveys in respect of water supply needs in the islands were subsequently carried 156 out under the auspices of WHO. ' However, when the first

154 Development of Technical Education in St. Lucia, in which the Ministry records that Lavender and Dr. K. Julien, Dean, UWI Faculty of Engineering visited the St. Lucia building made available by the Government for the Technical College, in order to draw up plans for physical layout of workshops. The extent of further co-operation in other island projects appears to have been limited. 155 Proceedings of Seminars on Water Supply Problems in The Eastern Caribbean. Port of Spain, Trinidad and Tobago, Faculty of Engineering, University of the West Indies and Pan American Sanitary Bureau, World Health Organization, 1965. 156 Used by Canada to develop water projects in the Leeward and Windward Islands. EDUCATIONAL AID PRIORITIES 278

Water Engineers' Conference on Training Needs in the Eastern Caribbean was convened in Trinidad, February 1970,1^7 there was no UWI participation. Conveners were listed as the British Development Division, the Canadian International Development Agency and PAHO/WHO. No member of UWI staff is listed among conference participants. Water engineers from the Leeward and Windward Islands, Barbados and the British Virgin Islands as well as the Trinidad Deputy Technical Director (Water and Sewage Authority) joined the representatives of the three agencies for the Conference. One of the significant features of this Conference for this study is the active involvement of the Canadian International Development Agency. It appears that, by 1970, CIDA was prepared to recognise that the ultimate success of Canadian concentration on the Water Sector as one of the major fields for its development assistance efforts in the Leeward and Windward Islands, depended on the extent to which training needs were met. TableXXXshows that CIDA funding to

157 Report, Water Engineers' Conference on Training Needs in the Eastern Caribbean. Trinidad, lb-20 February 1970. 158 Ibid., title page, and p.5, where it is pointed out that the three international technical assistance agencies were conveners but "actual initiation of the session lay with national water engineers through their individual, yet unanimous clamour for it." EDUCATIONAL AID PRIORITIES 279

TABLE XXX.-

Canadian Capital Assistance - Water Sector Leeward and Windward Islands 1958-1970 (grant funds)

Island Item Expenditure

Antigua Survey Possible Dam Site \ 250,000.00 Collector System-Coolidge Field 260,000.00 Dominica Distribution System 347,000.00 Grenada Distribution System 775,000.00 Montserrat Water Development 30,000.00 Survey of Resources 352,000.00 St. Kitts Water Development 371,053.88 Storage Facilities 198,000.00 Well Driller & Rig for Survey 100,000.00 St. Lucia Distribution System 350,000.00 Distribution System 1,250,000.00 St. Vincent Kingstown Water System 16,331.05 Distribution System & Survey 425,000.00 Total $4,724,384.93

Source: Compiled from CIDA, Completed and Current Capital Projects, Revised, October 29, 1969. EDUCATIONAL AID PRIORITIES 280 the Water Sector in the islands between 1958 and 1970 totalled $4.7 million, in addition to technical assistance expenditures. Among possible contributions from CIDA and BDD mentioned at the Conference were student subsistence allowances, teachers, a short-term consultant and a few fellowships.159 A considerable amount of Conference time was spent on constructing syllabus requirements.i fin A great deal of emphasis was placed on the extent to which the new Technical Colleges in the leewards and Windwards might develop programs to meet the special needs identified for future recruitment.16 1 It was felt that other needs could be met by regional institutions or attachment in the larger territories, and the rest by overseas institutions. Resolution 111 recommended as follows: A committee be created to interview the person or persons responsible for establishing the proposed Technical Centres in the Eastern Caribbean Islands with a view to having them include in their course curricula the subjects of training proposed by the Conference for the various categories of water works personnel.-,g2

159 Ibid., p.17. 160 Ibid., p.22-39. 161 Ibid., p.14,15,47,48. 162 Ibid., p.49. EDUCATIONAL AID PRIORITIES 281

Other committees were charged with investigating other avenues of training provision, but there was no specific reference to the UWI in the report of Conference deliberations. Canada's belated recognition of training needs is equally surprising, since the Tripartite Survey in 1966 had noted the shortages of skilled manpower in this sector. St. Lucia's water board authorities had been reported as stating that they had "neither in training nor on the job enough water engineers, laboratory technicians or pipe fitters, and other skilled workmen necessary for carrying out their important ten year water development programme."1 ftJ ~\ It was only in the last two years preceding the Water Engineers' Conference that EAO's Training Division had made any attempt to earmark a number of awards for 164 Water Development rather than accept random nominations in many fields of study from island governments.

163 Tripartite Survey Report, p.83. 164 EAO Extract from Briefing Paper on CCAP Technical Assistance Program. Ottawa, September 10, 1968, p.5. EDUCATIONAL AID PRIORITIES 282

3. Summary

The universal right to basic education at the primary level had long been established in the area and the first priority for educational assistance was improve ment in quantity and quality of provision. Associated with this was the need for diversification at the upper levels. Caribbean Reporters were convinced that a "massive injection" of external capital assistance would serve to improve physical amenities for schooling, including furniture, equipment, school supplies and books. Island education officials informed the Tripartite Survey team that what was needed for education was "not more paper but hard cash." It was generally assumed that revision of curricula would be a local undertaking and that the University of the West Indies would be the source of assistance in teacher training and advanced training for the educational and administrative services. At the same time, there was increasing reliance on overseas scholarships and training awards in the expectation that graduates would return to serve in their island of origin. The Tripartite Report assumed that initiative as well as expertise would have to be imported into the Leewards and Windwards. A regional mechanism was proposed for the channelling of external aid to the islands. EDUCATIONAL AID PRIORITIES 282

The experience of implementing technical-vocational education suggests that educational aid priorities were determined by political and financial considerations rather than a clear estimate of educational need or manpower implications. Aid donors and recipients indulged in piece meal planning rather than solutions derived from a comprehensive analysis of overall training needs, as the Water Development program also illustrates. This examination of educational aid priorities suggests that the basic assumptions on which these priorities were established needed to be tested. Close monitoring of returning graduates would have revealed the extent of the problem before the "brain drain" assumed major proportions. Relevant questions as to the nature of courses followed by trainees and job prospects for returning counterparts may have indicated necessary courses of action. Creating a model of computerized school statistics may have helped island officials to test alternatives in predicting the results of school building programs on the disposition of school population and on teacher supply. It seems doubtful whether any re-ordering of priorities for external educational assistance could have been effectively achieved by either donors or recipients without an in-built system of evaluation which would have made it possible to compose a profile of the results of aid activity. CHAPTER V

A PERSPECTIVE ON CANADIAN EDUCATIONAL ASSISTANCE: LEEWARD AND WINDWARD ISLANDS, 1960-1970.

Quantitative aspects of Canada's bilateral aid to the Commonwealth Caribbean area have been the features of the country's development assistance activity publicised in official publications and, also, by the Canadian news media on the infrequent occasions on which Commonwealth Caribbean development efforts have been brought to the attention of the public.1 The main emphasis has tended to be on the increase in the level of aid allocation from various sources, with greatest attention to the rate of growth in Canadian Government funding through the 9 Commonwealth Caribbean Assistance Programme. Canada's aid agency also emphasised the favoured position which the Caribbean area held during the First Development Decade as a recipient of Canadian Government funds. As CIDA's Annual Review 1967-1968 pointed out, the Commonwealth Caribbean aid allocation had been increased by thirty per cent in each of the

1 A cursory review of selected Ontario newspapers in the period under review suggests that, although there have been occasional surges of interest exhibited, the items which have made the news tend to be reports of isolated instances of labour unrest, criminal activity and anti-white demonstrations. 2 Robert Turnbull, "Canadian financial aid big factor in Caribbean" in Globe and MailT Toronto, Friday, January 24, 1975, p.7. Subtitles as follows: "First stage: $10-million;" "The second stage: $100-million;" "From 1972 on: five-year plans averaging $50-million." A PERSPECTIVE ON CANADIAN EDUCATIONAL ASSISTANCE 284 preceding fiscal years and the region had received the "highest per capita volume of Canadian aid." One of the rate instances in which an attempt was made to explain the nature of this high per capita aid rating was found by the researcher in a CIDA document which mentioned briefly that geographic and demographic factors contributed to the result of this computation. At any rate, the Senate Committee on Foreign Affairs concluded in its 1970 Report that, "even among other areas of aid concentration, there is no region where the relative strength of the Canadian aid presence is even distantly comparable " (that is, to that of the Commonwealth Caribbean). Within this general context, the Eastern Caribbean territories were reported to be receiving the highest level of Canadian aid per capita compared to the rest of the Commonwealth 6 Caribbean. Educational assistance to the Little Seven was regarded as an important area of development assistance activity by both the Canadian Government and the non-governmental

3 CIDA, Annual Review 1967-1968T Ottawa, Queen's Printer, 1968, p.16. 4 CIDA, Canada And The Caribbean,. Ottawa, Information Division, Communications Branch, C.1972J, p.2, noting that the total population of an area, stretching over 2,100 miles from Belize to Guyana, was only 4.5 million, but that CCAP dealt with about 12 separate national governments within that area. 5 Report of The Standing Committee on Foreign Affairs of the Senate of Canada on Canada-Caribbean RelationsT Ottawa, Queen's Printer, 1970, p.24. 6 Ibid., p.25. A PERSPECTIVE ON CANADIAN EDUCATIONAL ASSISTANCE 285 organizations involved in various forms of help to this sector. This chapter provides a perspective on the qualitative factors which affected the interchange of human, financial and material resources in Canada's contribution to the education sector of the Leeward and Windward Islands between 1960 and 1970. The first set of criteria applied have been designed to assess the extent to which the organizational and operational characteristics of the Canadian aid effort met the requirements for implementation of a satisfactory educational aid program, (or, more precisely, a series of projects). The following criteria have been applied: (i) donor inclusion of recipient country in design stages - consultation of professionals known to have relevant knowledge (ii) fullest utilisation of local resources consonant with project e.g. local materials and locally produced building components; local labour at different levels of skill local personnel in educational activities local institutions - building on any existing nucleus or focal point (iii) financial consideration to keep local costs to recipients limited to reasonable level on necessary items of expenditure (iv) firm commitment established re respective donor and recipient areas of responsibility and subsequent undertakings A PERSPECTIVE ON CANADIAN EDUCATIONAL ASSISTANCE 286

(v) consultation and communication as an on-going process, in order to apply correctives where necessary and to replace confrontation with action which takes into account the traditions and sensibilities of recipients. (vi) scientific evaluation of all components of education projects, where possible encouraging joint donor- recipient in-put. (vii) provision for re-direction of aid on basis of joint assessment. The second set of criteria applied relate to the three levels of co-operation which seem relevant to the context in which Canada's aid effort operated in the Leewards and Windwards. The inter-relationships identified are - that between Canada and other Eastern Caribbean aid donors, (in particular Britain as the other major aid donor in the islands); that between Canadian sources of educational assistance to the Leeward and Windward Islands; and that between the Little Seven themselves as independent states and between the islands and Canada as the significant new source of development assistance to the area. Although there are limitations to the extent to which the criteria selected can be applied to all facets of these relationships, the following questions have been designed to test the process by which educational aid projects have been planned: (i) have educational needs been identified in the social and economic context of national development? (ii) have priorities for short-term and long-term develop ment been set by the recipient? (iii) have requirements for external educational assistance been identified? A PERSPECTIVE ON CANADIAN EDUCATIONAL ASSISTANCE 287

(iv) on what basis has recourse been sought to one donor as against another potential source of aid? (v) does favourable response depend on donor capacity to meet particular educational needs, or are other considerations paramount? (vi) what is the relative strength of organisational facilities within the donor country and within the recipient country for operation of education aid projects? (vii) would economy of effort be achieved by creation of new structures for informal or formal modes of co-operation? (viii) what is the nature of the impact which development efforts will have - for the recipient country: on educational development on immediate capacity on future requirements on the resources available to meet needs generated on recipient country's image for the donor country: through achievement of professional goals of educational assistance on professional capabilities on donor image (ix) has the aid program requested and granted taken into account the potential of education as a change agent? The two sets of criteria identified above have been used to construct a framework within which the main elements of Canada's educational assistance activities are examined. A PERSPECTIVE ON CANADIAN EDUCATIONAL ASSISTANCE 288

1. Building Construction as a form of Educational Assistance.

(a) Priorities and costs.- In devoting its major Capital

Assistance expenditure in the education sector of the Little Seven to provision of buildings for educational purposes, Canada was recognising that this was one of the chief priority areas identified by the islands for external assistance. Except for a two isolated instances, during the period covered by this study the Government of Canada, through its aid agency, was the source of funding for Canadian school construction in the Leeward and Windward Islands. The school building program developed slowly at first but, from the outset, the Canadian emphasis was placed on primary school building. In terms of previous reports- on educational needs in the islands, this appeared to be an obvious choice for assistance. There was no apparent disagreement between Canadian representatives and island officials about the general location (though not specific sites) of schools and the evidence indicates that the school venture began with enthusiasm on both sides. The process of implementation, however, revealed important differences

7 See Chapter IV. 8 These exceptions were the Ontario Ministry of Education's gift Of a school to St. Vincent with funds collected by schools and by public subscription in International Education Year, and the involvement of the Christian Brothers Provincialate in the building of St. Martin1s School, St. Vincent, for which a CIDA contribution was obtained. A PERSPECTIVE ON CANADIAN EDUCATIONAL ASSISTANCE 289 in approach. One noticeable feature was the amount allocated g to constructing schools. Even the early school ventures cost more than the islands were expecting to be spent on this level of school building. The scale of Canadian expenditure on all the schools built through the government's aid program would have seemed exorbitant to Caribbean educators and builders if compared to local costs. No precise comparisons of this kind were possible, for a number of reasons. In the first place, a portion of Canada's school allocation was intended to be paid to Canadians for survey and school design. Specifications were expected to take into account the fact that goods and materials purchased were required to fulfil the 80 percent "Canadian content" requirement. Once the design was accepted, school construction was placed in the hands of a Canadian contractor whose firm was ultimately responsible for having the project completed by the scheduled date. In brief, Canadian funds were intended to meet the costs or providing Canadian goods and services required for school construction and the major portion of any funds allocated to such a project remained in Canada. This procedure meant that a Canadian school building grant had significant implications for local funding. Site

9 See Table Vll, p.57, for Canadian Capital Assistance expenditure, which was mainly for school buildings. A PERSPECTIVE ON CANADIAN EDUCATIONAL ASSISTANCE 290 provision and preparation were local costs. On occasion, special provision might have to be made for water supply and access roads if the school was intended to serve a locality which had previously been without a school or lacked these amenities. Local costs also included shipping and handling charges which might absorb a high percentage of Canada's 25 per/cent contribution to local expenditure, to which local labour costs had to be added. There appear to have been difficulties on both sides. Canadian complaints of inadequate site preparation were serious enough to warrant a reconsideration of this general policy by aid agency representatives. Problems with local customs clearance and storage of school components were reported to have held up project completion in certain instances. In these cases, Canadian costs would have been affected if further site preparation were needed, or if equipment or furniture had to be replaced. (b) School design factors.- Even in the case of the specially designed Maple Leaf Schools, there was evidence that, in some islands, the idea of a Canadian school design was resented. It is not surprising that, on more than one occasion,

10 See Chapter 11, p.74. A PERSPECTIVE ON CANADIAN EDUCATIONAL ASSISTANCE 291

St. Vincent's officials expressed the opinion that the job could have been undertaken locally and built at less cost and probably to better effect. This was the island which had been particularly commended earlier in the Decade for its inventiveness in using local materials to reduce primary school building costs. The views of the Premier, the Honourable Milton Cato, reported at the time of the visit of the Ontario Ministry of Education's team to St. Vincent, show the strength of the feeling that a better job could have been done locally if the island had been 12 allowed to manage the project. At the same time, the conclusion that external assistance was needed in Leeward and Windward Island school construction processes appears to have been established both by the Tripartite Survey , ; and by the Reports, Survey and Evaluation of Existing

14 School Buildingsr prepared by D.I. White for UNESCO. White recommended that the Associated States obtain an architectural design team "to provide design services for all educational buildings, and to act in an advisory capacity to the British

11 See Chapter IV, p. 229. 12 See Chapter 111, p.211. 13 Report of the Tripartite Economic Survey of the Eastern Caribbean, p.80. in which doubt is expressed whether Island Public Works Departments could cope with a major building program. 14 D.I. White, Survey and Evaluation of Existing School Buildings. Eastern Caribbean, (Distribution: Limited) Paris, UNESCO, 1969. A PERSPECTIVE ON CANADIAN EDUCATIONAL ASSISTANCE 292

Development Division and to the officers of the Canadian Aid 15 Programme." Whereas he saw this as a long term need, the UNESCO Educational Planning Adviser in St. Lucia at the time saw the need for a School Architect to design and supervise the construction of a number of schools over an initial period of up to six months. Emerson's opinion was that this "would be a suitable field for international or bilateral technical 16 assistance." On the other hand, both UNESCO Advisers agreed that local materials should be utilised for school building. White was careful to observe that "preference should be given to the use of local materials (subject to considerations of aid programme requirements), particularly those which are relatively maintenance free, and which retain a good appearance." Emerson gave the matter his attention, concluding that "school buildings should, to the dullest extent possible, make use of local materials for 1 p both economic and educational reasons." His argument merits detailed consideration. The economic reasons he cited were, that local materials were usually cheaper than imported items, and

15 Ibid., p.13, (Grenada Report).

16 L.H.S. Emerson, Education in St. Luciar The Present Situation and an Outline Development Plan 1969/70-1974/75T Draft Report, (Confidential), Castries, St. Lucia, February 15th, 1969, p.43.

17 D.I. White, Grenada Report in op.cit.T p.7.

18 L.H.S. Emerson, OP.cit.T p.42. A PERSPECTIVE ON CANADIAN EDUCATIONAL ASSISTANCE 293 that local industries and local labour would be encouraged. His educational reasons were no less significant. A well-built school made from local materials would serve as an example of modernisation within the context of the known environment. "Second, the flood of products imported from more advanced areas incessantly pounds out the fallacious message that national products are no good and that all good things come from outside." An architectural point which was also made by Emerson was that the traditional shingle roof used in St. Lucia would be more suitable for tropical conditions than other kinds of roofing material being used in school construction. The Maple Leaf Schools provided another type of design intended to meet tropical conditions. According to subsequent reports from the islands, the success of the design was limited. White noted that "schools should be designed to fit the sites and not designed at a distance, necessitating the subsequent quest for 20 sites to accommodate them." He produced a technical guide for planning primary schools in the islands, rather than a model design.

19 Ibid. 20 D.I. White, OP.cit.. p.51. A PERSPECTIVE ON CANADIAN EDUCATIONAL ASSISTANCE 294

(c) Operational and organisational context of school provision.- School construction as a form of educational assistance to the Leeward and Windward Islands operated in a context which may have been difficult for persons from outside the Commonwealth Caribbean to understand. A new school building was not only an educational asset which would probably increase 21 enrolment and improve attendance. It was also a political 22 tool in the hands of the local politician. Few decisions about siting schools were taken without reference to the Prime Minister and other leading government officials in the islands. Canadian aid agency representatives visiting the Leeward and Windward Islands to discuss school matters found themselves 23 dealing directly with the top level of the local government. As a senior official on Canada's resident mission staff in one of the Commonwealth Caribbean islands noted, "In several of the Leeward and Windward Island elections in recent years, candidates for the Premier's Office have made use of their alleged ability to obtain Canadian aid funds as a key point in their political platforms." Canadian aid schools and promises of schools were

21 As there is no school zoning in the Caribbean, children can enrol in schools other than the one nearest to their homes, and a new school would easily encourage transfers. 22 As the researcher has observed, in developed countries politicians kiss babies at election time out in the Caribbean politicians tend to promise schools. 23 See Chapter 11, p.67, for list of officials attending the St. Lucia meeting finalizing plans for the Comprehensive School being donated by Canada.

24 Report of interview with Canadian Mission, 1971. A PERSPECTIVE ON CANADIAN EDUCATIONAL ASSISTANCE 295 noted in Budget Speeches and Throne Speeches. The official opening of one of these schools was a major occasion in the island concerned. The list of officials present at such Canadian aid school events was impressive and the speeches expressed gratitude to Canada in the flowery rhetoric of Caribbean public 25 occasions. The personal relationship established between Canadian aid agency representatives and Eastern Caribbean government officials made subsequent delays in implementing school building plans particularly frustrating to all concerned with the school program. Education plans were sketchy, annual reports out of date and statistics difficult to obtain. In the course of the Decade, island administration of education was in the process of 27 reorganisation. Titles, personnel and responsibilities were subject to change. Each shift in the position held by an island civil servant might mean months of delay in forwarding requests or in taking other action to which the island government was already committed. Responsibility tended to be concentrated in the hands of a few individuals and any dislocation such as vacation or attendance at conferences out of the island added to

25 See Chapter 11, p.81. 26 This was still the situation reported in Professional Development Associates, Educational Requirements in the Leeward and Windward Islands, Ottawa 1972, p.5-7. 27 For example, the establishment of ministerial responsibility and revised Regulations, etc. were only undertaken after 1966. A PERSPECTIVE ON CANADIAN EDUCATIONAL ASSISTANCE 296 the lengthy silences such as those complained of, for example, 28 by the Overseas Book Centre. Delays in bringing plans to fruition held the possibility that policies and procedures as well as personnel might change in the intervening period. Changes of this kind usually had direct repercussions on donor priorities for external assistance. In the Eastern Caribbean situation, the effects of Canadian decisions about the administration of aid were of import to school provision. Two phases of reorganisation, during which the External Aid Office under H.O. Moran, became the Canadian International Development Agency under Maurice Strong, resulted in a period of uncertainty and of confusion in Ottawa which was reflected in the temporary slowdown of the whole aid program.2 9 The organisational structure effectively separated technical assistance into compartments in which teachers were assigned, (Education Division), trainees and scholarship holders were administered, (Training Division), and capital assistance operated on another level. In theory the regional coordinator was supposed to lend cohesion to the activities of these separate units. In practice, the system did not lend itself to coordination,

28 See Chapter 111, p.180, 181. 29 See Chapter 1, p.26, 27. A PERSPECTIVE ON CANADIAN EDUCATIONAL ASSISTANCE 297

Of) particularly as budgetary provision was also compartmentalised. By 1970 the problems had assumed major proportions and important changes were introduced with the reorganization of the Operations Branch on a geographic rather than a functional basis, a project 31 system for planning, approving and implementing programs, and computerized financial and project reporting systems. In the Leeward and Windward Islands, election campaigns intervened and there were changes in leadership in most of the islands. Canadian officials dealt with new Prime Ministers representing new political parties in power. However, the evidence examined indicates that, as far as school construction was concerned, there were no significant changes in the approach taken or the specifics requested for Canadian educational assistance. The agreed five-year program of Canadian assistance to the education sector took so long to implement that there was, in fact, little room for manoeuvre, and while both donor and recipients had legitimate complaints of increased costs due to delays and inefficiencies, there were other developments which proved more important to the future of the aid relationship.

30 Interview held by researcher with Regional Co-ordinator, CIDA, 1970, confirmed this view. 31 Aid Posts were notified of the ma ior changes involved in conversion to an overall project system in CIDA letter of November 13, 1970. A PERSPECTIVE ON CANADIAN EDUCATIONAL ASSISTANCE 298

(d) Overview of school provision.- The educational aid priorities of the islands shifted ground considerably during the last years of the Decade. Primary school construction was still regarded as important, but the need to upgrade provision for the 11-15 age group became the major area of emphasis. Tentative approaches began to be made to Canadian Government representatives, enquiring about the possibility of converting the Maple Leaf Schools and other Canadian gift schools to "Junior Secondary" schools. According to CIDA reports, there were requests for adjustments which would provide for assembly areas and for specialist rooms for subjects such as home economics. The schools were then in the process of construction and, in spite of the pressure which the islands were beginning to exert, it was initially decided by CIDA that the original agreement should stand.3 *2 There appeared to be good grounds for this decision. The project was designed to meet needs which had been clearly identified by both Caribbean educators and prospective donor countries, not only as urgent educational requirements but as priorities for external educational assistance. The Maple Leaf School project awaited the formation of the Regional Development Agency and had been accepted as a regional project for the 33 Eastern Caribbean. To have had any legitimacy, requests for

32 See Chapter 11, p.73. 33 Ibid., p.71. A PERSPECTIVE ON CANADIAN EDUCATIONAL ASSISTANCE 299 changes should have come through the Regional Development Agency, but, even then, reasonable arguments against granting such requests could have been made on educational grounds. The idea that school building design must be related to the initial need for which it was proposed had particular significance for the Maple Leaf Schools. With the intention of providing an improved learning environment for primary school children in the islands, space allocation had been worked out at an increased square footage per child. A change to the 11 + age group meant that there were new estimates of school population which bore no relation to actual and prospective needs. In addition facilities to meet subject teaching require ments were different, although there was little indication, even in 1971, that the role of the new level of schools had been sufficiently defined by the islands. Some Caribbean educators were sceptical about the condemnation of island barn-type structures by Canadian and other donor agencies. It was pointed out, even in 1972, that separate classrooms had disadvantages in placing unreasonable pressure on school staff in a system which did not provide for extra teachers, free period or a teacher supply service. Supervision became problematic if for any reason a full complement of staff were not in attendance. Undoubtedly the situation as it existed needed considerable improvement, but the question should at least be asked, whether greater attention to A PERSPECTIVE ON CANADIAN EDUCATIONAL ASSISTANCE 300 acoustical separations may not have been an innovation more relevant to traditional structures. The Caribbean experience suggests that, although a good physical environment is important, school buildings have never in themselves been enough to change the mode of teaching in the region or to upgrade the standard of education. In addition, school maintenance needs to be a key factor in local commitment to building programs. Dominica's 1971 request to CIDA for training in this field may well have been the most significant sign that the islands recognised the need for a positive program 33 in this respect. However, the most significant point which seems to emerge from the Canadian school buildJtpng program in the Leeward and Windward Islands is the gap in communications at every level of proceedings. Changing priorities during protracted negotiations were not sufficiently assessed; implications of changes were not adequately studied by the participants; progress reports and completion schedules were not common knowledge to island education officials and CIDA representatives - so that on occasion teachers were assigned from local and foreign sources to posts in schools which were completed several months behind schedule. In the

33 P.D.A., OP.cit.. p.87. 34 CIDA, Extract from Report on Visit to Eastern Caribbean Islands,. November 30-December 10r 1969T Appendix on School Building Programme, also indicated a breakdown in communications at the local level, as Canadian contractors dealt with Public Works officers who did not in turn maintain contact with Ministry of Education. A PERSPECTIVE ON CANADIAN EDUCATIONAL ASSISTANCE 301 effort to have buildings constructed, it only gradually became obvious that equipment and furniture would have to be provided, and neither the donor nor the recipients made provision for an adequate supply of books and teaching materials which would make it possible for different methods to be introduced in the new environment.

2. Provision of Canadian Educational Personnel

The majority of Canadian educators serving in the Leeward and Windward Islands in the period under review were provided through the External Aid Office and its renamed successor, the Canadian International Development Agency. The Canadian University Service Overseas was the second sourcecof provision from a planned program of educational assistance. The Canadian Teachers' Federation^working in conjunction with island teachers* unions, helped to organise and staff summer in-service programs in two of these islands, Grenada and St. Vincent, in the period under review. There were also staff inputs from the Roman Catholic"Church in Canada to schools run by religious affiliates in some of the islands.

35 See Chapters 111, IV, re provision of books and materials. A PERSPECTIVE ON CANADIAN EDUCATIONAL ASSISTANCE 302

(a) CIDA and CUSO personnel.- The Canadian presence in the Leeward and Windward Islands has been most consistently represented by the country's educational personnel. In framing requests for assistance the islands had the choice between experienced teachers whose salary was paid by the Canadian Government, and recent graduates of universities and other institutions recruited by CUSO and paid local salaries by the island government. More often than not the Little Seven opted for CIDA teachers, and there were complaints about untrained and 37 inexperienced volunteers. It appears that the level of 38 expertise was not the only factor involved in the choice. In the existing situation in which there was only a small group of university graduates numbered among the Eastern Caribbean population, a particular social status and lifestyle were expected of persons who had received higher education. CUSO volunteers did not always conform to traditional expectations and found it

36 For an attempt to enquire into the comparative qualifications and educational contributions of Canadian teachers overseas, (in Nigeria and Sarawak), see Gloria Mary Smith, Contributions of Canadian Teachers in Overseas Aid Programs, University of British Columbia, September 1968, unpublished M.A, thesis. The study compares EAO and CUSO teachers during the decade 1957-67, concluding that there was an urgent need for coordination at donor and recipient levels, clearer definition of roles and greater volunteer emphasis on professional training. 37 Senate Foreign Affairs Committee, Proceedings,. No.7, Wednesday, February 25, 1970, p.22-24, for a discussion of CUSO personnel. 38 Ibid., p.23, indicates that the "weaker candidates" were at first sent to the Caribbean. A PERSPECTIVE ON CANADIAN EDUCATIONAL ASSISTANCE 303

difficult to gain acceptance in small island communities. Quite apart from any difference in philosophical outlook and motivation, the salary differential ensured that CUSO teachers would normally adopt a different lifestyle from that of their Canadian colleagues sponsored by the home government. CUSO people were responsible for their own living costs and their salaries had to be included in island education commitments. CIDA teachers had to be provided with furnished houses suitable for the number of dependents, roost appointees being persons with families. Hotel costs had to be paid for the interim periods on arrival and on departure when permanent accommodation was not available. Transportation for the appointee and dependents had to be found at the beginning and end of the tour of duty. Transportation or a basic monthly allowance for travelling on official duties within the island had to be provided for the appointee. Medical facilities were required or reimbursement, for reasonable services obtained by the appointee and dependents. In addition, CIDA personnel were exempt from, import duties on personal and household effects brought in at the time of the assignment, though these were taxable if disposed of in the island. Income tax exemptions were agreed on as well 39 as annual leave arrangements.

39 See for example, CIDA, Opportunities For Service Abroad Under the Canadian Programmes for International Development. Ottawa, £1970J, p.3, 4. and Memoranda of Understanding: bilateral agreements with countries of service. A PERSPECTIVE ON CANADIAN EDUCATIONAL ASSISTANCE 304

It appears that the island governments did not always find it easy to provide the required level of facilities and that, on many occasions, the payment of allowances was not as promptly undertaken as they should have been. In some instances new houses were built to accommodate expatriate staff, particularly when they were serving at new institutions built in fairly isolated locations. Accommodation for Canadian technical assistance personnel was, in the case of the proposed St. Lucia comprehensive school, regarded by Canadian aid officers as "a major problem with respect to implementation of the Technical Asst. component" of the project. No houses were available and no definite plans had been made at the time of these discussions, though the Minister of Education had mentioned the possibility of purchasing property next to the school site to build staff accommodation. Whatever truth there may have been in allegations of inefficiency, lack of concern and broken promises in provision of accommodation for CIDA personnel by island governments, the problem began to assume.-major proportions as the number of teachers, advisers and other technical assistance personnel from all donor agencies, in response to ialand requests for assistance increased appreciably during the period under review, at the same time that island real estate and housing costs were

40 CIDA, Notes on Comprehensive School, St. Lucia , Ottawa, 1970. A PERSPECTIVE ON CANADIAN EDUCATIONAL ASSISTANCE 305 also increasing steadily. The question of accommodation for CIDA personnel in the Eastern Caribbean was the subject of a memorandum to Ottawa from the Canadian High Commissioner's office 41 in Trinidad. It pointed out that local governments were finding CIDA personnel exceedingly expensive to maintain. Not only was the matter the source of disagreements, but the difficulty of obtaining suitable housing at a reasonable price was also likely to prevent requests for any significant increase in Canadian technical assistance, in spite of the fact that the Eastern Caribbean governments would be happy to receive more CIDA personnel. It was recommended that the system be changed to a joint cost-sharing arrangement between CIDA and CIDA personnel. The supporting argument cannot be faulted. The memorandum analysed the situation in terms which merit the closest attention, because they lay on the line the position which recipients of Canadian aid in the islands were too wary as well as too polite to state to the Canadian Government. Beginning from the point that CIDA personnel in the islands were receiving a salary similar to that which they would

41 Extract from Memorandum, Canadian High Commission, Trinidad to CIDA, Ottawa, re Accommodation for Canadian Technical Assistance Personnel in the Eastern Caribbean. A PERSPECTIVE ON CANADIAN EDUCATIONAL ASSISTANCE 306 have been receiving in Canada, the logical conclusion was made that they would have had to meet their own housing costs in Canada. Allowing for any loss which, according to the memorandum, may have been incurred in either renting out their privately- owned accommodation or re-establishing themselves in rented accommodation on their return, some financial consideration was deemed necessary. The suggestion was that the difference in cost between accommodation in Canada and adequate accommodation abroad should be met by the Canadian Government, while normal housing costs would be met by the assignee. A significant comment, in conclusion of the case made, was that it was not, in any case, desirable for CIDA personnel to have better living accommodation than their counterparts and even than senior civil servants at the permanent secretary level. The cost to Canada of maintaining a Canadian teacher in the Commonwealth Caribbean has been variously estimated at an average annual rate of between $15,000. and $19,000. during the 42 period under review. This did not include the additional cost of special allowances for overseas service. CUSO estimated the organisation's administrative costs for volunteers in the Commonwealth Caribbean at $5,000. per volunteer per annum.

42 For example, PDA, Educational Requirements in St.LuciaT Draft Final Report, Ottawa, October, 1971, p.172, estimated that at the level of the junior secondary school principal, there had been a 33% growth rate in the period 1965-1970, from $14,000. per annum to $18,675. By 1971 costs were approximately $22,000. average annual salary. A PERSPECTIVE ON CANADIAN EDUCATIONAL ASSISTANCE 307

The overall costsjto Leeward and Windward Island governments of supporting Canadian Technical assistance personnel have not been satisfactorily documented. Some interesting points of comparison can be made from the following statement in which the Government of St. Vincent recorded local costs of expatriate teachers for the year 1970: 7 CIDA - Teachers (Accomodation) $ 6,553.00 4 VSO (Allowances) 6,652.80 21 Peace Corps (Assistance with furniture, etc.) 236.02 1 CUSO (Salary) 1,902.00 $15,343.82 In an earlier estimate (1966) of St. Vincent's expenditure 44 for Canadian aid teachers, the following allowances were made to provide for 3 teachers (one at the Teacher Training College; one to teach A level physics at the Government Secondary Schools; one to teach technical subjects in the Grammar School Technical Wing)

43 Government of St. Vincent, List of Teachers from Voluntary Agencies. St. Vincent, 1970. 44 G.H. Clough, St. Vincent Report. 1966, p.39. A PERSPECTIVE ON CANADIAN EDUCATIONAL ASSISTANCE 308

in addition to two others already on contract - allowance 1964- 1966, $9,046.) -

(i) House rent: 48 months @ $100.00 per month for 5 teachers $24,000. (ii) Alimentary allowance: 5 teachers @ $1.00 per day 7,300. (iii) Travelling allowance: for Principal of Training College @ $30.00 per month 1,440. $32,740. At the time of this estimated expenditure, average annual salaries in St. Vincent were $1,750.00 for a graduate teacher and $1,000.00 for a non-graduate, with an incremental rate of $72.00 per annum.

(b) Professional contribution.- As far as the researcher has been able to ascertain, any attempt to evaluate the effectiveness of the professional contribution made to Leeward and Windward Islands education by Canadian aid personnel, has been impressionistic, rather than the result of scientific 45 evaluation. Social adjustment rather than professional expertise appears to have been the major factor in both aid agency assessments and the usually complimentary comments made by island government

45 For example, reports by aid agency representatives were usually on the plane of comments reporting that such and such a person was "doing a good job" and "well liked by his co-workers." Benjamin Higgins, "The Evaluation of Technical Assistance" in International Journal. Vol. 25, No. 1, Winter 1969-70, C.I.I.A., p.34, concludes that evaluation is an impossible task and suggests a quantitative approach. A PERSPECTIVE ON CANADIAN EDUCATIONAL ASSISTANCE 309 officials. It is doubtful whether the personal assessments made to Ottawa by CIDA Caribbean education personnel during this period were used as the basis of decisions about the scope of future programming. CUSO's efforts to decentralise some aspects of the Caribbean program, as well as recognition of the problems likely to arise from a cadre of inexperienced teachers scattered through the islands, led to closer monitoring of the operational features of volunteer activity. However, it seems that logic and commonsense rather than professional educational expertise were applied to supervision of teaching personnel. The Canadian Teachers' Federation, by virtue of its professional concerns, as well as its carefully developed policies towards educational assistance, kept its program within a framework which Caribbean educators found acceptable. Providing short-term professional help, in co-operation with island teachers' associations, made it possible for CTF to concentrate on the teaching needs identified by the islands. The maturity and professional expertise of most of the persons selected resulted in a capable and flexible response to the situation found 48 in the islands.

46 The vast accumulation of files on technical assistance personnel will provide a useful source of reference on this feature of Canada's aid program, but it appears that personal relationships and family matters have been taken more seriously than professional concerns. 47 Not without success, according to researcher's observations and interview held by researcher with CUSO Caribbean Coordinator, 1970. 48 See Chapter 111, p.158, 159. A PERSPECTIVE ON CANADIAN EDUCATIONAL ASSISTANCE 310

However, there have been disadvantages to the one-shot summer Workshops for which there have been no follow-up arrangements through the school year; no recognition by island governments by way of increments or credits of any kind; and no attempt to evaluate the utility of the activity, other than in terms of goodwill between professional colleagues and teachers* associations and the enhancement of the Canadian image. One of the imponderables in the CTF situation was that, as far as the researcher has been able to ascertain, there was evidently no contact with Canadian teacher training personnel serving with CIDA or with CUSO personnel in the islands on a two year contract basis. In islands such as Grenada and St, Vincent in which CTF operated at the end of the Decade, there were relatively new teachers' colleges, one to serve each island. Both had Canadian principals but there was no connection between course planners and colleges, nor were staff in evidence during the summer session. Canadian educational assistance by provision of personnel for the Commonwealth Caribbean, achieved a climactic point in Ottawa and in the Caribbean through the summer months in each of the last years of the survey period. The separate but related activity of three different organizations preparing Canadian teachers to teach in the same locations appeared to require the expenditure of fairly substantial sums for briefing sessions in A PERSPECTIVE ON CANADIAN EDUCATIONAL ASSISTANCE 311 different venues in the national capital.4 9 Educational expertise and professional concerns seemed peripheral to the main preoccupations of the prepared agenda. Language was not generally given special consideration for the English-speaking Caribbean, though reading and English teaching duties would be performed in areas with distinctive dialects. Little effective use was made of modern audio-visual techniques, each summer session being regarded as a separate activity with continuity provided by the in-put of persons who had already served overseas. Briefing sessions appeared to be morale builders rather than preparation for professional duties of a specific nature. In the Caribbean, the summer scene in expatriate educat ional assistance has been compared to a Mad Hatter's Tea Party. Although the University of the West Indies Department of Education was supposed to be teacher education oriented, and gave occasional vacation courses, its teaching staff was only vaguely aware of some of the courses being offered to teachers in different territories of the region under the aegis of various sponsors and donor agencies, sometimes with in-put from the U.W.I. Institute of Education. No accurate compendium of teachers' courses offered

49 These organisations referred to are CIDA, CUSO and CTF. 50 Opinion of researcher based on review of briefing papers and experience as resource person with Canadian organisations. A PERSPECTIVE ON CANADIAN EDUCATIONAL ASSISTANCE 312 in any one year has ever been compiled in the region. While teachers* associations in some islands were negotiating with CTF, other islands were contemplating offers from voluntary organisations in Canada for in-service courses for primary school teachers. A Canadian adviser in one of the Leeward and Windward Islands complained that, "an offer from the Manitoba Association for World Development for primary teacher upgrading courses and Junior Secondary teacher vacation courses was turned down, yet 52 much the same request was made to ODM in Barbados." In some cases, Canadian Government funds were assisting groups competing with each other for the same kind of services to the islands, which appeared to have no criteria for deciding on one offer and rejecting another. There were also programs of vacation courses organised through the U.K. Ministry of Overseas Development and 53 its educational services.

51 Some measure of cohesive reporting on educational activities can be found by reference to the proceedings of the Standing Conference on Teacher Education in the Eastern Caribbean which met consistently after the decision of the 1965 Barbados Conference, but any recording of courses held was retroactive and did not include the courses offered by Canadian sources of assistance.

52 CIDA Teacher, Educational Aid to St. LuciaT St. Lucia, 1971. 53 Ministry of Overseas Development, An Account of the British Aid Programme,, Text of United Kingdom Memorandum to the Development Assistance Committee of the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, London, HMSO, 1970, p. 19, 20. The establishment of the Centre for Educational Development Overseas (CEDO), in April 1970, provided a basis for U.K. cooperative activity. A PERSPECTIVE ON CANADIAN EDUCATIONAL ASSISTANCE 313

3. Educational Assistance as Donor Competition

The Tripartite Economic Survey of the Leeward and Windward Islands in 1966 was virtually the turning point in the development of aid donor concentration on the Eastern Caribbean. After this period, Canada emerged as a significant contributor to selected sectors identified by the Survey, with special emphasis on infra structure, including basic educational facilities. Except for Peace Corps volunteers, no effective United States presence was maintained. Britain remained in a somewhat ambiguous and much misunderstood position. Having withdrawn from the colonial relationship to a carefully formulated Associated State-ship, British budgetary support was maintained for roost of the Leeward and Windward Islands for varying periods up to 1970. In addition to this contribution and participation in Commonwealth assistance programs, Britain also operated a program of development assistance. According to the British Development Division in the Caribbean, (the Barbados-sited office created for this purpose), "the most significant single regional development in aid terms since the TES [^Tripartite Economic Survey J has been establishment and operations of the British Development Division in the Caribbean." In assessing the

54 1970 Caribbean Aid Donors Conference Papers Nos. 1-7T Windward Islands and Leeward IslandsT Barbados, BDD, 1970, for review of this position. 55 Ibid., No.8, p.81. A PERSPECTIVE ON CANADIAN EDUCATIONAL ASSISTANCE 314 relative contribution of aid donors, great stress was placed by BDD on "the establishment in the area, by the largest aid donor, of an aid management organisation, with considerable delegated powers; and flexibility of approach." The claim to be the largest aid donor was supported in the same paper by reference to the level of British capital and technical assistance funding as averaging£2.6 million annually, while Canada's annual average was "thought to be about £2.3 million," and other aid donor financing "negligible in financial terms." In spite of nice words exchanged at Commonwealth Conferences through the Decade, promising and actually implementing various kinds of cooperation, particularly in the field of educational assistance, the aid operation continued to evince many signs of donor competition during the Decade, It seems clear that the Commonwealth Education Director had no illusions about the preference for bilateral educational assistance in Commonwealth countries, though his 1970 article in Round Table expressed optimism about the increasing recognition of the Commonwealth as a forum for mutual discussion and review of aid policy between 58 aid donors and recipients. There is no doubt that this

56 Ibid.. No.9. 57 Ibid.. No.9. 58 Sir Hugh Springer, "Problems of Aid in Commonwealth Education" in Round Table. No. 239, July 1970, p.318. A PERSPECTIVE ON CANADIAN EDUCATIONAL ASSISTANCE 315 cooperative approach had not always been the guiding factor in the relationship between the two major aid donors operating in the field of educational assistance to the Leeward and Windward Islands in the period under review. On occasion, all aspects of educational aid provision became negotiable, in a three-sided display of gamesmanship which at times achieved the level of a charade. The Little Seven became increasingly adept at manoeuvring requests for assistance between Canada and Britain with occasional recourse to UNESCO, UNDP and ILO. One disgruntled Canadian teacher in the islands reported that the ODM office was invited to put laboratory facilities in the Canadian Schools with the idea that the resulting embarrassment might cause Canada to increase her contributions. A more accurate summation might have been that the laboratories were needed and the source by which they were provided did not really matter, but to make this claim the political connotations of educational aid would have to be ignored. The evidence examined suggests that Canada's response to island government pressure for extension and conversion of the school buildings provided through the Canadian aid program was influenced by the knowledge of British inclusion of these 59 facilities in the buildings donated by Britain. In addition,

59 See Chapter 11, p.79, for example, although other considerations were also cited. A PERSPECTIVE ON CANADIAN EDUCATIONAL ASSISTANCE 316 other comparisons made between British and Canadian school buildings cast aspersions at Canadian design, cost factor and related use of Canadian labour and materials as against the fin British Cosley model.

The assignment of aid personnel also came within the ambit of donor competition. The Little Seven, in common with the rest of the Commonwealth Caribbean, (and probably like all other recently independent former British colonies), shared a "love- hate" relationship with British educational patterns. The word was that the territories wanted to put an end to the British educational connection by introduction of new modes in textbooks, curricula and examinations. The theory was that the new self- awareness of independent political status should be reflected in local and regional innovations in education, replacing overseas orientation with a Caribbean philosophical and environmental 62 base. The fact was that small islands with limited human and financial resources resisting effective regional co-operation, had no alternative to meeting even the need for line teachers

60 PDA, Educational Requirements in the Leeward and Windward Islands. Ottawa, 1972, p.41-44, 120-121.

61 Introduction of a West Indian Examinations Council to replace the Cambridge, Oxford and London connection was the~main area of concentration at the level of Caribbean cooperation in education, as, for example at 1971 Guyana Conference sponsored through CARIFTA.

62 For a thoughtful consideration of the problems involved in arriving at educational priorities in the Caribbean, see, John J. Figueroa, Society. Schools and Progress in The West Indies, Oxford, Pergaroon Press, 1971, (Ch. 6, Priorities), p.149-181. A PERSPECTIVE ON CANADIAN EDUCATIONAL ASSISTANCE 317 with expatriate educational personnel. The tendency was to invite North American assistance in the vague and usually unstated hope that this would also serve to break away from traditional patterns of education. Canadian educators were invited to staff new institutions and, exercising their newly gained independence in such matters, the Little Seven did not hesitate to manoeuvre Canada into providing principals and staff 61 for some of the new institutions planned and built by Britain. (As put by an observer, Canada, on the other hand, would have found it unthinkable for St. Lucia for example, to announce that a British principal had been invited to be head of the Comprehensive School built by Canada in St. Lucia at a cost of over $1 million). By 1970, both CUSO and CIDA were taking a hard look at the technical assistance program in the islands. CIDA's funding of a joint building and technical assistance program for a comprehensive school in St. Lucia was estimated to 64 cost a maximum of $2.6 million. When the idea of comprehensive schools was first included by Bent in his 1966 St. Lucia Report, the estimated cost of four schools for 1,330 students each, was

63 See Chapter 11, p.109, 110. 64 Extract from Memorandum of Understanding Between The Government of St. Lucia and The Government of Canada For A Comprehensive School ProjectT Maiach 8, 1971, Canada assumed responsibility for site preparation, shipping costs and project handling; St. Lucia undertook to install and maintain water and electrical supply. The technical assistance component was a phased program on an agreed schedule. A PERSPECTIVE ON CANADIAN EDUCATIONAL ASSISTANCE 318 spread in two phases between 1966 and 1975, amounting to a total 65 of $800,000. Bent paid careful attention to the implications of building programs for teacher salaries and requirements, but there is little indication that this cohesive approach was continued by either the island governments or subsequent aid donors during the survey period. One of the papers presented by BDD at the 1970 Caribbean Aid Donors' Conference noted that "the mushrooming of junior secondary schools, gifted in the main through British and Canadian aid, has created an acute problem of teaching (sic) training for those who are to direct 66 and teach in them."

4. An Integrated Approach to Educational Assistance

(a) Regional cooperation in the Leewards and Windwards.- The problem of administering seven small islands stretching across the Caribbean with a scatter of even smaller islands as dependencies was never satisfactorily solved during the British 67 colonial period. The same problem, in new guise, was illustrated

65 R.A. Bent, St. Lucia Report, 1966, Appendix 1, in the sum of $200,000 E.C. is listed as estimated cost for each of two phases of comprehensive school development - an amount similar to that $200,000 Canadian subsequently granted by the Canadian Cabinet for a St. Lucia technical school. 66 1970 Caribbean Aid Donors Conference, Papers, No.8, p.79. 67 Coleridge Harris, "The Constitutional History of the Windwards" and Cecil A. Kelsiok, "Constitutional History of the Leewards" in Caribbean Quarterly. Vol. 6, Nos. 2 and 3, May, 1960, p.160-209. A PERSPECTIVE ON CANADIAN EDUCATIONAL ASSISTANCE.. 319 by Canada's aid relationship with the Associated States and the colony of Montserrat in the period under review. The Canadian Government expected that external assistance to the Eastern Caribbean would have been channelled through the Regional Development Agency proposed by the Tripartite Survey team for that purpose. The case made for creation of such a mechanism was primarily that of convenient mobilization of external initiative, organizational support and tangible assistance 68 necessary for continued development. As the team saw the situation, "to evoke this kind of sustained commitment on the part of overseas Governments for each territory separately seems to us to be uneconomic and unrealistic."6 9 Within the proposed framework, careful attention was given to outlining a possible role in future educational development. It is worth re-stating, because the team recognized the need for two operational levels in educational programming - the regional and the local. The regional contribution would be "that of initiating, co-ordinating and sustaining discussion between the territories, and between each territory and the agency" regarding educational innovation in areas as varied as curricula,

68 Report of the Tripartite Economic Survey, 1966, p.250. 69 Ibid. A PERSPECTIVE ON CANADIAN EDUCATIONAL ASSISTANCE 320 educational media, school construction and design and teacher certification. The continuing assessment of needs and deployment of specialist services on a regional basis were also seen to be within the scope of such an agency. The declared intention of much of this activity would be to assist the territories in formulating their own educational policies and plans, but the details of the relationship remained unclear. The survey team was fully aware of the implications which any organised form of regional cooperation .'might appear to the islands to have "as a means of keeping them under outside tutelage" - a "disguised form of federation." The Report was anxious to deny this intention and looked to the time when the three aid donors (U.K., U.S. and Canada) would gradually with draw from the organisation and it would become "an entirely 72 locally-run operation." The Survey team reckoned without the intense individualism of Eastern Caribbean political independence and the extent to which external aid in general and educational assistance in particular would become the center of deepseated rivalry, with education a pawn in the political game of development assistance. Once the Council of Ministers of the Associated States was set

70 Ibid., p.244. 71 Ibid., p.251. 72 Ibid. A PERSPECTIVE ON CANADIAN EDUCATIONAL ASSISTANCE 321 up, it is difficult to see how a separate regional institution, the Regional Development Agency, could have had any authority, particularly in the sphere of external aid. In any case, by the time that it was propelled into existence, partly by Canadian pressure, the islands had gained sufficient self confidence to put themselves at the helm and invite the aid donors to be observers. In general, Canada found herself in the very situation which the team had described as being "uneconomic and unrealistic" - making a sustained commitment to each territory separately. On the other hand, Britain's local Development Division considered itself to be, "on a narrower front, precisely what the TES considered the RDA should be"73 - dispensing "regional" rather than "bilateral" aid. The analogy seems some what inaccurate. The Tripartite proposal appears to have envisaged a cooperative effort by major aid donors in association with the recipients. The efficiency of a Caribbean-located office with delegated authority has much to recommend it, but it cannot be regarded as a substitute for an integrated approach to development assistance. A PERSPECTIVE ON CANADIAN EDUCATIONAL ASSISTANCE 322

(b) Canadian sources of educational assistance. : If all sources of Canada's development assistance contribution were taken into account, it seems likely that Canada was on the way to becoming the major aid donor in the Leeward and Windward 74 Islands. The Government of Canada provided the major portion of Canadian educational assistance to the Little Seven, through its bilateral program, from government to government, as well as through the funding assistance allocated to some of the non governmental voluntary and provincial organizations operating in the educational field in the Eastern Caribbean. There was no organic link between the Canadian sources of educational assistance in the Leeward and Windward Islands. The evidence examined suggests that there was little exchange of information about projects planned or completed, even in the instances in which organizations shared the same kind of professional concerns, such as in provision of teachers. The "economy of effort" recommended for the islands by the Tripartite team had certainly not been evinced by Canada's aid activities. As long ago as 1965, the Esterel workshop on Canada's participation in international development cited as

74 However, the fiction is maintained that total assistance contribution, like private investment, cannot be assessed. A PERSPECTIVE ON CANADIAN EDUCATIONAL ASSISTANCE 323 problems of educational aid requiring attention, the following points: There is a lack of information among agencies working in the area of overseas educational assistance about what others are doing, and there is a need for greater communication and cooperation. There is a need to co-ordinate the efforts of private and government educational aid, and perhaps for some sort of structure to achieve this. There is a need for much more research into education as it applies to problems of economic and social development, and into how Canada can best respond in terms of educational assistance.75 The same criticisms can be applied to the operations of those agencies involved in the Leeward and Windward Islands during the rest of the Decade.

5. Request and Response as Measures of Effectiveness in Planning of Educational Assistance

The framing of requests and formulation of response in educational assistance operate within the context of recipient and donor perceptions of participants' expectations and capabilities. After a decade of the aid relationship, donor practices tended to become well established, and bureaucratic

75 Overseas Institute of Canada, Canada's Participation in International DevelopmentT a report on the second national workshop on Canada's participation in international development, Esterel, P.Q., November 18-21, 1965, Ottawa, OIC, T1966J, p.12. 76 Senate Foreign Affairs Committee, Proceedings, No.7, Wednesday, February 25, 1970, p.27, 43, where CUSO complains of the general lack of co-ordination of development assistance in the Caribbean and Canadian aid agencies in particular. A PERSPECTIVE ON CANADIAN EDUCATIONAL ASSISTANCE 324 procedures through which aid was administered did not usually have a built-in formula for re-direction of the aid effort. Recipient countries,in some cases, became more skilled in modes of needs assessment and project preparation. Requests were more clearly defined in terms likely to appeal to a particular donor where preferences were known. In the case of Canadian educational assistance to the Leewards and Windwards, requests and response appear to have been consonant with the expressed desires of both parties. The Little Seven were aware of Canada's interest in school construction and in technical assistance. As far as the former were concerned, the allocation for the five year period was over-subscribed almost before the Cabinet allocation was assured. Placement of personnel was given more careful consideration as the period progressed and the problems of expatriate teacher assignment became more obvious to donor and recipient, although few Eastern Caribbean people were prepared to give the "lone" and "despairing" "cry of anguish" which Sir Hugh Springer noted, in respect of the debilitating effect of long term dependence on outside help in personnel, educational ideas and methods.

77 Sir Hugh Springer, OP.cit.. p.323. A PERSPECTIVE ON CANADIAN EDUCATIONAL ASSISTANCE 325

Scholarships and training grants for study in Canada were requested and given indiscriminately in the early years of the Canadian aid program. Requests were made without reference to the possibilities of future employment in the islands or contribution to Caribbean development. The situation was already well out of hand in 1968 when the EAO Training Division took note of the repatriation problem and regretted the "shopping-bag 78 approach to nominations." Nominations without definition of job function had been accepted, also requests by government officials for practical attachments on short-term visits to Canada. The Training Division concluded that many of the quotas for Canadian training allowances for the Caribbean had been inflated, citing the example of Antigua, in which it appeared that "approximately one out of every thousand Antiguans had a Canadian Government award in 1966-67, mainly under the CCAP but others under the Commonwealth Scholarship Plan and U.W.I. 79 program." As the officer pointed out dramatically the calculation was roughly equivalent to the government of Germany offering 20,000 annual awards to Canadians to study in Germany. It appeared that neither the islands nor the Canadian aid agency

78 CIDA, Extract from Briefing Paper on CCAP Technical Assistance Program, Ottawa, September 10, 1968, p.3. 79 Ibid. A PERSPECTIVE ON CANADIAN EDUCATIONAL ASSISTANCE 326 had required that needs be defined and that requests indicate priorities. In this instance, request and response cannot be taken as a measure of effectiveness in either the planning or the implementation of educational assistance. Perhaps a better measure of effectiveness may be found in the areas of educational assistance not requested by the Little Seven. In view of the theoretical emphasis on agriculture as an important means of achieving economic viability in these islands, it appears that neither the islands nor the aid donors accepted the role that education had to play in development of this area of activity. The island reports produced in 1966 did not make agricultural education a priority for either educational 80 development or external assistance. The Tripartite Survey Team emphasised service-related hotel skills and trades but did not convey any real meaning as to the extent to which economic viability, even in terms of tourism, would depend on local sources of production and investment. In terms of qualified manpower, the need for "more people trained in the fundamentals of agricultural techniques" and some specialists was recognised, but

80 Although Montserrat's idea of a small agricultural training school attached to the Department of Agriculture was to reappear in requests to at least two aid agencies in the remaining years of the Decade without serious consideration. See Jordan, Montserrat Report. 1966, p.12. A PERSPECTIVE ON CANADIAN EDUCATIONAL ASSISTANCE 327 education was still relegated to the categories of support to growth and social welfare - not to enable growth potential to be realized but as a matter of social and political urgency. A 81 report such as Emerson's on Education in St. Lucia, in 1969, took a cavalier approach to school gardening to enhance the beauty of the island as a tourist attraction, but recognised the economic potential of market-gardening, without making any significant recommendations for emphasising this as a priority for educational development. Interestingly enough, the proposal that the school garden be made a central part of the whole educational program came from the Report on Secondary and Adult Education in Dominica by W.G. Fleming of the Ontario College of 82 Education. The primary school garden and the secondary school farm and workshops were seen as ways of learning through practical experience as well as of contributing towards self sufficiency.

6. A New Perspective on External Educational Assistance

It seems reasonable to conclude that Caribbean aid donors and the Leeward and Windward Islands as recipients of external

81 L.H.S. Emerson, op.cit,. p.32. 82 W.G. Fleming, Secondary And Adult Education In Dominica, Bulletin No. 19, Toronto, Ontario College of Education, University of Toronto, 1964, p.31. A PERSPECTIVE ON CANADIAN EDUCATIONAL ASSISTANCE 328 assistance perceived the aid relationship as a continuing one. Canada's consultation of the seven separate islands, providing them with the opportunity to formulate their separate require ments for Canadian aid to education for the next five-year period, through the Ottawa educational consulting firm, Professional Development Associates, resulted in their present ation of an extended list of the same general pattern as the aid previously provided. Through the work of PDA this list was better articulated than had been previously the case in random go or annual requests. The main difference in the aid components requested was a new emphasis on junior secondary provision. The British Development Division in the Caribbean made its own assessment of total development needs in the Leeward and Windward Islands at the end of the Decade.8 4 As far as education was concerned, the number of school places built by Britain and Canada was cited as 16,900 and 10,900 respectively. The general opinion was expressed that education was one of the sectors in which progress was "heartening." The main indication of future trends in educational aid policy was recognition of the

83 PDA, OP.cit.. p.130, undertook to carry out the study as a consultative process, with two submissions to the islands before preparation of the Final Report, in order to facilitate maximum local input. 84 1970 Caribbean Aid Donors Conference Paper no.9. A PERSPECTIVE ON CANADIAN EDUCATIONAL ASSISTANCE 329 need to intensify regional activities in improvement of teacher quality, "introduction and experimentation with new methods 85 and media, all in the closest association with U.W.I." The financial estimate for capital and technical assistance needs in education for 1970/75 amounted to £3,575,000. The real issue and challenge of aid to the islands in the 70*s was defined as an aid injection of about £44 million in the next five year period with on the spot management. This was seen as the means of avoiding the need for any rescue operation in the next decade. The underlying assumption of island assessments of their requirements for educational assistance, of the pattern of PDA's recommendations and of BDD's assessment of needs, was that capital and technical assistance would continue to be available after the needs identified were met. As in the case of the Tripartite Economic Survey, no real consideration was given to educational change as a problem-solving mechanism as different from educational improvement in a continuing situation of need for outside intervention. Given a different hypothesis, a new perspective on educational development and on priorities for educational assistance becomes possible. If it were assumed, for example, that the cut-off date for external aid, (of any major proportions), to education in

85 Ibid.. No.8, p.79. A PERSPECTIVE ON CANADIAN EDUCATIONAL ASSISTANCE 330 the Leeward and Windward Islands were to be the year 2000, a different process of self examination would be required from both donors and recipients. The basis of the assumption would be that long term solutions to existing problems could be found during the next twenty-five years or less. The following list of questions might then be relevant: Stage One: 1. What conditions are necessary for the islands to become more self sustaining? 2. What is the potential for economic viability? 3. How far does the successful development of this potential depend on the islands themselves/the Caribbean region/the developed countries? 4. What are the requirements for fullest achievement of human potential? 5. What components can be built into the social, cultural and political milieu to assist in the definition of development? 6. What are the human and financial resources available for sustained development? Stage Two: 1. What role can education play in the total development effort? 2. What are the long term goals to be achieved? 3. How can short terra and medium term objectives be selected towards goal achievement? 4. What would be the most efficient means of reaching specified objective? - internally derived/regional collaboration/external assistance/ or a combination of two or three modes? A PERSPECTIVE ON CANADIAN EDUCATIONAL ASSISTANCE 331

5. What provision can be made for re-formulating goals and/or re-directing energies to changing needs? 6. How can priorities be established to keep operational goals within the possibility of achievement? SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS

The period i960 to 1970 saw the emergence of Canada as an important provider of educational assistance to the Commonwealth Caribbean Leeward and Windward Islands. Bilateral assistance at the government level accounted for major capital and technical assistance to the islands but non-governmental sources also had significant in-puts to the aid effort. Canada's development assistance activities in the Commonwealth Caribbean area marked the beginning of the extension of assistance beyond the Colombo Plan territories. The External Aid Office was created in 1960 and the decade which followed provided a valuable learning experience in the organisation and operation of aid. The breakup of the West Indian Federation cast the Little Seven adrift from the main stream of political independence sought by the larger islands, Jamaica and Trinidad. By the time that their relationship as States in Association with Great Britain was established, increasing reliance was being placed on Canada as a donor country with special interests in the area. The unresolved problem was the question of whether a regional approach for aid to the Eastern Caribbean was feasible. The islands them selves resisted any attempt on the part of aid donors to establish regional educational institutions, opting for separate negotiations and implementation in all facets of educational assistance. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS 333

Canada's development activities took place in the context of other aid donors operating in the Leewards and Windwards. Britain's Development Division in the Caribbean was situated in the area and used its delegated authority to maintain a flexible program which was well publicised. Informal discussions took place with Canada's visiting officials and with representatives of the Canadian High Commission in Trinidad, from which office aid to the Leewards and Windwards was administered. Consultation took place at intervals on plans for school construction, technical assistance personnel and training awards - the chief areas of Canadian contribution to the educational program. However, the element of donor competition was not removed from the minds of island recipients by the actions subsequently taken by aid donors. During the ten-year period covered by this study there were no open confrontations between any of the groups participating in educational assistance activity, although signs of increasing tension with racial overtones and resentment of Canadian economic domination were reflected in the aid relationship. Requests did not exceed the capacity of the Canadian Government's aid allocations though non-governmental organisations such as CUSO found it necessary to establish priorities for the kind of assistance they were prepared to give. In the early years of the aid relationship island requests tended to be developed as isolated projects rather than related to any overall plan. Many SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS 334

features of Canada's response were equally indiscriminately conceived, the notable example of failure on both sides to develop a rational program being the system of training awards and scholarships which achieved very little by way of increased capacity of available trained local personnel before "third country" training became an accepted policy. One of the problematic areas identified was that of the costs of aid, even in the form of the grants which constituted all Canada's allocations to the Little Seven. The evidence examined suggests that an excessive amount of each grant allocation was spent in Canada and that little use was made of local knowledge or local resources because of the constraints of Canadian Government aid policy and procedures. In the case of technical assistance personnel, the cost, level and nature of accommodation became a source of disagreement in the later years. On the other hand, some of the additional costs of projects resulted from delays in Canada and in the islands. Inefficiencies in foreign design and in local attention to storage and clearance of supplies,etc., detracted from the effectiveness of aid. There do not appear to have been any set criteria for recipient requests of a particular donor or donor grants to a specific island, though this would be difficult to attest, since the relationship tended to operate at such an informal level of preliminary exchanges. By 1970 the more skillful politicians in the Little Seven had taken the measure of the aid donors and were SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS 335 able to use subtle pressure to have requests met. The Canadian International Development Agency, on the other hand, was becoming a more sophisticated operation with a better system of checks and balances and an awareness of the need for the educational assistance program to be placed on a firmer footing. The CIDA consulting firm, Professional Development Associates of Ottawa, attempted to place the requirements listed by the islands in relation to their educational and national development plans, but the exercise assumed a degree of cohesion in planning which was not evident in the islands. By 1970 it was obvious that any professional contribution which may have been made by Canadian educational assistance to the Leewards and Windwards had never been scientifically evaluated. The general assumption appeared to be that any kind of help would improve the local situation. However, as the first level of superficial communication began to give way before the hard look at the aid relationship taken at the end of the First Development Decade, there was an element of greater attention to the sensibilities and needs of the islands, as in the case of the Overseas Book Centre which began to outpace the limits of its voluntary effort. As an aid donor, Canada's educational assistance had considerable impact as a builder of prestige schools, a provider of teachers and giver of books. Organisations like the Canadian Teachers' Federation were well received at the grassroots level SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS 336 of the teaching profession. The Ministry of Education in the province of Ontario by its School-to-School Project and Operation School Supplies created a great deal of goodwill as well as providing some support for island school programs. However, the majority of well-intentioned programs originating in Canada operated in isolation, even at points where an exchange of information or a measure of collaboration would have made educational assistance more effective. It would have been possible for Canadian organisations interested in professional concerns in the Leeward and Windward Islands to achieve a more effective level in planning development activities to make more efficient use of limited resources. A different set of relationships would have gone far towards meeting some of the criticisms raised in this study of Canadian educational assistance to the Leeward and Windward Islands in the First Development Decade.

Implications of Findings for Future Action: 1. Co-ordination of Canada's educational assistance effort through a consultative process. 2. Addition of a research and evaluation component with particular emphasis on professional contribution. 3. Greater attention to preparation for the needs of specific teaching situations in briefing of educational personnel. 4. Further development of the Overseas Book Centre beyond a completely voluntary service to a positive program of book development suited to the needs identified by the islands, as an experimental program. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS 337

5. Investigation of the possibility of aid donor cooperation on a formal basis - an island located consortium or Eastern Caribbean "Colombo Plan" - Commonwealth countries or all interested aid donors. OR Otherwise, if this does not prove feasible, location of an education attache' in the aid mission - a senior appointment of a professional educator, 6. The Council of Ministers of the Associated States ot their education subcommittee should undertake some areas of responsibility for coordination of external educational assistance* 7. The University of the West Indies should provide a research and evaluation component for educational programming in the Leewards and Windwards. 8. Planning of external educational assistance and its implementation should involve both donors and recipient at all stages of the process. 9. Technical assistance attachments should be in the nature of in-service assignments to assist a person on the job rather than provide replacements. Counter parts may require training rather than academic degrees at this stage of development, or academic qualifications could be more geared to using job experiences for theoretical studies and analysis, with outside personnel providing relief so that studies can be pursued while working at a particular job.

Areas for Further Research: 1. Evaluation of the professional contribution of technical assistance personnel in education,e.g.. in teacher training to establish the extent of the multiplier effect in teacher performance. 2. Effectiveness of alternative counterpart arrangements. 3. Methods of briefing technical assistance personnel. 4. Communications as an essential component of the aid relationship. 5. Modes of achieving pre-determined goals and re-directing aid priorities. BIBLIOGRAPHY

1. Primary Sources a) Canadian references (i) Government of Canada Official documents Canadian International Development Agency, Opportunities For Service Abroad Under The Canadian Programmes For International Development, (no date). Provides prospective applicants with basic information re qualifications and conditions of service. Useful source for establishing profile of CIDA personnel requirements. ------, Memorandum, Briefing Paper CCAP Technical Assistance Program, Training Division, September 10, 196b. An honest appraisal of the weaknesses of the system of awards in failing to meet the objectives of Caribbean educational development. ------, Teachers, Technical And Vocational Instructors And Professors, English Speaking Countries, 1969-1970. Education Division, September 30, 1969. Useful statistics on education personnel serving overseas. ------, CCAP Scholarships and Training Awards. 1963 to 1969, Training Division, 1969. Comprehensive data source re awards over six year period, providing information on fields of study as well as country of origin. ------, Canadian Aid to the Commonwealth Caribbean, paper presented to the Standing Senate Committee on Foreign Affairs by CIDA, May 20, 1969. Subsequently appended to the Senate Committee's Report, this paper gives the official position on the Caribbean program, listing projects completed and current activities, with itemised expenditures. A recording of factual information rather than a discussion paper. BIBLIOGRAPHY 339

------, Topics For Discussion At Briefing Seminar-CIDA Project Officers. July b-17. 1969. An overview of the approach expected of CIDA project officers. Most significant feature of presentation the statement re a Philosophy of Technical Assistance Programme in the field of Education and also provides details re operation of Small Project Assistance to CIDA personnel. ------, Canadian Prefabricated Maple Leaf School, (no date). A well laid out set of design details of the Maple Leaf School plan, including statement of intention to transfer benefits of economy resulting from the prefabricated model to recipient countries. No discussion of the schools is complete without reference to this presentation. ------, Memorandum of Understanding Between St. Lucia and Canada for a Comprehensive Secondary School Project. March b, 1971. A clear statement of donor and recipient commitment in the school project, obviously designed to establish a clear understanding of respective areas of responsibility. Special concession, re Canadian funding of shipping costs. An integrated project with construction, personnel and phased counterpart arrangements. ______j Going Abroad? A guide by. for and about Canadians, 1970. An interesting collection of articles giving advice on a variety of problems faced by persons serving abroad. Topics range from cross-cultural adjustment and culture shock through ways of coping with household and health problems. One article deals specifically with teacher attitudes and professional contribution. External Aid Office, Commonwealth Caribbean Assistance Program, Progress Reports, 1965-1968. An invaluable reference source for tracing the development of the aid relationship in qualitative terms. A case study which set out to investigate performance as well as policy cannot be effectively done without this kind of information, which provides a perspective on official procedures over a period of time. BIBLIOGRAPHY 340

------, Quarterly Letters To All Aid Missions 1967-1968. Resulting from the decision to achieve greater integration in the field operations of Canadian external relationships, the Director General's letters were designed to keep the missions informed of significant developments in Ottawa and to signal important changes expected to come into effect. ------, Memorandum of Understanding Between St. Lucia and Canada re Conditions Governing Canadian Personnel Serving in St. Lucia under the Canadian Technical Assistance Program, March 21, 1964'. Sets out the Caribbean government's commitment to provide for CIDA personnel on contract to the island. Informative source for understanding conditions of service.

Speeches

Canadian International Development Agency, Text Of Transcript Of Audio-Visual Presentation Made By Mr. Maurice F. Strong, President, C.I.D.A.. To The House of Commons Committee On Defence And External Affairs On Tuesday"! April 29. 1969. Ottawa, Information Division, CIDA, 19 p. ------, Canada's Assistance To Developing Nations, Speech to the Vienna Development Institute, Vienna, December 1, 1969 - by Maurice F. Strong, President, Canadian International Development Agency, Ottawa, Canada, Information Division, CIDA, 15 p.

______t Canada In The Global Community. Text of A Speech By The Honourable Mitchell Sharp, Secretary Of State For External Affairs To The Canadian Manufacturers' Association, Toronto, June 3, 1969, Ottawa,Information Division, CIDA, 30 p. BIBLIOGRAPHY 341

------, Establishment Of International Development Research Centre Of Canada. Speech In The House Of Commons By The Hon. Mitchell Sharp, Secretary Of State For External Affairs, January 12, 1970, Ottawa, Information Division, CIDA, 6 p. ------, Canada's Assistance To Developing Nations. Notes for a speech by M.F. Strong, President, CIDA, at University of Ottawa, March 5, 1970, Ottawa, Information Division, CIDA, 17 p. These speeches provide a useful reference source for the official position taken in various presentations with respect to Canada's development assistance policies and programs. They indicate consistent approach to Canada's efforts abroad rather than any reflection of individual style or preference. ------, Educational Innovation. New Perspectives for Canada in international development. Thoughts On International Development/3, Notes for a speech by Paul Gerin- Lajoie, President, Canadian International Development Agency, prepared for the Canadian Council for Research in Education, St. John's, Newfoundland, June 10, 1971. Delivered to The Institute of International Co-operation of the University of Ottawa, September 22, 1971, Ottawa, Information Division, CIDA, ($). Information Canada, 1971, 11 p. A challenging statement by the new CIDA President which suggests that the Agency's educational assistance policies were due for a complete revolution in style and objectives if M. Gerin-Lajoie's remarks were translated into action. The important emphasis was on cooperative activity and on recognising the right of developing countries to formulate and plan their own educational strategies. At the same time aid giving was reconsidered in terms of the quality of the relationship and the need to associate for interdisciplinary innovations in education. Subsequent consultations held by CIDA in Canada and elsewhere appear to have been consistent with the views expressed in this speech and the President's concern about evaluating and re-directing the education sector contribution has also been reflected in Agency programs. BIBLIOGRAPHY 342

------, Rediscovery A Sense Of Adventure, with the Non-Governmental Organizations, Address by Mr. Paul Ggrin-Lajoie, President, Canadian International Development Agency to the Annual Meeting of the Canadian Council for International Co-operation, Chateau Laurier, Ottawa, June 9, 1972, Ottawa, CIDA, 6 p. An important meeting ground for government and NGOs to arrive at a public understanding about future relations in aid activity. The President gave credit to the NGOs for pioneering work in this field, noted the government's recognition of this contribution in organizational and budgetary provisions, and proceeded to raise essential questions about NGO relationships, operations and capacity to adapt to changing conditions. The opportunity was taken to promote the idea of cooperative action rather than paternalistic approaches and to outline the future lines of development between CIDA and the NGOs.

Publications and Printed Documents

Canadian International Development Agency, Annual Review. 1967-1968, Ottawa, Queen's Printer, 1968, 40 p. A review which marks the changeover from the EAO to CIDA and provides some useful information about general aid activity. ------, Annual Review '69, Ottawa, Queen's Printer, 1969, 55 p. Beginning of further refinement in information communicated to the public about the aid program. ------, Canada and the Developing World, CIDA Annual Review 1970-1971, Ottawa, Information Canada, 1971, 86 p. Sophisticated bilingual presentation with charts and tables providing a complete review of Canada's total aid program in context of major donor contribution. ______-, Handbook For Scholars And Fellows, Ottawa, CIDA, 1970, 37 p. A concise presentation of basic information needed by overseas award holders studying in Canada. BIBLIOGRAPHY 343

------, Contact, Ottawa, Information Division, Communications Branch, CIDA, 1970. The updated version of the former agency publication. External Aid Office, International Development. Ottawa, Information Department, EAO, Vol. 1, 1967, to Vol. 2, No. 2, Aug. 1968. A useful reference source for the aid emphases selected by the EAO for public information. External Affairs, International Development. Foreign Policy for Canadians, published by authority of the Honourable Mitchell Sharp, Secretary of State for External Affairs, Ottawa, Canada, Ottawa, Queen's Printer, 1970, 21 p. A publication resulting from the government's foreign policy review, setting out important features of the development assistance program and indicating the continuing role envisaged for Canada. The intention to liberalize procurement conditions in certain instances marks new trend in the terms of aid as does the possibility of releasing unallocated funds to support a recipient's general develop ment program. The 'mise' of bilateral and multilateral allocation received careful attention. The statement appears to signal the extension of Canada's aid program beyond the scope of its operations in 1970. The government also intended to initiate measures to encourage Canadian business and industry to participate in the assistance program, with the expected result of an extension of Canadian commercial interests and impact on the country's international relations. Senate of Canada, Proceedings Of The Standing Senate Committee on Foreign Affairs. Respecting The Caribbean A"rea, First Session - Twenty Eighth Parliament, 1969, Issues No. 1-8, Second Session - Twenty Eighth Parliament, 1969-70, Issues 1-9, 11, Ottawa, Queen's Printer. A concentrated enquiry into Caribbean conditions, at hearings which vary considerably according to the approach taken by witnesses. In many instances the level of discussion on the part of Senate members is extremely superficial, more attention being given to basic information gathering rather than in-depth investigation. Papers presented at the sessions provide a valuable source of reference covering a range of items not easily available under other circumstances. BIBLIOGRAPHY 344

------, Report of The Standing Committee on Foreign Affairs of The Senate of Canada on Canada-Caribbean Relations, Ottawa. Queen's Printer. 1970. xxiii.- 62. p. Questions important features of Canada's relationship with the Commonwealth Caribbean. The presentation develops some of the points raised in the papers presented and touched on tentatively at hearings. Cautious direction is given about the future of the connection but the Committee declares itself solidly behind retention of the Commonwealth Caribbean's special place in Canada's assistance program. One point which shows up from the Report is the extent to which the initiative taken at the 1966 Ottawa Conference had not been effectively pursued.

(ii) Other Sources

Canadian Teachers' Federation, Learning in Unity, Ottawa, CTF, 1969, 31 p. A report of the Grenada summer course with contributions by participants, the presentation manages to reflect the impact made by the Canadian contribution. ------, CTF International Program, prepared for CTF Board, February 1969. An informative source for tracing the development of CTF's international activities, ------, Report of Project Overseas, Africa, West Indies, Asia, summer 1970, Ottawa, CTF, 1970, 59 P. Useful reference for an overview of CTF's Project Overseas in its various 1970 locations. Dalhousie University, The West Indies And The Atlantic Provinces of Canada, Papers from A Conference Organized by Canadian National Commission For UNESCO and Institute of Public Affairs, Dalhousie University, in association with Atlantic Provinces Economic Council and Department of Trade and Industry, Province of Nova Scotia, May 18-20, 1966, Halifax, Institute of Public Affairs, Dalhousie University, 1966, v-70 p. BIBLIOGRAPHY 345

Levitt, Kari and Alister Mclntyre, Canada-West Indies Economic Relations. Montreal, Private Planning Association of Canada and Centre for Developing-Area Studies, McGill University, 1967, xiii - l8l p. A study prepared by cooperative effort, (Canada-West Indies), resulting from a number of research studies and commentaries which provide a collective source of new information about the relationship. Disjointed presentation makes difficult reading, particularly the attempt to review the 1966 Ottawa Conference at the end of chapters. No other publication has yet replaced this as an investigation of Canada-West Indies economic relations. Ministry of Education, Ontario, Project School-to-School, Report of The First Annual Seminar of Ontario-Commonwealth Caribbean Project School-To-School Co-ordinators Monday May 25 to Thursday May 28, 1970, Toronto, Ontario, 63 p. The Report is also an informative source on the development of Ontario's Caribbean connection and gives some indication of the problems involved and the views of Project co-ordinators re the value of these activities. Overseas Book Centre, Statement Approved By Board of Directors, Ottawa, September 21, 1972. Reflects the decision to redirect some areas of the OBC program to meet the challenge of new situations. , Annual Report 1969-70, Ottawa, 1970. Useful source for brief review of OBC program at end of the Decade. Shows pattern of development through the years and expansion of OBC activity in Canada and overseas. Overseas Institute of Canada, Canada's Participation in International Development, a report based on the second national workshop on Canada's participation in international development, Esterel, P.Q., November 18-21, 1965, Ottawa, OIC, v-124 p. Valuable source for estimating Canada's position at mid-point of the Decade. Important for problems raised and solutions recommended, many of which are still relevant to any diagnosis of Canadian development assistance programs, although some suggestions have since been implemented. BIBLIOGRAPHY 346

b) Caribbean References

Bent, R.A., G.H. Clough, R.S. Jordan, Economic Development in the Eastern Caribbean Islands. Series 3 : Education, Barbados, University of the West Indies Institute of Social and Economic Research (Eastern Caribbean), August 1966. Separate Pagination for Island Reports . (Mimeo.) These Reports form the basis on which the subsequent five-year plans as well as the educational component of the Report of the Tripartite Economic Survey were formulated. Recent plans have also depended on the 1966 Reports which represent the first attempt at detailed planning in the hope of external financing and deserve to be better known than they have been in the past. A valuable source of reference for this study. British Development Division, Caribbean Aid Donors Conference, Marlborough House, London, May 1970, Conference Papers Nos. 1-9, Windward Islands and Leeward Islands, Barbados, British Development Division in the Caribbean, March 1970, 84 p. (Mimeo.) This set of Conference Papers provides an overview of development in the islands for the period 1966-1970. It remains the only source of its kind, made possible from the perspective of BDD's Caribbean location. The conclusions arrived at cannot be contested in detail in the absence of access to the kind of information possessed by BDD. The overall capital estimate for 1970-75 is a useful point of reference. Caribbean Commission, West Indian Conference, Sixth Session. 1955, Trinidad, Central Secretariat Caribbean Commission, 1955 , 1V-165 p. Useful from the historical perspective of earlier approaches to Caribbean educational problems (as well as other matters). For the purposes of this study the Conference Report provides the opportunity to trace the development of an attitude to technical and vocational education among officials in the area. BIBLIOGRAPHY 347

Dominica Ministry of Education, Draft Educational Development Plan 1971-75. Dominica, 1971, 14 p. (Mimeo.) An example of the plans being produced at the time by education officers, pressed for time and short of statistics, under the necessity to make formal presentations articulating education plans. Input on secondary education from the Grammar School Headmaster, but otherwise required concentrated effort by the responsible officer who expresses awareness of deficiencies. Least satisfactory area that defining the role proposed for junior secondary education. Emphasises school building plans.

Fleming, W.G., Secondary And Adult Education In Dominica, Bulletin No. 19, Toronto, Department of Educational Research, Ontario College of Education, University of Toronto, 1964, IX-46 p. One of the many "fortnighters" reporting on Caribbean education, Dr. Fleming gives a critical reaction to the obvious deficiencies of secondary and adult education in the island, recognising that traditional local attitudes may prohibit changes of the practical kind which he recommends. Even within existing limitations he felt that more positive solutions could be adopted. Useful suggestions for new directions to make education more relevant. Government of St. Vincent, Request To The United Nations Development Programme For Assistance In The Establishment Of A National Vocational Training Scheme, St. Vincent, July 1971, 45 p. (Mimeo.) Sample of the kind of project request format required for presentation to international agencies. Provides useful information re St. Vincent's emphasis on vocational training. Harewood, Jack, The Impact of Education on the Labour Force, for A.A.C.T.E./UWI Caribbean Education Seminar, July, 1968, 18 p. An important examination of the relationship between the level of education and labour force participation in the Commonwealth Caribbean, Special reference is made to the larger territories and if the hypothesis is generally applicable to all the islands, the author's conclusions indicate the need for rethinking the quality of existing educational approaches. BIBLIOGRAPHY 348

Lavender, J.G., Technical and Vocational Education In The Commonwealth Leeward And Windward Islands. A Summary Of Proposals, Barbados, British Development Division. July 1970, ii - 64 p. (Mimeo.) Provides informative details on the development of this kind of provision in the islands, including progress of British aid proposals and rejection of regional solutions by island governments. Useful reference source for examining UWI attempts at participation. Murray, R.N., Report, Educational Development. Dominica, I960, 18 p. (Mimeo.) A document produced by the Federal Education Adviser, this Report gives a critical assessment of island school conditions and places a great deal of faith in the ability of the dedicated teacher to overcome the inadequacies of the situation. Recommendations urge local efforts and reflect a degree of frustration with external assistance plans. A useful reference point for tracing the development of reliance on outside sources. Report of Committee of Inquiry into Disturbances at the Saint Mary's Academy, [Dominica] June 7, 1972. A report prepared by a group of concerned citizens appointed by the Dominica Minister of Education and Health to investigate the problems involved in a school crisis. Gives considerable insight into the ambiguous position of the church schools, the problems of adjustment for expatriate personnel, (Canadian Brothers of the Christian Schools), as well as the impact of the black consciousness movement and the Sir George Williams University Affair. University of the West Indies, Institute of Education , Report of the Caribbean Textbook Survey, 27 January - 7 February 1969, (Confidential), [Jamaica] , J969' , 96 p. .A survey of the school book situation in a number of Caribbean islands as basis for considering a government- sponsored regional scheme for educational publishing. The Ford-financed study concluded that the project would have to be undertaken in association with curriculum planning and teacher education components. A regional publishing house could then be established under the aegis of UWI's Institute of Education. Useful for brief comment re Antigua, St. Lucia and Grenada book situation and observations re foreign donor's book contribution. BIBLIOGRAPHY 349

Water Engineers' Conference on Training Needs in the Eastern Caribbean. lBth February through 20th February. 1970. Trinidad, 50 p. An interesting report which supports the trend towards technical training in Caribbean schools and training centres. Provides a perspective on the need for integrated planning in development assistance and inclusion of training programs in infrastructure provisions. Canadian involvement in Conference noted as joint sponsor with BDD and PAHO/WHO. White, D.I., Survey and Evaluation of Existing School Buildings. (Eastern Caribbean. Grenada), Distribution: Limited, Paris, UNESCO, December 1969, Serial No. 1627/BMS. RD/EP, 57 p. with Annex. One of an important set of reports on Eastern Caribbean school building conditions, providing an overview of the situation in each island surveyed. The report's annex, a technical guide for planning school buildings, and its recommendations for practical measures could serve as a pattern for reorientation of all local and external assistance programs. Relevant to Canada's school building activities in the Decade. BIBLIOGRAPHY 350

2. Secondary sources - published works a) Canadian references

Abbott, C. George, "Size, Viability, Nationalism, and Politics - Economic Development," in International Journal. Vol. XXV, No. 1, Winter 1969-70, p.56^58^ A timely examination of the meaning of economic viability in terms relevant to limitations of size and the political implications of decolonisation. In relation to this study the article has particular significance for a re- interpretation of the meaning of development and an examination of the complex factors involved in establishing any measure of self sufficiency. Canadian Institute for International Cooperation, Directory of Canadian Non-Governmental Organizations Engaged in International Development Assistance. Ottawa, CCIC, 1970. 2b5 p. Important record of NGO's, giving basic information on background objectives and operations. Format used for value of assistance too condensed for any further breakdown. ------, NGO Projects, Listing of International Development Projects and Activities Supported By Canadian Non- Governmental Organizations, Ottawa, CCIC, 1972, xv-212 p. An attempt to provide an analysis of the work being done by Canadian NGO's in terms of categories of involvement in different geographical areas and financial contribution. Limited by submissions from the NGO's and confusion in terminology, as, for example in the case of educational assistance. However, marked improvement in collective documentation on NGO's important to planners and researchers. Fraser, D.G.L., Canada's Role In The West Indies. Toronto, Behind the Headlines, Vol. X.XIII-N0. 3, January 1964, 20 p. An objective statement by a concerned Canadian who lectured at the University College of the West Indies from 1951 to 1954. The role envisaged for Canada in the area was that based on the need for a more positive approach than tradition and sentiment. The integration of all features of the relationship was recommended so that aid, trade and immigration policy would balance Canada's increasing commercial involvement in the Caribbean. Both the extent and the techniques of assistance were cited as areas which would require careful attention to avoid ostentations or misdirected aid-giving. BIBLIOGRAPHY 351

Katz, Joseph, "Comparative Education and External Aid Programs in Canada," Canadian Education and Research Digest. Vol. 2, 1962, p.110-114. Reports results of a 1961 study to determine the state of comparative education in Canadian university faculties of education. Makes case for restructuring curricula to relate more directly to governmental provision of external aid to education. Useful point of reference for assumption that professional educators will have significant in-put in official aid program. Moran, H.O., "Canada's Educational Aid Program," Canadian Education and Research Digest, Vol. 1, No. 4, December 1961, p.5-12. The Director-General of the External Aid Office reviews elements of Canadian aid, indicates increasing emphasis on the education sector, invites participation of professional institutions and organizations. Useful for tracing the development of Canadian external educational assistance. Overseas Institute of Canada, Directory of Canadians With Service Overseas, A listing of Canadians having experience in technical and educational assistance to the developing countries, Ottawa, Overseas Institute of Canada, Overseas Institute of Canada, 1966, XIX-478 p. An impressive list of Canadians with overseas service, with references in alphabetical order as well as according to category and geographical area of assignment. A useful source for research on aid personnel and quantitative assessments of assistance. Sanger, Clyde, Half a Loaf, Canada's Semi-Role Among Developing Countries, Toronto, Ryerson Press, 1969, vii-276 p. Selective treatment of different issues in development relevant to Canadian aid performance in twelve countries visited. Critical appraisal in context of each recipient. Considers relative merits of CUSO and CIDA technical assistance. Appeal to general reading public. BIBLIOGRAPHY 352

Spicer, Keith, A Samaritan State. External Aid in Canada's Foreign Policy. Toronto, University of Toronto Press, 196 5, xii-272 p. A critical analysis of motivating factors in Canada's external aid policies and an examination of implementation procedures. Contains a number of illustrative case studies. Useful for descriptive data on administrative machinery of External Aid Office up to mid-1965. Important coverage of external aid as phenomenon of 'fifties and 'sixties. Education treated as part of social aid and section on technical assistance personnel and trainees less discerning than investigation of policy concerns. Urges recognition of external aid as integral part of foreign policy.

b) Caribbean references

Demas, William G., The Economics Of Development In Small Countries With Special Reference To The Caribbean, Montreal, McGill University Press, 1965, xv-150 p. Development of a hypothesis which relates particular problems of underdevelopment to size of a country and capacity for structural transformation of the economy. The author applies his argument to the larger territories of the Common wealth Caribbean, noting that the Leewards and Windwards are so small that they fall into a separate category dependent on primary products, domestic food-producing sector and the tourist industry. The concluding section on problems of economic planning in the Caribbean raises the perennial problems of underdeveloped areas. It is doubtful whether the extent of external dependence envisaged by the author seems relevant after passing of a decade. Figueroa, John J., Society. Schools and Progress in the West Indies. Oxford, Pergamon Press, 1971, xxi-20b p. One of the few books written about Caribbean education, this study raises questions about the context of twentieth century'development' and discusses the alternatives dependent on choices made in particular situations. Followed to its logical conclusion, the work challenges the basis on which education plans and foreign educational assistance have been formulated. It serves as an important corrective to the lack of relevance and perspective in thinking about 'progress' in the Caribbean. BIBLIOGRAPHY 353

Gordon, Shirley C, Reports and Repercussions in West Indian education 1835-1933. London. Ginn. 196b. x-190 p. A combination of source book and commentary, this presentation brings to public scouting for the first time extracts from some of the earlier reports on education in the Caribbean. While the author attempts to show the positive effects of some aspects of these reports, the repetition of criticisms by the Reporters and the response of Caribbean educators are also indicative of the limitations of assessments which do not involve the participants and the non-educational factors which influence decision-making. ------, A Century of West Indian Education, London, Longmans, Green and Co., 1963, viii-312 p. A collection of extracts from a variety of sources used to illustrate the development of Caribbean education. Providing the first attempt at a thematic presentation of education in the area, the author introduces researchers to further lines of investigation which are needed for any definitive study of the issues raised. Mordecai, John, The West Indies: The Federal Negotiations, London, Allen and Unwin, 196b, 484 p. This work is an important source of reference for the West Indies federal experience, and, as an exercise in contemporary history by an involved participant in these 'negotiations', the writer has the advantage over the general reader without access to the unpublished documents used as the basis of the presentation. The predicament of the Leewards and Windwards emerges clearly from this account. Williams, Eric, Education In The British West Indies. New York, University Place Book Shop, 196b, (first published 1951 new material copyright 1968), XIX-167 p. A useful historical perspective on education in the fifties and new ideas being explored at that time. Special significance for thoughts re development of higher education in the area. BIBLIOGRAPHY 354

c) Foreign Aid To Education In Developing Countries

Central Office of Information, Britain and the developing countries: Education. London HMSO, 1967, 32 p. An official survey of British aid to formal and out- of-school education. Comprises both bilateral and multilateral assistance. A comprehensive, factual review with appendix on educational patterns of British 'dependencies'. Very informative source for quantitative assessment. Cerych, Ladislav, Problems of Aid to Education in Developing Countries. New York, Praeger, 1966, c. 1965, xiii-213 p. A study of the essential characteristics of foreign aid to education, conditions for increasing its effective ness, and methods for international co-ordination and development. Recognized as a 'pioneer of scientific analysis of aid experience', the author's conclusions about educational aid strategy provide an important perspective on problems and solutions. Chadwick, Clifton and Robert M. Morgan, "Educational Technology Assistance for Developing Countries", Educational Technology. No. 11, September 1971, p. 49-53. The authors, from their respective vantage points in the U.S. and in Argentina, make a strong case for the application of educational systems analysis techniques to educational assistance. Their argument acknowledges factors militating against this approach but recommends innovatory partnership as necessary precondition of effective aid to education. A challenging statement following in the Coombs tradition. Commission on International Development, Partners in Development. Report of the Commission on International Development. New York, Praeger, 1969, xvi-400 p. The first comprehensive assessment of international development assistance, examines presuppositions of aid and recommends solutions. Includes useful statistics and illustrative country studies. Educational aid receives cursory attention and research needs form the basis of recommendations for the education sector. A disappointing reference source for educational aid but exemplifies the political context of development assistance. BIBLIOGRAPHY 355

Coombs, Philip H., The World Educational Crisis. A Systems Analysis. New York, Oxford University Press, 1968, x-241 p. A revolutionary approach to diagnosis of educational needs and to problem-solving. Global perspective and an interdisciplinary approach as means of giving clearer definition to educational domponents. Ch. vi relates specifically to the quantitative and qualitative dimensions of educational aid in recognition of need for a more scientific approach to allocation and evaluation. A challenging statement. Goulet, Denis and Michael Hudson, The Myth of Aid, the hidden agenda of the development reports. New York. Orbis Books, 1971, 143 p. A significant contribution to the development debates and a necessary corrective to the conventional concept of underdevelopment. Prepared by the Center for the Study of Development and Social Change, these commentaries examine the ethical and the practical implications of the major development reports, Peterson, Pearson, Jackson and others. This analysis does not take educational assistance into account but should be required reading for anyone interested in examining the Third World concept of which all aid forms a part. Hannah, John A., "Educational Directions In The Developing Countries", Education, No. 90, April 1970, An updating of educational aid from the U.S. AID perspective. Reviews the role of the U.S. as aid donor and foresees changes in the light of overoptimistic assessment of progress achieved by developing countries. Might be interpreted as justification for cutback in U.S. educational assistance. Used with reservations. Hanson, John W. and Cole S. Brembeck, Editors, Education and the Development of Nations, New York, Holt, Rinehart and Winston,^I96b, XIV-529 p. A collection of extracts arranged in sequential framework with introductory commentaries and useful reading references. Examines important issues in Third World education, including external aid. A useful introductory reader. BIBLIOGRAPHY 356

Higgins, Benjamin, "The Evaluation of Technical Assistance", International Journal. Vol. 25, No. 1, Winter 1969-70, p. 34-55. A knowledgeable examination of problems in administer ing, implementing and evaluating technical assistance programs. The writer's experience in program evaluation suggests that quantitative assessment would be an adequate aid performance indicator. Contains no ideas on qualitative approach to professional activity. International Commission on the Development of Education, Learning to be. The world of education today and tomorrow. Paris, UNESCO, Toronto, OISE, 1973, c. 1972, XXXIX-313 p. The Report indicates the Faure Commission's decision to adopt a global approach to its dual tasks of guiding national policy formulation and UNESCO's policies. A generalised basic philosophy of integration and flexibility rather than the expected hard-nosed analysis of educational realities. Treats educational aid as a part of global development strategy, citing the need for innovation and preference for the multilateral approach. Important for its attempt to establish a world forum on education. Interesting for the political implications of the opinions expressed. Opts for establishing a favourable climate of opinion and does not particularly reflect the current North American ethos.

Katz, Joseph and Bruce Andrews, The Role and Rationale for Educational Aid in Developing Countries^ Ottawa, The Congress, 1971 , 7 p. Guidelines developed from proceedings of First World Congress of Comparative Education Societies, Ottawa, 1970. Isolates points of common agreement for recommended aid procedures. Indicates areas of concern but lacks thrust of the papers presented. Main recommendations coordination, cooperation, integrated planning, development of local resources. Only useful in conjunction with Proceedings. Lewis, Arthur J., Guidelines for the Planning of External Aid Programs in Education. New York, Education and World Affairs, 1967, 25 p. A carefully developed hypothesis re essential features of effective aid. Convincing strategy from establishment of aid criteria through implementation to aid termination. Stresses joint donor-recipient evaluative component. Useful for comprehensive view of aid operation. BIBLIOGRAPHY 357

Lewis, L.J., "Getting good teachers for developing countries", International Review of Education, Vol, 16, No. 4, 1970, p. 393-407. Suggests new modes of Third World teacher preparation for practical professional needs. Foreign aid is peripheral to the main argument. The writer, an educator experienced in African education, indicates that the theory of the multiplier effect of teacher training assistance stands in need of revision. Organization For Economic Cooperation and Development, Policy Conference On Economic Growth And Investment In Education. Washington 16th - 20th October 1961. Vol. III. The Challenge of Aid to Newly Independent Countries, Paris, 1962, 97 p. Conference papers presented by leading experts in the field of development assistance in education, F.H. Harbison, W. Arthur Lewis, John Vaizey and J. Tinbergen. Consider ation of educational aid in context of overall human resource development. Emphasis on need for operational research. The so-called'"Ten Commandments" of Educational Assistance' formulated by the Conference provide explicit statement of donor objectives and insight into attitudes at the time.

______-t Technical Assistance and the Needs of Developing Countries. Paris. OECD, 196b, 4b p., tables. Report of Development Assistance Committee expert group relating educational needs to balance of total aid effort. Review of technical assistance position as against capital aid. Useful for attempt to examine program emphases and personnel requirements, ------, The Evaluation of Technical Assistance, Paris, OECD, 1969, 134 p., bibliography and documentation. Study of methods, criteria and objectives to be achieved by defining typology and methodology. Concludes that evaluation only meaningful as tool for improvement. Important for recognition of evaluative component as integral to development process. BIBLIOGRAPHY 358

------, Aid to Education in Less Developed Countries. Paris, OECD, 1971, xiii - 290 p., tables. Results of two year DAC study, uses case method to illustrate changing needs and trends. Useful corrective to over emphasis on role of aid in education sector. Prentice Reg., "The oase for a larger British aid programme", Commonwealth. April 1970, p. 67-70. From his experience as Minister of Overseas Develop ment in Britain, the writer urges the adoption of the one percent target by 1975. Applying moral, materialistic and political reasons for aid support, he relates aid to education to indirect investment benefits. An interesting view of donor attitude. Pye, Lucian W., "Supporting modern education abroad: conflicting values and life styles", Teachers College Record. No. 72, December 1970, p. 209-224. Analyses general context donor and recipient countries but relates particularly to U.S. mission education in Asia. Makes case for reassessment of role of privately-supported institutions as capable of adjustment to new needs of developing countries. A sensitive view of an uncertain situation. Springer, Hugh, "Problems of Aid in Commonwealth Education", Round Table, No. 239, July 1970, p. 317-325. Director, Education Division, Commonwealth Secretariat, favours Commonwealth as forum for aid discussion, weighs dilemma of increased demand against loss of donor support. Useful analysis of problem such as effects of prolonged aid, practical suggestions for improvement. Ward, Douglas S., "Needed: Effective Educational Assistance to Latin America", Educational Digest. No. 37, April 1972, p. 52-4. Brief but convincing argument in support of U.S. educational aid strategy for each Latin American country. Former Deputy Chief Education Adviser with US Aid, the writer envisages slowdown in progress towards universal elementary provision, phasing out of educational advisers and a new mix of educational aid stressing professional in-put. BIBLIOGRAPHY 359

Ward, F. Champion, ed., Education and Development Reconsidered. The Bellagio Conference Papers. New York, Praeger Publishers, c. 1974 by the Ford Foundation, xxii-328 p. A selection of papers from the Bellagio meetings of heads and staff of member agencies, the Ford and Rocke feller Foundations and developing country specialists, during the period 1972-74. Intended to raise questions in a new framework for discussion, the papers investigate aspects of education associated with investment, social justice, planning, research and development. The implications of these ideas for the redeployment of external assistance in education provide a culminating point for the discussion. The novel assumption is made that both donor and recipient need to make adjustments and re-direct energies. An extremely challenging formulation of the rationale for aid-giving and aid-receiving.

Williams, Peter, Aid in Uganda: Education. London, Overseas Development Institute, 1966, 260 p. Detailed case study of education issues and aid contributions with critique of effectiveness. Useful for well-cocumented financial analysis and specific recommend ations for operational improvement. Concludes that positive contribution has been made to Uganda education sector. Excellent source for research in this field. World Congress of Comparative Education Societies, Proceedings Of The First World Congress Of Comparative Education Societies On The Role And Rationale For Educational Aid To Developing Countries, Ottawa. August 1970. Ottawa, The Congress, 1971 , 135 p. A collection of papers and speeches from the inaugual meeting, with varied donor and recipient viewpoints on educational aid. Collated alphabetically by author without thematic framework, the work forms a valuable resource for researchers prepared to analyse the contents. Zachariah, Mathew, "Educational Aid: A Bibliographic Essay and a Plea for New Lines of Enquiry", Comparative Education. Vol. 6, No. 2, June 1970, p. 115-123. A challenge to researchers in this field of enquiry, sets out categories of current literature and investigation and urges new directions. Offers relevant bibliography. Emphasises need for consideration of recipient people's sensibilities in aid programs. Provides new perspective on aid. APPENDIX 1 360

Canada: Relative Bilateral Aid and Trade Positions, 1971

Imports Exports Aid Aid per Disbursements Allocations Capita

1. Asia Asia Asia Commonwealth Asia Caribbean

2. Latin Latin Francophone Francophone Francophone America America Africa Africa Africa

3. Commonwealth Commonwealth Commonwealth Commonwealth Commonwealth Caribbean Caribbean Africa Africa Africa

4. Commonwealth Francophone Commonwealth Asia Commonweal th Afri ca Africa Caribbean Caribbean

5. Francophone Commonweal th Latin Latin Latin Africa Africa America America America

Source: Compiled from Canadian International Development Agency, Annual Review, 1970-1971, Ottawa, Information Canada, 1971, p. 73, 75, 78. APPENDIX 2 361 Commonwealth Caribbean Assistance Program Expenditure on Studies, Surveys, etc. 1958-70.

Period Location Purpose Method io f Amount Funding ($ Can.)

1958-62 Dominica Resource Study 34,717.34 1962-64 Feasibility Study 10,225.68 1964-69 Jamaica Study of Fishing Industry 4,120.08 Jamaica Aerial Survey Loan 72,610.17 Trinidad Survey Loan 392,600.00 Water Survey Loan 340,000.00 Development Surveys 41,514.15 Montserrat Survey of Resources 352,000.00 St. Lucia Study of Banana Industry 50,000.00 1969-70 Jamaica Sewerage Study (Kingston) Loan 180,000.00 Jamaica Transportation Survey Loan 500,000.00 Trinidad Aerial Survey Loan 1,500,000.00 Antigua Survey, Dam Site Grant 250,000.00 Dominica Feasibility Survey of Sites Grant 200,000.00 Barbados Animal Feed Study Grant 650,000.00 St. Lucia Vieux Fort Study Grant 100,000.00 Guyana Highway Feasibility & Design Grant 300,000.00 Guyana Aerial Survey Loan 3,100,000.00

8,625,787.42

Source: Senate of Canada, Proceedings of the Standing Senate Committee on Foreign Affairs, No. 1, Tuesday, November 4, 1969, Ottawa, Queen's Printer, 1969, p. 34-37. APPENDIX 3 CUSO PERSONNEL - LEEWARD AND WINDWARD ISLANDS DETAILS OF 1969, 1970 ASSIGNMENTS ANTIGUA 1969-71 NAME AGE M.S. QUALIFICATIONS EXPERIENCE POSITION ASSIGNED TO DUNFORD, Elaine 23 S Seer, course 3 years Teacher Princess Marg. sec, Stan "B" Cert. Commercial McDONALD, Marguerite 24 S B.A. English 1 year Teacher Antigua Girls Sc. English O'BRIEN, Noreen 24 Teach. Cert. 1 2 years Teacher Golden Grove Prim. element. Elementary ST. KITTS 1970-71 McILWAINE, Keith 26 S Teacher Cert. 2 years Teacher Basseterre High Sc. O.C.E. Ind.Arts Element. Ind. Arts ST. KITTS 1970-72 HEGEL, Frank 23 S B.A.; B.Ed. 2 years Teacher Basseterre High Sc. Geography Elemen. & Geography sec. teach. ST. LUCIA 1969-71 SHARPE, Peter 24 S B.A. English Teacher St. Mary's College English OWSTON, Ronald 24 S B.Sc. Math 1 year exp. Teacher Vieux-Fort S.S. Industry Math. CO DAVIES, John 37 D B.Pharmacy 12 years Senior Victoria Hospital OSN Pharmacist APPENDIX 3 CONTINUED - CUSO PERSONNEL ST. LUCIA 1970-72

NAME AGE M.S. QUALIFICATIONS EXPERIENCE POSITION ASSIGNED TO CALNAN, Thomas 25 S Hotel Manager 2 years Hot. Man. Morne Technical Col. Instructor DYCK, Merla 35 S B.A.; B.Ed. R.N. 6 years Tutor St-Judes Hosp. GENDRON, Dr. Sandra 26 S. M. D. 1 year D.M.O. Ministry of Health Inter. LANE, Marilyn 25 S B.Ed. Library 3 years Teacher Vieux-Fort Sec. Teaching & Eng. English 9 years Clinical St-Judes Hosp. LEVASSEUR, Olivette 30 S. R.N. Instructor 5 years Teacher Castries Jr. Sec. TRUEMAN, Margaret 25 S Teacher Cert. elem. Math/Sc.

ST. VINCENT 1969-71 1 year Teacher Convent Girls Sc. ARN, David 22 S B.A. Eng. Eng. Hist. Pol. Science Math. Sc.

Source: CUSO, CUSO Caribbean Programme Statistics. Ottawa, (1970).

CO ON APPENDIX 4

CANADIAN GOVERNMENT EDUCATIONAL PERSONNEL IN \ LEEWARD AND WINDWARDS 1969-1970

LOCATION NAME FAMII. Y PROVINCE CONTRACT ASSIGNMENT

ANTIGUA *Lambertus, H. mm Ontario 1969-71 Teacher Trainer-Primary Methods 6 Leeward Islands Training College MacKelvie, W.R. Wife Quebec 1968-70 Teacher-Industrial Arts Jennings School McGregor, J.A. Wife +3 Ontario 1968-70 Teacher-English, French Jennings School Powell, M. Wife +2 Quebec 1968-70 Teacher Trainer - English Leeward Islands Training College Smith, E.J. Wife +4 Alberta 1968-70 Teacher-Mathematics Jennings School Strokowsky, M. Wife +2 Quebec 1969-71 Teacher-Industrial Arts Jennings School

DOMINICA Rowan, D.W. C. w Ontario 1969-71 Teacher Trainer-Primary Methods 2 Teacher Training Institute Wright, G.W. Wife Sask. 1968-70 Teacher Trainer and Adviser to Ministry of Education GRENADA Camp, D.B. Wife Ontario 1967-70 Supervisor & Principal-Technic 6 & Vocational Methods Grenada Technical Centre *Derkacz, M.O. B. C. 1965-70 Teacher-Commercial Arts Subjects Commercial and Domestic Institute Dublenko, L.A. Wife +3 Alberta 1968-70 Technical Instructor - Industrial Arts Grenada Technical Centre McMullen, J.B, Ontario 1968-70 Teacher-Commercial Subjects Commercial and Domestic Arts Institute Moar, B.A. Wife +1 Ontario 1968-70 Teacher-Trainer-General Science Grenada Teachers College PAGE 2 - APPENDIX4-CONT'D LOCATION NAME FAMILY PROVINCE CONTRACT ASSIGNMENT

GRENADA Tomlinson, J.D. Wife +4 Ontario 1968-70 Principal-Commercial and CONT'D Domestic Arts Institute MONTSERRAT Armstrong, J.L. Wife +1 Ontario 1965-70 Teacher-Industrial Arts/Metalwork 2 St. John's Secondary *Rogers, G.I. - Ontario 1968-/0 Teacher Trainer-Primary Methods Cork Hill Teacher Training Centre ST. KITTS Klassen, H. Wife Manitoba 1969-71 Teacher Trainer-Mathematics 4 St. Kitts Teacher Training College Parlee, H.R. Wife Ontario 1968-70 Teacher Trainer-In-Service/ Primary Methods Min. of Education *Parlee, M.L. Husband Ontario 1969-71 Teacher Trainer-Primary Methods St. Kitts Teachers College *Rempel, E.L. - Manitoba 1969-71 Teacher Trainer-Primary Methods St. Kitts Teachers College ST. LUCIA Bezeau, L.M. Wife Alberta 1968-70 Teacher/Trainer-Maths/Science 5 St. Lucia Teacher Training College Brownlee, W.T. Wife +2 Manitoba 1969-71 Principal Micoud Junior Secondary School Pletch, R.N. Wife Sask. 1969-71 Adviser-Junior Secondary Curriculum Development Min. of Education Toynbee, W.M, Wife +1 B. C. 1968-70 Principal St. Lucia Teacher Training College Swainson, C. Wife +2 Manitoba 1969-71 Teacher Trainer-English St. Lucia Teacher Training College

CO co PAGE 3 -APPENDIX 4 CONT'D LOCATION NAME FAMILY PROVINCE CONTRACT ASSIGNMENT ST. VINCENT Bawden, C.S. Wife +2 Alberta 1969-71 Princiapl, 8 St. Vincent Teachers College Gordon, T.G. Ontario 1965-70 Teacher-A Level French Girls' High School Hougan, N.J. Wife +4 Alberta 1969-71 Teacher-Chemistry Boys Grammar School Nielsen, I.O. Wife +2 Quebec 1968-70 Teacher-Industrial Arts Technical Centre Boys Grammar School Semkow, R.J. Wife +1 Alberta 1968-70 Teacher-A Level Geography Girls High/Boys Grammar School Smith, J. Wife +1 B. C. 1967-70 Teacher Trainer-General Scienc Mathematics St. Vincents Teachers College Wasylenchuk, E.W. Ontario 1968-70 Teacher-Maths, French, Latin and English St. Martin's School Young, R. D. Wife B. C. 1969-71 Principal Bishop'S; College

Source: Compiled from Canadian International Development Agency, Teachers Technical and Vocational Instructors and Professors. English Speaking Countries 1969-1970, Education Division, September 30, 1969. * Women Appointees APPENDIX 5 364

Aid Donor Provision of School Places in the Leewards & Windwards 1966-70.

Island Canadian Aid British Aid Total

Antigua 1,700 2,000 3,700 Dominica 2,600 2,600 5,200 Grenada 1,500 6,000 7,500 Montserrat 600 800 1,400 St. Kitts 1,000 1,000 2,000 (incl. 600 Anguilla) St. Lucia 2,000 2,000 4,000 St. Vincent 1,500 2,500 4,000

Source: British Development Division, Caribbean Aid Donors Conference, Marlborough House, London, May 1970, conference Pagers Nog. i-9t wuHfa-.d- islqndfl ^n

CANADIAN MAPLE LEAF SCHOOL ANNOUNCEMENT School Designed Fw Caribbean Area An important ingredient in any was recognized that the design aid program is ingenuity. The should be extended to allow problems which crop up in the them to be used for social activi- planning stages of most projects ties of the communities which have to be met with imagination they are-going to serve. and flexibility. Investigation showed however, CIDA's Engineering Division that none of the existing pre- demonstrated its ability to meet fabricated designs on the Cana- a challenge in a school project in dian market could meet the re- the Eastern Caribbean. quirements of the Caribbean A major problem in most de- schools without major modifica- veloping countries is the diffi- tions. culty of building schools to meet CIDA' therefore decided to the rapidly expanding needs of develop its own design which the population. This is particu- would answer the long-standing larly the case in the Eastern Car- need for a standard elementary ibbean where Canada recently school building which could be undertook to provide 20 prefabri- economically manufactured and cated elementary schools on the supplied to the developing coun- islands of Antigua, St. Kitts, Ne- tries under programs sponsored vis, Montserrat, Dominica, St, by the Agency. Lucia, St. Vincent, Grenada and In coming up with a design, Barbados. many difficulties had to be taken Although the buildings were into consideration. Conditions in basically required for the activ- a tropical climate, difficult trans- ities of an elementary school, it portation, lack of skilled labor — for construction or erection as well as maintenance problems imposed strict limitations on the designs of the proposed building. Also, previous experience in shipping building components has shown that they tend to suffer damage from loading and unload ing operations and the corrosive1 action of salt spray during ship ment. Few of the Eastern Car- ribbean islands involved in this program can provide docking fa cilities for ocean going vessels, so that all materials have to be transhipped onto lighters for final unloading. CIDA's Engineering Division finally produced a concept of prefabricated units designed to re- i sist abrasion. Furthermore, the k school can be expanded if the need should arise, simply by the ( addition of new'linits. Source: CIDA, International Development, Ottawa, August 1969,p.7. APPENDIX 7

ABSTRACT OF

An Analysis of Canadian Educational Assistance to the Commonwealth Caribbean Leeward andWindward IslandsT I960 tO 197Q!

This study investigates the policies, procedures and performance of Canadian sources of development assistance to education in the Leeward and Windward Islands in the First Development Decade, from i960 to 1970. The problem examined is the extent to which Canadian external assistance contributed to the education plans and requirements of the area selected in the period under review. The context within which the relationship is analysed was provided by a review of the significant factors in the Canada-Commonwealth Caribbean aid connection during the Decade. Canada's acceptance of the Leeward and Windward Islands as an area of special concentration for development assistance was established. As a documentary case study,the research is based on supporting material,mainly primary sources relevant to all features of the Canadian aid effort and Leeward and Windward Island response. The government's bilateral educational

1 Mavis E. Burke, doctoral thesis presented to the School of Graduate Studies of the University of Ottawa, Ontario, February 1975. APPENDIX 7 367 assistance strategy was examined in terms of criteria for project selection and effectiveness of participation. The nature of involvement by non-governmental sources was detailed according to categories of educational contribution. The further inquiry into priorities for Leeward and Windward Island educational development and for external assistance in education revealed no essential differences in the direction required for such assistance. A critical analysis of the factors involved in the relationship provided new perspectives on the positions taken by donor and recipient countries. Criteria developed for effective planning of educational assistance and for implementation of educational assistance projects were applied to the Canadian program in its entirety. The most serious deficiency revealed by the investigation was the gap in communications between Canadian sources of develop ment assistance to the education sector and between the islands and donor sources, as well as between the islands themselves in making the most effective use of external aid for educational purposes. Further constraints in the Leeward and Windward Islands have resulted from the lack of coordination in planning by the major aid donors, Britain and Canada. At the same time, the islands have used this as a facilitating factor in balancing requirements for aid to education. APPENDIX 7 368

The findings of the study lead to suggestions for efforts at co-operative activity between each set of participants on the level of information, preplanning and evaluation of professional contribution. Areas for further research include elements of the evaluative component, alternative modes of technical assistance, an experimental approach to communications as an essential feature of the aid relationship, and an investigation of methods of goal achievement and re-direction of educational priorities.