The Excavation of Buried Articulated Neanderthal Skeletons at Sima De Las Palomas 57 3 58 4 (Murcia, SE Spain) 59 5 60 6 Michael J

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1 56 2 The excavation of buried articulated Neanderthal skeletons at Sima de las Palomas 57 3 58 4 (Murcia, SE Spain) 59 5 60 6 Michael J. Walker a,*, Mariano V. López-Martínez b, Jon Ortega-Rodrigáñez a, María Haber-Uriarte c, 61 7 Antonio López-Jiménez a, Azucena Avilés-Fernández d, Juan Luis Polo-Camacho e, Matías Campillo-Boj f, 62 8 g h i j 63 9 Jesús García-Torres , José S. Carrión García , Miguel San Nicolás-del Toro , Tomás Rodríguez-Estrella 64 10 a Área de Antropología Física, Departamento de Zoología y Antropología Física, Facultad de Biología, Campus Universitario de Espinardo, Universidad de Murcia, 30100 Murcia, Spain 65 11 b Calle Pintor Joaquín 10-4-I, 30009 Murcia, Spain 66 12 c Área de Prehistoria, Departamento de Prehistoria, Arqueología e Historia Antigua, Facultad de Letras, Campus Universitario de La Merced, Universidad de Murcia, 67 13 30001 Murcia, Spain 68 d Calle Trébol 2, 30739 San Javier, Murcia, Spain 14 e Departamento de Química Analítica, Facultad de Químicas, Campus Universitario de Espinardo, Universidad de Murcia, 30100 Murcia, Spain 69 15 f Calle Bélmez 15, 03190 El Pilar de la Horadada, Alicante, Spain 70 16 g Calle Cibeles 32, 30120 El Palmar, Murcia, Spain 71 h 17 Área de Botánica, Departamento de Biología Vegetal, Facultad de Biología, Campus Universitario de Espinardo, Universidad de Murcia, 30100 Murcia, Spain 72 i Instituto de Patrimonio Histórico, Dirección General de Bellas Artes y Bienes Culturales, Consejería de Cultura de la Comunidad Autónoma de la Región de Murcia, 18 73 Palacio de los Pacheco, Plaza Fontes 2, 30071 Murcia, Spain 19 j Área de Geodinámica, Departamento de Ingeniería Minera, Geológica y Cartográfica, Universidad Politécnica de Cartagena, Avenida Alfonso XIII 52, 30203 Cartagena, Spain 74 20 75 21 76 22 article info abstract 77 23 78 24 Article history: At Sima de las Palomas del Cabezo Gordo (Murcia, Spain) remains of several Neanderthals have been 79 25 Available online xxx excavated recently. From about 50,000 years ago articulated parts of 3 adult skeletons (including skulls 80 26 with mandibles, vertebral column, rib cages, shoulder blades, hip bones, upper and lower limbs, hands 81 27 and feet, often in anatomical connexion) were excavated from the lower part of a cemented accumu- 82 28 lation of scree and large stones (éboulis) sloping downwards and inwards into the cavity, along with 83 29 burnt bones of large mammals and Mousterian implements. The excavation of the skeletons is the 84 30 subject of this paper (palaeoanthropological skeletal descriptions are soon to be published elsewhere). 85 fi 31 Behind the cemented scree there accumulated a layer of ner sediment containing burnt animal bones, 86 followed by more fine sediment that filled the cavity up to the overhanging rock roof and contained 32 87 isolated teeth and unburnt bone fragments of Neanderthals, including 3 mandibles, as well as Mous- 33 88 terian implements and faunal remains, all dating from before 40,000 years ago. Altogether, at least 34 9 Neanderthals are represented by finds from the site (including 3 unstratified mandibles), ranging from 89 35 babies to adults. Dating methods include radiocarbon, uranium-series, and optical luminescence. Pollen 90 36 analysis implies conditions less severe than those of the Heinrich 4 cold oscillation at 40,000 years ago. 91 37 Ó 2011 Elsevier Ltd and INQUA. All rights reserved. 92 38 93 39 94 40 95 41 96 42 1. Introduction 97 43 98 44 The Sima de las Palomas (¼the shaft of the pigeons/doves) is 99 45 a vertical cave system of natural karstic shafts, reach- 100 46 * þ ing a maximum depth of 31 m. The top of the main shaft overlooks 101 Corresponding author. Fax: 34 868 883963. ¼ 47 E-mail addresses: [email protected], [email protected] (M.J. Walker), a salt-water lagoon (Mar Menor Lesser Sea) of the Mediterranean 102 48 [email protected] (M.V. López-Martínez), [email protected], ventepa Sea, from 125 m above sea level on the south-facing flank of Cabezo 103 49 [email protected] (J. Ortega-Rodrigáñez), [email protected] (M. Haber- Gordo (¼Big Hill), which is an isolated hill of Permo-Triassic marble, 104 Uriarte), [email protected], [email protected] (A. López-Jiménez), azuavi@hotmail. 50 rising up from the coastal plain to a height of 310 m above sea level 105 com (A. Avilés-Fernández), [email protected] (J.L. Polo-Camacho), matitorero@ (Figs. 1 and 2). In 1991, Juan Carlos Blanco-Gago, a nature-lover and 51 hotmail.com (M. Campillo-Boj), [email protected] (J. García-Torres), 106 52 [email protected] (J.S. Carrión García), [email protected] (M. San Nicolás- conservationist, abseiled down the main 20-metre-deep shaft of 107 53 del Toro), [email protected] (T. Rodríguez-Estrella). the cave to inspect the birds nesting there. Shortly after beginning 108 54 109 e Ó 55 1040-6182/$ see front matter 2011 Elsevier Ltd and INQUA. All rights reserved. 110 doi:10.1016/j.quaint.2011.03.034

Please cite this article in press as: Walker, M.J., et al., The excavation of buried articulated Neanderthal skeletons at Sima de las Palomas (Murcia, SE Spain), Quaternary International (2011), doi:10.1016/j.quaint.2011.03.034 JQI2714_proof ■ 11 April 2011 ■ 2/15

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111 176 112 177 113 178 114 179 115 180 116 181 117 182 118 183 119 184 120 185 121 186 122 187 123 188 124 189 125 190 126 191 127 192 128 193 129 194 130 195 131 196 132 197 133 198 134 199 135 200 136 201 137 202 138 203 139 204 140 205 141 206 142 207 Fig. 1. Location of Cabezo Gordo behind the Mar Menor in Murcia, Spain. 143 208 144 209 145 to descend, he plucked out of the rear wall of the shaft a small have easy access to the main chamber from the hill-side, probably 210 146 brecciated conglomerate mass that seemed to contain a fossil. After around the year 1900. Their blasting probably destabilized and led 211 147 partial cleaning, this was seen by one of us (M.J.W) and by our lately to collapse of the brecciated fill of the main shaft. 212 148 deceased friend and co-director of excavations, the Barcelona It is surmised that the miners withdrew water from another 213 149 palaeontologist Josep Gibert-Clols, to be the upper and lower jaws natural karst shaft that is deeper down inside the cave system, 214 150 of a Neanderthal human face, crushed transversely due probably to although today it is dry. A narrow dry gully descends the hill-side 215 151 sedimentary pressure. Subsequent research has identified the steeply from below the entrance to the horizontal tunnel. It could 216 152 remains of at least nine individuals; an inventory of 200 skeletal have been fed by an intermittent spring when the water level in the 217 153 items with their anatomical identification has been published cave system was high, all trace of which succumbed to the miners’ 218 154 (Trinkaus et al., 2008,inWalker et al., 2008; Walker et al., 2010a, b). activity. Above the tunnel entrance the concave sweep of the hill- 219 155 This paper focuses attention on the discovery and context of three side is broad and shallow with no sign of an erstwhile spring 220 156 Neanderthal individuals, buried with skeletal parts in anatomical (although one of the authors, T.R-E., does not rule out its possi- 221 157 connexion, from excavations beginning in 2005. bility). There are indications that sediments above and below the 222 158 The 1991 discovery was an exceptional find of Neanderthal floor of the main chamber were laid down or reworked by water, 223 159 bones in anatomical connexion. Were more Neanderthal bones and there seems to be a three-dimensional network of joints and 224 160 waiting to be found? If they were found to be in the same state of bedding-planes that probably facilitated intermittent movement 225 161 anatomical articulation that they had been in when death over- of water deep in the cave when the level of water inside was 226 162 came them, then Sima de las Palomas would be become one of the relatively high, although at other times the deep part of the system 227 163 most important Neanderthal sites in Europe. It has taken more than was dry because stalactites and stalagmitic flowstone developed 228 164 a decade of painstaking archaeological excavation to begin to show there. Nevertheless, considerations of the hydrogeology and 229 165 that this is indeed the case. structural geology of the hill imply that it is unlikely that the cave 230 166 First of all, though, daunting obstacles had to be overcome. system fed a permanent spring, and instead that rain-water 231 167 Miners had wrought havoc in the cave a hundred years ago. Indeed, entering into the cave mainly drains away within it to feed 232 168 they seem to have been responsible for reopening the main shaft deeply-lying aquifers. 233 169 where the fossil was found, and for leaving a gaping hole, 3 m wide Water was much needed by miners in an arid climate to wash 234 170 at the top and 18 m deep (Figs. 3 and 4). The shaft drops into the iron ore that was dug out of the hill-side, mainly in open quarries. 235 171 spacious main chamber, which also receives another shaft from the Magnetite, pyrite and ferrous hydroxide occur in shallow veins, as 236 172 surface. This is shorter, and was probably the one by which miners well as copper (Colodrón et al., 1994). No veins of metal ore are 237 173 had first entered the cave system, after removing a small vein of visible in the walls of the cave, and although today there is no water 238 174 iron ore, remnants of which can be seen on the hill-side beside the within the cave it is hard to explain what had led miners to 239 175 mouth of the shorter shaft. Later, they blasted a horizontal tunnel to undertake so much work inside it other than a search for water and 240

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241 306 242 307 243 308 244 309 245 310 246 311 247 312 248 313 249 314 250 315 251 316 252 317 253 318 254 319 255 320 256 321 257 322 258 323 259 324 260 325 261 326 262 327 263 328 264 329 265 330 266 331 267 332 268 333 269 334 270 335 271 336 Fig. 2. Cabezo Gordo showing Sima de las Palomas, Cueva del Agua, and local geology. 272 337 273 338 274 its extraction. Apart from water in another cave on the hill-side, the rear rock wall of the main shaft. Archaeological excavation could 339 275 simply called Water Cave (Cueva del Agua) (Fig. 2), there are no not begin until a scaffolding tower was erected in 1994 inside the 340 276 springs on the hill-side today. Records from 1913 say there had main chamber to reach the top of the main shaft (Fig. 3). 341 277 been over fifteen mining concessions for iron ore on the hill-side, In order to put up a tower, however, it was necessary first to 342 278 all of which would have needed water every working day clear and sieve many tons of mine rubble inside the main chamber 343 279 (de Gálvez-Cañero, 1913). and horizontal tunnel, as well as around the entrance to the tunnel 344 280 Cabezo Gordo underwent considerable faulting during the on the hill-side. This task produced many human fossils as well as 345 281 Mesozoic. This is related both to its mineral significance for miners stone tools and animal fossils. This was important evidence that 346 282 and to the karst erosion of fissures, of which several on the hill were helped in getting the necessary support of the Murcian regional 347 283 filled later with fossiliferous breccia. One group of faults aligned authorities, who provided scaffolding materials and also installed 348 284 between N100 and N165E includes a dextral fault that crosses the security gates. The scaffolding was carried up the hill-side in July 349 285 Sima de las Palomas with an orientation of N160E (Fig. 2). Another heat of 45 C, and a skilled rigger from the “Ulma” scaffolding 350 286 group of sinistral shear faults is aligned between N20e25E and company put up the tower inside the main chamber. Subsequently, 351 287 NeS, and a NeS example traverses the horizontal mine tunnel and excavation began into sediment that had accumulated up to the 352 288 main chamber. Normal faults that have a WeE alignment are rock roof overhanging the shaft. 353 289 particularly associated with veins of metal ore, as is an inverse fault A location where the sediment seemed to have suffered from 354 290 with an alignment of N110E that crosses the track a few metres some natural erosion was chosen. All sediment excavated was 355 291 before it reaches the entrance to the horizontal tunnel. lowered down in buckets on an aerial ropeway from the top of the 356 292 The miners removed over eighty percent of the stones, breccia tower down to the floor of the main chamber. Here it was put in 357 293 and sediments that had filled the main chamber up to the roof, to labelled bags and carried down the hill-side, to be taken around the 358 294 which a small hanging remnant of conglomerate is cemented, close hill to the “Cabezo Gordo SL” marble-cutting factory. This factory 359 295 to where the main shaft opens out to form the main chamber. allowed the use of its recycled water to wash the sediment over the 360 296 Reopening the main shaft must have ruptured a thin calcrete crust of four sets, in each case, of three 90-cm-diameter stainless-steel 361 297 stalagmitic flowstone that had formed over the sedimentary fill at geological sieves, nested in decreasing order mesh-sizes 362 298 the mouth of the shaft. The flowstone still covers conglomerate (of 8 mm, 6 mm and 2 mm, respectively). 363 299 cemented to the marble bed-rock of the hill-side that forms a small Ten seasons of excavation were required before the location 364 300 vertical lip, or sill, over which one must clamber to gain access to the directly above the 1991 find-spot was reached (Walker et al., 2008). 365 301 top of the main shaft. The flowstone covers the outer side of the Excavation could only be undertaken during only three weeks 366 302 conglomerate on the sill and a trace of it can be seen on the rock-face a year at each of the two sites during the annual summer university 367 303 behind and above the mouth of the main shaft, thus undoubtedly it vacation. Moreover, at Sima de las Palomas two other matters vied 368 304 sealed the conglomerate fill before mining reopened the shaft for attention. Firstly, during several seasons continuous sieving of 369 305 (Fig. 4). The miners left behind a column of breccia plastered against mine rubble around the mine-tunnel entrance was required in 370

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371 436 372 437 373 438 374 439 375 440 376 441 377 442 378 443 379 444 380 445 381 446 382 447 383 448 384 449 385 450 386 451 387 452 388 453 389 454 390 455 391 456 392 457 393 458 394 459 395 460 396 461 397 462 398 463 399 464 400 465 401 466 402 467 403 468 ¼ ¼ ¼ ¼ fi 404 Fig. 3. Main shaft, sketch of vertical elevation, scale plan. A mouth of main shaft. U upper cutting. L lower cutting. T terminal shaft. The plan includes the arti cial terrace on 469 the hill-side, in front of the entrance to the mine tunnel, formed by rubble and soil we have excavated and sieved. 405 470 406 471 407 order to retrieve significant finds and to make the entrance safe the poorly-consolidated cemented breccia of “conglomerate A”, 472 408 from falling stones. Secondly, an excavation into the floor of a safe described below. 473 409 corner of the main chamber allowed inspection of deep sediments After removing a depth of almost 2 m, a metre across, and 60 cm 474 410 and exploration of the possibility e subsequently refuted e that inwards, the eroded nook formed a tall open “box” or vertical 475 411 there might once have been a blocked-up natural passage lying “coffin”. This gave two high walls to inspect the way the uppermost 476 412 deeply and leading out towards the hill-side. This is termed the sediment had formed, although the third one was much smaller 477 413 “lower cutting” to distinguish it from the “upper cutting” at the top owing to the steeply falling roof formed by the overhanging rock of 478 414 of the shaft. There also is an “intermediate cutting” which takes the the hill-side. The availability of only two useful vertical sections for 479 415 form of a small step, or ledge, in the breccia column where it slopes stratigraphic inspection demanded that considerable pains had to 480 416 towards the foot of the main shaft, about 5 m above the floor of the be taken and manual excavation proceeded slowly with the great 481 417 main chamber. care. 482 418 Whereas the horizontal lie of the uppermost sediments was 483 419 2. Stratigraphy and chronology of the upper cutting seen clearly in the E wall (at the “back” of the box, with respect to 484 420 the open shaft), there was a hint in its left-hand or N wall that 485 421 Excavation of the upper cutting began by making just enough stones had tumbled downwards and inwards from the cave mouth 486 422 space to get arms underneath the overhanging rock that was and had formed an ancient stony slope, over which horizontal 487 423 touching the top of the sedimentary fill. Thereafter arbitrary hori- formation of the aforementioned uppermost sediment had taken 488 424 zontal spits were removed for as long as this uppermost sediment place afterwards. This was corroborated amply by later excavation 489 425 remained uniform and showed no litho-stratigraphical change. The (Figs. 5e7). There were also signs, in the form of thin vertical white 490 426 choice was made to start where the exposed upper sediment sheets (sinters), conspicuous both in the rock tumble and in the 491 427 seemed to have undergone some natural erosion recently, in order adjacent sediment, that calcium had been precipitated from water 492 428 to minimize unintentional damage and take maximum advantage percolating down through them. This must have dripped from the 493 429 of the eroded nook. Excavation proceeded cautiously downwards, overhanging roof after the uppermost sediment had filled the 494 430 in case the sediment had been formed in sloping layers rather than cavity. 495 431 horizontally, as proved to be the case. The upper sediment is light The nook where the excavation began is at the top of an almost 496 432 beige and has a gritty feel when rolled between thumb and fore- vertical wall of brecciated sediment, dropping straight down to the 497 433 finger. It contains angular stone clasts, probably washed from the floor of the main chamber 18 m below, which was another reason 498 434 hill-side into the cave or derived from its roof and walls. Sub-aerial for choosing to start there. However, it was over 2 m away hori- 499 435 components of the deposit probably entered through interstices of zontally from the find-spot of the 1991 fossil in the breccia. A few 500

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501 566 502 567 503 568 504 569 505 570 506 571 507 572 508 573 509 574 510 575 511 576 512 577 513 578 514 579 515 580 516 581 517 582 518 583 519 584 520 585 521 586 522 587 523 588 524 589 525 590 526 591 527 592 528 593 529 594 530 595 531 596 Fig. 4. Mouth of the main shaft and upper cutting. Red arrow ¼ rock-faces forming a rectangular corner. Blue arrow ¼ area of possible rock “chute”. Black arrow ¼ stalagmitic 532 flowstone covering apex of conglomerate A. (For interpretation of the references to colour in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the web version of this article.) 597 533 598 534 599 535 metres below that spot, the breccia must have been removed by show traces of having been burnt. This grey layer fanned outwards 600 536 mining activity which had exposed the bare rock wall of the shaft. and slightly downwards as ephemeral, diffuse patches that locally 601 537 The long-term excavation strategy had to be that of extending were discontinuous both longitudinally and vertically, giving an 602 538 the box northwards beyond the rim of the open shaft, so that appearance of gently downward-sloping, irregular fusiform lenses 603 539 eventually the excavation would be able to change direction and of grey sediment interspersed with beige sediment. They were 604 540 make a further extension westwards until it was above the spot present only in a more or less triangular area in the northern and 605 541 where the first Neanderthal fossil had been removed. Constrained eastern part of the cutting. 606 542 by the rock walls of the shaft, the area of the excavation would take X-ray fluorescence analysis conducted by one of the authors 607 543 on an L shape, the limbs of which would be about 3 m long and (J.L. P-C.) points to high levels of tin, arsenic and most especially 608 544 between 1 and 2 m broad, around the top of the scaffolding tower copper in the grey sediment, in contrast to the surrounding beige 609 545 which filled the top of the open karst shaft. sediment, although both show high levels of silicates on the one 610 546 However, the 1991 find had been made almost 3 m below the hand, and unexpectedly low levels of iron on the other. The metals 611 547 rock overhang, and reaching that depth required removal of can have come only from detritus washed down the hill-side into 612 548 a considerable amount of the overlying upper sediment, all of the shaft. Perhaps heat generated by the burning responsible for 613 549 which was excavated carefully by hand and then washed on the the burnt bones in the upper grey layer could have favoured 614 550 geological sieves. Scattered in no apparent order throughout this concentration of metals if it involved refraction from heated marble 615 551 upper sediment were several human fossil teeth and bone frag- in a confined space. Nevertheless, there is no way of knowing 616 552 ments, as well as animal bones and Levalloiso-Mousterian artifacts whether the burning took place inside or outside the excavated 617 553 (Figs. 6 and 8). The laser level is particularly useful in determining area, or both at different times. The possibility cannot be ruled out 618 554 the vertical coordinates of finds and sedimentary features (the site that burnt refuse and ashy sediment may have been dumped at the 619 555 is too small for a GPS-aided “total station” to be deployed). Accuracy back of the shelter when fire-places beside the mouth were cleared 620 556 and precision were of crucial importance, given that the L shape of away. 621 557 the excavated area meant that during the early years of the exca- At its western edge, the grey sediment abutted onto a very steep 622 558 vation programme there were only two permanent vertical strati- brecciated scree slope or partly-cemented rock tumble (with some 623 559 graphic sections or profiles. The third vertical section was of the stones to 50 kg) that must have been displaced downwards 624 560 a temporary (“standing”) section which disappeared when the and inwards from the cave mouth (see below) (Fig. 5). Sediment in 625 561 excavated area was extended. it was cemented to the stones and contained Neanderthal skeletal 626 562 In the NE part of the excavated area, the upper sediment was parts in anatomical connexion. The irregularly-cemented sedi- 627 563 succeeded by to up to 30 cm of dark-grey sediment, designated the mentary feature is now called “conglomerate A”, following identi- 628 564 “upper grey layer” (Figs. 6 and 7), from which some burnt animal fication in 2009 of “conglomerate B” lying more deeply which has 629 565 bones were excavated, although most nearby human bones do not a uniformly weathered upper surface (see below) (Figs. 6 and 7). 630

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631 696 632 697 633 698 634 699 635 700 636 701 637 702 638 703 639 704 640 705 641 706 642 707 643 708 644 709 645 710 646 711 647 712 648 713 649 714 650 715 651 716 652 717 653 718 654 719 655 720 656 721 657 722 658 723 659 724 660 725 661 726 662 727 Fig. 5. Excavating conglomerate A containing SP-96. 663 728 664 729 665 Despite considerable e albeit irregular e cementation within it, the apparent dates) or the loss of uranium (leading to older apparent 730 666 talus slope of conglomerate A did not have the kind of uniformly dates)” (Pike, 2008). 731 667 altered or weathered surface covering it, or a stalagmitic flowstone From what seems to have been a deep position in brecciated 732 668 crust sealing it, such as might well have developed were it to have scree within the main shaft, there is a uranium-thorium determi- 733 669 been exposed to the elements over a long period of time. However, nation on an aragonite crystal extracted from the breccia column of 734 670 neotectonic activity, which is widespread in the region, could have 56,000 þ 13000/10000 a (Sánchez-Cabeza et al.,1999). The crystal 735 671 hindered their development. Nevertheless, it is plausible to infer was removed from the wall of breccia inside the main shaft in 1994, 736 672 that the upper grey layer of sediment represents an episode after from about 1 m below the find-spot of the 1991 fossil, before 737 673 the talus slope of scree had formed: how long after is a matter that excavation of the upper cutting had begun. Finally, mention may be 738 674 will be considered below. made of an electron spin resonance determination on a bone with 739 675 In the NE corner of the cutting, the thickest part of the upper adherent breccia, taken from the mine rubble before the excavations 740 676 grey layer covered a large, thin, flat marble slab (60 40 cm in area) had begun. This date initially was published as either 83,000 or 741 677 that lay above unburnt sediment. The slab lay somewhat away from 42,000 a, depending on whether background irradiation was 1 or 742 678 the conglomerate A, and although it is tempting to see it as perhaps 2 Gray per thousand years, respectively (Gibert et al., 1994). 743 679 having less to do with conglomerate A than with the upper grey Following Schwenninger’s determination of background irradiation 744 680 layer with which it was in immediate contact, this is only as 1.32 Gray/ky, the date might correspond perhaps to about 745 681 a conjecture. Sediment from the upper grey layer directly overlying 69,000 a. ESR determinations were published on two other bones 746 682 the slab was dated to 54,700 4700 a at Oxford University using with adherent breccia from the mine rubble of 146,000 or 73,000 a 747 683 optically stimulated luminescence (Schwenninger, 2008). and 532,000 or 266,000 a, respectively. Whereas the second date 748 684 This date may be compared to uranium-series determinations seems to be anomalous, the first now might be recalculated to 749 685 APSLP-1 and APSLP-6 of, respectively, 54,100 3850 and around 122,000 a, which is of the same order of magnitude as 750 686 51,000 1250 a, obtained at Bristol University using laser ablation uraniumethorium determinations of around 117,000 and 124,000 a 751 687 multicollector mass spectrometry on a Neanderthal human bone on aragonite crystals from a deep position in the exposed breccia in 752 688 and an animal bone, respectively, both of which came from the the main shaft roughly 15 m below the top of the breccia in the 753 689 scree of conglomerate A. These two samples “show near uniform upper cutting: Sánchez-Cabeza et al., 1999. Here, in the main 754 690 uranium concentration and U-series date profiles, which is indicative chamber there are indications that the lowest 5 m of sediment in the 755 691 of the bones having reached equilibrium with the burial environment breccia column were either laid down under water or at least 756 692 relatively rapidly. However, these dates must be treated as of underwent reworking by water at some time in the Pleistocene, and 757 693 unknown accuracy, since a change in the geochemistry of the burial excavation in the “lower cutting” reinforces that interpretation. 758 694 environment will result in the bone rapidly re-equilibrating, which At the top of the main shaft, the chronological interpretation of 759 695 may include further uptake of uranium (leading to underestimated the upper cutting is complicated by three other dates. They were 760

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761 826 762 827 763 828 764 829 765 830 766 831 767 832 768 833 769 834 770 835 771 836 772 837 773 838 774 839 775 840 776 841 777 842 778 843 779 844 780 845 781 846 782 847 783 848 784 849 785 850 786 851 787 852 788 853 789 854 790 855 791 856 792 857 Fig. 6. Stratigraphy and chronology of the upper cutting. SP-96, the upper and lower grey layers, and the underlying conglomerate B are indicated. The situation of conglomerate 793 A is indicated by the fan of broken lines. Two Neanderthal mandibular fragments from the upper fine sediment are included also. Black circles indicate horizontal positions and 858 794 inverted triangles the vertical positions of dated samples, with green and red bands indicating possible groups of “late” and “early” estimates (sample 5 very likely became displaced 859 795 from the adjacent conglomerate A). (For interpretation of the references to colour in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the web version of this article.) 860 796 861 797 determined on three samples which were removed barely 30 cm and it was remarked also that a thin calcrete crust of stalagmitic 862 798 above those which have given ranges of 54,700 4700, flowstone sealed the entire fill, covering conglomerate A at the lip 863 799 54,100 7700 and 51,000 2500 a. The three other dates imply or sill of bed-rock, over which access is gained to the shaft today 864 800 that the uppermost part of the same upper grey layer of sediment (Fig. 4). It is very likely that precipitation caused the cementation of 865 801 has a minimum age of 44,000e40,000 BP. These dates are as fol- conglomerate A after the uppermost sediment had accumulated 866 802 lows. A uranium-series determination APSLP-1 of 43,800 1500 a beside it, and perhaps before the entire deposit had become sealed 867 803 was obtained from a bone fragment at Bristol University (Pike, by flowstone; it might well have taken place in late glacial or even 868 804 2008), and two AMS radiocarbon dates were obtained at Oxford post-glacial times. As already mentioned, sub-aerial components of 869 805 from burnt bone from separate find-spots, namely, OxA-10666 of the uppermost sediment doubtless have entered the deposit 870 806 34,450 600 BP (calibrated 2-sigma range 40,950e37,622) and through interstices in the poorly-consolidated conglomerate A that 871 807 OxA-15423 of 35,030 270 BP (calibrated 2-sigma range served as a filter. 872 808 40,986e38,850 BP) (Higham, 2008). Given that palaeopalynological Were the temporal separation to have been brief between the 873 809 analysis points to mild conditions (Carrión et al., 2003)itis deposition of conglomerate A on the one hand, and the deposition 874 810 reasonable to infer that the finds come from a time before the of the upper grey layer along with overlying sediment on the other, 875 811 severely cold Heinrich 4 oscillation that took place at about then an accommodative interpretation might be that the discon- 876 812 40,000 BP. The three dates imply a time before 40,000 BP and tinuity between the upper grey layer and the brecciated scree of 877 813 possibly around 50,000 a. conglomerate A need not affect the uranium-series dates from the 878 814 Thus there is here a puzzling matter, because the upper grey latter, provided that the OSL determination may be presumed to be 879 815 layer contained no clear-cut stratigraphic break within it that might rather older than otherwise should be considered the appropriate 880 816 have separated the two groups of dates. Moreover, because the age of the lower part of the upper grey layer. Alternatively, the 881 817 talus slope of the cemented, albeit poorly-consolidated, conglom- radiocarbon determinations and the late uranium-series one of 882 818 erate A did not offer a uniformly altered surface, it might be 43,800 could be giving too recent an estimate of age owing to 883 819 wondered whether there was no great temporal separation from undetected contamination, a possibility which has not been ruled 884 820 the upper grey layer of sediment. It was mentioned earlier that out by Thomas Higham with regard to the radiocarbon estimates 885 821 there were also signs, in the form of thin vertical sinters in both the (in conversation with M.J.W. in 2010). A third possibility is that both 886 822 partly-cemented breccia or rock tumble of conglomerate A and in the early uranium-series dates and the OSL date may be too ancient. 887 823 the adjacent sediment, that calcium had been precipitated from Likely, episodes of infiltration by water (see below) might well have 888 824 water which must have dripped from the roof overhanging the led to inaccuracy and unreliability of geophysical and geochemical 889 825 upper cutting after the uppermost sediment had filled the cavity, estimates of age. 890

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891 956 892 957 893 958 894 959 895 960 896 961 897 962 898 963 899 964 900 965 901 966 902 967 903 968 904 969 905 970 906 971 907 972 908 973 909 974 910 975 911 976 912 977 913 978 914 979 915 Fig. 7. Stratigraphy of the upper cutting. A ¼ upper finer sedimentary deposit. B ¼ upper grey layer. C ¼ cemented scree and rock tumble of conglomerate A; the broken line 980 916 indicates the slope and although it hardly impinged at all on the northern section at the rear of the figure, its presence was well demonstrated in standing sections in the foreground 981 917 before they were removed at excavation. D ¼ block of conglomerate A containing part of SP-97 (see Fig. 11). E ¼ lower grey layer. F ¼ conglomerate B. 982 918 983 919 Excavation in 2008 and 2009 has established that conglomerate The lower grey layer and the altered stones covered a bed of 984 920 A, i.e. the brecciated scree containing articulated human remains, rock-hard, brecciated conglomerate, conglomerate B (Figs. 6e8). It 985 921 lay on top of another, lower, layer of grey sediment. This “lower grey has a rough, weathered surface, occupies the whole excavation 986 922 layer” was continuous and occupied the entire excavation area area, and slopes downwards from NW to SE. It appears to be 987 923 (Figs. 6e8). It reached its greatest depth in the SE corner. It con- a heavily cemented cryoclastic breccia comprising very small 988 924 tained large stones that seem to have undergone alteration on their angular chips of stone and bone fragments. Conceivably, it was 989 925 surface because several have acquired a hard, grey “skin” all over. formed under cold arid conditions, with ephemeral calcium 990 926 This “skin” stands out sharply against the red core of many frac- carbonate-rich surface water (e.g. melt-water) and rapid precipi- 991 927 tured stones (which itself is in marked contrast to the usually light- tation. The inward and downward slope of conglomerate B fav- 992 928 grey marble blocks in conglomerate A). Adhering to the grey “skin” oured accumulation of rain-water sporadically. Plausibly, it was 993 929 of some of these altered stones is blackish sediment that feels formed during a cold period, perhaps about 60,000 years ago at the 994 930 “greasy” when touched with a finger. time of the transition between marine isotope stages 4 and 3. The 995 931 Whereas the upper grey layer contained undoubtedly burnt lower grey layer followed the lay of the slope of conglomerate B and 996 932 lagormorph bones, analyzed and dated at the Oxford radiocarbon was deepest in the SE corner of the cutting (in contrast to the 997 933 laboratory, the lower grey layer seems to be more complicated. smaller upper grey layer which was thickest in its NE corner). The 998 934 Anthracological investigation of putative botanical remains refuted underlying rock-hard conglomerate B is a bed that is scarcely more 999 935 that interpretation, and subsequent microscopy points to microbial than 25 cm thick in the wall of the main shaft, where it has been 1000 936 biogenic processes as having been responsible for the formation of undercut because some looser breccia below it was dislodged, no 1001 937 large elongated masses of calcium carbonate deposits that are seen doubt by mining activity. 1002 938 to have a tubular filiform structure when examined under the The lower grey layer on top of it contained only sparse finds, 1003 939 microscope (which showed that the initial impression that they albeit of considerable interest. They range from thin, flat Levallois 1004 940 were calcined wood or bone was mistaken). They appear to have points with retouched edges made on dark (probably burnt) chert 1005 941 been formed under conditions which imply presence of temporary and with astonishing delicacy on translucent rock crystal, to a small 1006 942 infiltration by water that can only have entered from the hill-side burnt fragment of human bone containing what is either a small 1007 943 above (the authors thank Ernestina Badal-Garcia of Valencia canine or premolar tooth (in the process of being cleaned). Whereas 1008 944 University and Rafael Arana-Castillo and Francisco Torrella-Mateu the articulated Neanderthal bones in the brecciated scree on top of 1009 945 of Murcia University for their studies on samples). Energy- this lower grey layer showed no traces whatsoever of having been 1010 946 dispersal X-ray (EDX) analysis with the scanning electron micro- burnt, numerous burnt human and animal bones were identified 1011 947 scope and X-ray diffraction analysis conducted by one of the when sieving the rubble thrown out of the cave by miners 1012 948 authors (T.R-E.) show that the masses contain less phosphorus and a hundred years ago and strewn on the hill-side; they include 1013 949 organic carbon than the surrounding sediment which also contains fragments of two Neanderthal mandibles (Walker et al., 2010a, b). 1014 950 more potassium. One implication is that the surrounding sediment Attention had been drawn to the presence of several horse bones in 1015 951 contains components that may have resulted from combustion of the rubble, some of which had been burnt, in contrast to their 1016 952 organic materials before those masses had formed, although paucity in the upper sediment excavated hitherto. Two horse talus 1017 953 presence in the surrounding sediment of silica, mica, quartz, and bones were excavated in 2009. It is possible that the thickest part of 1018 954 even the metal titanium, is compatible with their origin on the hill- the lower grey layer was destroyed when mining reopened the 1019 955 side in detritus washed into the cave by rain. main shaft. 1020

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1021 1086 1022 1087 1023 1088 1024 1089 1025 1090 1026 1091 1027 1092 1028 1093 1029 1094 1030 1095 1031 1096 1032 1097 1033 1098 1034 1099 1035 1100 1036 1101 1037 1102 1038 1103 1039 1104 1040 1105 1041 1106 1042 1107 1043 1108 1044 1109 1045 1110 1046 1111 1047 1112 1048 1113 1049 1114 1050 1115 1051 Fig. 8. Mousterian artifacts, mostly from upper finer sedimentary deposit (A in Fig. 7). Scrapers and points were made on flint of good quality. No flint outcrops are known on 1116 1052 Cabezo Gordo and the artifacts were doubtless brought to the site, together with small amounts of the raw material for knapping although cores and knapping débris are infrequent. 1117 1053 1118 1054 1119 1055 3. Articulated Neanderthal skeletons cutting. Among or close to these remains there was a scatter of 1120 1056 9 retouched Mousterian artifacts, 12 unretouched flakes and over 1121 1057 The brecciated scree or partly-cemented tumble of stones 100 knapping spalls and fragments of flint, calcite and quartz, but 1122 1058 and rocks (éboulis) of conglomerate A, has given dates of no arrangement of these was discerned with regard to the dispo- 1123 1059 55,000e50,000 a (Figs. 5e7). Apart from a small area close to the sition of the bones, Two burnt equid talus bones also were found. 1124 1060 SP-92 skeleton, it contained relatively fewer Mousterian artifacts Breccia cement was removed from the bones in the laboratory in 1125 1061 than did the sediments overlying the upper grey horizon. Articu- 2006 and 2007. Both femurs are present, the left fibula, most of the 1126 1062 lated skeletal parts of two adult Neanderthal individuals and left foot, with metatarsals and phalanges in anatomical articulation, 1127 1063 a juvenile or child have been excavated (SP-92, SP-96 and SP-97: 3 vertebrae (lumbar and thoracic), sacrum and a large part of ilium, 1128 1064 Figs. 9e12). The skeleton of SP-96 is 85% complete (Figs. 9 and about half of the left-hand, with metacarpals and phalanges in 1129 1065 10). They were found embedded in breccia containing many anatomical articulation, and the elbow joint with the distal part of 1130 1066 stones, all of which formed a conglomerate cemented by calcium the humerus in articulation with the heads of the ulna and radius, 1131 1067 carbonate into masses of varying hardness, some of them as hard as as well as a thoracic vertebra and pelvic fragments. 1132 1068 concrete (Figs. 5 and 11). This made manual excavation of the bones The right bicondylar femoral length of 394 10 mm (Walker 1133 1069 very difficult. Wherever possible bones were exposed and recorded et al., 2010b) implies an individual perhaps 1520 mm tall if 1134 1070 before removal. Sometimes conglomerate masses became loose female or 1560 mm if male. Most probably, the transversely- 1135 1071 and had to be detached. These masses of rock-hard breccia con- crushed maxillae and mandible in anatomical connexion that 1136 1072 taining bone were removed whole, after careful measurements and were found in 1991 by Juan Carlos Blanco-Gago came from SP-92 1137 1073 many photographs had been taken, so that in the laboratory they (they are labelled SP-1 or CG-1 in published inventories). Greater 1138 1074 could be restored to their original relative positions. The separation damage was suffered by the left side of the mandible than the right 1139 1075 of human bones from conglomerate masses in which they were side, on which perhaps the head was lying when crushing took 1140 1076 embedded is a painstaking laboratory procedure. Manual and place. Because some of the bones were projecting from the wall of 1141 1077 sometimes chemical methods are used to remove the cemented sediment that formed the western side of the upper cutting, it was 1142 1078 calcareous matrix from the delicate human fossils it encloses; bone necessary to extend the cutting westwards and this led to the 1143 1079 thereby exposed is consolidated by impregnation. Cleaning is still discovery of SP-96 at a higher level than SP-92 and SP-97. 1144 1080 in progress in order that sex, age, and pathologies can be defined for SP-97, excavated from conglomerate A in 2008, seems to be 1145 1081 the three skeletons SP-92, SP-96 and SP-97. a juvenile or child, and extraction of its bones from the conglom- 1146 1082 The first of the three skeletons with articulated parts to be erate is proceeding in the laboratory (Figs. 11 and 12). It lay below 1147 1083 excavated from conglomerate A was SP-92 (Fig. 13). Its lower SP-96 and above SP-92, in the western part of the L-shaped exca- 1148 1084 extremities were uncovered low in the rock tumble of conglom- vation area. The skull which is undergoing cleaning is still partly 1149 1085 erate A in 2005, in what is now the western part of the upper covered with brecciated cement but the mandible, maxillae and 1150

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1151 1216 1152 1217 1153 1218 1154 1219 1155 1220 1156 1221 1157 1222 1158 1223 1159 1224 1160 1225 1161 1226 1162 1227 1163 1228 1164 1229 1165 1230 1166 1231 1167 1232 1168 1233 1169 1234 1170 1235 1171 1236 1172 1237 1173 1238 1174 1239 1175 1240 1176 1241 1177 1242 1178 1243 1179 1244 1180 1245 1181 1246 1182 1247 1183 Fig. 9. Situation of the SP-96 skeleton. From left to right the three red ovals indicate approximately where the skull, thoracic skeleton and lower limbs lay, in an inclined position. 1248 1184 (For interpretation of the references to colour in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the web version of this article.) 1249 1185 1250 1186 other facial bones are preserved. The left arm and fore-arm are Mousterian skeletons, namely, es-Skhul 4 and 7, Shanidar 7 and Le 1251 1187 complete, with bones in anatomical articulation. Part of the right Régourdou, whilst Shanidar 4, Amud and Qafzeh 10 had one hand 1252 1188 upper extremity can be seen, as well as ribs, phalangeal bones, close to the head (Defleur, 1993, p. 233); of those, Shanidar, 1253 1189 pelvis, sacrum and metatarsals. Cleaning of the bones is still Régourdou and Amud are Neanderthals. This is an aspect of burial 1254 1190 underway. that some Neanderthals and some early non-Neanderthal humans 1255 1191 SP-96, excavated from conglomerate A in 2007, is the most had in common. Greater damage was suffered by the left side of the 1256 1192 complete of the three skeletons, but it has taken two years of head than the right side, so it is likely SP-96 was lying with the right 1257 1193 laboratory cleaning to bring it to a state which is only now begin- side of its face on the ground when crushing of the left took place. 1258 1194 ning to permit its study; and cleaning is still not complete (Fig. 10). 1259 1195 It was found when the western part of the L-shaped upper cutting 4. The articulated skeletons, site-formation processes and 1260 1196 was extended in order to complete the excavation of SP-92 (Fig. 5). conglomerate A 1261 1197 It lay in an inclined position (Fig. 9) above SP-97 and SP-92. SP-96 is 1262 1198 the skeleton of an adult who was lying on one side with both arms Regarded in terms of their relative depths, the most complete 1263 1199 folded upwards at the elbows such that the hands were together skeleton, SP-96, must have been introduced after SP-97 and SP-92. 1264 1200 beside the transversely-crushed skull that clearly retains several It lay slightly closer to the cave mouth and the hill-side than the 1265 1201 teeth, although its cleaning is not yet finished. others. The presence of articulated human bones at different depths 1266 1202 Most of the cervical and thoracic vertebrae of SP-96 are present, and situations in conglomerate A raises a matter of taphonomical 1267 1203 together with many ribs and the right scapula and clavicle. Left and interest about their relationship to its formation. 1268 1204 right humeri, ulnae and radii are present, and most of both hands. Perhaps SP-96 was introduced when some stones already had 1269 1205 Enough of the pelvis and sacrum are preserved to show SP-96 to be accumulated over SP-92 and SP-97. It is likely that the hands and 1270 1206 a young adult female. The left and right femurs are present as well arms of SP-96 were raised to beside its face before the rigor mortis 1271 1207 as a tibia and fibula. Lying transversely behind the left femur, the had set in that may well have set the awkward position of its right 1272 1208 right femur was found as if it had been drawn up behind it. Tibial thigh. More rocks then accumulated over SP-96, which could have 1273 1209 and femoral lengths are, respectively, 290e295 mm and caused the skull to become crushed. 1274 1210 375e385 mm; they give a characteristically Neanderthal value It is hard to envisage how a person lying there alive in such 1275 1211 for the crural index of 76.6e80. The individual stood about a posture might have become covered by rocks that fell down 1276 1212 1500 mm tall. accidentally in a rock chute. Nevertheless, the authors have been 1277 1213 SP-96 seems to have laid on its right side with the head at trapped in the upper cutting during a sudden thunderstorm when 1278 1214 a higher level than the legs, and with both hands raised close to the water poured down the hill-side and was funnelled into the shaft as 1279 1215 skull. Hands raised close to the head are documented for several a waterfall. The possibility cannot be ruled out that SP-96 met 1280

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1281 1346 1282 1347 1283 1348 1284 1349 1285 1350 1286 1351 1287 1352 1288 1353 1289 1354 1290 1355 1291 1356 1292 1357 1293 1358 1294 1359 1295 1360 1296 1361 1297 1362 1298 1363 1299 1364 1300 1365 1301 1366 1302 1367 1303 1368 1304 1369 1305 1370

1306 Fig. 10. SP-96 skeleton and skull partly cleaned. Bones of the hands and feet have been omitted from the photograph. 1371 1307 1372 1308 1373 1309 accidental under similar conditions. A slip of the foot on wet rock at several Neanderthal articulated skeletons “managed to be preserved 1374 1310 the top of the low cliff that overhangs the cave mouth (where it in highly accessible Upper Pleistocene rock-shelters and caves in near- 1375 1311 forms a right-angled corner, “cut back”, as it were, into the hill-side anatomical position and over-all skeletal-part frequencies identical to 1376 1312 above it) could have led to a fall of 6 or 7 m onto the scree slope those of recent cemetery samples. These partial skeletons retain 1377 1313 within, and to injuries so severe that burial under stones raining many fragile elements largely intact, despite the ubiquitous presence 1378 1314 down occurred before escape was possible. of carcass-destroying carnivores.the lack of evidence in most cases 1379 1315 On the other hand, it is hardly likely that three individuals for sufﬁciently rapid natural sedimentation rates to shield them from 1380 1316 (SP-96, SP-97, SP-92) met similar fates on separate occasions, scavengers, and the absence of comparably preserved nonhominid 1381 1317 whereas had they been together at the same time a considerable skeletons in similarly accessible Upper Pleistocene locales” (Trinkaus, 1382 1318 stretch of the imagination is needed in order to envisage them 1989). 1383 1319 succumbing to a common fate by accident. Therefore alternative At Sima de las Palomas, there are remains of Panthera pardus 1384 1320 conjectures might be that SP-96 was introduced as a corpse and cf. lunellensis and the large Crocuta crocuta cf. spelaeus, along with 1385 1321 laid out on the scree slope, after which more rocks and stones were lynx, badger, fox and wolf. At least one Panthera bone had been 1386 1322 either piled on it or fell on it later on (or both), and that introduc- burnt thoroughly, suggesting that Neanderthals could despatch and 1387 1323 tion had likewise taken place previously of SP-97 and SP-92. The dispose of large felids. Unburnt bones of two articulated panther 1388 1324 transverse crushing of the skulls might imply that rocks fell or were paws lay embedded in a small block of breccia that was removed in 1389 1325 dropped on to the human remains from a height. Movement of the 2009, close to SP-92 and SP-97 and slightly below SP-96, in an area 1390 1326 scree doubtless explains the presence of stones among the bones, where the rest of the animal’s skeleton was conspicuous by its 1391 1327 many of which are cemented to stones by calcium carbonate absence notwithstanding its proximity to the human skeletons 1392 1328 precipitated from water that later on percolated downwards, to (perhaps the paw had been cut off and kept by a Neanderthal). 1393 1329 solidify conglomerate A. Three horse talus bones, two of which were burnt, were also found 1394 1330 Further cleaning of the bones may throw light on pathology and in this area, one in articulation with the calcaneum. 1395 1331 allow computer-assisted tomography and other investigative As excavation progressed in the early campaigns, temporary 1396 1332 techniques to be employed. Whatever the cause of death, the (“standing”) sections showed how the cemented rock tumble of 1397 1333 skeletal parts of the three individuals did not undergo the scat- conglomerate A had fanned outwards and downwards from the 1398 1334 tering that otherwise might well have taken place had predatory cave mouth. Some of these sections have been illustrated in earlier 1399 1335 and scavenging animals rummaged through them. To date, neither publications (Walker and Gibert, 1999; Walker et al.,1999). It hardly 1400 1336 cut nor gnaw marks have been seen on any of the Neanderthal reached the NW corner of the excavation area, and thus the 1401 1337 bones. direction of the partial cone of scree was unrelated to the slope of 1402 1338 The completeness of the articulated SP-96 skeleton brings to the lower grey layer and underlying, lower conglomerate B. It was 1403 1339 mind a remark made by Anne-Marie Tillier, namely, “La présence du also much steeper and did not reach the E section of the cutting. 1404 1340 squelette ou dune grande partie du squelette en connexion nest pas un 1405 1341 phénomène naturel et il ne semble pas indispensable de mettre en 5. The puzzle of the incomplete overhang 1406 1342 évidence une structure artiﬁcielle pour envisager un depôt volontaire 1407 1343 du corps.” (Tillier, 1982; cf. Pettit, 2002 for similar remarks). In like Where exactly did it come from? Some further remarks are in 1408 1344 vein, Erik Trinkaus, in response to Robert Gargett’s scepticism about order here. The marble rock of the hill-side overhanging the exca- 1409 1345 some allegedly intentional Neanderthal burials, commented that vated area of the upper cutting offers an appearance compatible 1410

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1411 1476 1412 1477 1413 1478 1414 1479 1415 1480 1416 1481 1417 1482 1418 1483 1419 1484 1420 1485 1421 1486 1422 1487 1423 1488 1424 1489 1425 1490 1426 1491 1427 1492 1428 1493 1429 1494 1430 1495 1431 1496 1432 1497 1433 1498 1434 1499 1435 1500 1436 1501 1437 1502 1438 1503 1439 1504 1440 1505 1441 1506 1442 1507 Fig. 11. Left: block of conglomerate A containing a part of the SP-97 skeleton which is shown below partly cleaned. Lower right: conglomerate B during excavation. 1443 1508 1444 with a sudden loss of an enormous volume of displaced stone. This main shaft (Fig. 4). The surrounding hill-side slopes steeply at about 1509 1445 brought about its present aspect, mentioned earlier, of a right- 45, against the dip which varies from 30 to 65. The two rock-faces 1510 1446 angled corner, “cut back”, as it were, into the hill-side in the form of the corner are about 2 m long and up to 3 m in height. They 1511 1447 of a precipitous vertical cliff, behind and above the mouth of the enclose the northern and eastern sides of the rectangular 1512 1448 1513 1449 1514 1450 1515 1451 1516 1452 1517 1453 1518 1454 1519 1455 1520 1456 1521 1457 1522 1458 1523 1459 1524 1460 1525 1461 1526 1462 1527 1463 1528 1464 1529 1465 1530 1466 1531 1467 1532 1468 1533 1469 1534 1470 1535 1471 1536 1472 1537 1473 1538 1474 1539 1475 Fig. 12. SP-97 skeleton and skull partly cleaned. 1540

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1566 Fig. 13. Articulated parts of the SP-92 skeleton and skull. 1631 1567 1632 1568 1633 1569 horizontal security grille above the mouth of the main shaft and It is within the bounds of possibility that the shaft became filled 1634 1570 upper cutting. up completely long after natural collapse of part of the overhang 1635 1571 Did a natural rock-fall here contribute to conglomerate A? Might had been brought about by one of the many violent earth tremors 1636 1572 it have taken place long before conglomerate A was formed and that still afflict the region. The rock-faces of the right-angled corner 1637 1573 therefore had nothing to do with its formation? Might the rock of the low cliff above the cave mouth bear traces of the stalagmitic 1638 1574 have been removed only recently and artificially by miners or flowstone crust that had sealed the uppermost sediments and 1639 1575 quarrymen? It is argued below that the second alternative is the which clearly still covers conglomerate breccia cemented on a small 1640 1576 most likely one, followed by consideration of where the compo- vertical lip or sill of marble bed-rock that forms the front of the 1641 1577 nents of conglomerate A most likely came from. First, though, the mouth of the shaft on the hill-side. Not only is the sill too far out 1642 1578 possibility will be examined that recent mining or quarrying from the low precipice of the right-angled corner for it to have 1643 1579 produced the right-angled corner by removal of rock. received rocks from any downward collapse, but the stalagmitic 1644 1580 When excavation of the upper cutting began in 1994, the sedi- flowstone, on both the rock-face and covering the conglomerate on 1645 1581 mentary fill was touching the rock overhanging the main shaft. It the sill above the cave, implies that any such collapse had taken 1646 1582 included, most particularly, the fine sediment of sub-aerial origin place before the conglomerate breccia was deposited on the sill. It is 1647 1583 containing Neanderthal bones and teeth together with well-made a vestige of the apex of the cone of brecciated scree (éboulis) or 1648 1584 Levalloiso-Mousterian points and scrapers. This sediment had cemented rock tumble that is conglomerate A. The logical inference 1649 1585 backed up inside the cave behind the scree slope of conglomerate A. is that there had been collapse long before conglomerate A began to 1650 1586 The scree had served no doubt as a coarse filter, regardless of form. The collapse can only have been downwards into the main 1651 1587 whether the palaeoanthropological and Palaeolithic components in shaft. Probably rocks from it were largely removed by miners from 1652 1588 the fine sediment were due to human dumping of refuse or deep in the erstwhile breccia fill of the main chamber, though some 1653 1589 whether they were washed in by rain. may still be present lying deeply in the column of breccia near the 1654 1590 What needs to be stressed is that, before mining reopened the base of the main chamber. 1655 1591 main shaft, the cave already was filled up to its roof with Pleistocene The conglomerate breccia adhering to the marble rock sill can be 1656 1592 scree and fine sediment. If miners and quarrymen had cut the right- regarded, therefore, as being all that remains of the apex of the cone 1657 1593 angled cliff above the cave after reopening the main shaft, the rock of the cemented rock tumble of conglomerate A that contained the 1658 1594 should have fallen down onto the floor of the main chamber, whereas articulated Neanderthal skeletons. It slopes downwards and 1659 1595 had they done so beforehand they would have had no other alter- inwards, and impinged little, if at all, on the N and E sections, 1660 1596 native than to have thrown it down the hill-side, given that the cave whereas these should have shown the greatest accumulation of 1661 1597 already was full up to the roof with sediment (as remarked earlier, rocks and slabs had there been collapse of overhanging rock at the 1662 1598 a small hanging remnant of conglomerate is cemented to the roof of time when sediment built up in that part of the upper cutting. 1663 1599 the main chamber close to where the main shaft opens out into it), in Furthermore, the slope of any rubble cone brought about by such 1664 1600 neither case could any of that rock have contributed to conglomerate a collapse should have been downwards and outwards from the NE 1665 1601 A were miners or quarrymen to have been responsible. If they were, part of the upper cutting. Even though some of the marble blocks in 1666 1602 they left no traces. Despite the rectangular form of the corner, its the cemented rock tumble of conglomerate A are up to 50 kg, the 1667 1603 rock-faces do not show any traces of pick-marks, let alone the bore- smaller size of most of the brecciated scree, and the restricted area 1668 1604 holes for charges of dynamite that, by contrast, are much in evidence available for its cone inside the cave, would imply extraordinary 1669 1605 in the horizontal entrance tunnel into the main chamber. fragmentation of the overhanging bed-rock to a perhaps unlikely 1670

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1671 degree. It therefore is more likely that its natural collapse had taken thank all the helpers from many countries who have taken part in 1736 1672 place in the very distant past, leaving internal traces lying only very the field research, particularly Arthur Vincent Lombardi and Phillip 1737 1673 deeply in the sedimentary fill of the main shaft, and doubtless Habgood. The authors of the paper were all members of the 12441/ 1738 1674 largely removed by miners. 2009 funded project who took part in field research at the site. 1739 1675 Where did the rocks in conglomerate A come from? The Other members of the project included Erik Trinkaus who is 1740 1676 conglomerate adhering to the rock sill and brecciated scree of collaborating in palaeoanthropological analysis, and Alistair Pike, 1741 1677 conglomerate A that contains the Neanderthal articulated skeletons Jean-Luc Schwenninger and Thomas Higham, whose invaluable 1742 1678 may have their origin in loose rocks and slabs lying on the hill-side help in dating the site is gratefully acknowledged,. We thank 1743 1679 above the cave mouth. They could well have entered where the hill- Ernestina Badal-García, Rafael Arana-Castillo and Francisco Torella- 1744 1680 side offers a small slope, or chute, down towards the cave above the Mateu for laboratory inspection of samples. For a new scale plan of 1745 1681 northern end of the small vertical lip or sill of bed-rock which forms the cave we thank Ignacio Nicolás Vázquez and his collaborators in 1746 1682 the front of the mouth of the shaft. Heavy thunderstorms and the Federación de Espeleología de la Región de Murcia, Escuela 1747 1683 sheet-wash could have displaced rocks and stones, some of which Murciana de Espeleología and G.E.V.A. We thank João Zilhão for his 1748 1684 may have been swept downwards behind the rock sill, such that suggestions in the field. We thank Ana Asensio-Navarro for help in 1749 1685 some rained down inside and formed a talus of scree within the cleaning remains at our laboratory at Murcia, Klará Parmová for 1750 1686 cave, instead of being carried down the hill-side away from it. photographic assistance, Francisco Guitián-Rivera for his collabo- 1751 1687 The purpose of the foregoing discussion, despite its complexity, ration with one of us (J.L.P-C.) and Luis Alberto Alcolea-Rubio for his 1752 1688 is to show that there are no convincing reasons to think that the collaboration with another of us (T.R-E.). We acknowledge the 1753 1689 articulated skeletons have been excavated at the site in a situation collaboration in palaeoanthropological research at Sima de las 1754 1690 any different from that in which they lay 50,000 years ago. This is Palomas of Arthur Vincent Lombardi, Josefina Zapata-Crespo, Ale- 1755 1691 important, because the stratigraphic findings at excavation do not jandro Martínez-Pérez-Pérez and Kornelius Kupczik. We wish to 1756 1692 show evidence of such human impingements as burial pits, stone- thank Chris Stringer and Chris Collins of the Natural History 1757 1693 linings or covering slabs, much less grave goods. It is not even Museum London for their interest in our skeletal remains and for 1758 1694 possible to infer that the lower grey horizon might represent technical advice about appropriate cleaning and preparation 1759 1695 intentional preparation of an area on which to lay out the dead. It methods. 1760 1696 must be borne in mind that no more than half of the area at the top 1761 1697 of the main shaft has been available for excavation, following 1762 1698 reopening of the shaft by mining activity and resulting collapse of References 1763 1699 much of the sedimentary fill. All the same, the most economical 1764 1700 interpretation is that the articulated skeletons represent corpses Carrión, J.S., Yll, E.I., Walker, M.J., Legaz, A.J., Chaín, C., López, A., 2003. Glacial refugia 1765 1701 that were introduced intentionally and became covered by the rock of temperate, Mediterranean and Ibero-North African flora in south-eastern 1766 Spain: new evidence from cave pollen at two Neanderthal man sites. Global 1702 tumble and scree that became cemented as conglomerate A. This Ecology and Biogeography 12, 119e129. 1767 1703 contrasts markedly with the scattered remains of at least another Colodrón, I., Martínez, W., Núñez, A., Cabañas, I., Uralde, M.A., Navidad, M., 1994. 1768 1704 half-a-dozen Neanderthals in the fine sediment that afterwards Fuente-Álamo de Murcia. Hoja y Memoria. Mapa Geológico de España, Instituto 1769 Geológico y Minero de España. Ministerio de Industria y Energía, Madrid. 1705 accumulated within the cave behind it. de Gálvez-Cañero, A., 1913. Minas del Cabezo Gordo. In: Bravo-Villasante, F., 1770 1706 Fernández, A., de Gálvez-Cañero, A., 1913, Fuente Álamo y Pacheco. In: Bravo- 1771 1707 6. Conclusion Villasante y Gómez, F. (Ed.), Criaderos de Hierro de España. Criaderos de la 1772 1708 Provincia de Murcia, Tomo I. Memorias del Instituto Geológico de España, 1773 Madrid, pp. 377e384. 1709 Articulated Neanderthal skeletons SP-92, SP-96 and SP-97 Defleur, A., 1993. Les Sépultures Moustériennes. Éditions du Centre National de la 1774 1710 dating from around 50,000 a at Sima de las Palomas del Cabezo Recherche Scientifique, Paris. 321. 1775 1711 Gordo have been excavated in a heavily cemented deposit, Gibert, J., Walker, M.J., Malgosa, A., Sánchez, F., Pomery, P.J., Hunter, D., Arribas, A., 1776 Maillo, A., 1994. Hominids in Spain: ice age Neanderthals from Cabezo Gordo. 1712 conglomerate A, that was partly covered before 40,000 a by loose, Research & Exploration 10 (1), 120e123. 1777 1713 fine sediments with a sub-aerial origin, in which there were scat- Higham, T., 2008. Supporting Information III: Radiocarbon dating of the Sima de las 1778 1714 tered human, animal and Palaeolithic remains. The context and Palomas. In: (electronic edition only) Walker et al. 1779 Pettit, P., 2002. The Neanderthal dead: exploring mortuary variability in middle 1715 situation of the three skeletons, which are undergoing cleaning Palaeolithic Eurasia. Before Farming 1 (4), 1e26. 1780 1716 and preparation in the laboratory, have been described briefly Pike, A., 2008. Supporting Information IV: Uranium-series dating of bones from the 1781 1717 and considered here from the standpoint of their chronology and Sima de las Palomas. In: (electronic edition only) Walker et al. 1782 Sánchez-Cabeza, J.A., García-Orellana, J., Gibert, L., 1999. Uraniumethorium dating 1718 site-formation processes. of natural carbonates: application to the Cabezo-Gordo site (Murcia, Spain). In: 1783 1719 Gibert, J., Sánchez, F., Gibert, L., Ribot, F. (Eds.), The Hominids and Their 1784 1720 Acknowledgements Environment During the Lower and Middle Pleistocene of Eurasia, Proceedings 1785 of the International Conference of Human Palaeontology, Orce 1995/Los hom- 1721 ínidos y su entorno en el Pleistoceno inferior y medio de Eurasia, Actas del 1786 1722 Excavation of the articulated Neanderthal skeletons was made Congreso Internacional de Paleontología Humana, Orce 1995. Museo de Pre- 1787 1723 possible thanks to financial assistance from the University of historia y Paleontología “J.Gibert”, Ayuntamiento de Orce, Orce, pp. 261e268. 1788 1724 Schwenninger, J-L., 2008. Supporting Information V: Optically stimulated lumi- 1789 Murcia (Proyecto Propio 12441/2009), the Fundación Séneca of the nescence dating. In: (electronic edition only) Walker et al. 1725 Comunidad Autónoma de la Región de Murcia (Proyecto 05584/ Tillier, A.-M., 1982. Les inhumations denfants au Paléolithique ancien et moyen. In: 1790 1726 ARQ/07), the Dirección General de Investigación of the Ministerio Les Dossiers d’Archéologie 66 (septembre 1982), “La Mort dans le Préhistoire”. 1791 e 1727 de Educación y Ciencia (Proyecto CGL2005-02410/BTE) and the Éditions Faton, Dijon, pp. 19 22. 1792 Trinkaus, E., 1989. The evidence for Neandertal burial, In: Comments, pp. 183e184, 1728 Dirección General de Investigación of the Ministerio de Ciencia y in response to Gargett, R.H., Grave shortcomings. Current Anthropology 30 (2), 1793 1729 Tecnología (Proyecto BOS-2002-02375). We thank the owners of 157e190. 1794 1730 the Cabezo Gordo estate and the Cabezo Gordo SL company, and Trinkaus, E., Ortega, J., Lombardi, A.V., Pérez-Pérez, A., Zapata, J., Walker, M.J., 2008. 1795 Supporting Information II: The human remains from the Sima de las Palomas 1731 also the Mayor and Corporation of Torre Pacheco, for their coop- del Cabezo Gordo. In: (electronic edition only) Walker et al. 1796 1732 eration and assistance. We recall with sadness the enthusiasm of Walker, M.J., Gibert, J., Sánchez, F., Lombardi, A.V., Serrano, I., Gómez, A., 1797 1733 the late Josep Gibert-Clols who co-directed research at Sima de las Eastham, A., Ribot, F., Arribas, A., Cuenca, A., Gibert, L., Albaladejo, S., 1798 Andreu, J.A., 1999. Excavations at new sites of early man in Murcia, Sima de las 1734 Palomas with one of us (M.J.W.) until his death in 2007. We thank Palomas del Cabezo Gordo and Cueva Negra del Estrecho del Río Quípar de la 1799 1735 Juan Carlos Blanco-Gago for information he has given us, and we Encarnación. Human Evolution 14 (1e2), 99e123. 1800

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1801 Walker, M.J., Gibert, J., 1999. Dos yacimientos murcianos con restos nean- 20631e20636 (Note: Supporting Information was published only in the elec- 1809 1802 dertalenses: La Sima de las Palomas del Cabezo Gordo y la Cueva Negra del tronic edition.). 1810 Estrecho del Quípar de La Encarnación. In: Actas del XXIX Congreso Nacional de Walker, M.J., Lombardi, A.V., Zapata, J., Trinkaus, E., 2010a. Neandertal mandibles 1803 Arqueología, Cartagena, 28e31 Octubre 1997, Volumen I. Instituto de Patri- from the Sima de las Palomas del Cabezo Gordo, Murcia, southeastern Spain. 1811 1804 monio Histórico, Dirección-General de Cultura, Comunidad Autónoma de la American Journal of Physical Anthropology 142, 261e272. 1812 1805 Región de Murcia, Murcia, pp. 299e310. Walker, M.J., Ortega-Rodrigáñez, J., López-Martínez, M.V., Parmová, K., Trinkaus, E., 1813 Walker, M.J., Gibert, J., López, M.V., Lombardi, A.V., Pérez-Pérez, A., Zapata, J., 2010b. Neandertal postcranial remains from the Sima de las Palomas del 1806 Ortega, J., Higham, T., Pike, A., Schwenninger, J.-L., Zilhão, J., Trinkaus, E., 2008. Cabezo Gordo, Murcia, southeastern Spain. American Journal of Physical 1814 1807 Late Neandertals in Southeastern Spain: Sima de las Palomas del Cabezo Gordo, Anthropology (early electronic edition, December 2010, DOI 10.1002/ 1815 1808 Murcia, Spain. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA 105 (52), ajpa.21428). 1816