Giles of Rome on the Errors of the Philosophers

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Here Begin the Errors of the Philosophers Aristotle, Averroës, Avicenna, Algazel, Alkindi, and Rabbi Moses (Maimonides), Compiled by Brother Giles of the Order of St. Augustine

And a compilation of Aristotle’s errors is placed ﬁrst.

Chapter I

As it is the case that many wrong conclusions follow from one faulty statement, so the Philosopher has drawn many errors from one faulty principle. 1. For he believed nothing to be disposed in some condition in which it previously was not, except it came to be that way through a preceding motion. He held, moreover, that there is no novelty except where there is change, taken properly. Because, therefore, every change taken properly is a terminus of motion, there can be no novelty without a preceding motion. Now from this principle he concluded that motion never began to be; since if motion began, the motion was new. But nothing is new except through some preceding motion. Therefore there was motion before the first motion, which is a contradiction. 2. Further: he erred because he posited time never to have begun. Now time always follows on motion, if, therefore, motion never began, neither did time. Moreover, it seemed to him that the principle of time involved a special difficulty. For since an instant is always the end of the past and the beginning of the future, a first instant cannot be given, because there was a time before every instant, and before any assigned time there was an instant. Time, therefore, did not begin, but is eternal. 3. Further: because of what has already been stated, he was forced to posit a mobile to be eternal and the world to be eternal. For as one cannot give a time without motion, and motion without a mobile, if time and motion are eternal, the mobile will be eternal, and so the world would never begin. All of this is clear from Book VIII of the Physics. MP_C21.qxd 11/23/062:33AMPage172

PHILOSOPHY OF NATURE, PHILOSOPHY OF THE SOUL, METAPHYSICS 172 – canbefoundinBookI,andmoreexpresslyII, tion ofanother.However,thiserror–thatgenerationandcorruptionneitherbeginnorend viously generated;andgenerationfollowsbecausethecorruptionofonethingisgenera- Thus alsogenerationprecedescorruption,becausenothingiscorruptedexceptitwaspre- since everygenerableiscorruptible,andcorruptiblewillbecorruptedofnecessity. because somethingiscorrupted;andsocorruptionprecedesgenerationalsofollowsit, and followsgeneration,heprovedbywayofmotion.Forsomethingisnotgeneratedexcept generation, andacorruptionafterthefinalcorruption.Moreover,thatprecedes either generationorcorruptionweretocease,therewouldbeaafterthefinal corruption followsanygeneration,andagenerationcorruption.If,therefore, corruption tohavehadabeginning;norisitpossibleforthemceasebe,since tion, whilesomegenerationhasprecededacorruption,itisimpossibleforand and followseverycorruption.Becauseofthis,sinceacorruptionhasprecededanygenera- never began.Forcorruptionprecedesandfollowseverygeneration,generation and animals.”ThisisclearfromBookI, was forcedtomaintainthatthesun–quotehim“willneverceasegenerateplants God. ThisisclearinBookIIofhis motion, heerredinmaintainingthatsomethingnewcouldnotproceedimmediatelyfrom as erroneousthatthedeadshouldriseagain,isclearfrom BookI, same thing,remainingthesame,alwaysmakessame.” found inBookI, another world,sincethisoneisconstructedfromallthematterthereis.Thiserroralso matter, heconcludedthattherecouldnotbeanotherworld.Hence,Godmake begin tobe. had thepowertobeinpast.Andsinceheavenswillneverceasebe,theydidnot heavens neverbegan:becausewhateverhasthepowertobeforeverinfuture,always uncreated andthattheywerenevermade.Moreover,hehadaspecialreasonwhythe only thecirculariscontinuous–asclearfromBookVIIIof never tohavebeenmadebutalwaysbeen.Forsinceamongthevarietiesofmotion Book VIIIofthe through theoperationofnature,hebelieved–asappearsin BookIofthe God immediately,butthateverynoveltycomesaboutbyway ofmotionandnaturaloperation. naturalistic sense,thiswouldnotdo:becausehebelievedthat nothingnewcouldproceedfrom of BookII, things whichhavelostsubstancedonotreturnnumerically thesame,asissaidatend intermediaries; andifonedoesreturn,itnotreturn numericallythesame,because as isshowninBookI is eternal,thecircularwillbeeternal.Andsincemotionpropertoheavens– argues againstAnaxagoras–thatanintellectwhichwantsto separatepassionsandaccidents 6. Heheldfurtherthatgenerationinthissublunaryworldwouldneverend,andit 7. Further:sincegenerationinthissublunaryworldisbroughtaboutthroughthesun,he 8. Further:since,accordingtohispositedprinciple,thereisnonoveltywithoutapreceding 9. Further:hewasconstrainedtodenytheresurrectionofdead.Thatheldit 5. Further:since,accordingtohim,whatevercomesaboutfrompre-existent 4. Further:hewasforcedtoposittheheavensbeungeneratedandincorruptible, 10. Further:sincehebelievedthatnothingnewcouldoccur exceptbywayofmotionand Now ifsomeoneweretowishexcuseAristotleontheground thatheisspeakingina On GenerationandCorruption Metaphysics On theHeavensandEarth On theHeavensandEarth he heldthatthedeadcannotreturntolifeexceptthroughmany On GenerationandCorruption . On Plants . . – itthenfollowsthattheheavensare On GenerationandCorruption , wherehesaysthat“the Physics On theSoul Physics – ifanymotion Also,in . where he . MP_C21.qxd 11/23/062:33AMPage173 did notemploythisprinciple. strate philosophicaltruths.Indeed,healmostneverwrote a bookofphilosophywherehe But thisattemptcannotholdup,sinceheinsistsupontheaforesaid principlesoastodemon- there areonly55or57. These, therefore,areallofhiserrorsinsum,namely: In whichtheErrorsofAristotleAreRestatedSum Chapter II they parts ofadefinitionnottobeone,ashesays,“becausetheyare in BookVIIofthe one substantialformineverycomposite;andthisseemstobethePhilosopher’sview.Hence, one whowouldconsistentlypursuethislineofreasoning,itappearthatthereisbut there arenotmoresubstantialformsinonecompositethananother.Indeed,to is expelled;andsincethematterofallthingspossessingsame;itfollowsthat is thecorruptionofanother;andsinceonesubstantialformneverintroducedunlessanother seems tofollowthatGodcannotmakeanaccidentwithoutasubject. from substanceis,toquotehim,“anintellectseekingtheimpossible.”Onthisaccountit dry, andconversely;becausetimedoesnotceasebutiseternal,asclearfromBookIof a composite,itisfalse. be maintained;butifhemeansonesimplenature,andthatthereisonlyforminsuch This isquiteclearfromBookXIIofthe something; hesaidtherewereasmanyangels,orintelligences,areorbs. moving; andsinceintelligencesarepositedtobeinthebeststatewhentheymoving Hence, healsohadtosay,necessarily,thatonecannotpositafirstmanorrainfall. and ten-thousandtimesahundred-thousandstoodbeforeHim.” Now certainmenwantedtoexcusethePhilosopher’sposition ontheeternityofworld. 14. Thatthereareasmanyangelsorbs–because fromthisitfollowsthat 13. Thatthereisnowayinwhichtwobodiescanbethe sameplace. 12. Thatonecannotpositafirstmanorrainfall. 11. Thatthereisbutonesubstantialforminanycomposite. 10. ThatGodcannotmakeanaccidentwithoutasubject. 9. Thattheresurrectionofdeadisimpossible. 8. ThatnothingnewcanproceedimmediatelyfromGod. 7. Thatthesunwillalwayscausegenerationandcorruptioninthissublunaryworld. 6. Thatgenerationandcorruptionneitherbegannorwillend. 5. ThatGodcouldnotmakeanotherworld. 4. Thattheheavensarenotcreated. 3. Thattheworlddidnotbegin. 2. Thattimeiseternal. 1. Thatmotiondidnotbegin. 11. Further:sincebywayofmotionthegenerationonethingneveroccursunlessthere 12. Further:hepositedthatwherethereisstillwater,orasea,atsometimeitwas Now ifhemeanshereonecompositenatureconsistinginmanyforms,thenhisviewcan 3 Further:sinceanintelligenceis unabletomovesomethingunlessitisitselfactually 13. Divine Scripture,however,contradictsthis,saying:“thousandsofthousandstendedtoHim, define one nature. Metaphysics inthechapter“On theUnityofDefinition,”heholds , Metaphysics . in one,” butratherbecause Meteors . 173

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PHILOSOPHY OF NATURE, PHILOSOPHY OF THE SOUL, METAPHYSICS 174 understanding ofAristotle,areattributedtohim. Moreover, othererrors,withwhichwearenotconcernedastheyarisefromanimproper Good Fortune,”wherehesaysthatGod,knownthroughHimself,isthepastandfuture. Philosopher, andthatthisisnothisintention,clearfromwhatsaidinthechapter“On in thechapter“TheOpinionofFathers.”Butthattheydonotunderstand to Him–citingasreasonforthisviewthewordswhicharefoundinBookXIIof view thatGodknowsnothingoutsideHimself,sothissublunaryworldisnotknown laws assertingthecreation. or twice,butmanytimesinthesameBookVIIIheexclaims inasimilarmanneragainstthe as ifitwerearbitrarilyestablishedonly,andcompletelylacking inreason.Andnotonlyonce that somethingcanhavebeingafterwhollynon-being.Indeed, hecallsthisdictum“awill,” Physics “talkers,” asifwewerebabblersandirrationalwanderers. AndalsoinBookVIIIofthe of nothing.Indeed,whatisworse,hederisivelycallsus, andotherswhoholdthelaw, led todenyself-evidentprinciples–aswhentheythat nothingcanbecreatedout Physics something canbecreatedfromnothing.Hemocksalsoin the beginningofBookIII law, andeventheSaracenbecausetheytooposit the creationofthingsandthat Book IIandXIofthe not containfalsityasitisbasedupontheFirstTruth. Philosopher, becausehemoredirectlyimpugnsourfaith,holdingtobefalsethatwhichcould the worldtohavebegun.Heisbearguedagainstincomparablymorethan more ironicallyandwithgreaterpertinacitythanthePhilosopheragainstthosewhoposited Now theCommentatoragreesinallerrorsofPhilosopher.Indeed,hespokeeven A CompilationoftheErrorsAverroës Chapter IV or againstthatwhichisheldbyfaith,whollysophistical. agent. Therefore,whateverisarguedbywayofmotionagainstthebeginningworld, minus ofmotion;but,asiscommonlyheld,itasimpleprocessionthingsfromthefirst in truth,presupposesnothing;noriscreationproperlyachange,becauseallchangeter- motion. Creation,therefore,isnotmotion,becausemotionpresupposesamobile. in itsaction.Themaking,therefore,theproductionofafirstagentcanbewithoutsuch of thenatureaninstrumentthatitmovemoved,motionisnecessitypresupposed out aprecedingmotion.Nowanagentbynatureisinstrumentalagent;butbecauseit First Agent,andbeinganon-instrumentalagent,Hewillbeabletoproducethingwith- comes intobeingexcepttherebeaprecedingmotion Now allofhiserrors,ifoneinvestigatessubtly,followfromthisposition:that the Philosopher’sErrors In whichIsRefutedtheStatementFundamentalforAll Chapter III Again, asidefromtheabove-mentionederrors,somemenwantedtoimputehim 1. HewentbeyondthePhilosopher’serrorsbecausehescornedalllaw,asisclearfrom whereheholdsthatsomemen,becauseofthecontraryassertionlaws,are , he scornsthelaws;while“talkers”inlawcalls“willers,” becausetheyassert Metaphysics , wherehemocksthelawofChristians,orourCatholic . Thisis,therefore,false:becauseGodisthe nothing new Metaphysics , MP_C21.qxd 11/23/062:33AMPage175 This isclearfromBookIIIof permitted, byDivineProvidence. pendent oftheaforesaidGuidance,sinceallthatweseehereiseitherbroughtabout,or he putsit“occurowingtothenecessityofmatter”andwithoutguidancesuchProvidence. guided byDivineSolicitudeorProvidence.Foraccordingtohim,somethings,as This isclearfromhiscommentinthechapter“TheOpinionofFathers.” would beacomposite,whichiscontradictory. one addedintention.” properly, becausewhensubstanceisnumbered,theaggregatewillstillbeonethrough say thattherearethreeGodsandoneGod;still,theydon’tevenknowhowtobeevasive “held aTrinitytobeinGod,buttheysoughtbythisdeviceevasiveandreally “this isneitherpermissibleto,norconsonantwith,DivineGoodness.” care, nordoesHeprovideforindividualsexistinginthesublunaryworld.For,ashesays, quiddity.” except thefirstform”;for,ashehimselfadds,all“otherformsarediversifiedinessenceand opinion inBookIIIof acts, havingnoadmittedpotency.Buthewashimselfconstrainedbytruthtocontradictthis laws: namely,thelawofChristians,SaracensandMoors–becausetheyallassertedthis. produce diverseandcontrarythings.Andbysayingthishescornsthespeakersinthree maker. because inmadethingsthewholeprincipleofthingliespotency who maintainedthisview.Indeed,Averroës’viewisopposedtotruthandtheSaints, production ofsomethingcouldnotbeintheagentalone,scorningJohnChristian did nothimselfexpresslytakethisposition. In acertainsensethisdoesfollowfromthePhilosopher’sposition,howeverPhilosopher Because ofthis,itfollowsthatanangelcannotmoveonestonehereinthesublunaryworld. transmutes amaterialthingexceptthroughthemediationofanintransmutablebody. of themoverheavensandheavens. a soulandbodytherenomorearisesunity,than suchaunityfromtheunion intellective soulandthebodythereisnotconstitutedsome thirdthing;andthatfromsuch through hispossessionofasensitivesoul. that manisnotplacedinaspeciesthroughhispossessionof anintellectivesoul,butrather equivocally totheintellectandotherforms.Becauseof this,hewasconstrainedtosay of thebody,AverroësthereforeconcludedinsameBook IIIthattheterm“act”isapplied 10. Further:heerredbecausepositedthattherewasnumerically oneintellectinall. But thisisopposedtotheSaints;becausenothingthatoccursherecompletelyinde- 9. Further:heerredbecausedeniedthatallwhichoccursinthesublunaryworldis 8. Further:heerredbecausesaidthatGoddidnotknowparticularssincetheyareinfinite. Because ofthis,accordingtohim,ifGodwerethreeandone,itwouldfollowthatHe 7. Heerredfurther,denyingaTrinitytobeinGod,sayingBookXIIthatsomemen 6. Further:heerredsayinginBookXIIthatGodisneithersolicitous,nordoesHehave 5. Further:heerred,sayinginBookXIIthatallintellectualsubstancesareeternalandpure 4. Further:heerredbysayinginthesameBookXIIthatnoagentcanimmediately 3. Heerredfurther,sayinginBookXIIofthe 2. Heerredfurther,sayinginBookVIIofthe 12. Further:reasoningfromthisprinciple,heconcluded thatfromtheunionof 11. Further:sinceitfollowsfromthepositionjuststatedthat theintellectisnotform ntheSoul On On theSoul wherehesaysthat“noformisabsolutelyfreefrompotency , . Metaphysics Metaphysics that noimmaterialthing that thepotencyin 175

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PHILOSOPHY OF NATURE, PHILOSOPHY OF THE SOUL, METAPHYSICS 176 In whichtheAforesaidErrorsAreRestatedSum Chapter V eternal. Hence,hesaysinBookIXofhis beyond theessenceofgenericform. some extrinsicagency–throughwhichisimpliedthatthespecificformnotanyessence Corporeal Substances,”wherehemaintainsthatthegenericformisnotmadespecificby This isclearfromsectionIIofhis 1. NowAvicennaalsoseemstohaveerredinthathepositedbutoneformacomposite. A CompilationoftheErrorsAvicenna Chapter VI the heavens. body, thandoessuchaunityarisefromtheconjoiningofmoverheavensand numerically one. Providence. maker. These arealltheerrorsinwhichCommentatorgoesbeyondthoseofPhilosopher: intention, Hisintentionwouldbechanged;andifthrough will,Hiswillwouldbechanged. diately fromGodthroughHisnature,Hewouldbechanged innature;ifthroughHis God. Hence,hesaysinthesamechapterthatifsomething contingentproceededimme- and hourofbeginning,”norindeed,anytemporaldistinction whatsoever. nothingness, since–ashesayshimselfinnothingnessthere canbeno“hourofending, preceded byreceptivematter.”Hence,hedeniesthatsomething newcouldbegintobeafter this reasonhesaysinthesamechapterthat“thatwhichwas not,cannotbe,exceptitbe motion. he heldthatmotiondidnotbegin,becausethentherewould bemotionbeforethefirst fundamental positionthatnothingisinanewstateexceptthroughprecedingmotion, through amotioncontingentuponthatothermotion.”Hence,affirmingthePhilosopher’s not been,exceptthroughsomethingthatwas;andwhichwas,didbegintobe Property oftheFirstPrinciple,”that:“itisclearthatmotiondoesnotbecomeafterhaving 2. Further:heerredinpositingtheeternityofmotion.Indeed,heldmotiontobe 12. Thatathingnomorebecomesonethroughtheunionofintellectivesouland 11. Thatmanisplacedinaspeciesbyhispossessionofsensitivesoul. 10. Thattheintellectivesoulisnotmultipliedwithmultiplicationofbodies,but 9. ThatsomethingcanproceedfromthenecessityofmatterwithoutguidanceDivine 8. ThatGoddoesnotknowsingulars. 7. ThatthereisnotrinityinGod. 6. ThatGodhasnoprovidenceoversomeparticulars. 5. Thatfromnoagentcanthereproceeddiversethingssimultaneously. 4. Thatinnomadethingdoesthewholeprincipleofmakingliepotency 3. Thatanangelisapureact. 2. Thatanangelcanmovenothingimmediatelyexceptitbeaheavenlybody. 1. Thatnolawistrue,althoughitmaybeuseful. 4. Further:hemaintainedthatnothingcontingentcouldproceed fromanon-contingent 3. Heerredfurther,maintainingthatmatterispresupposed ineverynewproduction.For Metaphysics Metaphysics , inthechapter“ConcerningDivisionof inthechapter“ConcerningActive , MP_C21.qxd 11/23/062:33AMPage177 ically one–asthefirstintelligence.ThisisclearfromBookIXofhis he alsoheldthatfromthefirstprinciplenothingproceedsimmediatelyexceptitbenumer- only didheposittheproductsoffirstprincipletohaveeternallyproceededfromit,but the placewherePhilosopher’sviewsweresetforth. in orderthatsomethingproceedimmediatelyfromGod,ashasbeenpointedoutabove had arrangeditthatwayaccordingtoHiswisdom.Norisproperformotionprecede awaiting somethinginthefutureuponwhichtoinitiateHisaction,butratherbecauseHe the worldpriortowhenHemadeit;butthatdidnotdothiswascausedbyHis in whichGodactsaccordingtotheorderofHiswisdom.God,indeed,couldhavemade obedient toGod.” because asoulandbodymakeananimal,heconcluded“thattheheavenswereanimal principal agent.Nowasmotionofthiskindiscausedbyasoul,hehimselfsays,and the heavenshasnobeginningasrespectsduration,butrathertheirhavinga unless timewereeternal.Hesays,indeed,inthealready-citedchapter,thatmotionof freedom ofaction,butratherHewascompelledtoawaitthetimeandhouract. to God,sinceifGoddidnotimmediatelyproducethecreation,Hewouldhavefull priority ofduration,becausebysayingthis,accordingtohim,theydenyfreedomwill Indeed, whatisworse,hecallshereticsallthosewhosaythatGodprecedescreationbya Book IXofhis the giverofforms,asfromlowestintelligence.Thisis clearfromthatwhichissaidin are inanimateandinsensible. our soulandbody. of thesoulheavensandheavens,justasonething isproducedbytheunionof Philosopher andtheCommentatormaintain,butthatone thingisproducedbytheunion to beanimated.Thesouloftheheavens,hesaid,isnotonlyanappropriatemover,as the afore-mentionedchapterofabove-citedbook. the governanceofoursoulsand,consequently,beatitude.Nowthisisclearlystatedin bodies, andthatthehigherintelligenceiscreatoroflowerintelligence. intelligences arethecreatorsofcelestialsouls,andsouls were producedthroughthemediationoftheirforms.Fromthisposition,itfollowsthat was producedbyanother. of thecelestialbodieswereproducedbyintelligencesorangels,andthatoneintelligence effects ofthefirstprincipleitself.” posits that“neitherbodies,northeformswhichareperfectionoffirst chapter, “ConcerningtheOrderofIntelligencesandSouls.”Hence,insamehe the furnishingofsemen. Elements.” 6. Further:heerredinrespectoftheprocessthingsfromfirstprinciple.Fornot Now alloftheaforesaiderrorstooktheirorigininthathedidnotclearlyseemode 5. Further:heerredinpositingtheeternityoftime.Indeed,motioncouldnotbeeternal 11. Heerredfurtherasregardsthegivingofforms.Forhe positedallformstobefrom But thisisinoppositiontoDamascene,whosaysBookII, ChapterVI,thattheheavens 10. Heerredfurtherwithregardtotheanimationofheavens.Forheheldheavens 9. Further:heheldthatoursoulswereproducedbythelastintelligence,uponwhichdepends 8. Hesaidfurther,thatthecelestialbodieswereproducedbysoulsandthey 7. Further:reasoningfromtheabove,hecontinuedinerror,thatsayssouls But thisisopposedtoAugustine,whoheldtheangelsinduce noformsexceptthrough Metaphysics inthechapter“ConcerningDispositionofGeneration , Metaphysics in the 177

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PHILOSOPHY OF NATURE, PHILOSOPHY OF THE SOUL, METAPHYSICS 178 is setforthbyhiminBookIXofthe are aboutfortyinnumber,sincehebelievedthatthereweremanyorbs.Thisposition many angelsasthereareorbs.Hence,heagreeswiththePhilosopher’sdictumthat in Godthanus,andthattrulyiswhateveritbettertobenotbe. to beattributedHimonlybynegation. other ofHisperfections,arenotsomethingtobeattributedpositivelyHim,butrather Metaphysics singulars intheirproperform.ThisisclearfromthelastchapterBookVIIIofhis “On ShowinghowThingsAreContainedunderDivineJudgment.” this washispositionisclearfromwhatsaidinBookIXof tradicting Scripture,whereitiswrittenthat“inHisangelsHefounddepravity.”But alien body. ment tobetrue,inthatthesoulcanactivenotonlyitsownbody,butalsoan forms, asisclearfromwhathesaysinBookVI, These arealltheerrorsofAvicenna: Restated InSum In whichtheAfore-MentionedErrorsofAvicenna Are Chapter VII above, ortheyarereducibletothem. of GodanditsUtility.” intelligence, asisclearfromBookXofhis from hispositionitfollowsthatourbeatitudeconsistsinthecontemplationoflast of his the orderofgrace.ThatthiserrorwasdeliberateonAvicenna’spart,isclearfromBookX badly whenheheldsuchthingstobesubsumedundertheorderofnature. he maintainedsuchtobeofefficacymaninthatGodhasconcernforthings;butstrayed soul haswithrespecttosupercelestialsoulsandthelastintelligence. because hemaintainedthatprophecyisdeliveredtousaccordingtheorderwhichour form whichcanbeseen.”Buthespokebadlywhenheldprophecytonatural,and Divine Words,andbecausehesees,oratleastcansee,“angelstransfiguredbeforehimina phecy whenhesaidthataprophetisnoblerthannon-prophet,becausethehears Higher Principles.” 15. Heerredfurtherwithrespecttothenumberofintelligences,positingtherebeas But thisisopposedtotheSaint’sway,accordingwhomsuchperfectionsaremoretruly 14. Further:heerredconcerningtheDivineAttributes,holdingthatGod’sknowledge,and 13. HeerredfurtherasconcernstheDivineCognition,holdingGodcouldnotknow 12. Further:heerredinholdingthattherecouldbenoeviltheintelligences,con- Moreover, healsoheldthatoursoulsdirectmatterwithrespecttothereceptionof 2. Thatmotioniseternal. 1. Thatthereisbutonesubstantialforminacomposite. Still othererrorscanbeimputedtohim,buteithertheytake theiroriginfromthosecited 18. Further:heerredconcerningourbeatitude,holdingittodependuponworks.Now This isfalse,sincesuchthingsasdirectustosupernaturalbeatitudearesubsumedunder 17. Heerredfurtherwithrespecttoorisons,almsandlitanies.spokecorrectlywhen 16. Heerredfurtherregardingprophecy.Nowhespokecorrectlywithreferencetopro- Metaphysics . in thechapter“ConcerningAspirationsandOrisons.” Metaphysics Metaphysics inthechapter, “HowActionsProceedfrom , On NaturalThings inthechapter“ConcerningCult , Metaphysics . Hebelievedenchant- inthechapter, , MP_C21.qxd 11/23/062:33AMPage179 spiritual substances,canforetellthefuture. also thathewhofullyknowsthemotionofsupercelestialbeings,andorder Avicenna appearstoholdthatwhateveroccurshereinthisworld,necessarily;and agents. heavens, justasfromtheunionofoursoulandbody. 22. Thatourbeatitudeconsistsinthecognitionoflastintelligence. 21. Thatourbeatitudedependsuponworks. 20. Thatalms,litaniesandorisonsaresubsumedunderthenaturalorder.Onthisaccount 19. Thatprophecyisnatural. 18. Thatthereareasmanyintelligencesorbs. 17. ThattheattributesofGoddonotcorrespondpositivelytoanything. 16. ThatGoddoesnotknowsingularsintheirproperform. 15. Thattherecannotbeevilintheangels. 14. Thatthesoul,throughitsimagination,isoperativeinalienbodies. 13. Thatbewitchmentissomethingbeyondthemereapprehensionofsoul. 12. Thattheformsinthisworldareinducedbylastintelligenceandnotproper 11. Thatasingleentitycomesaboutfromtheunionofsoulheavensand 10. Thatfromthelastintelligence,oursoulsproceed. 9. Thatfromthesoulofheavensthereproceedssupercelestialbodies. That fromtheintelligences,soulsofheavens eitherproceedorarecreated. 8. 7. Thatfromoneintelligence,anotherintelligenceeitherproceedsoriscreated. 6. Thatapluralityofthingscannotproceedimmediatelyfromthefirstprinciple. 5. Thattimeneverhadabeginning. 4. Thatcontingencycannotproceedimmediatelyfromthenon-contingent. 3. Thatnothingcomesfromnothing. 179

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