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k v Contents List of Contributors xxiii Foreword: Nanosatellite Space Experiment xxix Introduction by the Editors xxxv 1 I-1 A Brief History of Nanosatellites 1 Siegfried W. Janson 1.1 Introduction 1 1.2 Historical Nanosatellite Launch Rates 1 1.3 The First Nanosatellites 3 k 1.4 The Large Space Era 8 k 1.5 The New Space Era 12 1.5.1 Technology Development 18 1.5.2 Commercial Nanosatellites and Constellations 22 1.6 Summary 23 References 24 2 I-2a On-board Computer and Data Handling 31 Jaime Estela and Sergio Montenegro 2.1 Introduction 31 2.2 History 31 2.3 Special Requirements for Space Applications 34 2.4 Hardware 35 2.4.1 Components 35 2.4.2 Brief HistoryCOPYRIGHTED of On-board Computers 36 MATERIAL 2.4.3 Processors 37 2.4.3.1 Field Programmable Gate Array (FPGA) 38 2.4.4 Mass Memory 39 2.4.5 Bus 40 2.5 Design 41 2.5.1 System Architecture 41 2.5.2 Central Versus Distributed Processing 43 2.5.3 Design Criteria 44 2.5.4 Definition of Requirements 45 k k vi Contents 2.5.5 Resource Estimation and Data Budget 45 2.5.5.1 Data Budget Analysis 47 2.5.6 Commanding 47 2.5.7 Telemetry 48 2.5.8 Time Generation 48 2.5.9 Handling of Errors 48 2.5.10 Radiation Effects 49 References 49 3 I-2b Operational Systems 51 Lucas Ramos Hissa and Rogerio Atem de Carvalho 3.1 Introduction 51 3.2 RTOS Overview 51 3.3 RTOS on On-board Computers (OBCs): Requirements for a Small Satellite 52 3.3.1 Requirements 54 3.4 Example Projects 55 3.5 Conclusions 56 References 59 4 I-2c Attitude Control and Determination 61 Willem H. Steyn and Vaios J. Lappas k 4.1 Introduction 61 k 4.2 ADCS Fundamentals 61 4.3 ADCS Requirements and Stabilization Methods 62 4.4 ADCS Background Theory 65 4.4.1 Coordinate Frame Definitions 65 4.4.2 Attitude Kinematics 65 4.4.3 Attitude Dynamics 66 4.5 Attitude and Angular Rate Determination 66 4.5.1 TRIAD Quaternion Determination 67 4.5.2 Kalman Rate Estimator 67 4.5.2.1 System Model 68 4.5.2.2 Measurement Model 68 4.5.3 Full-State Extended Kalman Filter Estimator 70 4.6 Attitude and Angular Rate Controllers 72 4.6.1 Detumbling Magnetic Controllers 72 4.6.2 Y-Momentum Wheel Controller 73 4.6.3 Three-axis Reaction Wheel Controller 74 4.7 ADCS Sensor and Actuator Hardware 75 4.7.1 Three-Axis Magnetometers 75 4.7.2 Sun Sensors 77 4.7.3 Star Trackers 77 4.7.4 MEMS Rate Sensors 78 4.7.5 Magnetorquers 79 4.7.6 Reaction/Momentum Wheels 80 k k Contents vii 4.7.7 Orbit Control Sensors and Actuators 81 4.7.8 Integrated ADCS Modules 81 References 83 5 I-2d Propulsion Systems 85 Flavia Tata Nardini, Michele Coletti, Alexander Reissner, and David Krejci 5.1 Introduction 85 5.2 Propulsion Elements 86 5.3 Key Elements in the Development of Micropropulsion Systems 87 5.4 Propulsion System Technologies 90 5.4.1 Chemical Propulsion Technologies 90 5.4.1.1 Cold Gas Thruster 90 5.4.1.2 Monopropellant Engines 90 5.4.1.3 Bipropellant Engines 92 5.4.1.4 Solid Propellant Engines 92 5.4.2 Electric Propulsion Technologies 93 5.4.2.1 Resistojet 93 5.4.2.2 Gridded Ion Engine (GIE) 93 5.4.2.3 Hall Effect Thruster 94 5.4.2.4 Pulsed Plasma Thruster (PPT) and Vacuum Arc Thruster (VAT) 95 5.4.2.5 Colloid/Electrospray and Field-emission Thruster 96 k 5.5 Mission Elements 98 k 5.5.1 Orbit Change 98 5.5.2 Drag Compensation 99 5.5.3 Deorbiting 100 5.5.4 Attitude Control 101 5.6 Survey of All Existing Systems 101 5.7 Future Prospect 113 References 113 6 I-2e Communications 115 Nicolas Appel, Sebastian Rückerl, Martin Langer, and Rolf-Dieter Klein 6.1 Introduction 115 6.2 Regulatory Considerations 116 6.3 Satellite Link Characteristics 117 6.3.1 Digital Modulation 121 6.4 Channel Coding 123 6.4.1 Convolutional Codes 125 6.4.2 Block Codes 125 6.5 Data Link Layer 126 6.6 Hardware 128 6.6.1 Antennas 128 6.6.2 Oscillators 130 6.6.3 PLLs and Synthesizers 132 6.6.4 Mixers 135 k k viii Contents 6.6.5 Receiver 137 6.6.6 Transmitter 137 6.6.7 Transceivers 138 6.7 Testing 138 6.7.1 Modulation Quality 138 6.7.2 Power Measurement 139 6.7.3 Spectrum Analysis 140 References 140 7 I-2f Structural Subsystem 143 Kenan Y.Sanl ¸ türk, Murat Süer, and A. Rüstem Aslan 7.1 Definition and Tasks 143 7.2 Existing State-of-the-Art Structures for CubeSats 145 7.3 Materials and Thermal Considerations for Structural Design 150 7.4 Design Parameters and Tools 152 7.4.1 Structural Design Parameters 153 7.4.2 Thermal Design Considerations 157 7.5 Design Challenges 162 7.6 Future Prospects 163 References 164 k 8 I-2g Power Systems 167 k Marcos Compadre, Ausias Garrigós, and Andrew Strain 8.1 Introduction 167 8.2 Power Source: Photovoltaic Solar Cells and Solar Array 170 8.3 Energy Storage: Lithium-ion Batteries 172 8.4 SA-battery Power Conditioning: DET and MPPT 175 8.5 Battery Charging Control Loops 178 8.6 Bus Power Conditioning and Distribution: Load Converters and Distribution Switches 179 8.7 Flight Switch Subsystem 183 8.8 DC/DC Converters 183 8.8.1 Buck Converter 184 8.8.2 Boost Converter 185 8.8.3 SEPIC Converter 186 8.9 Power System Sizing: Power Budget, Solar Array, and Battery Selection 187 8.10 Conclusions 191 References 191 9 I-2h Thermal Design, Analysis, and Test 193 Philipp Reiss, Matthias Killian, and Philipp Hager 9.1 Introduction 193 9.1.1 Thermal Challenges 194 9.2 Typical Thermal Loads 194 9.2.1 Heat Exchange Calculation 195 k k Contents ix 9.2.2 Thermal Environment in Earth Orbit 197 9.2.2.1 Direct Solar Radiation 197 9.2.2.2 Albedo Radiation 199 9.2.2.3 Earth Infrared Radiation 199 9.3 Active and Passive Designs 200 9.3.1 Surface Finishes 200 9.3.2 Insulation 201 9.3.3 Radiators 202 9.3.4 Interface Connections and Heat Pipes 203 9.3.5 Electrical Heaters 204 9.4 Design Approach and Tools 204 9.4.1 Numerical Methods 204 9.4.2 Modeling Approaches 205 9.4.2.1 Top-Down Approach 205 9.4.2.2 Bottom-Up Approach 206 9.4.3 Model Uncertainty and Margins 207 9.4.3.1 Modeling Uncertainty 207 9.4.3.2 Temperature Margins 208 9.4.4 Thermal Design Tools 208 9.5 Thermal Tests 208 9.5.1 Types of Thermal Test 209 k 9.5.1.1 Thermal Balance Test 209 k 9.5.1.2 Thermal-Vacuum Test 210 9.5.1.3 Thermal Cycle Test 210 9.5.2 Guidelines for Thermal-Vacuum Test Preparations 211 References 212 10 I-2i Systems Engineering and Quality Assessment 215 Lucas Lopes Costa, Geilson Loureiro, Eduardo Escobar Bürger, and Franciele Carlesso 10.1 Introduction 215 10.2 Systems Engineering Definition and Process 216 10.2.1 Architecture Development Process 219 10.3 Space Project Management: Role of Systems Engineers 222 10.4 ECSS and Other Standards 225 10.5 Document, Risk Control, and Resources 228 10.6 Changing Trends in SE and Quality Assessment for Nanosatellites 233 References 233 11 I-2j Integration and Testing 235 Eduardo Escobar Bürger, Geilson Loureiro, and Lucas Lopes Costa 11.1 Introduction 235 11.1.1 Integration 236 11.1.2 Testing 236 11.2 Overall Tasks 236 11.2.1 Integration Tasks 237 k k x Contents 11.2.2 Testing Tasks 239 11.2.2.1 Functional Tests 239 11.2.2.2 Mass Properties 240 11.2.2.3 Environmental Tests 240 11.3 Typical Flow 241 11.4 Test Philosophies 242 11.4.1 Test Stages 242 11.4.2 Test Models 242 11.4.3 Test Philosophies 243 11.5 Typical System Integration Process 244 11.6 Typical Test Parameters and Facilities 244 11.6.1 Typical Test Parameters 244 11.6.2 Typical Test Facilities 245 11.7 Burden of Integration and Testing 245 11.7.1 I&T Costs 245 11.7.2 I&T Schedule 248 11.8 Changing Trends in Nanosatellite Testing 249 References 250 12 I-3a Scientific Payloads 251 Anna Gregorio k 12.1 Introduction 251 k 12.2 Categorization 252 12.3 Imagers 254 12.3.1 MCubed-2/COVE 254 12.3.2 SwissCube 254 12.3.3 AAReST 255 12.4 X-ray Detectors 256 12.4.1 MinXSS 256 12.4.2 HaloSat 257 12.4.3 HERMES 257 12.4.4 CXBN 257 12.4.5 MiSolFA 258 12.5 Spectrometers 259 12.5.1 SOLSTICE 259 12.5.2 OPAL 259 12.5.3 Lunar IceCube/BIRCHES 261 12.5.4 GRIFEX 261 12.5.5 HyperCube 262 12.6 Photometers 262 12.6.1 XPS 262 12.6.2 BRITE – Photometer 263 12.6.3 ExoPlanet and ASTERIA 264 12.7 GNSS Receivers 265 12.7.1 CYGNSS 266 k k Contents xi 12.7.2 CADRE 267 12.7.3 3Cat 2 267 12.8 Microbolometers 267 12.8.1 CSIM 268 12.9 Radiometers 269 12.9.1 TEMPEST 269 12.10 Radar Systems 270 12.10.1 RAX 270 12.10.2 Radar Altimeters and SAR (EO) 272 12.10.3 SRI-Cooperative Institute for Research in Environmental Sciences (CIRES) 274 12.11 Particle Detectors 274 12.11.1 REPTile 274 12.11.2 EPISEM 275 12.11.3 FIRE 276 12.12 Plasma Wave Analyzers 277 12.12.1 CADRE/WINCS 277 12.12.2 Dynamic Ionosphere CubeSat Experiment (DICE) 278 12.12.3 INSPIRE/CVHM 279 12.13 Biological Detectors 280 12.13.1 OREOS 280 12.14 Solar Sails 283 k 12.15 Conclusions 283 k References 283 13 I-3b In-orbit Technology Demonstration 291 Jaime Estela 13.1 Introduction 291 13.2 Activities of Space Agencies 292 13.2.1 NASA 292 13.2.2 ESA 292 13.2.3 DLR 295 13.3 Nanosatellites 295 13.3.1 IOV/IOD Providers 296 13.3.2 SSTL 296 13.3.3 Alba Orbital 296 13.3.4 GAUSS Srl 297 13.3.5 Open Cosmos 297 13.3.6 Deep Space ESA Calls 297 13.4 Microsatellites 298 13.4.1 BIRD and TET 299 13.4.2 TDS 300 13.4.3 Euro IOD 301 13.5 ISS 301 13.5.1 NanoRacks 301 13.5.2 Bartolomeo 304 k k xii Contents 13.5.3 ICE Cubes 305 13.5.4 Starlab 305 References 306 14 I-3c Nanosatellites as Educational Projects 309 Merlin F.