SWS INTERNATIONAL SOCIETY

SWS Journal of Social Sciences and Art ISSUE 3, 2020 SWS Journal of Social Sciences and Art THE IMPACT OF THE POLITICAL REGIMES ON THE INTERPRETATION OF THE PROTO- , THE OLDEST GENERATION OF THE CZECH ELITES AND THE INTERWAR CZECHOSLOVAK ELITES

Assoc. Prof. Dr. Lucie Cviklová

Philosophical Faculty, University of Hradec Králové,

https://doi.org/10.5593/sws.iscss.2020.7.1/s01.03

ABSTRACT The role of the Proto-Czechs, the oldest generation of the elites and the interwar elites in the national memory can be advanced by showing the examples of the impact of the political regimes on the interpretation of the symbolic role of the individual elite members. The contribution draws on those concepts and methodological approaches that have been employed by the number of historians and historical sociologists such as historical consciousness, collective (social) memory and national memory; a major incentive for choice of the individual elite members were several sociological researchers on the Czech elites. The pluralist debates about the impact of the Czech elites and their contributions were launched in the Austro-Hungarian Empire and developed by the several generations of the Czech and the foreign historians. This thesis about the impact of the political regimes on the interpretation of the contributions of the Czech elites can be illustrated by (1)the current importance of the Proto-Czech elites such as Saint Wenceslaus I. [Svatý Václav], (Saints) Cyril and Methodius, Božena Němcová and Karel Havlíček Borovský, (2)the popularity of the members of the interwar political elite such as the economist Alois Rašín, the journalist Milena Jesenská, the politician Františka Plamínková and the diplomat Zdeněk Fierlinger, (3)the positive and negative reponse to the actions of the communist elites such as Rudolf Slánský, Klement Gottwald, Alexander Dubček and Gustav Husák and (4)the evaluation of the members of the communist counter-elite and later democratic elite such as Václav Havel and Petr Pithart.

Keywords: Administrative Elites, Communist Elites, Cultural Elites, , Historical Consciousness, Interwar Elites, National Memory, Political Elites, Post-Communist Elites and Proto-Czech Elites.

INTRODUCTION Czechoslovak elites in the historical Comprehension of the interpretation consciousness or in the collective memory of the Proto-Czechs and the interwar can be facilitated by the classification or

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placement of the Czech elites in the distinct Party [Národní strana svobodomyslná] historical periods and by the examples of from 1907 to 1914, his later involvement the impact of the political regimes on the with the Czech Realist Party [Česká interpretation of the symbolic role of the strana realistická] and his struggle for the individual elite members. (A)The first type independence for the Czechs and the of the Czech elites is several generations Slovaks from the Austria–. The of the intellectuals or the patriots who Czech interwar debates put emphasis on aimed at the nation–building and later his international recognition as the head of at the foundation of Czechoslovakia [1]. the provisional Czechoslovak government, (B) The second category is the elites of his first success in the presidential elections interwar Czechoslovakia [2]. (C) The third and his later re–election in 1920, 1927 sort of the Czech elites is the artificially and 1934. After the communist takeover created communist nomenklatura ruling in 1948, the criticism of the Masaryk’s elite [3]. (D) The fourth group of the Czech contribution for the Czech nation and elites is the Czech post–communist elite the efforts to remove him from the Czech and its individual segments: it has been collective memory can be explained by composed of the former communist his criticism of Marxism; in the number of nomenklatura, the newcomers and the the Czech towns his statues were taken former counter–elite; e.g. the dissenters down and replaced by the dignitaries against the Czechoslovak ‘frozen’ post– from the of the Soviet totalitarian regime [4]. Union such as Vladimir Ilyich Lenin, Joseph Vissarionovich Stalin, Andrei Alexandrovich The discourses on the importance of Zhdanov and the others. On the other the Proto-Czech elites and the oldest hand, the post-communist historical generation of the Czech elites played and media discourses reintroduced and the important role in the Czech National reinforced his symbolic importance as Revival and later in the interwar period. the ‘founder of Czechoslovakia’ and the After the communist takeover in 1948 these ‘father liberator’ [5]. perspectives were partially submitted to the criticism by the communist historians. On The pluralist debates about the role the other hand, after 1989 the mainstream of the Czech interwar elites and their post-communist historians contributed contributions were launched in the First to the merger of the current discourses Czechoslovak Republic and later were with the previous pre-communist ones. criticized by the official communist line The telling example was the assessment and by the communist historians. On the of the actions that had been initiated other hand, the post–communist positive by the statesman of the Austria–Hungary and negative interpretation of the role of and the founder of Czechoslovakia the individual elite members more or less Tomáš Garrigue Masaryk. The early Czech merged with the original pluralist interwar discourses positively assessed Masaryk’s perspectives. An illustrative example was participation in the Reichsrat from 1891 the evaluation of the decisions that had to 1893 with the been made by the Czech politician and [Mladočeši], officially National Liberal statesman Edward Benesch. The early

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Czech discourses positively assessed his METHODOLOGY position of a Secretary of the National The paper partially ignores the mainstream Council in Paris and his collaboration sociological analysis of the elites; e.g. the with the first president of the post– problems of the social stratification and war Czechoslovakia Tomáš Garrigue the demarcation of the national and the Masaryk; he was seen as one of the local elites by the mainstream sociological leading organizers of the independent researches. Furthermore, it draws on Czechoslovakia and as the active those concepts and the methodological contributor to its development. Despite the approaches that have been employed fact that the German interwar intellectuals by the number of the historians and the historical sociologists, i.e. historical held him responsible for the break–up of consciousness and collective memory. The the Central Europe after the , historical consciousness, conceptualized the Czech ones positively evaluated his by the Czech historian Miroslav Hroch positions at the Czechoslovak political and the number of other social scientists, scene: they highlighted the fact that he is usually understood as the connection was the first and longest-serving Foreign among the interpretation of the past, the Minister of Czechoslovakia, represented understanding of the present and the Czechoslovakia at the 1919 Peace visions for the future [7]. The concept of the Conference in Paris, lectured at the collective (social) memory has referred to Charles University and was the second shared representations of a group’s past; president of Czechoslovakia. The early its employment has not been reduced radical post–war debates embraced his to the historical and the sociological decision to expel the Germans from the analyses and has been enriched by the liberated Czechoslovakia and partially anthropological an historical perspectives. drew on the democratic traditions in the More specifically, the paper opens a interwar period. Nevertheless, later the wider perspective from which to evaluate official communist historians were critical the individual members of the interwar of his participation in the Czechoslovak and the communist elites in the former government–in–exile, his commitment Czechoslovakia; its major point of departure to the Western democratic principles is historical consciousness or collective and their embodiment or influence in his memory of Czechs and their opinion on first and second presidency. While some the national elites. A major incentive for Czech post–communist historians pointed the choice of the individual elite members out Benesch’s efforts in the organization of was several historical and sociological researchers on the Czech elites; some of government in exile and his contributions them relied on the structured questionnaires to Operation Anthropoid to assassinate and some of them also involved the open Reinhard Heydrich, the other ones held questions. Czechs more or less positively him responsible for the expulsion of the assessed some of the Czech political Germans and the Hungarians as well as elite members such as Edward Benesch for the introduction of the communist rule or Tomáš Garrigue Masaryk and had a in Czechoslovakia [6]. neutral or negative attitude to the number of the other ones such as Emil Hácha [8].

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RESULTS: THE TRANSFORMATION OF THE was enhanced by the gathering places SYMBOLIC MEANING OF THE PROTO- such as the cafés, the reading rooms CZECH ELITES, THE OLDEST GENERATION or the theatres and the access to the OF THE CZECH ELITES AND THE INTERWAR target bilingual population in the small CZECHOSLOVAK ELITES IN THE HISTORICAL settlements was eased or speeded by the CONSCIOUSNESS relatively small distances among them. was the most important centre 1. The Proto-Czech Elites and the of the Czech national movement but its Transformation of the First Generation of immediate borderland was very passive. the Czech Cultural Elites in the Historical On the other hand, the patriots were Consciousness very active in the smaller towns or in the 1.1. The Interdependence between the districts. Institutional Framework and the National My perspective on the Czech elites is Revival among the Smaller European based on the long-term and systematic Nation analysis of the historical materials. The role of the elites in the Czech Compared to the internationally nationalism was similar to the agitation of known historian and my colleague the patriots in the European nations, i.e. the Miroslav Hroch, who has coined the Norwegian, Finnish, Estonian, Lithuanian, thesis about the three major phases Slovak, Flemish and Danish ones. From of Czech national movement (A, B, C) the perspective of the importance of the and emphasized the importance of elites, the structural similarities between the social preconditions for the success the Czech nationalism and the national and the result of the Czech National movements of the other smaller European Revival and the elite formation, I nations was the domination of ‘oppressed tried to identify the role and the nations’ by the foreign ruling elite and importance of the political forces as the irreplaceable concern of the first well as the process of politicization generation of the Czech cultural elites for the evolution of the Czech elites. I for the formation of the autonomous or think that that the preliminary cultural independent national consciousness [9]. and economic empowerment of the The emergence and the differentiation of Czech elites resulted in their later efforts the Czech national elites was facilitated by to enter openly and as equals into the dense network of the urban communities public space and in the politics. The but it was tainted by the absence of first generation of the nation builders nation state as ‘common destiny’ of the was not preoccupied with the regional smaller European nations; i.e. absorption and territorial issues but it started to of the small nations and the ethnicities recall the cultural heritage of the Proto- by the huge empires such as Tsarist Czechs and made efforts to formulate Russia, the Habsburg Monarchy and the common or the general interest the Ottoman Empire. More specifically, of the Czech ethnic group and of the the dissemination of the agenda by the Czech nation. The first generation of agitating patriots in the bigger towns the Czech political elites imitated the

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aristocratic model and conceived about Josef Jungmann was interrelated the participation at the political life as with his restraint assessment of Jan Hus’ its honorary right. To put it differently, contributions to the development of the the Czech political elites were not ; for example Jugmann’s interested in the mass politics and piece History of Czech Literature, or were convinced that the entrance into Systematic Survey of Czech Writings with a the politics should be restricted to the Short History of the Nation, Enlightenment narrow group of the privileged people and Language [Historie literatury české, [Interview with V.D., the Professor of aneb, Saustavný přehled spisů českých s History, Charles University, 28.11.2019]. krátkau historií národu, osvícení a jazyka] involved the intellectual contributions of The specific efforts of the patriots to Jan Hus but it did not include the assessment revive the Czech culture and the Czech of his religious and political activities. language reposed on the various principles and referred to the diverse phenomena; 1.2. The Specific Features of the Czech for example František Palacký and Josef National Movement Jungmann accentuated the creation of Unlike the formation of the many other the Czech language and the importance smaller European nations, the emergence of the belles-lettres. František Palacký of the first generation of the Czech and Karel Havlíček Borovský coined elites was interrelated with the long– the political concept and the program term industrialization processes and called Austro–Slavism and argued by the transition from the agrarian to the the influence of the historical processes industrial societies. More specifically, on the formation of the Czech national the agrarian polity, composed of the identity. On the contrary, the Czech poet stratified, horizontally segregated layers and journalist Svatopluk Čech, together of the military, administrative, clerical and with the other adherents of the Pan– sometimes the commercial ruling classes Slavism such as Chroatian Juraj Križanić, and laterally insulated communities of Vinko Pribojević from Venetian Dalmatia the agricultural producers, came through and Ragusan Mavro Orgini, in his utopian the process of the transformation to the epic Slávie [Slavia] coined or propagated modern industrial society. the thesis about the Slavic unity. Later the proponents of the official communist More specifically, the transition from historiography positively assessed feudalism to capitalism was characterized František Palacký’s analyses of the Proto– by the emergence of the organic division Czechs and mainly the Hussite movement of labor, the systematic randomness and including its individual and collective the fluid totality; these processes had representation; i.e. the commander Jan impact on the formation of the Czech Žižka, the prominent Czech priest Jan national consciousness. Thus complex Želivský and the radical faction Táborité comprehension of the emergence and [The Taborites]. On the other hand, the the differentiation of Czech national elites more or less neuter or the indifferent should not be limited to the presentation history writing of the communist historians of patriots’ biographies but should also

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include their ‘embeddedness’ in the the patriots for the expansion of the reading economic and social relations. Moreover, public, On the other hand, in the middle the comprehension of the formation and of the nineteenth century the actions of the differentiation of the Czech elites Czech patriots were intertwined with the should also involve the chronological revolutionary upheavals; the increasing perspective; firstly the analysis of the role differentiation and the segmentation of of the new social networks among the the Czech elites headed towards the elite Czech individual scholars, secondly of structuring, characteristic to the capitalist their organizational efforts to mobilize system. the masses and thirdly of their common I have come to the conclusion that the interest in the political goals with the other segmentation of the Czech elites was segments of the population. interrelated with the rising importance In fact, one can encounter various of the Czech political parties and the perspectives on the importance of the other forms of the politicization process. economic and the social influences in In fact, the distinction among the the national elite formation and in the different Czech elite groups occurred national movements; while the first group only after the original patriot’s efforts, of the researchers have argued by the lost appeal and faded away. The first crucial role of the occupational mobility, generation of the Czech patriots was the instrumental usage of language and resentful that their original ideas were the social egalitarianism, the second one relegated to the second place. They has put emphasis on the language and were critical of the fact that the Czech the ethnicity; the economic component society grew mature, that the younger was reduced to the generally ‘accepted generation of the elites aimed at the knowledge’ in the field. To put it differently, mass politics and that the original the importance of the cultural component homogenous Czech elite fragmented can be highlighted by the comparative in the elite segments with their partial perspective on the formation of the interests. In fact, the Czech elites Czech, Hungarian and Slovak elites; i.e. consisted of the local or the provincial firstly the cultural dissimilarities at the period elites, the entrepreneurial elites, the of the revitalization of the cultural values worker elite and others. Approximately and the absence of explicit nationalism, at the end of the nineteenth century, secondly the contrasts at the era of the the Czech rural elites lost the interest in efforts of the cultural elites to mobilize the the common political representation population and thirdly the distinctions at with the Czech burghers or the the stage of the acclamation of the elites townsmen and strived for their own by the masses [10]. representation [Interview with V.D., the Professor of History, Charles University, The early stages of the Czech national 28.11.2019]. revival were influenced by the cultural advancement such as the gradual Despite the fact that the activities of liquidation of the illiteracy and the fight of the Slovak cultural elites had had some

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influence in the middle of the nineteenth implicated in the important national century, the last stage of the nation and the international revolutionary formation occurred only in the twentieth actions. Later he fell into oblivion century. More precisely, the belated because of his disagreements with character of the differentiation of the the mainstream patriots such as Josef Slovak elites in the administrative, cultural, Havlíček Borovský, František Palacký economic and political ones can be and František Ladislav Rieger [Interview explained by the two components; with V.D., the Professor of History, firstly the lack of the industrialization Charles University, 28.11.2019]. and secondly the negative effects 1.3. The Selected Cases of the Proto-Czech of the militant Magyarization after Elites and Dependence of Their Symbolic the Compromise. To put it briefly, the Role on the Political Regimes foundation and the later developments of the independent Czechoslovakia in 1918 Saint Wenceslaus I. [Svatý Václav] was were negatively marked by the bifurcation the duke of and began to of the Czech and Slovak elites: while the rule at the age of eighteen after the Czech elites were already differentiated death of his father Prince Vratislaus. He in the administrative, cultural, economic supported the German missionary priests political and other ones, the Slovak ones and contributed to the Christianization were homogenous and their number was of Bohemia. Furthermore, Wenceslaus I limited to the several hundreds of patriots. was peace–loving, had respect for clergy and supported church, e.g. in Prague he I believe that the original homogenous levered up the magnificent church in the character of the Czech and Slovak name of Saint Vitus. Nevertheless, in the elites and the timing of their later context of the German invasions in 929 differentiation or segmentation has his submission to the German king Henry been the important topic of the I the Fowler resulted in conspiracy of the historical research and the historical nobles against him and later his brother discourses till today. For example, the Boleslaus murdered him. His personality historians have argued about the role motivated the medieval artists to portray or the importance of the individual him in the Christian buildings, e.g. the politicians. For example, I think that the remarkable Chapel of the Holy Cross of sufficient attention has not been paid the Karlštejn Castle, the Church of Saint to the contributions of Josef Václav Wenceslas of Zderaz in Prague’s New Frič. I believe that the mainstream Town, the Saint Prokop Church in the rejection of his radical perspectives on Žižkov district, etc. Later the contributions the formulation of the Czech national of the Saint Wenceslas were highlighted interest and his personality have during the and illustrated the rudimentary level of the the patriots mostly emphasized his heroic political scene and the political elites at virtue, his elevation to sainthood and his that time. In the middle of the nineteenth role as the patron saint of the Czech state. century he was the important Czech On top of that, the first Czechoslovak cultural and political actor and was

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president Tomáš Garrigue Masaryk listed Adrian II took their side and formally him among the most important prominent authorized the use of the Slavic liturgy. representatives of the Proto–Czech or During the Czech National Revival the Proto–Slovakian elites; e.g. Charles IV, nation builders ascribed the importance John Amos Comenius, Josef Dobrovský, to their ecclesiastical and legal texts as Ján Kollár, Karel Havlíček Borovský, well as their mission to evangelize the František Palacký and others [11]. His rising Slavic subjects of the Great : the symbolic impact on the Czech national translations of some parts of the Bible, the identity can also be illustrated by his statue invention of Old Church Slavonic and the in the Wenceslas Square, the regular goal first Slavic Civil Code. On the other hand, of political protestations or eventually the chief founder and the first president of cultural gatherings. Under the communist Czechoslovakia Tomáš Garrigue Masaryk rule, in compliance with the communist preferred the reformers such as Jan Hus sharp criticism of any religious beliefs, or Petr Chelčický to Cyril and Methodius Wenceslaus I. was often associated with and pointed to the political abuse of his critical appropriation by the official their intellectual heritage by the Czech representatives of Nazi Germany and the Catholics and Liberals such as Julius Grégr date of the murder of the Wenceslaus I. and others. More precisely, Masaryk was ceased to be day of remembrance. On the critical of the emphasis put on the merger contrary, his current rising importance can of nationalism and religious issues; in this be demonstrated by his representation context he pointed to the requirement of on the Czech twenty crown coin and some Young Czech Party politicians for by the new recognition of his political the introduction of the Slavic language in importance; e.g. September 28 became the religious service [12]. The ideological the Day of Czech Statehood. appropriation of Saint Cyril and Methodius by the official Czechoslovak (Saints) Cyril and Methodius were the communist politicians and their alleged two brothers, the Greek missionaries and relationship with the communist ideas the apostles of the Slavic peoples, the brought about one of the most important translators of the Bible in Old Church mass anti–communist rallies at Velehrad, Slavonic/Old Bulgarian; they were also the capital of the Slavic state of Great the authors of the Glagolitic alphabet, i.e. Moravia and the most important the Slavic alphabet based on the Greek pilgrimage place in the Czech Republic. characters and resulting in its final version: Under the post-communist condition the the Cyrillic alphabet. brothers have been revered as national Moreover, they were preaching Christianity saints, considered co-patron saints of the in the native language of the population Czech Republic and their recognition and brought the Slavic countries into the resulted in the introduction of national sphere of the Christian Church. Despite holiday; it has been celebrated on 5 July the fact that Methodius had continuous and has commemorated the arrival or difficulties with the Latin clergy and several Cyril and Methodius in Great Moravia in times was summoned to Rome, the pope 863 AD.

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1.4. The Selected Cases of the Oldest Bojující], associated her with the realistic Generation of the Czech Elites: depiction of the lower classes and Dependence and Independence of Their “alleged” communist persuasion. Her Symbolic Role on the Political Regime perennial support by the Czechs can be illustrated by the national curriculum for the Božena Němcová was the female writer primary and the secondary education, the and the systematic collector of Czech and current actions of the Božena Němcová’s Slovak fairly tales who in the final stage of Association and her portrait on the five the Czech National Revival contributed hundred crown banknote. to the influx of the low culture into the high one; she was also active in the Karel Havlíček Borovský has been listed important cultural and public structures. among the second generation of the Together with Karel Havlíček Borovský, Czech patriots and considered to be she strived for the advancement of the the contributor to the modern character Czech written culture and namely for the of the Czech language; he wrote the emancipation of the Czech prose from number of the diverse literary pieces such the older classical manner. She has been as the elegies, the epigrams, the books seen as the first Czech feminist writer and of the travels and the satires. He has also the feminist perspective has been seen been viewed as one of the most important in her literary portrayal of the number of representatives of the Czech realism, female characters; her heroines or female the other nationalists wrote screenplays protagonists had different social standing about him and he was portrayed on the and they were of different ages. During the Czechoslovak banknotes [14]. After the interwar years, her persisting importance European political upheavals in 1948, for the Czech culture can be exemplified as the public supporter of constitutional by the foundation of Božena Němcová’s reform and the national rights, he was Association; it was financially supported persecuted and forced to live in the by the first president of Czechoslovakia external exile in Italian Bressanone Tomáš Garrigue Masaryk and the Czech [Brixen]. His experience with travelling philanthropists. Moreover, her intellectual to Russia prompted his scepticism to the heritage was recognized not only by the Pro–Russian orientation, coined by some respected intellectuals such as the writer Czech patriots and inspired him for the Václav Tille, the literary critic František elaboration of the concept of Austro– Xaver Šalda and the literary historian Slavism: the program of the modus vivendi Albert Pražák but also by the politicians between the Germans and the Slavs in the such as the senator Františka Plamínková . In the period between and the deputy Milada Horáková [13]. the First World War and the Second World Furthermore, the official interpretation of War his constant popularity with the her writings was adapted to the guiding Czechs can be illustrated by the positive ideological principles and her work was assessment of his intellectual contributions regularly republished; for example, the by the first president of Czechoslovakia writer Julius Fučík, in his piece The Fighting Tomáš Garrigue Masaryk as well as by the Božena Němcová [Božena Němcová popularity of the song “Sleep Havlíček

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quietly in your grave, the Czech is not of Czech professionals and cooptation afraid of the German [Spi Havlíčku v of some deputies such as the daughter svém hrobečku, Čech se Němce nebojí]”. of the first president of Czechoslovakia During the World War II, the influence of Alice Masaryková, one of the first the German nationalism and the Nazi women elected as the member of the propaganda ended in the removal of parliament of the post–war independent his statue from The Square of Havlíček Czechoslovakia. Apart from the first [Havlíčkovo náměstí] in Prague and to Czechoslovak president Tomáš Garrigue the critical appropriation of the selected Masaryk, the most important recognition components of his intellectual heritage has been attributed to the authors of by the communist historians. Despite the first laws on establishment of an the fact that he has been known as the independent state, later known as ‘men radical opponent of the of 28th October’ or founding fathers of the and the abolition of private property put First Czechoslovak Republic: Alois Rašín, down as the foolish idea, the proponents František Soukup, Vavro Šrobár, Jiří Stříbrný of the Czechoslovak communist post–war and Antonín Švehla [15]. propaganda used some Karel Havlíček The gradual interwar political and Borovský’s ideas about the Slavic– economic developments were ‘fruitful speaking peoples for their own ideological soil’ for the flourishing of the Czech cultural purposes; e.g. the interpretation of elites; their formation and ‘cultural fruits’ the Slavic unity for the post–war social were influenced by the intricate modus developments. His perennial popularity vivendi among the Czechs, Germans and can also be illustrated by his monuments the German–Jewish speaking community. outside Prague: Havlíčkova Borová, The number of the Czech cultural elites Havlíčkův Brod, Kutná Hora, Rakovník and has received the long–term recognition: in the other Czech settlements. among the prominent cultural elite 2.The Czechoslovak Elites in the Interwar members can be listed the writers brothers Years Čapek, the journalist Milena Jesenská the writer Vladislav Vančura, the painters Marie 2.1. The Major Characteristics of the Čermínová (Toyen), Alfons Mucha, František Interwar Czechoslovak Elites Kupka and the actors Josef Vlastimil Burian, The early interwar Czechoslovak political Ludmila Baarová, Adina Mandlová, etc. elites were composed of the number of After the establishment of independent the experienced Czech politicians such as Czechoslovakia, the shortage of the Alois Rašín, František Soukup, Jiří Stříbrný, experienced administrative elites resulted Antonín Švehla and many others. On the from the former inferior position of the other hand, the belated character of Czechs in administration of the Empire. In the the Slovak national movement resulted long run, the Czechs were disadvantaged in the absence of the Slovak party clubs or discriminated against as regards their in the Revolutionary National Assembly chances to reach the top of the Austrian– [Revoluční Národní Shromáždění]; the Hungarian public administration ladder situation was solved by the recruitment

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and at the turn of twentieth century made [Živnobanka] was affiliated with the Czech efforts to ‘break through the barrier’. National Social Party and thus the relative Despite the fact that in the last decades decline of the party ended in the weak of the Dual Monarchy the composition of influence of Živnobanka; the Agrarians the employees in the state administration were associated with Anglopragobanka, corresponded to the national cleavages i. e. the merger of Anglo-československá and thus the lower administrative positions banka (Anglobanka) and Pražská úvěrová were also occupied by the Czechs, they banka (Pragobanka). did not permeate the highest level of 2.2. The Impact of the Political Regimes on the Austro–Hungarian administration and the Interpretation of the Interwar Political were not employed as the councillors or Elites the chief executive officers in the state administration. As a consequence of these Alois Rašín was an economist, proponent developments, the first decades of the of the conservative liberalism and the post–war Czechoslovakian development Czech capitalism; after the establishment were negatively affected by the lack of of independent Czechoslovakia he the Czech experienced diplomats and was the founder of the first Ministry for officials and the British observers viewed Finance and the creator of the first the interwar Czech administration as Czechoslovak currency the Czechoslovak unprofessional and dysfunctional. Crown [Československá koruna]. Despite the fact that the Czechoslovak official The symbolic importance of the interwar communist propaganda criticized his economic elites in the national memory economic policies and overstated the was different from the mainstream negative influence of his economic assessment of the respective national reform on workmen, his perennial national elites in the influential nations, e.g. and international recognition for the German, French and British one. The Czech nation can be illustrated by the German and French historians associated commemoration of his name; e.g. Rašín the interwar period with the worldwide embankment in Prague, the quarter economic depression in the thirties, were Rašínov in Rokycany, the bust of Rašín in labeling it as the time of ‘Darkness’ and , etc. [16]. also critically assessed the role of the national elites, On the other hand, in František Soukup was a lawyer, a student the Czech historical consciousness the activist and an active member of the Czech First Czechoslovak Republic was seen as Social Democratic Party [Česká strana the Halcyon Days’ or the ‘Golden Days’. sociálně demokratická]; he participated While in the interwar period there were at the foundation of independent linkages between the Czech political Czechoslovakia, was the member the parties, the Czech entrepreneurs and the Revolutionary National Assembly, the Czech entrepreneurial subjects, the post– author of the first Czechoslovak laws communist Czech political parties have and the first Minister of Justice of the First more or less ‘levitated’. In the interwar Czechoslovak Republic. The communist period the so called Živnostenská banka historians more or less recognized his

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sufferings and his death under the Nazi critic of the Austrian–Hungarian Empire and regime; his current popularity among considered to be the successful politician the Czech public can be illustrated by in the negotiations and the compromises; the memorial plaque of Franišek Soukup between the wars he was the leader of in Zbraslavice and the gravestone in his the Republican Party of Farmers and birthplace Kamenná Lhota. Peasants and served three terms as the prime minister of Czechoslovakia. While Vavro Šrobár studied medicine at Charles the official communist historians had University in Prague and was appointed as contradictory attitude to his contributions, the minister for public health and physical some of the post–communist historians education, minister for the unification of the recognized him and compared him to laws and of information, and the minister the Czech politician Václav Klaus; his of education and national enlightenment; constant popularity among the Czechs later he became a professor for the history can be illustrated by the fact that after of medicine at Comenius University. Positive the introduction of the communist rule, the assessment of Šrobár’s contributions by group of the Czech citizens had hidden his the Czechoslovak communist historians bronze statue in the water well in Lipany was connected with his participation in and confessed their deed only after the Klement Gottwald’s government; the fall of the regime in 1989. monument was built to commemorate him at Trenčianske Teplice and the streets 2.3. The Impact of the Political Regimes on in Prague, Chomutov, –Hrabová, the Interpretation of the Interwar Cultural Přerov and Chomutov were renamed Elites after him for Šrobárova Street [Šrobárova Karel Čapek was the popular Czech ulice]. interwar writer, playwright and critic who Jiří Stříbrný was a member of the has received the growing international Revolutionary National Assembly and recognition. The numerous translations of later the deputy of the Czechoslovak his novels, plays, travel books and other parliament; he also served as the Minister literary genres in the tens of languages of Posts and Telegraphs, the Minister of have pointed out his continuous Railways and the Minister of National international popularity. His famous piece Defense. On the contrary, the merger of the The Makropulos Affair [Věc Makropulos] negative perspectives of the communist tackled the issue of human immortality and the post–communist historians on Jiří and was set to music by the composer Leoš Stříbrný’s contributions were interrelated Janáček; the novel The Absolute at Large with his inclination for fascism and his [Továrna na Absolutno] dealt with the participation in the foundation of the matter of the mystical source of virtually Slavic Socialist Party [Strana slovanských free energy and raised the danger of the socialistů], later known as the National consumer society; the play White Disease League [Národní liga]. [Bílá nemoc] adverted the threat of the coming Nazi era by the allegory of the Antonín Švehla was a self–made man and conflict between the pacifist doctor Galen a self–taught person; he was a persistent

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and the fascist Marshal. His popularity articles and editorials were published considerably increased after the in the prestigious Czech periodicals publication of the set of the interviews and such as Národní Listy [The National the dialogues with the first Czechoslovak Newspaper], Pestrý Týden [Variety president Tomáš Garrigue Masaryk Weekly News], Lidové Noviny [People’s called Talks with T.G. Masaryk [Hovory s News] and Presence [Přítomnost]. After T.G. Masarykem]; the first part focuses the Nazi occupation of Czechoslovakia on Masaryk’s youth, studies, marriage she helped the endangered victims of and the other biographical aspects; the different backgrounds and participated second part copes with Masaryk’s critical in the underground resistance to German attitude to the Czech political parties such occupation; due to her writings to the as Young Czechs [Mladočeši], his efforts periodical Defence of the Nation [Obrana to found independent Czechoslovakia Národa] she was arrested and sent to and his participation in The Czechoslovak the concentration camp. The feminist Legion in Russia; the third part treats the perspective has been critical of the fact evolution of Masaryk’s philosophical, that her public recognition put too much religious and political worldviews and his focus on her personal relation with the original concept of Realism. Karel Čapek reputable writer Franz Kafka: she has been has also been known as the irreconcilable seen as Kafka’s lover and the translator opponent of the communist ideology, of Kafka’s story The Stoker [Der Heizer]. as it can be deduced from his famous The one–sided perspective on Milena essay Why I am not a Communist; he Jesenská was reinforced by the popularity sided with the poor but pointed to the of the piece by Franz Kafka Letters to danger and dogmatism of the communist Milena [Dopisy Mileně]: collection of some ideology. In contradiction to the original Kafka’s emotional love letters to Jesenská, Karel Čapek’s worldview, the official translated in many languages. Under the communist propaganda highlighted his communist regime, Milena Jesenská’ name literary rendition of the number of social was removed from the Czech curricula issues in some of his novels and plays: and the ‘loudhailers’ of the Czechoslovak e.g. Mother [Matka], Rossum’s Universal communist propaganda criticized her not Robots [Rossumovi Univerzální Roboti] and only for her friendship with the ‘bourgeois War with the Salamanders [Válka s mloky]. writer’ Kafka but also for her short-term Permanent popularity of Karel Čapek’s and fickle attraction to the communist writings can also be illustrated by the ideas. On the other hand, her long– publication Toward the Radical Center: A standing popularity can be demonstrated Karel Čapek Reader [17]. not only by the secondary literature about her life and translations of her pieces but Milena Jesenská was the Czech journalist, also by the musical adaptation of Kafka’s writer, editor and translator; she studied Letters by the Argentine composer Alberto at the academic gymnasium for girls Ginastera, the song ‘Milena Jesenská’ by Minerva, the Prague Conservatory and the French songwriter Dominique Ané and the Faculty of Medicine. She became the other works of art [18]. famous for her journalist works and her

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2.4. The Impact of the Political Regimes Shooting Range. The attempts of the on the Interpretation of the Interwar Czech communist politicians to remove Administrative Elites the name of Františka Plamínková from the national memory can be explicated In their career path, the Czech elite by the negative perspective of Antonín members very often moved over or shifted Zápotocký and the other communists on from the political elite to the administrative the women’ associations and by their one and vice versa; the thesis about emphasizing the ideal of a proletarian the overlapping of the interwar Czech woman. For example, her commemorative administrative and the political elites plagues were cleared away and the can be illustrated by the choice of the street ‘Františky Plamínkové’ in Prague two significant elite members: Františka neighborhood Holešovice was renamed Plamínková and Zdeněk Fierlinger. to the street ‘Františka Kizka’. Her current Františka Plamínková was the politician, popularity among the Czech citizens has the teacher, the author of journalist articles appeared in the various forms; in 1992 about inequality, the fighter for women’s she was awarded the Order of Tomáš suffrage and the critic of mandatory Garrigue Masaryk, her name has been celibacy of female teachers. She served as mentioned in the number of the national the president of Women’ National Council and the international publications about [Česká národní rada], the umbrella the Czech history and the educational organization for women’s associations institutions were named after her; e.g. in Czechoslovakia, aiming at reforms of Primary School Františky Plamínkové in marriage laws, equal access of women to Prague 7, Elementary School Františky public spaces, etc. Her active involvement Plamínkové in Prague 4, etc. [19]. in the international movement for human rights can be documented by the positions Zdeněk Fierlinger was the Czech diplomat she held; she was a vice president of the and one of the most influential post– International Council of Women, the war politicians who subscribed to the International Woman’s Suffrage Alliance introduction and the stabilization of and the Open Door International. She was the communist rule in the post-war convinced about the equality of men and Czechoslovakia. After leaving the women and in the 1930s she vehemently grammar school he joined the Legion opposed the demand for restricting paid in Russia, played the important role in jobs of married women. At the dawn of the enlistment and the development World War II she wrote the open letter to of the Czech army and later joined Hitler, criticizing him as dictator, and got the Legion in France. After the war he involved with the resistance activities returned to Czechoslovakia and thanks against the Nazi regime. As a result of to his international experience and the her oppositional activities against Hitler’s knowledge of the foreign languages, invasion of Czechoslovakia she was sent he entered the diplomatic service and to the concentration camp Theresienstadt became not only the close co–worker and after Heydrich’s assassination she was of the president Edward Benesch but executed by the Nazis on the Kobylisy also the Czechoslovak ambassador to

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Netherlands, Romania, United States of CONCLUSION America, Switzerland and Austria. In 1924 The typology of the political regimes was he joined the Czech Social Democratic fruitful for sorting the short case studies of Party and during the Second World War the Proto-Czechs and the ‘democratic- he was a Czechoslovak ambassador to minded’ patriots in the two subgroups. the and became friends with Firstly, the symbolic importance of Božena Klement Gottwald [20]. After the World Němcová, Karel Havlíček Borovský and War II, Fierlinger became the president eventually the other members of the of Košice government and his pro–Soviet Proto–Czech elites and nation builders orientation had the tremendous impact and their role in the national memory on the negotiations and agreements has not depended on the communist between the Czechoslovakia and the discourses. Secondly, the symbolic impact Soviet Union. After the coup in 1948, as the of the (Saint) Wenceslaus I., the (Saints) president of the Czech Social Democratic Cyril and Methodius and eventually the Party, he succeeded in the merger of other members of the proto-Czech elites the Czech Social Democratic Party and and the nation builders and their place in the Communist Party of Czechoslovakia. the national memory has been negatively While Edward Benesch had not complied affected by the impact of the communist with the criticism of Zdeněk Fierlinger by ideology on the public debates; e.g. the some Czech politicians for his pursue of anti-religious sentiment, the criticism of Soviet interests and their requirement bourgeois culture and the other issues. to remove him from his office, after the Furthermore, the informal symbolic role of communist takeover he viewed him as the Saint (Wenceslaus) I., the (Saints) Cyril ‘the traitor and enemy of nation’ [21]. and the other proto–Czechs or the nation The positive assessment of Fierlinger’s builders contributed to the undermining or actions by the official communist to the subversion of the regime; e.g. the propaganda corresponded to his credits regular anti-regime protestations of the in the completion of the victory of the Czech citizens in the Wenceslaus square communist party; from 1948 until 1966 he and the riots against the ideological was a member of the Central Committee, appropriation of the (Saints) Cyril and Deputy Prime Minister, Minister of the Methodius by some communist politicians. State Office for religious affairs, Chairman of the National Assembly and Minister in The transition from the Austro-Hungarian charge of the State. The post-communist Empire to Czechoslovakia was impacted publications and the documentaries also by the personal continuities of the national highlighted his negative impact on the political and cultural elite. Apart from the economic and the social development cases presented in the text above, the of the post–war Czechoslovakia; e.g. A personal continuities can be illustrated by Czech Biographical Dictionary of the 20th the other highly regarded interwar elite Century [Český biografický slovník 20. members. 1. Karel Kramář (1860–1937) was století] by the Czech historian Josef Tomeš. a politician and a representative of the political party Young Czechs [Mladočeši]

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in the Austrian Imperial Council, he also Presidium of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, headed the Czechoslovak National was a key foreign policy advisor to Edward Committee in Prague and later became Benesch and later served as Minister of the first Prime Minister of the independent Foreign Affairs. 4. Josef Pekař (1870–1937) Czechoslovak state. 2. Milan Hodža (1878– was a prominent Czech historian, professor 1944) was a Slovak politician and journalist and rector of Charles University in Prague; who became the ideological leader he was critical of Masaryk’s research and the founder of Slovak agrarianism; methods and of his perspective on the he also strove for the establishment of meaning of Czech history as religious idea a democratic federation of Central of humanity. 5. In the Austro–Hungarian European states and served as the Prime Empire Františka Zemínová (1882–1962) Minister of the interwar Czechoslovakia. was a feminist activist who made efforts 3. The historian Kamil Krofta (1876-1945) to put through women’s suffrage and was belonged to the Jaroslav Goll school of an active member of the Czech National thought and his research interests focused Social Party; in the interwar period she was on the early Czech history; he headed the a politician and a member of parliament.

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