VolumeVolume 25, Issue 2

EconomicEconomic andand SocialSocial SignificanceSignificance of ForestsForrests FForor Africa'sAfrica's SSustainableusttainable DevelopmentDevelopment

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Nature & Faune

Enhancing natural resources management for food security in Africa

Volume 25, Issue 2

Economic and social significance of forests for Africa’s sustainable development

Editor: Foday Bojang Deputy Editor: Ada Ndeso-Atanga FAO Regional Office for Africa

[email protected] http://www.fao.org/africa/publications/nature-and-faune-magazine/

FOOD AND AGRICULTURE ORGANIZATION OF THE UNITED NATIONS Accra, Ghana 2011

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BOARD OF REVIEWERS

Christel Palmberg-Lerche Forest geneticist Rome, Italy

Jean Prosper Koyo Renewable Natural Resources adviser Pointe Noire, Republic of Congo

El Hadji M. Sène, Forest Resources Management & Dry Zone Forestry specialist Dakar, Senegal

Douglas Williamson Wildlife specialist England, United Kingdom

Fred Kafeero Natural Resources specialist Rome, Italy

Jeffrey Sayer Ecologist/expert in political and economic context of natural resources conservation Cairns, N. Queensland, Australia

August Temu Agroforestry adviser and leader in management of partnerships Nairobi, Kenya

Sébastien Le Bel Wildlife specialist and scientist Montpellier, France

Mafa Chipeta Food Security adviser Limbe, Malawi

Advisers: Fernando Salinas, Atse Yapi, René Czudek

The designations employed and the presentation of material in this information product do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations concerning the legal or development status of any country, territory, city or area or of its authorities, or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries.

The views expressed in this publication are those of the author(s) and do not necessarily reflect the views of the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations.

All rights reserved. Reproduction and dissemination of material in this information product for educational or other non-commercial purposes are authorized without any prior written permission from the copyright holders provided the source is fully acknowledged. Reproduction of material in this information product for resale or other commercial purposes is prohibited without written permission of the copyright holders. Applications for such permission should be addressed to the Chief, Electronic Publishing Policy and Support Branch, Communication Division, FAO, Viale delle Terme di Caracalla, 00153 Rome, Italy or by e-mail to [email protected].

©FAO 2011

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Contents

Message to Readers 1 Maria Helena Semedo

Editorial Peter Rosa 3

Announcements 7

News 9

Special Feature 10

Economic and Social Significance of forests for Rwanda’s sustainable development Eunice Njoroge and Gregory Muli 10

Opinion Piece

The last stand of mangrove forest ecosystems in south eastern Nigeria Mfon Udo, Blessing Oribhabor, Francis Nwosu, Utibe Daniel and Anthony Akpan 14

Articles

Socio-economic and environmental significance of plantation forests in South Africa Rudzani Makhado and Amani Saidi 19

A review of the significance of non-timber forest products to rural livelihoods in Nigeria Folaranmi Babalola 25

The role of social capital in strengthening community based natural resources management in Zambia Vincent Nyirenda and Wilbroad Chansa 30

The first community forests of Gabon: towards sustainable local forest management? Meunier Quentin, Federspiel Michèle, Moumbogou Carl, Grégoire Bruno, Doucet Jean-Louis and Vermeulen Cédric 40

Promotion of forests and land governance by local communities: the experience of COFOR-International Joelle Brams and Jacques Plan 46

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Sangha Tri-national landscape in the Congo basin: Socioeconomic dimensions of trans-boundary conservation area Chi Augustine Muam 50

Challenges of managing forest reserves: Case study of Atewa range forest reserve, Ghana. Jesse Ayivor , Christopher Gordon , James Adomako and Yaa Ntiamoa-Baidu 56

Harvesting and commercialization of Gnetum spp for poverty alleviation and food security in Cameroon Julius Tieguhong, William Mala, Ousseynou Ndoye and Sophie Grouwels 64

Utilization of non-timber forest products for economic development in Nigeria Borokini Temitope Israel 68

Impact of mangrove forest destruction on the fisheries resources of the Niger Delta, Nigeria Blessing J. Oribhabor and Mfon T. Udo 72

Impact of laws and regulations on the use of non-wood forest products and the wellbeing of forest dependent communities in Central Africa Juliane Masuch, Ousseynou Ndoye, Julius Tieguhong, William Mala and Armand Zé 77

Country Focus: Lesotho Nchemo Maile 81

FAO Activities

Forestry in improving food security and nutrition: FAO’s work in Africa Fred Kafeero, Gauthier Michelle, Grouwels Sophie, Steierer Florian, Berrahmouni Nora and Vantomme Paul 87

Links 93

Theme and Deadline for Next Issue 95

Guidelines for Authors, Subscription and Correspondence 96

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the forest at the moment. How do world Message to Readers leaders deal realistically with the perceptions that non-forest lands are seen Maria Helena Semedo1 as having greater economic and social significance to the most directly affected stakeholders than forest lands? The editorial argues that many conservation policies in Africa discourage destructive entrepreneurial practices but do little to he year 2011 has been proclaimed the establish the requisite incentives for International Year of Forests (in brief entrepreneurs to use forest resources in a T“ Forests 2011”) and it is being productive, sustainable and ethical manner. celebrated under the theme “Forests for It concludes by asking how African People”. This is truly a remarkable governments can develop effective theme. One cannot come close to covering all partnerships with neighboring countries of it in a single edition of Nature & Faune as and international actors to invest in it addresses good management, infrastructure and to establish systems to conservation and sustainable development make legitimate ethical bio-prospecting of all types of forests2. Consequently, Nature rewarding, and bio-piracy costly and not & Faune magazine will contribute to this worth pursuing. celebration by dedicating all of the publications in 2011 to reflections and As you delve into the magazine, you will find activities related to “Forests 2011”. This first out where to obtain information on the issue examines the “Economic and social contribution of wildlife to national significance of forests for Africa’s economies and get a full comparison of the sustainable development”. prices of hunting tourism in southern and eastern Africa. It includes two technical You can read in these pages about efforts of reports published in a joint initiative of the African nations to sustainably manage their Food and Agriculture Organization of the forests. This issue explores management United Nations (FAO) and the International approaches that balance social, economic Council for Game and Wildlife Conservation and environmental objectives, allowing (CIC)3. users to reap the benefits of forest resources while conserving them to meet the needs of The regular feature Country Focus shines the future generations. Authors share cases and spotlight on Lesotho where less than 1% of experiences highlighting efforts of forest and the total land area of the nation is under natural resource managers to develop forest cover. Maile Nchemo describes innovative partnerships with new Lesotho’s efforts to celebrate the stakeholders outside the traditional forest International Year of the Forests 2011. The sector. In this context, the editorial by photos of activities at various levels of the Professor Peter Rosa focuses on the society take the message home - that despite entrepreneurship perspective of its scantiness, the patches of remaining socioeconomic significance of forests. Its indigenous trees and shrubs fulfill important message is that the basic honest socio-economic and ecological functions. In entrepreneurial pressures still do not favour Lesotho, the social worth of forests is rated very high. 1 Maria Helena Semedo, Assistant Director- General/Regional Representative for Africa, The special article features Eunice Joroge’s Regional Office for Africa, United Nations Food and Gregory Muli’s views on the and Agriculture Organization, P. O. Box 1628 Accra. Ghana. Tel: 233-302-675000 ext. 2704/ 233 302 7010 930 ext. 2704; fax: 233-302-668 427 3 http://www.cic-wildlife.org/?id=412 publications 2 http://www.un.org/en/events/iyof2011/ n.7 and 8

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socioeconomic value of forests in Rwanda Enjoy these articles and features, which are where wood for fuel and other uses are set within the context of International Year harvested from man-made forests, while of the Forests 2011. Thank you for your natural forests are protected. The Opinion interest and commitment to making the Piece presents the mangrove ecosystems in activities marking the celebration a veritable the south eastern Nigeria. On the menu are instrument to raise awareness on good eleven other articles presenting diverse and management, conservation and sustainable rich views from Zambia, Gabon, South Africa, development of all types of forests in the Nigeria, Cameroon, Ghana, and subregional continent. perspectives from West and Central Africa.

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towards the clearance and consumptive Editorial exploitation of forests:

Economic and Social Significance of x Forests are sources of easy profit. Many Forests for Africa’s Sustainable tropical forests contain valuable timber Development: An Entrepreneurship which has taken years, sometime hundreds Perspective of years for nature to produce. The growth of valuable trees is not paid for by people. It Peter Rosa1 is a free good, provided by nature. The main cost is that of harvesting. Valuable timber can be extracted at a small selective scale by local entrepreneurs, or harvested on an industrial scale by large scale entrepreneurs ntrepreneurship, as the economist who command considerable resources and William Baumol (1990) wrote, can be lobbying power. Once the value is E a productive or a destructive force. It consumed, a new area of forest can be can be beneficial when pportunity targeted for exploitation. If forest resources exploitation by entrepreneurs leads to are extensive, this can take some years to ethical innovation, wealth creation and jobs. complete, but in many countries with only It can be unproductive, even destructive limited forest cover they can disappear when entrepreneurs engage in rent seeking alarmingly quickly. The market for valuable and other opportunities linked to unethical timber acts as an important incentive for and illegal practices such as corruption and large scale entrepreneurs and companies to organized crime. Given the existence of an exploit logging concessions. attractive opportunity, there will always be x Forest often covers an even greater an entrepreneur who will find it and try and resource, productive well watered land. exploit it. Once success is demonstrated, There is an opportunity cost leaving forest others will copy him or her and through un-cleared, when the land could be more competition maximize its exploitation. profitably utilized for other purposes. Once Baumol argued that the degree to which a cleared, forestry land becomes available for society obtains benefits from entrepreneurs a large variety of uses, arguably offering depends on how it offers incentives and more commercial opportunities for “payoffs” to entrepreneurs. Through entrepreneurs than the forest that was mechanisms such as government policy, a replaced. The initial clearing of the forest society can heavily influence the allocation even provides revenues that can be used to of entrepreneurs, influencing whether reinvest in these new better opportunities. entrepreneurs choose to pursue productive The economies of many African countries or destructive opportunities. depend on crops grown on cleared forests, such as cocoa, coffee, tea, sugar and oil This argument is particularly relevant to palms. The increasing numbers and forest conservation, particularly to the affluence of the world population is leading conservation of tropical forests. The balance to higher demands for such commodities, of incentives is, sadly, heavily weighted which can be most easily satisfied by clearing more forest land. In the case of oil palms, for example, the demands for 1 Peter Rosa, George David Chair of alternatives to fossil fuels have greatly Entrepreneurship and Family Business and Head of accelerated forest clearance in some Entrepreneurship and Innovation Group. The countries. Behind new plantations there is University of Edinburgh Business School, William almost inevitably an entrepreneur or Robertson Building, 50 George Square Edinburgh entrepreneurial family, often in partnership EH8 9JY Edinburgh UK. Email: [email protected] Phone: +44(0)131 with enterprising politicians who facilitate 6503798 permission to clear, or just turn a blind eye.

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Clearing the forest opens up land for flexible Kaosta-Ard (1995) notes, that “there is an exploitation in many different ways. obvious and immense need for developing Governments in developing countries face countries to conserve their forests” (p.1) difficult dilemmas on whether to conserve and that “the benefits that come from forests forests or convert them from what many are both obvious and numerous” (p.5). To regard as unproductive wildernesses to land summarise some of the more important for profitable agriculture and pastoralism. benefits: Conversion has potential attractions for governments too (revenues from logging x Forests contain essential timber concessions; higher and regular taxes from products which are needed in the long term new agricultural commodities grown on as well as the short term. Forest cleared land); for balance of payments conservation ensures a managed and steady (forest products form an important source supply of these products over a much longer of exports for many African countries); it period of time, especially where valuable leads to job creation (forestry employs few tree species take many years to mature, and people compared to large scale agriculture); could be quickly consumed without long it leads to more satisfied local people who term management. There is a compelling can ease the pressure on land by opening up commercial reason for preserving native new land in the forest zones. Once land is forests where most valuable timber of this cleared, a large number of options become type is found. available for agri-entrepreneurs. x Forests can be an important life support Entrepreneurs are especially responsive to for people (forests are important for opportunities arising from subsidies and are protecting water catchments and for quick to exploit subsidies to enhance crop enhancing conservation; for regulating production that Governments deem rainfall; for preventing land slides and so desirable. Providing subsidies for producing on). bio-diesel, for example, can lead to rapid x Conserving forests helps to sequester changes in land use. As the pressure grows carbon (which otherwise would be released from outside and within African countries to into the atmosphere in the form of CO2) conserve virgin tropical forests and exploit contributing to mitigation of global them sustainably, African Governments face warming. great political challenges from powerful x Forests provide utilitarian support for entrepreneurs and their supporters who see people and communities. Some communities alternative uses for and quick profits from depend on forests for their main livelihood, clearing forest lands. It has been estimated and many people in developing countries that the conversion of forests to agricultural still rely on forests for medicinal remedies land is the major factor for the decrease in derived from indigenous plants. global forest area by 0.18% per year in x Forests are an important pool of 1990-2000) and 18% per year in 2000- biodiversity which has only partially been 2005, and the loss of an annual area of scientifically explored, and which could be primary forest covering an area the size of irretrievably degraded by widespread Ireland (Green Facts, 2007). clearance. The importance of biodiversity and of preserving the stock of genetic The traditional answer to forest diversity for future food and medicinal conservation has been legal protection, needs and purposes are regarded as of endorsed by treaties and conventions global importance, and are enshrined in designed to preserve forests and the bio- international treaties and conventions. diversity of forest habitats, and underpinned x Forests provide areas of outstanding by influential conservation lobbies extolling natural beauty which provide recreational the reasons why tropical forests are and spiritual renewal for stressed urban essential to human welfare. Many dwellers. As the human race expands and conservationists passionately believe, as

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becomes more urbanized, the need for with overseas experts and consultants, to wilderness areas will increase. provide opportunity assessments and entrepreneurship training and support for The power of these arguments has added local entrepreneurs to make a sustainable considerable authority to the growing body living from their neighbouring forests. The of protective conventions and legislation at concept of the “forest dependent poor” international and national levels. Such (Macqueeen, 2001), has entered the policies should act as effective disincentives vocabulary on international poverty for the open consumptive exploitation of alleviation, To provide further tropical forests, and discourage or even understanding on how entrepreneurship eliminate destructive entrepreneurialism, can operate sustainably, a whole new but these policies only have localized effects academic branch of entrepreneurship has in Africa. It is almost impossible to police arisen in the last decade, called large areas of forests even if the will is there “sustainable” entrepreneurship (Dean and to do so. In many African countries forestry Mullen, 2007; Schaper, 2010; Shepherd and officials are paid low wages, encouraging Patzelt, 20011). This is a rapidly growing corruption and collusion by unscrupulous field and many of its insights have yet to be entrepreneurs. Tacit tolerance of these tested rigorously through applied research. practices can permeate to the highest levels There is a great opportunity for researchers of Government. Even if enforcement is and practitioners engaged in forest effective for a period, it can be reversed in conservation in Africa to draw inspiration times of political instability, or made less from this new field. effective as pressures of consumer demand for forest products increases. Where a In the last analysis, however, all of these tropical forest represents an irreplaceable positive efforts to persuade entrepreneurs ecological system, it only takes one lapse in to work productively in the interests of enforcement to either see its disappearance forest conservation, are still at a small scale or to result in irreparable damage or compared to the rampant incentives for degradation. entrepreneurs to clear forests. Additionally the benefits of potentially very lucrative bio- A problem with many conservation policies prospecting has been undermined by bio- in Africa is that while they seek to regulate piracy, which in the last two decades has the environment to discourage destructive created reservations and controversy within entrepreneurial practices, they do nothing to African governments and ethical NGOs provide incentives for entrepreneurs to about promoting and developing this source exploit forests ethically and productively. of income. Since the 1990s there have been efforts to alter this balance, through encouraging There is a need to think of new policies to awareness of non timber forest products, attract such entrepreneurs to make money through bio-prospecting, through giving from forest conservation rather than forest local communities greater ownership, destruction. This is the ultimate challenge, control and management of local forests and how to appeal to their opportunism to try and diversify the range of constructively, not just to rely on arguments opportunities for local entrepreneurs. There on the need for conservation. How can large have been many ideas put forward in the scale entrepreneurs and companies be last three decades to encourage forest incentivised to protect large forests? We are entrepreneurship, such as harvesting only at the beginning in thinking through sustainable products such as honey; this challenge. One important factor, often medicinal plants for local use; selective but overlooked, is that forests, though physically sustainable timber and charcoal production remote, are not isolated from the overall and ecotourism. To facilitate this, NGOs local and global economy. For new and charities have sprung up, often linked sustainable markets to develop, there needs

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to be much greater integration between the REFERENCES local, national and international economic Baumol, W. (1990) Entrepreneurship, spheres. How can African governments, in productive, unproductive, and destructive, partnerships with each other and The Journal of Political Economy, Vol. 98(5), international governments, set up pp. 893-921. infrastructures and systems to make legitimate ethical bio-prospecting Dean, T.J. & McMullen, J.S. (2007), Toward rewarding, and bio-piracy costly and not a theory of sustainable entrepreneurship: worth pursuing? Should the prohibitions Reducing environmental degradation and restrictions for trading valuable forest through entrepreneurial action, Journal of products and exotic wildlife be eased by Business Venturing, Vol. 22, (1), pp. 50-76 developed countries? At present legitimate traders in such products are not Green Facts, (2007) encouraged, whilst the rewards are reaped http://www.greenfacts.org/en/forests/inde by illegal poachers, smugglers and criminals, x.htm#2 who are not exploiting these resources sustainably. Why are not forests, rich in Kaosta-Ard, M. (1995), Sharing the benefits biodiversity, being offered as concessions and costs of forest conservation, TDRI for leasing to pharmaceutical companies, for Quarterly Review example, in the same way as they are Vol. 10(4), pp. 11-19 destructively being offered for logging? Africa as a continent has the poorest take up MacQueen, D.J. (2001) Common Problems of carbon trading opportunities, yet they for the Forest Dependent Poor. Results from could potentially offer large incentives for 22 Countries. FRP Natural Resources protecting forests as well as reforestation. International Ltd. Why are not forest concessions being leased to holiday companies and global tourist entrepreneurs? All these kinds of initiatives Schaper, M. (2010) Making Ecopreneurs: require solutions which ultimately should Developing Sustainable Entrepreneurship, link in sustainable forestry products into the Gower (2nd edition). mainstream economy in the same way that agriculture does. Unless such opportunities Shepherd, D. & Patzelt,H., 2010, The new are developed and made attractive to local, field of sustainable entrepreneurship, national and international entrepreneurs, Entrepreneurship Theory & Practice, Vol. destructive consumption of forests will 26(1), pp.137-163. continue.

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FAO REGIONALFAO RegionalOFFICE OfficeFOR for AFRICAAfrica Sources of information on contribution of wildlife to national economies ANNOUNCEMENTS Two new reports have been published in a joint initiative of the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) and the International Council for Game and Wildlife Conservation (CIC). They are published under the FAO/CIC Technical Series, to share more widely best practices in wildlife management and conservation among practitioners and

decision makers, and to support sustainable economic development of the wildlife sector. To facilitate access and/or place orders, the photos of the cover-pages are shown on the left. The titles and citations are shown hereunder:

Title: Contribution of Wild Life to National Economies Citation: Vernon R. Booth (2010): The Contribution of Hunting Tourism: How Significant is This to National Economies? in Contribution of Wildlife to National Economies. Joint publication of FAO and CIC. Budapest. 72 pp. Edited by: Kai-Uwe Wollscheid, CIC; René Czudek, FAO

Published by: CIC – International Council for Game and Wildlife Conservation and FAO – Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations

Addresses: FAO HEADQUARTERS Viale delle Terme di Caracalla, 00153 Rome, Italy Phone: +39-06-57051, Fax: +39-06-57053152 E-mail: [email protected], Website: www.fao.org

INTERNATIONAL COUNCIL FOR GAME AND WILDLIFE CONSERVATION Administrative Office, P.O. Box 82, H-2092

Budakeszi, Hungary Phone: +36 23 453 830, Fax: +36 23 453 832 E-mail: [email protected], Website:

www.cic-wildlife.org

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FAO REGIONALFAO RegionalOFFICE OfficeFOR for AFRICAAfrica Title: A Comparison of the Prices of Hunting Tourism in Southern and Eastern Africa (http://www.cic- wildlife.org/?id=519)

ISBN: 978-963-88778-0-2

Citation: Vernon R. Booth (2009): A Comparison of the Prices of Hunting Tourism in Southern and Eastern Africa. Joint publication of FAO and CIC. Budapest. 40 pp.

Published by: CIC – International Council for Game and Wildlife Conservation and FAO – Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations

Addresses: FAO HEADQUARTERS Viale delle Terme di Caracalla, 00153 Rome, Italy Phone: +39-06-57051, Fax: +39-06-57053152 E-mail: [email protected], Website: www.fao.org

INTERNATIONAL COUNCIL FOR GAME AND WILDLIFE CONSERVATION Administrative Office, P.O. Box 82, H-2092 Budakeszi, Hungary Phone: +36 23 453 830, Fax: +36 23 453 832 E-mail: [email protected], Website: www.cic-wildlife.org

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Forest ownership rights can improve News peoples’ livelihoods FAO declared in a newly published guide, Reforming Forest Tenure, that reforming forest tenure systems and securing forest ownership rights can significantly improve peoples’ livelihoods and enable them to gain Launch of Millennium Development income from forest products. Goals (MDGs) Report 2011 in Geneva he “Millennium Development Goals The continuing demand for land, weak Report 2011" was launched in Geneva governance in many countries, and Tby the United Nations Secretary- emerging global challenges such as climate General on 7 July 2011 during the High-level change increase the urgency of addressing Segment of the Economic and Social Council forest tenure reform. The guide was of the United Nations (ECOSOC). The report launched at the Forest Tenure, Governance which is prepared annually provides an and Enterprise Conference that took place in assessment of global progress towards the Lombok, Indonesia, from 11 to 15 July 2011. MDGs. It shows that although significant Attended by around 200 representatives strides have been made, reaching all the from international and regional MDGs by 2015 remains challenging because organizations, private sector, non- progress has failed to reach the most governmental organizations, civil society vulnerable. In his remarks, at the launch, the and researchers, the conference was co- Secretary-General indicated that the MDGs organized by the Indonesian Ministry of have made a tremendous difference. They Forestry (MOF), the International Tropical have raised awareness and have shaped the Timber Organization (ITTO) and the Rights broad vision that remains the overarching and Resources Initiative (RRI). framework for development work across the world, and they have fuelled action and In recent years, FAO has carried out meaningful progress in people’s lives. At the extensive assessments of forest tenure same time however, progress has been systems in Africa, Southeast Asia, Latin uneven and the poorest of the poor are America and Central Asia and its impact on being left behind. Referring to the fast sustainable forest management and poverty approaching deadline of 2015, the UN reduction. Based on this analysis, the guide Secretary-General emphasized the need for offers practical guidance for policy makers a rejuvenated global partnership for involved in forest tenure reforms. development, for breakthroughs in trade For the whole news brief, visit: negotiations and in climate action and to http://www.fao.org/news/story/en/item/81 build resilience to shocks, be they conflicts, 859/icode/ natural disasters or volatility in food and energy prices. It was also mentioned that Ecosystem Marketplace's Forest Carbon ecosystems must be protected to support News Brief continued growth and natural environments To get an update on ecosystem markets and and the Rio+20 Conference in June 2012 related issues, visit: offers a major opportunity for new progress. http://www.forestcarbonportal.com/content/l atest_forest_carbon_newsletter Further information on the launch is available at http://www.un.org/millenniumgoals/news.sh tml. The language versions of the report are accessible also at the FAO MDG Site at http://www.fao.org/mdg/en/.

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natural forests, there are man-made forest Special Feature plantations, which are established by the Government and by farmers. Currently, the Economic and Social Significance of total area of the national forest estate is 553, forests for Rwanda’s sustainable 098 ha, representing 21% of total country development area.

Eunice Njoroge1 and Gregory Muli2 Forests are a key component of our landscape and life-support system, in view of both the products and the services which they provide. Rwanda’s indigenous and planted forests are important for economic, environmental and socio-cultural well- Summary being, through provision of both wood and Rwanda forests render important economic, non-wood products and services. Indeed, it environmental and socio-cultural values has been recognized that the economic, through the provision of both wood and non- social and environmental well-being of the wood utility products. Wood fuel and wood Rwandan population is closely associated for other uses are harvested from man-made with the health of forests and their sustained forests, whereas all natural forests are ability to provide multiple benefits. protected. Natural forests host a rich Unfortunately, Rwanda's forestry sector has biodiversity, serve as the backbone of tourism suffered from degradation and regression of industry and support invaluable ecological existing forest resources; the main causes functions such as water and soil protection. being the overexploitation of forests, poor Forests thus contribute to rural livelihoods management of existing resources and and socio-economic stability of the country. forest conversion. Various legislative instruments exist to ensure Fortunately, Rwanda has made the that both natural forests and plantations are protection of its remaining natural forests a sustainably managed to contribute to priority, and has set a target of increasing national development. the forest cover to 30 percent by 2020, as outlined in Vision 2020 and the Economic Introduction Development and Poverty Reduction wanda is a small mountainous, Strategy (EDPRS). This goal, it seems, is set landlocked country covering 26,338 to be achieved well ahead of schedule. In R Km2 with 11,117,033 million people, addition, there is an intensive campaign with an average population density of about against unsustainable use of forests, while 408 inhabitants per Km2. The country is tree-planting and management is being covered by a great diversity of ecosystems, promoted across the country. including forest ecosystems and natural forests like Nyungwe, Mukura and Gishwati. Social and economic benefits of Rwanda’s These natural forests are rich in flora and forests fauna, including numerous species of birds Source of energy and primates. Indeed, a high percentage of Wood is the principal source of energy in these species are endemic. In addition to Rwanda, where forests accounts for approximately 84% of current primary energy use. 96.2% of all households use 1 Eunice Njoroge, Ministry of Forestry and Mines, wood as a source of energy. For instance, P.O.BOX 447, Kigali Rwanda. charcoal is a basic necessity in urban areas, Email: [email protected] 2 where more than 60% of the urban Gregory Muli, Ministry of Forestry and Mines, population uses charcoal as a source of P.O.BOX 447, Kigali Rwanda. energy. According to estimates in Rwanda’s Email: [email protected] Biomass Energy Strategy (BEST) study, the

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2008 consumption of commercial fuel wood generate direct monetary income and was about 700,000 tonnes, while that of revenue. For instance, charcoal production charcoal was 150,000 tonnes. In 2007, is a big business in Rwanda. A partial study forests contributed up to 80% of total on charcoal trade between six towns and energy needed in the country, as illustrated five wood producer districts, carried out in in Figure 1 below. 2008, showed that the commercialization of charcoal alone contributed US$ 2.6 billion representing 5% of the Gross Domestic Product (GDP). BEST (2009), indicates that the charcoal and firewood market has a value of US $120-150 million per year in the country, and that 50% of the revenue remains in rural areas, where it is distributed among farmers/wood growers and charcoal makers. This is a really large source of income for rural farmers. According to EDPRS (2007), more than 94% of the energy for both domestic and industrial uses comes from firewood.

Tourism is a fast-growing sector and is now the country's leading foreign exchange Figure 1: Primary energy balance earner, the most popular activity being the Source: MININFRA, 2008 tracking of mountain gorillas. With an

exceptional number of plant and wildlife

species – including 12 different types of Rwandan forests are a renewable source of primates – the protected Nyungwe forest energy and if they are properly managed, has tremendous potential for attracting they will provide an eternal energy supply tourists. Tourist arrivals are projected to which can be counted upon at least until increase from about 980,000 in 2008 to over viable alternatives become available. Most 2 million in 2020, thereby increasing foreign importantly, as the largest source of national exchange earnings from about US$ 200 energy, the use of wood based energy does million to over US$ 600 million. The gorilla not depend on external influences or foreign naming ceremony (“Kwita Izina”), which is exchange. Its worth to note that as far as held each year, attracts a number of environment protection is concerned; the international celebrities, providing a good Rwandan Government is aiming at platform to promote tourism, gorilla decreasing and replacing the use of wood protection, as well as the conservation of and charcoal as energy sources, with gorilla habitats. modern energy sources like liquid petrol

gas, peat and biogas. Moreover, forests within parks and

protected areas act as a source of Source of income employment and promote income The sale of wood products other than fuel generation to local communities, e.g. as wood also generates significant incomes to guides, trackers and anti poachers. Forest those involved. Forest products accounted supports outdoor recreation, education and for 1.1% of GDP in Rwanda in 1998. ecotourism for both foreign and local Moreover, such products play an important tourists, contributing to socio-economic role in reducing poverty since they development. In total, the forest sector contribute to the economy of both local contributes around 100,000 full time jobs in people and the country at large. Rwanda's the country. In addition, Rwanda forests are thus an important capital, which government hires local cooperatives to run

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nurseries for afforestation and reforestation management. These include the Decree of in contract basis, thus increasing revenues 18/12/1930 concerning the harvesting and to local population. marketing of wood; the Rwandan Forest Policy of 2010; and Ministerial orders which The overall economic value of forestry supplement these instruments. For instance, products, including charcoal, fuel wood, the Rwanda National Forest Policy aims at sawn timber and rough timber is estimated developing forestry into one of the pillars of at US$ 472 million, equivalent to 10.6% GDP. the national economy and ecological viability. Thus, it is planned to carry out Ecological significance strategic actions to reduce degradation of Forests ecosystems contribute to the biodiversity as well as soil erosion in protection of watersheds of hydro-electric upstream zones of wetlands, by undertaking power generation schemes, as in the case of reforestation programmes and agro- the Ntaruka station within the Rugezi forestry. The forest policy also aims at wetland, and provide water for irrigation managing existing forest plantation and protect soil against erosion, making sustainably in order to increase wood agriculture more viable. production.

Forests are a key element in the regulation In addition to legislative instruments, of hydrological cycles, climate and the Rwanda pledges nationwide forest reduction of the atmospheric pollution, and landscape restoration. To this end, the they play an essential role in the global Government has made a bold, definitive and carbon cycle. As indicated by Rwanda long-term commitment to country-wide Environmental Management Authority ecosystem restoration. To this effect, (REMA) in 2009, local communities and Rwanda Forest Landscape Restoration local governments can be helped to Initiative (RFLRI) has been developed by appreciate and be made aware of the Ministry of Environment and Lands opportunities of using forests to earn carbon (MINELA) and Ministry of Forestry and funds. Mines (MINIFOM), in partnership with the United Nations Forum for Forests (UNFF), Most of the plant species found in forests in the Global Partnership on Forests Landscape Rwanda are used in traditional medicine and Restoration (GPFLR), and the International some plants species can provide important Union for the Conservation of Nature biochemical extracts. Other benefits of (IUCN). The RFLRI has both mid (2015) and forests to the population include non-wood long-term (to 2035) strategies which clearly products such as honey, fruits, other wild align and support existing national priorities foods, and raw materials for handicraft and targets. The outcomes are based on production which can act as a source of social, economic and environmental income, and supplement resources to meet developments and will be delivered through other household needs. However, no proper cross-sectoral engagement and accounting has been made in Rwanda on commitment. The plan is designed to non wood forest products (NWFP) and their achieve sustainable agricultural production, economic contribution to the national low carbon economic development, economy. adequate water and energy supplies, improves the quality and opportunities for Conclusions rural livelihoods and safeguards the nation’s To ensure forest sustainability and biological diversity. continued provision of social, economic and environmental benefits to Rwanda's For instance, Gishwati forest landscape has population, a range of legislative experienced tremendous loss of instruments exist in the field of forestry biodiversity, widespread soil erosion, which aims at ensuring sound forest degradation and landslides. Likewise, Rugezi

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Highland Wetland landscape, located in the MININFRA - Ministry of Infrastructure, north of Rwanda, is a unique and important Kigali, 2008. Biomass Strategic Workshop, ecosystem that is part of the headwaters of 30th April 2008. both the White Nile and Congo rivers. Large- Nielsen, H. & Spenceley, A., 2010. The scale loss of functionality has had significant success of tourism in Rwanda – Gorillas and local and national consequences as the more marshes feed Lake Bulera which in turns acts as the reservoir for the nationally NIRS - National Institute of Statistics of important 20Mw Ntaruka power plant. Due Rwanda. Statistical Year book 2010 edition to their economic and environmental importance’s, both Gishwati Forest and Republic of Rwanda, 2010. Government Rugezi Highland has been identified as areas Programme 2010-2017 that requires urgent attention and are thus among the initial consideration in the RFLRI. REMA - Rwanda Environment Management Authority, 2009. Rwanda State of Currently, some restoration activities such Environment and Outlook Report as reforestation are already ongoing. Further to this, vulnerable communities on Republic of Rwanda, 2009. National Energy fragile slopes have been relocated to better Policy and National Energy Strategy 2008- farming areas. 2012

In conclusion, the Rwandan government Republic of Rwanda, 2011. Rwanda Forest aspires to manage natural and planted Landscape Restoration Initiative. forest resources sustainably, to benefit its population socially, environmentally and Republic of Rwanda, 2010. National economically. To achieve this, the Forestry Policy government is raising awareness and mobilising engagement with Rwandan Republic of Rwanda, 2003. National stakeholders including Government Strategy and Action Plan for the agencies, civil society and the private sector, conservation of biodiversity in Rwanda and particularly local government and local communities, to manage and utilize the Republic of Rwanda, 2009. Sustainable forests sustainably, to contribute to national Tourism Development Master Plan for development. Rwanda – Final Report,” Project of the Republic of Rwanda and the United Nations References World Tourism Organization, May 2009.

BEST -Biomass Energy Strategy Rwanda, USAID, 2009. Rwanda economic growth 2008 2009

EDPRS - Economic Development and Poverty Reduction Strategy, 2007. Economic Development and Poverty Reduction Strategy, 2008-2012

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forests round about the estuary are now Opinion Piece replaced by the exotic mangrove nipa palms [Nypa fruticans] forests with only pockets of The last stand of mangrove forest native mangrove vegetation. The fear of the ecosystems in south eastern Nigeria authors is that, there may be crash in fish supply from the coastal waters of Nigeria in Mfon Udo1, Blessing Oribhabor2, the near future. In mangrove – fisheries Francis Nwosu3, Utibe Daniel 4 relationship, many species of commercially and Anthony Akpan5 important marine organisms seem to depend on mangroves for at least part of their life cycle while serving as a feeding and nursery grounds for coastal fish species. As one of Nigeria’s richest natural forest reserves, they also represent a rich source of wood supply for various domestic and industrial purposes. Summary The time to act is now and Fisheries Society of Standing on the abandoned jetty at Nigeria (FISON) must be pro-active in this Iwuochang / Upenekang fishing beach in coastal re-construction and re-habilitation. 1999 [Ibeno LGA, Akwa Ibom State] and Nigeria’s coastal water is a ‘food-basket’; looking across the Qua Iboe River [en-route much should be done to protect and jealously the Atlantic Ocean] were strips of luxuriant cherish it – else, it may be the last stand of mangrove forests [Rhizophora species] all mangrove forest ecosystems in the south around the estuary. Surprisingly, 12 years eastern Nigeria. later still standing on the same jetty and looking across the same River also, all the Introduction nternational discussions on forest 1 Mfon T. Udo PhD, Department of Fisheries and conservation have dedicated insufficient Aquaculture, Faculty of Agriculture, University of I attention to African mangrove forests. Uyo, PMB 1017,Akwa Ibom State, Nigeria. Email: Some of the reasons for concentrating on [email protected] Phone: +2348028901377 other types of forest ecosystems – 2 Blessing Oribhabor PhD, Department of Fisheries particularly tall inland tropical rainforests – and Aquaculture, Faculty of Agriculture, could be that these appear to have more University of Uyo, PMB 1017,Akwa Ibom State, Nigeria. economic value and to host higher levels of Email: [email protected] biodiversity than mangroves. Both Phone: +2348033558270 assumptions could be challenged (cf. 3 Francis Nwosu PhD, Institute of Oceanography, Carrere, 2009). The thought by Carrere is University of Calabar, PMB 1115, Calabar, Cross shared also by the authors based again on River State, Nigeria. the level of insufficient attention given to Email: [email protected] mangrove [Rhizophora species] forest Phone: +234 8038355564 succession in the coastal waters of Nigeria. 4 Utibe Daniel, Department of Animal and Environmental Biology, Faculty of Science, Mangroves and people’s livelihoods University of Port Harcourt, PMB 5323, Rivers State, Nigeria. Email: [email protected] Mangrove forests have a huge value for Phone: +234 8067303566 coastal communities that derive their 5 Prof. Anthony William Akpan, Deputy Vice livelihoods from them. Although commonly Chancellor, University of Uyo, Nigeria and defined as ‘poor’ in official statistics, Lecturer Dept of Zoology, Faculty of Natural communities living in healthy mangrove Science, University of Uyo, PMB 1017, Akwa Ibom areas have what many urban people lack: State, Nigeria. diverse and abundant food. Additionally, Email: [email protected] mangroves provide many of their needs, Phone: +2348023928256 usually complemented with other

productive activities such as farming, etc.

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Mangrove wood is a multi-purpose resource country has embarked on various foods for fish stakes, fish traps, boat building, security programs, not enough importance paddles, yam stakes, fencing, carvings, has been given to the aggressive potent building timber, fuel and many other uses succession of the mangrove forest (World Rainforest Movement, 2002). The ecosystems in the coastal waters. As a stake- importance of mangrove to local holder, Fisheries Society of Nigeria (FISON) communities becomes even clearer when has a part to play in this replacement they are degraded or disappear. Much more, scenario in Nigeria’s coastal food basket. they are of importance to fish and invertebrate nurseries, erosion control, and Historical background water quality control. Nigeria is a developing country with diverse water bodies (marine, brackish, fresh Factors driving the loss of mangrove waters). Its coastal ecosystems are besieged forests in south eastern Nigeria by crude oil explorations characterized by x Oil and Gas exploration and exploitation frequent oil spills, potent fishing [gas flaring in the mangrove ecosystem] activities/navigation, and the aggressive x Rapid Urbanization [reclamation of succession of the native mangrove forest mangrove forests for residential building & (Rhizophora) by alien palms (Nypa). for urban development] x Dredging Activities [dredging activities The estuaries of Qua Iboe River, Cross River, to create pipeline route through the Imo and Niger Delta along with their creeks vegetation dredged materials dumped on and tributaries comprise a rich collection of mangrove vegetation] biotopes dominated by vast areas of x Mangrove wood extraction by rural mangrove swamp forests. Mangrove swamp communities [mangrove logs for fuel forests provide nurseries and feeding economy], and grounds for commercially important species x Introduction of exotic plant species of fin and shell fishes. As one of Nigeria’s (Nypa Palm: Nypa fruticans). richest natural forest reserves, they also represent a rich source of wood supply for The continuing decline in fish catch poses a various domestic and industrial purposes grave threat to food security and results in (Ekundayo, 1985). The damaging effects of greater poverty and conflicts between oil pollution on mangrove ecology have been commercial and municipal fishers. A result documented in Nigeria and elsewhere of declining fish catch and increasing (Ekwekwe, 1981). Therefore, a potential population is also a decline in per capita source of pollution to the mangrove swamp consumption of food fish. The decline is forest of the Qua Iboe River, Cross River, much more pronounced in fishing Imo and Niger Delta, is the expanding off- communities that make consumption of fish shore oil activities in the region. It is possible for urban Consumers. This is necessary to be able to detect changes in because fishers tend to sell most valuable ecological features of the environment with fish for cash income as prices rise in the particular reference to the existing biota. cities, thus leaving only small and poorer quality fish for their own consumption. Apart from marsh land reclamation and pollution, an important man-induced The present paper suggests with affirmation environmental threat to the Nigerian coastal that, if population growth continues at its swamp ecosystem is the potent vegetational current rapid pace and nothing is done to succession involving the replacement of the arrest the overfishing and habitat dominant native mangrove macrophytes destruction patterns prevalent in the (Rhizophora mangle, R. harizonii, R, country’s coastal waters, there may occur a racemosa, Laguncularia racemosa and breakdown in supply of fish. While the Avicennia africana) (Wilcox, 1985; Udo et al ., 2008; Udo, 2009; Udo et al ., 2009).

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Consequently, most of the Niger Delta as situation and it is costing her now many well as those of Qua Iboe River, Cross River millions of Naira to combat this nuisance, and Imo, now have nipa palms in large and to see to what useful materials the weed expanse of the adjoining intertidal swamps itself can be converted Wilder( 1981 in and only isolated residual patches of the Adesulu and Syndenham, 2007). Nipa palm mangrove forests (King and Udo, 1997; Udo, is widespread. The population is dynamic 2002, 2004; Udo et al., 2009). Other than its and competitive in growth pattern. For use in its native Pacific Islands, nipa’s instance, there has been an estimated 24% presence in coastal waters of Nigeria is decline in mangrove areas within the becoming a nuisance and a digression from species’ range since 1980 the original aesthetic/ornamental objective. [http://www.iucnredlist.org/apps/redlist/d Nypa is also considered a menace to etails/178816/0]. In some parts of Africa navigators and an agent of erosion as small including Nigeria where it has been islands of it get dislodged from the coast and introduced, it has become invasive and is float into rivers (Wilcox, 1985). considered as a pest. Adaptively, this invasive species has shallow root system Management of mangrove forest that destabilizes the banks along the water Authors’ recent observations point to the ways, further impacting sediment facts that the last remnants and / or stands distribution lower in the south east of the of the mangrove forest ecosystems Niger Delta system. [southeast of the Niger Delta] are indeed in pockets, dotted round about the region. This Apart from impeding navigation, nipa palm is not a good omen for the development of decreases overall biodiversity including Nigerian fisheries sector, considering the shell and fin-fishes; it has no fertilizing importance of these estuarine mangrove attributes; lacks micro-habitats as provided forest niches to life histories of several fin by the prop-stem of the mangroves; it is also and shellfishes. a poor substrate for attachment of biota vis- à-vis the mangrove species [Udo, 2009]. The Resource management is a critical area of palm spread has replaced native mangrove research today, particularly in developing species, the Rhizophora in Nigeria countries where many people are reliant on [Kathiresan, 2004]; hence the Federal natural resources for their livelihood. Nipa Ministry of Environment of Nigeria has palm (Nypa fruticans) is an economically developed the ‘Nipa Palm Control and ecologically important mangrove Programmes’ to control the invasive species. species to people in the Pacific Islands. Nipa But the question is how pragmatic and commonly inhabits the swamplands in the successful is this programme as more of the upper reaches of estuaries throughout the so called protected areas have been potently Philippines and is often harvested and aggressively replaced by the invading and locally manufactured into shingles for nipa palms. roofing. Despite its economic importance, however, it has been under threat for As matter of urgency, the Nigerian sometime (Rivera and Newkirk, 1997). In Government should adopt and encourage some areas communities are under pressure traditional resource management practices to replace nipa with other land-use along with her ‘programmes’, as a way of activities. conserving the ecological resources of the region. Why, because the people may look at This present paper calls for a more result- formal protection as a threat to their right of oriented approach by the Federal access to their resources. It should not be Government to tackle this simple but imposed on them; they should be seen as degrading menace in the coastal waters east stake-holders to the resources in question. of the Niger. It is thought-provoking that the Therefore, the people should be enlightened Government has paid little attention to and encouraged to strengthen these

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practices for success and sustainable x Again, since its leaves are hardly shed, development of the area. they hardly decay. Thus, nipa palm contributes very little to the detritus food- Standing on the abandoned jetty at web. Iwuochang/Upenekang fishing beach in REFERENCES 1999 [Ibeno LGA, Akwa Ibom State, Nigeria] Adesulu, E. A. & D. H. J. Sydenham. 2007. and looking across the Qua Iboe River [en- The freshwater fishes and fisheries of route the Atlantic Ocean] were strips of Nigeria. Macmillan, Nigeria. 397p. luxuriant mangrove vegetation all around the estuary. Surprisingly, 12 years later still Ekundayo, J. A. 1985. The challenges of the standing on the same jetty and looking mangrove ecosystem. In: Mangrove across the River, all the vegetation round ecosystem of Niger Delta. Proceedings of a about are now replaced by nipa palms with workshop (ed. By B. H. R. Wilcox and C. B. pockets of mangrove stands. As research Powell). University of Port Harcourt, Port scientists in EIA/PIA studies (2004, 2008- Harcocurt, Nigeria. 357p. 2010) along the near-shore and offshore Ekwekwe, E.1981. The Funiwa – 5 Well zones of Cross, Imo and Qua Iboe estuaries, blowout.Petroleum industry and the we sadly noted that most of the forest creeks Nigerian Environment. Proceeding Int. and channels are now colonized by nipa Seminar. Pp 64 – 68. palms with few stands of mangrove macrophytes. The fear of the authors is that, Kathiresan, K., 2004. How to alleviate there may be crash in fish supply from the degradation of Mangroves? J. Environ. Biol., coastal waters of Nigeria in the near future. 25(4): 399 - 401. The time to act is now and FISON must be pro-active in this coastal re-construction King, R. P. & M. T. Udo 1997. Vegetational and rehabilitation. If action is not taken very succession – mediated spatial heterogeneity soon the last stand of mangrove forests in the environmental biology of southeast of the Niger delta and /or the Periophthalmus barbarus (Gobiidae) in the coastal food basket may disappear. Other estuary swamp of Imo River estuary, Nigeria than its use in its native Pacific Islands, Intern. J. Surf. Min Reclam. Envir., 11: 151 – nipa’s presence in coastal water ecosystems 154 of Nigeria is becoming a nuisance and a digression from the original King, R. P. & M. T. Udo 1997. Some aspects aesthetic/ornamental objective. of the reproductive biology of the endangered mudskipper, Periophthalmus Ecologically, in comparing the rich-resource barbarus (Gobiidae) in Imo River estuary, of the native mangrove forests vis-à-vis those Nigeria Trans. Nig. Soc. Conserv., 5: 50-53. of the nipa: Red List of Threatened Species x Nipa palm limits human accessibility to http://www.iucnredlist.org/apps/redlist/de the tidal mudflats, due to its prostrate tails/178816/0] underground stem, luxuriant foliage and Rivera, R. & G. F. Newkirk (1997). Power aggregate / clumped distribution. to the people: a documentation of x The presence of nipa palm exacerbates nongovernmental organizations' experience coastal erosion as small islands of it are often in community-based coastal resource dislodged from the coast and float into the management in the Philippines. Ocean and open rivers, creeks and estuaries causing Coastal Management 36(1-3): 73-95. navigational hazards to all forms of water crafts and destroying set gill nets. Udo, M. T. 2002. Trophic attributes of the x Nipa palm also contributes very little to mudskipper, Periophthalmus barbarus the energy inputs, nutrient cycle and (Gobiidae: productivity of the intertidal ecosystem.

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Oxudercinae) in Imo River estuary, Nigeria J. southeastern Nigeria. Ecol. Env. & Cons. 15 Env. Sciences, (China). Vol. 14, No. 4: 508 – (3): 455 – 460. 517. Udo, M. T. 2009. Biological characteristics Udo, M. T. , A.W . Akpan & A. O. Ekwu. of the Schlegel’s goby, Porogobius schlegelii, 2008. Observations of the indices of in the Mangrove – Nipa ecosystem, fecundity of the mudskipper, southeast of the Niger Delta. FAO – Nature & Periophthalmus barbarus (Gobiidae) in the Faunae, 24 (1): 110 – 115. Qua Iboe River estuary Southeastern Nigeria. Ecol. Env. 7 Cons. 14 (2-3): 255-262 Wilcox, B, H. R. 1985. Angiosperm flora of

the Niger Delta. p 34 – 55. In: The mangrove Udo, M. T., A. W. Akpan, I. E. Ekpo, M. ecosystem of the Niger Delta (Wilcox B. H. R. Essien-Ibok & P. E. Lebo. 2008. Changes in and Powell, C.B. eds). Publication. the trophic attributes of the altantic Committem University of Port Harcourt. mudskipper, Periophthalmus barbarus 357p. (Gobiidae) between a mangrove and nipa

swamp creek of Qua Iboe River estuary, World Rainforest Movement – Nigeria. Nigerian Journal of Fisheries 5 (92) Mangroves. Local livelihoods vs. corporate 89- 96. profits, 2002.

http://www.wrm.org.uy/deforestation/man Udo, M. T., A. W. Akpan, B. J. Oribhabor & groves/book.pdf U. I. Daniel. 2009. Fecundity capacity of the mudskipper in two estuarine (mangrove swamp versus nipa swamp) creeks of

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benefits such as leisure, sequestration of Articles carbon dioxide and spiritual healing. The plantation forests therefore make significant Socio-economic and environmental contribution to the livelihoods of rural significance of plantation forests people and to the country’s economy. It is in South Africa for this reason that sustainable management of plantation forests becomes imperative so Rudzani Makhado1 and Amani Saidi2 that the communities could continuously enjoy the benefits that are directly or indirectly derived from forests.

Contribution of plantation forests to the society livelihood Summary The majority of plantation forests in South In celebration of the year 2011 as the Africa are located adjacent to rural International Year of Forests, we have communities, where more than 75% of reviewed various reports and scientific people are poor. This provides a major articles that demonstrate the significance of reason for this review, so that we can assess plantation forests to the livelihoods of society. the contribution of plantations forests to the We found that plantation forests play a wellbeing of society, particularly in rural significant role through creation of areas. FAO (2001) report shows that forest employment, contribution to food security and tree resources help reduce poverty and and provide diverse free environmental contribute to rural food security. Forest services. The main objective of this review is resources are therefore essential in the to raise awareness about the value of forests, sense that they supply basic needs and act as challenges in plantation forests and to share safety-net (DWAF 2005). The society at knowledge that could promote sustainable large benefits directly through employment forest management for the benefit of current opportunities, access to grazing, supply of and future generations. firewood, harvesting of non-wood products; and indirectly through sequestration of CO2 Introduction (a greenhouse gas linked to climate change), lantation forests cover as little as 1 and leisure activities. Forestry employment, 266 196 hectares (1%) of the total collection and sale of forest products and P 122.1 million hectare land area of small forest-based enterprises provide South Africa (DWAF 2008), but play a income which is important for meeting central role to the livelihoods of a significant household needs and for rural investment proportion of society. The sector employs (FAO 1997; Shackleton 2004; FAO 2009). thousands of people countrywide. Communities adjacent to plantation forests Direct contribution of plantation forests benefit through harvesting wood and non- Direct benefits from forestry include wood products. They also enjoy indirect employment creation, contribution to the GDP and various products harvested for 1 Rudzani A Makhado, Research and Evaluation subsistence and commercial purposes. Section, Limpopo Legislature, P/Bag X9309, Those benefits are discussed as follows: Polokwane, 0700 South Africa. Email: [email protected] / Economic benefits [email protected] Direct economic benefits are through creation and sustaining of jobs and 2 Amani T Saidi, South African Environmental contribution to the Gross Domestic Observation Network, National Research Foundation, P.O Box 2600, Pretoria, 0001 South Africa

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Product (GDP). Various studies show that and Limpopo Provinces contributed 34,700 the creation of employment and business (45%), 29,300 (38%), 10,300 (13.4%) and opportunities within the forestry sector is 2,700 (3.6%) respectively to the total 77,000 probably the most significant contribution direct jobs contributed by forestry sector in that forestry could make towards provision 2008. The total estimated indirect jobs of household food security and upliftment of created by the forestry industry amounted rural people’s livelihoods (FAO 1997; DWAF to 462,000 in 2008 and 371,000 in 2009. 2005; Ofoegbu 2010). The level of Most of the indirect jobs in 2008 were employment in the forestry sector is thus an created in the Kwazulu-Natal (208,200), indicator of both the social and economic followed by Mpumalanga (175,800), Cape value of the sector to the society (DWAF (61,800) and lastly Limpopo (16,200). The 1997; FAO 2010). total number of direct and indirect dependents to those working in the forestry It was estimated in 2006 that the forestry industry was estimated to be 1.7 million in sector contributed to about 116 000 2008, which decreased to 1.4 million in employment, which is 0.5% of the total 2009. Similarly, the total number of people labour force in South Africa (FAO 2009). who depend on forestry for their livelihood However, recent estimates shows that the was estimated to be 2.3 million in 2008 total number of people employed in the (Godsmark 2009; Godsmark 2010). forestry sector amounted to 170,025 in 2008, which decreased to 169,700 in 2009 The total GDP in South Africa amounted to (See Table 1 below culled from Godsmark R2,3 trillion in 2009. The forestry sector 2009; Godsmark 2010). Various factors contributed immensely to the GDP, might have contributed to the decrease in expressed through increase contribution to employment, but the global economic the total GDP. The contribution of forestry recession which affected the industry sector to the total GDP has shown to market is considered as the primariy cause increase from 4.5% in 1980 to 9.7% in the of decline in employment rate in the forestry year 2009 (Godsmark 2010). sector. Wood and non-wood products The employment rate in the forestry sector Rural communities adjacent to forest varies significantly at provincial level. For plantations harvest wood and non-wood instance, Kwazulu-Natal, Mpumalanga, Cape

Table 1: Employment contribution from forestry sector (Godsmark 2008; Godsmark 2009; Godsmark 2010)

Number of Employees Total Employment

Direct Sub-sector 2008 2009 2008 2009 2008 2009 Forestry 76,844 66,500 30,000 30,000 106,844 96,500 Pulp and Paper 13,200 13,200 10,781 10,800 23,981 24,000 Sawmilling 20,000 20,000 n/a 10,000 20,000 30,000 Timber Board 6,000 6,000 n/a n/a 6,000 6,000 Mining Timber 2,000 2,200 n/a n/a 2,000 2,200 Other 11,000 11,000 n/a n/a 11,000 11,000 TOTAL 129,244 118,900 40,781 50,800 170,025 169,700

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products for subsistence and commercial 2001), and sequestration of carbon dioxide purposes. Wood products harvested include (CO2) (Christie & Scholes 1995). fuelwood and poles used for construction (DWAF 2005). Fuelwood for instance Plantation forests provide habitat for accounts to about 80% of household energy diverse number of insects, birds and requirements in rural areas (DWAF 2009- animals. The forests also play a significant 2030), and thus accounts for close to 10% of role in climate change mitigation due to net national energy consumption (DWAF their ability to sequestrate CO2. It is 1997). It is estimated that each year, the estimated that plantation forests in South average rural household uses 5.3 tonnes of Africa has the potential to stock about 4.41 fuelwood for cooking and heating (DWAF million Mg C yr-1 (Shackleton et al., 2002), 2007). However, at a national scale, Gandar which compares well with estimate of 3.69 (1994) estimated that 11 million tonnes of million Mg C yr-1 by Christie and Scholes fuelwood are consumed in South Africa per (1995). Chamberlain et al. (2005) estimated annum. that carbon sequestration by plantation forests can reduce environmental costs of Non-wood products harvested from forests the industry by R89 million. It is further include thatch grasses, medicines, bushmeat, predicted that in the future, plantation honey, edible mushrooms, fruits, vegetables forest will be managed as much as carbon and insects (DWAF 2005; Ofoegbu 2010; they store as for their timber yield (Scholes FAO 2009). It is estimated that 27 million & Scholes 2000). people in South Africa rely on medicinal plants for health care (DWAF 2007). This Social benefits dependency on medicinal plants applies to Forests provide beautiful sites for tourism, more than half of the population in South recreation, spiritual healing, leisure and Africa. In addition, communities adjacent to religious practices (FAO 1997; Shackleton plantations also harvest non-wood products 2004). The beauty of the forest, species in for both subsistence and commercial the forest and waterfalls provide invaluable purposes. social benefit to many people. The sector is also crucial for educational purpose, as it Indirect contribution of plantation attracts local and international students to forests do their forestry research. The contribution of forests to the wellbeing of the society cannot only be measured in Free access right to farm and grazing monetary terms; there are significant land indirect benefits such as environmental Many plantations in South Africa provide benefits, social benefits, and free access free grazing for livestock from the rights to farm and graze in the plantations, surrounding communities. Communities which are equally important (DWAF 2007). around Mondi forests for instance have free The indirect benefits are discussed as access to farmland and grazing land. The follows: abundance of open grassland in Mondi forest was found to be of value to the Environmental benefits villagers for rearing their cattle (Ofoegbu The environmental services provided by 2010). forests are seldom fully valued or adequately reflected in forest planning and Challenges in plantation forests management decisions (FAO 1997). Despite all the benefits, the productivity of Environmental services as provided by the sector is mainly destroyed by fires and forests are currently receiving increasing other factors such as climatic factors, insects attention on climate change mitigation and diseases. Of the total 77 150 hectares of debates. Such services include biodiversity plantations destroyed by fires, conservation, watershed protection (FAO

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weather, diseases, insects and animals in the Conclusion 2007/2008 surveys; 70 812 hectares (92%) Despite the challenges facing forest were destroyed by fire alone (Table 2). plantations, the industry contributes Softwood species (e.g. Pine) are mostly immensely to the social, economic and destroyed by fires as opposed to the environmental needs of the society, hardwood species (e.g. Wattle). Out of the particularly the rural poor. The sector total 70 812 hectares destroyed by fire, contributes significantly to the country’s 58 564 hectares (83%) were softwood GDP and employment opportunities. It also species, while 12 248 hectares (17%) were contributes to the surrounding hardwood species (Table 2). communities’ livelihood through the supply of various wood and non-wood products. Plantation forests are also seen as threat to Plantation forests are therefore ideally biodiversity and water resources (Cossalter located to contribute to rural development & Pye-Smith 2003). Evidence suggests that and poverty eradication in rural areas. The replacing natural species by non-native opportunity of the sector to increase its species in plantation forests results in potential is still great, but as also proposed monoculture, reduce stream flow and by FAO (2001); the challenge currently is to increase loss of biodiversity. Various studies support specific changes that will lead to a further suggests that plantation forests greater role for the sector to adequately consume more water than indigenous support the livelihoods for the poor. This species they replace (e.g. Gush & Dye 2008). therefore means that communities adjacent Research findings show that indigenous tree to plantations, foresters and decision annual cumulative sap flows are less than makers should work together to promote 8.5 t tree-1 yr-1, whereas sap flows in sustainable forest management practices so plantation forests exceeded 20 t tree-1 yr-1 as to ensure that the full potentials that (Gush & Dye 2008). A study which was plantation forests can contribute are based on decision support system realised. adjustment for all rainfall areas estimated that plantation forests use about 400 million References m3 of water per year (Schulze et al. 2004). Chamberlain, D., Essop, H, Hougaard, C, Although there is general consensus that Malherbe, S. & Walker, R. 2005. Part I: plantation forests use more water than The contribution, costs and development indigenous trees, more research studies are opportunities of the Forestry, Timber, Pulp still needed to reduce uncertainties with and Paper industries in South Africa. regard to the amount of water being used. Johannesburg: Genesis Analytics (Pty) Ltd.

Table 2: Damage to plantations in South Africa. Data source: DWAF (2009)

Animals Total Fires Weather Diseases Insects & Area (ha) (ha) (ha) (ha) Rodents Damaged (ha) (ha) Softwood 58 564 448 54 71 931 60 068 Hardwood 12 248 3 569 88 1 015 162 17 082 TOTAL 70 812 4 016 142 1 086 1 094 77 150

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Christie, S.I. & Scholes, R.J. 1995. Carbon FAO. 2009. State of the World’s Forests. Food storage in Eucalyptus and pine plantations and Agriculture Organization of the United in South Africa. Environmental Monitoring Nations, Rome, Italy. and Assessment 38: 231-241. FAO. 2010. Global Forest Resources Assessment 2010. FAO Forestry Paper 163, Cossalter, C. & Pye-Smith, C. 2003. Fast- Food and Agriculture Organization of the wood forestry: Myth and realities. Joint United Nations, Rome, Italy. venture project between CIFOR, WWf Gandar, M. 1994. Afforestation and International IUCN and Forest Trends, woodland management in South Africa. South Bogor, Indonesia. African Energy Policy Research and Training Project: Widening Access to basic Energy DWAF. 1997. South Africa’s Forestry Action Services for the Urban and Rural Poor, Paper Programme. National Forestry Action Number 9. Energy for Development Programme (NFAP), Department of Water Research Centre: University of Cape Town. Affairs and Forestry (DWAF), Pretoria. Godsmark, R. 2008. The South African DWAF. 2005. Pilot State of Forest Report: A forestry and forest products industry 2007. Pilot Report to Test the National Criteria and Forestry South Africa, South Africa. [Online]. Indicators. Department of Water Affairs and Retrieved from: http://www.forestry.co.za Forestry (DWAF), Pretoria. [2009, September 22].

DWAF. 2007. Report to Parliament on South Godsmark, R. 2009. The South African Africa’s Forests 2004 - 2006. Department of forestry and forest products industry 2008. Water Affairs and Forestry (DWAF), Forestry South Africa, South Africa. Republic of South Africa. http://www.forestry.co.za [2010, February 16]. DWAF. 2008. Report on commercial timber resources and primary roundwood processing Godsmark, R. 2010. The South African in South Africa. Department of Water Affairs forestry and forest products industry 2009. and Forestry (DWAF), Pretoria, Republic of Forestry South Africa, South Africa. South Africa. http://www.forestry.co.za [2011, January 17]. DWAF. 2009. Report on commercial timber resources and primary roundwood processing Gush, M.B & Dye, P.J. 2008. Water-use in South Africa. Department of Water Affairs efficiency within a selection of indigenous and Forestry (DWAF), Pretoria, Republic of and exotic tree species in South Africa as South Africa. determined using sap flow and biomass measurements. CSIR Report, DWAF. 2009-2030. Forestry 2030 Road Pretoria.Ofoegbu, C. 2010. An evaluation of Map. Department of Water Affairs and the socio-economic impact of timber Forestry (DWAF), Pretoria. production with and without the inclusion of biomass energy production. (Published MSc FAO. 1997. State of World’s Forests. Food dissertation). Stellenbosch University, and Agriculture Organization of the United Stellenbosch. Nations, Rome, Italy. Scholes, R.J. & Scholes, M.C. 2000. Climate FAO. 2001. How forests can reduce poverty. change and carbon storage. In South African Food and Agriculture Organization of the Forestry Handbook, edited by J.S.B. Scotcher. United Nations (FAO) and the Department Pretoria: South African Institute of Forestry. for International Development, Rome, Italy. pp. 577-578.

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Schulze, R.E., Summerton, M.J, Meier, K.B, values of woody land resources: Methods and Pike, A. & Lynch, S.D. 2004. The ACRUforest Results from South Africa, edited by R.M. Decision Support System to assess Hassan. University of Pretoria: Centre for hydrological impacts of afforestation Environmental Economics and Policy in practices in South Africa. Report Africa (CEEPA). commissioned by the Water Research Commission. 749/1/04: 138-149. Shackleton, C.M. 2004. Assessment of livelihoods importance of forestry, forests and Shackleton, C., Hassan, R.M, de Wit, M, forest products in South Africa. Shackleton, S. & Beukman, R. 2002. Grahamstown: Rhodes University. Natural woodland and forests: Contribution to the national income and economic welfare. In Accounting for stock and flows

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A review of the significance of non- regularly or as a fall back during times of timber forest products to rural need (Barrett et al., 2002; Charlie and livelihoods in Nigeria Sheona, 2004).

Folaranmi Dapo Babalola1 Significance of Non-Timber Forest Products in Rural Livelihoods Several opportunities for improved rural development are linked to NTFPs (FAO, 1995). Their use provides many opportunities for pro-poor forest activities, Introduction which can complement and strengthen key ncreasing global concern about components of livelihoods and poverty environmental issues, especially reduction strategies (Arnold, 1996). I deforestation, with increased attention Activities related to the use of NTFPs are to rural poverty, and with the emergence of often attractive to resource-poor people. the concept of “sustainable development” Despite the fact that these activities are brought non-timber forest products (NTFPs) characteristically labour intensive, they into limelight (Belcher et al., 2005). This generally have low technical entry attention coincided with new commitments requirements, they can provide instant cash to address rural poverty and the recognition in times of need and the resource is often that forests can provide multiple products freely accessible (Neumann and Hirsch, and services. Forest products, especially 2000). NTFPs were given a high profile by researchers at this time because of the Charlie and Sheona (2004) discovered that perception that forest exploitation for more than 85% of the rural households in products other than timber is more South Africa used forest products such as harmless. fuel wood, wooden utensils, edible fruits, and edible leaves or roots including wild The term “Forest product” almost spinach. Furthermore, more than half of the immediately brings to mind wood and households investigated made use of wood wood-based products, but there are equally for construction, edible insects, bushmeat important non-timber products (NTFPs) and wild honey for food, and reeds for that are procured from the forest (FAO, weaving. In whatever form consumed, food 1993). NTFPs can be referred to as all non- from the forest often play a significant role wood products extracted from forest in supplementing regular household food, ecosystem and utilised within the household particularly during the period of scarcity, or marketed, and which have social, cultural when the previous year’s crops are or religious significance (FAO, 1990; exhausted and the new crops are yet to Chandrasekharan, 1992). NTFPs are mature. generally components of the forest system

which exist in nature and they are generally not cultivated, although most of them are Many products of both plant and animal now undergoing management and origin are consumed either directly as food domestication (Adepoju and Salau, 2007). or as supplements to other food products NFTPs may be harvested for both (Jimoh, 2006). Some are eaten raw, without subsistence and commercial use either prior cooking, boiling or processing, while others can only be consumed after

1 processing. Through their consumption, Folaranmi Dapo Babalola, PhD (Forest NTFPs have many curative roles for Economics and Management), University of nutrition problems (Table 1). Ibadan, Nigeria Email: [email protected] Telephone: +234-8025487802

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Table 1: Some common nutritional problems and the potential curative roles of Non-Timber Forest Products Nutrient-related problems NTFPs with potential for combatting deficiencies Protein-Energy malnutrition: Energy-rich NTFP which is available during seasonal or due to inadequate food emergency food shortages, especially, nuts, seeds, oil-rich consumption causing reduced fruit and tubers; e.g. the seeds of Geoffroea decorticans, growth, susceptibility to infection, Ricinodendron rautanenil, and Parkia sp.; oil of Elaes changes in skin hair and mental guineensis, babassu and coconut palms; protein-rich leaves facility. such as baobab (Adansonia digitata); as well as wild animals (e.g. snails) including insects and larvae.

Forest leaves and fruit are often good sources of Vitamin A; Vitamin A deficiency: e.g. leaves of Pterocarpus sp., Moringa oleifera, Adansonia in extreme cases causes blindness digitata, the gum of Sterculia sp., palm oil of Elaes guineensis, and death; responsible for bee larvae and other animal food; in addition fats and oils blindness of 250,000 are needed for the synthesis of Vitamin A. children/year. Wild animals including insects such as tree ants, mushrooms (often consumed as meat substitutes), as well Iron deficiency: as forest leaves such as Leptadenia hastata, Adansonia in severe cases causes anaemia, digitata. weakness and susceptibility to disease; especially women and children. Forest fruits and leaves rich in niacin such as Adansonia Niacin deficiency: digitata, fruit of Boscia senegalensis and Momordica common in areas with a maize balsamina, seeds of Parkia sp., Irvingia gabonensis and staple diet; can cause dementia, Acacia albida. diarrhoea, and dermatitis. Forest leaves are especially high in riboflavin, notably Riboflavin deficiency: Anacardium sp., Sesbania grandiflora, and Cassia obtusifolia, common throughout southeast as well as wild animals, especially insects. Asia; among those with rice diets causes skin problems. Forest fruit and leaves often supply the bulk of Vitamin C Vitamin C deficiency: common to consumed, especially good sources include fruit of Ziziphus those consuming monotonous mauritiana, Adansonia digitata and Sclerocarya caffra, diets; increases susceptibility to leaves such as Cassia obtusifolia, and the gum of Sterculia disease, weakness. sp., are also good sources of this vitamin. Source: Falconer and Arnold, 1988

Dominic (2002) found that in Ghana more City), traditional healers are officially than 80% of the population uses medicinal recognized, and the ratio of medical doctors plants from the wild, while over 90% of the to traditional healers is estimated to be 1:92 rural and over 40% of the urban populations and 1:149, respectively. in Nigeria depended on traditional medicine based on the use of NTFPs. The importance Rural householders may rely on household of traditional medicine is also highlighted by income from the collection and marketing of the number of traditional healers as NTFPs during given seasons when other opposed to that of western-trained medical income is low (Babalola and Agbeja, 2008). doctors in many countries in Africa. In Where employment opportunities from Ghana (Kwahu District) and Nigeria (Benin traditional industries are declining, workers

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looking for alternative income sources often commercialization. Organization into groups turn to collection of these products from may give women the opportunity to share nearby forests (Adepoju and Salau, 2007). A experiences related to NTFPs in the areas of study in the tropical rainforests of Southern nutrition and health and, in some cases, may Cameroon revealed that local communities help provide access to credit for related rely heavily on the collection and marketing activities (Marshall, et. al., 2006). of forest products for their subsistence. More than 500 plant species and 280 animal Conclusion species were found to be used in one way or The contributions of NTFPs to sustenance of another, with about 20 NTFPs sold in the rural livelihoods cannot be underestimated. local markets and contributing significantly There is need for sustainable production and to the income of rural people (van Dijk, exploitation of these products; this should 1999). The individual contribution of each be coupled with appropriate diversification NTFP may be little but collectively they of their processing and use to meet new and contribute significantly to the rural economy increasing demands. Present high levels of and can add to national export revenues. In deforestation and forest degradation has a study on socio-economic importance of direct negative impacts on the production of some selected NTFPs in South-West Nigeria, many NTFPs and should be curbed. The marketing of non-timber forest products sustainable production from the wild of served as a major source of income and NTFPs for both household use and for employment to the stakeholders along the marketing and commercialization should be marketing chain (Babalola, 2011). Falconer promoted, and the cultivation and (1990), in a survey of some selected villages domestication of important products should in the high forest zone of Southern Ghana, be intensified. found that individuals from 68% of the households surveyed were employed in References small-scale forest-based industries. Arnold, J. E. M. & Ruiz Perez, M. 2001: Can Even where quantity of forest products- Non-Timber forest products match tropical based employment is low, they often forest conservation and development account for a high proportion of overall non- objectives? Ecological Economics 39: 437- farm employment. Forest-based activities 447. often depend on season of farming, labour wage as well as fluctuations in the Arnold, J.E.M 1996: Economic factors in availability of labour. Outside employment farmer adoption of forest product activities. often declines at the peak of farming In Leaky, R.R.B., Temu, A.B., Melynyk, M. and activities or are sometime deliberately Vantomme, P. (eds) Domestication and scheduled so that it is available during commercialisation of Non-Timber forest periods when there is a slack in agricultural products in agroforestry systems. work. At times, it is governed by seasonally Proceedings of an international conference induced cash needs such as the need for held in Nairobi, Kenya 19-23 january 1996. families to pay school fees, to have cash for Non-wood forest products. FAO, Rome. 131 traditional or religious festivals or to p. procure food during "the hungry season" (Jimoh, 2006). Babalola, F.D. and Agbeja, B.O. (2008): The availability and use of NTFPs are Potentials of multipurpose trees producing especially important to women in many non-timber forest products (NTFPs) on developing countries (Gbadebo and Gloria, farmland in Southwestern States of Nigeria. 1999). In addition to their importance in Nigeria Journal of Forestry Vol. 38 (1):49-56 safeguarding family welfare (food, medicine etc), NTFPs can help generate income to Babalola, F.D., 2011. Socio-economic women through marketing and contributions of Selected Non-Timber Forest

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Products (NTFPs) to rural economy in Forest in the West. African Humid Forest South-West Nigeria. A PhD thesis. University Zone. Community Forestry Note 6. Food and of Ibadan, Nigeria. 183 pp Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, FAO, Rome. Barrett, C.B., Reardon, T. and Webb, P 2002: Nonfarm Income Diversification and FAO, 1993. Non-Wood Forest Products - A Household Livelihood Strategies in Rural Regional Expert Consultation for English- Africa: Concepts, Dynamics, and Policy Speaking African Countries. Organized by Implications. Cornell University, Ithaca, NY Commonwealth Science Council 14853–7801 USA and Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) In co-operation Belcher, B., Rui´Z-Pe´Rez, M., Achdiawan, with Ministry of Tourism, Natural Resources A. 2005. Global Patterns and Trends in the and Environment, Tanzania Series Number Use and Management of Commercial NTFP: CSC(94)AGR-21. Technical Paper 306. FAO Implications for Livelihoods and Rome. 39pp Conservation World Development Vol. 33, No. 9, pp. 1435–1452, 2005 FAO, 1995. Non-wood Forest Products for doi:10.1016/j.worlddev.2004.10.007 Rural Income and Sustainable Forestry. Non- wood Forest Products 7. Food and Chandrasekharan, C. 1992. Terminology, Agriculture Organization of the United Definition and Classification of Forest Nations, FAO, Rome. 138 pp. ISBN 103756. Products Other Than Wood. Available at Available online at www.fao.org/docrep/V7540e/V7540e28.ht http://www.fao.org/docrep/V9480E/V948 m 0E00.htm. Accessed on 11/07/2010

Charlie, S. and Sheona S., 2004. The Gbadebo J.O and Gloria, U., 1999. The Non- Importance of Non-Timber Forest Products in Wood Forest Products of Nigeria. A report Rural Livelihood Security and as Safety Nets: produced as output of the EC-FAO A Review of Evidence From South Africa. In: partnership programme (1998-2000) - South Africa Journal of Science 100 Nov/Dec project gcp/int/679/ec 2004. Pg 58-664. Jimoh, S.O., 2006. Sustaining the Roles of Dominic, B. 2002. Tropical secondary forest Non-Timber Forest Products in Rural management in humid Africa: Reality and Poverty-Reduction and Household Food perspectives. An introductory paper for the Security in Nigeria. Journal of Fisheries FAO/ECLNV/GTZ Workshop on tropical International 1: (2-4): 63-69. Available secondary forest management in Africa: online at Reality and perspectives. In collaboration http://www.scialert.net/pdfs/jfi/2006/63- with ICRAF and CIFOR Nairobi, Kenya, 9-13 69.pdf. December 2002 Falconer, J. and Arnold, J.E.M., 1988. Leakey, R.R.B., and Newton, A.C., eds. Forests, trees and household food security. 1994. Domestication of tropical trees for Social Forestry Network Paper 7a. London, timber and non-timber products. MAB Digest Overseas Development Institute. 17. UNESCO, Paris.

Falconer, J., 1990. Hungry season food from Marshall, E., Schreckenberg, K. and the forests. Unasylva, 41: 14-19. Newton, A.C. (eds) 2006. FAO, 1990. The Major Significance of “Minor Commercialization of Non-Timber Forest Forest Product. The Local Use and Value of Products: Factors Influencing Success.

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Lessons Learned from Mexico and Bolivia and ublication/publication/723.html Policy Implications for Decision-makers. UNEP World Conservation Monitoring Sheil, D., and S. Wunder. 2002. The value of Centre, Cambridge, UK. 140 pp. Pdf version tropical forest to local communities: available at www.unep- complications, caveats and cautions. wcmc.org/forest/ntfp. Accessed Conservation Ecology 6 (2): 9. [online] 08/10/2007 http://www.consecol.org/vol6/iss2/art9. Accessed 08/09/2006 Neumann, R. P. and Hirsch, E. 2000. Commercialisation of Non-Timber Forest van Dijk, J., 1999. Non-Timber forest Products: Review and Analysis of Research. products in the bipindi akom region Center for International Forestry Research Cameroon. A socio-economic and ecological (CIFOR). Bogor, Indonesia. 1796 pp. assessment. Press Release Tropenbos, Accessible online at: Wageningen, p. 7. http://www.cifor.cgiar.org/nc/online- library/browse/view-

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The role of social capital in crises or challenges and opportunities that strengthening community based confront it. As complimenting approach to natural resource management in fortress conservation, community based Zambia natural resource management (CBNRM) stresses conservation of nature, wealth Vincent Nyirenda1 and Wilbroad Chansa2 creation and devolution of power to local communities (Anderson, 2002). Against the backdrop of the daunting tasks of setting conditions for implementation of CBNRM, three decades of implementation has resulted in serious uncertainties to Summary stakeholders on its impacts (Berkes, 2004; This paper provides framework for Fabricius, 2004; Blaikie, 2006). For instance, progression of local community participation high rates of deforestation, wildlife in natural resources management in Zambia. resources depletion and over-exploitation of It discusses major challenges and fish resources remain a significant challenge opportunities manifested in the past three (GRZ, 2011). Under such geographically decades of community based natural resource attributed circumstances, the role of management and further highlights need for community conservation has been rethinking implementation of effective questioned. natural resource management. Semi- structured questionnaires were administered In order to explore the issues, a study was to randomly selected members of local undertaken to understand the influence of communities in Luangwa Valley, eastern selected social capital elements of local Zambia. The study concludes that social communities on natural resource stocks have fluctuated and currently reached management. Social capital includes features growth stage, which requires maintaining such as trust, norms, commitment, through improved systems development, reciprocity, sanctions, infractions, connectedness and individual benefits at base connectedness and networks that facilitate levels for effective natural resource collective action (Pretty, 2003). The study management. focuses on institutional perspectives, which included social networks and institutions, Introduction participation, levels of trust, institutional he reality of natural resource learning, equity and information sharing. (including forests) management in TZambia is expressed by disturbances, Materials and methods Qualitative field research was adopted to 1 Vincent R. Nyirenda, Executive & Technical establish relationships between concepts Assistant, Office of the Director General, Zambia and themes using population sample of 311 Wildlife Authority, Private Bag 1, Chilanga, respondents based on Strauss & Corbin Zambia; Tel: +260 211 278 683, Cell: +260 977 (1998). Field data in Lupande Game 352 035, Fax: +260 211 278 524 Management Area (4, 840 km2) in Luangwa Email: [email protected] Valley, eastern Zambia (Fig. 1) was collected Email: [email protected] between August 2008 and December, 2010

with the help of six field assistants. Generic 2 Wilbroad C. Chansa, Director of Research, semi-structured questionnaires were Planning, Information and Veterinary Services, Zambia Wildlife Authority, Private Bag 1, administered to respondents, and focus Chilanga, Zambia; Telfax: +260 211 278 355, Cell: group interviews were also conducted to +260 975 062 301 seven (7) interest groups in accordance with Email: [email protected] protocols suggested by Düvel (1987) and

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Bradburn et al. (2004). Respondents were same key questions were administered to requested to each of the respondents, with historical rank (0 – 10; 0 being lowest and 10 highest) perspective of issues under discussion in the social capital stocks over years. The English or vernacular.

Congo DR

Malawi Angola

Lusaka

Zimbabwe

Lumimba GMA

Fig. 1: Lupande Game Management Area in Luangwa Valley of eastern Zambia.

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The study area has 7 designated forests and have dwindled over the two generations of adjoins a rich biodiversity National Park the CBNRM due to weak leadership. (Fig. 1). It is also a birthplace of CBNRM Institutional learning (Indicator 4) has programme in Zambia (Lewis et al. 1990), escalated and spanned over generations of aimed at protecting natural resources and CBNRM largely because of intensive maximising benefits to local communities. In extension works, proliferation of community the first CBNRM generation (1984-1999), based projects, increased social networks social capital is legitimized by partial and communities’ adoption to own controls devolution of authority and power to the over natural resources utilization of benefits local communities. The second CBNRM from fisheries, water, grass, forest resources generation (2000-2010) aims at furtherance and crafted culture based enterprises of empowering local communities. There are coupled with local conflict resolution six Chiefdoms: Jumbe, Kakumbi, Malama, mechanisms. Equity sharing (Indicator 5) Mnkhanya, Msoro and Nsefu, which are has improved particularly due to inhabited by the Kunda tribe with an implementation of benefit sharing rules, estimated total population of 45,000 locally developed and adopted. Sharing of inhabitants. Agriculture is the mainstay of information and understanding of social – the people in the Luangwa Valley, as a ecological system progressed as various source of revenue and food (Dalal-Clayton & actors such as Wildlife Agency (Zambia Child, 2003; Lewis, 2007). Other key Wildlife Authority), Wildlife Conservation landuses are safari hunting and timber Society (WCS), World Wide Fund for Nature harvesting. Conservation (WWF) and South Luangwa Conservation Society facilitated various Results and discussion conservation initiatives in Luangwa Valley. Local community perception is reflected in respondents (n=311) revealing various perceived stock levels of social capital from pre-colonial era to contemporary times in the Luangwa Valley, Zambia. Illustratively, with the aid of selected indicators, Table 1 evinces that social capital has significantly been increasing between generations of programmatic CBNRM (Mann-Whitney U(311,311) test =31,314.7; P<0.003, two-tailed). The significant improvement in social capital is attributed by preponderance of respondents (89.71%, n=279). Traditional social networks (Indicator 1) are reinforced by kinships and clans, cultural groups, village action groups, timber and fish associations. Participation (Indicator 2) by local communities has increased in all six Chiefdoms, except for Nsefu Chiefdom due to adoption of transparency and accountability principles reflected in, for instance, regularity of meetings and communication. However, leadership capacity, palliative engagement, empowering and facilitation by Wildlife Agency pursuit to formations of local institutions need strengthening. Levels of trust (Indicator 3) by local communities, action groups and external organizations

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Table 1: Perception of local communities on social capital in Luangwa Valley, Zambia, 1999 – 2009. Mann-Whitney Kakumbi Malama Mnkhanya Msoro Nsefu U test (two Jumbe Chiefdom All Six All Six Chiefdom Chiefdom Chiefdom Chiefdom Chiefdom tailed) Chiefdoms Chiefdoms Indicator Indicator 1999 2009 1999 2009 1999 2009 1999 2009 1999 2009 1999 2009 1999 2009

1 M=6 M=6 M=7 M=6 M=7 M=7 M=7 M=5 M=7 M=6 M=7 M=5 M=7 M=6 U(311,311) = R=(2,7) R=(4,7) R=(1,8) R=(2,6) R=(4,9) R=(3,8) R=(5,7) R=(4,6) R=(4,7) R=(5,9) R=(4,8) R=(5,8) R=(1,9) R=(2,9) 109,951.5 P<0.001*** n=58 n=58 n=45 n=45 n=46 n=46 n=55 n=55 n=53 n=53 n=54 n=54 n=311 n=311

2 M=6 M=7 M=5 M=7 M=5 M=6 M=6 M=6 M=5 M=7 M=6 M=7 M=5 M=7 U(311,311) = R=(3,7) R=(5,9) R=(4,7) R=(5,8) R=(3,6) R=(4,9) R=(5,8) R=(2,6) R=(4,6) R=(4,8) R=(5,7) R=(4,8) R=(3,8) R=(2,9) 82,505.5 n=58 n=58 n=45 n=45 n=46 n=46 n=55 n=55 n=53 n=53 n=54 n=54 n=311 n=311 P<0.001***

3 M=5 M=6 M=6 M=5 M=5 M=7 M=4 M=5 M=5 M=5 M=6 M=4 M=5 M=5 U(311,311) = R=(1,7) R=(3,7) R=(1,8) R=(4,7) R=(4,7) R=(6,9) R=(4,7) R=(1,5) R=(2,6) R=(4,6) R=(3,8) R=(2,5) R=(1,8) R=(1,9) 111,147.0 n=58 n=58 n=45 n=45 n=46 n=46 n=55 n=55 n=53 n=53 n=54 n=54 n=311 n=311 P<0.096 (NS)

4 M=5 M=6 M=6 M=4 M=5 M=7 M=6 M=6 M=6 M=7 M=5 M=7 M=5 M=7 U(311,311) = R=(3,6) R=(5,9) R=(3,6) R=(2,5) R=(3,8) R=(4,8) R=(4,6) R=(3,6) R=(1,7) R=(4,9) R=(4,7) R=(3,8) R=(1,8) R=(2,9) 88,730.5 P<0.0003*** n=58 n=58 n=45 n=45 n=46 n=46 n=55 n=55 n=53 n=53 n=54 n=54 n=311 n=311

5 M=5 M=7 M=5 M=5 M=5 M=8 M=5 M=7 M=5 M=7 M=5 M=6 M=5 M=7 U(311,311) = R=(2,5) R=(3,8) R=(4,7) R=(4,9) R=(3,6) R=(4,9) R=(3,9) R=(5,9) R=(4,8) R=(5,8) R=(4,5) R=(4,9) R=(2,9) R=(3,9) 68,800.0 P<0.001*** n=58 n=58 n=45 n=45 n=46 n=46 n=55 n=55 n=53 n=53 n=54 n=54 n=311 n=311

6 M=4 M=7 M=4 M=6 M=5 M=8 M=4 M=6 M=5 M=6 M=4 M=6 M=4 M=6 U(311,311) = R=(3,7) R=(5,8) R=(3,4) R=(3,8) R=(4,8) R=(5,10) R=(3,5) R=(2,7) R=(4,6) R=(5,9) R=(3,8) R=(3,6) R=(3,8) R=(2,10) 64,577.0 P<0.001*** n=58 n=58 n=45 n=45 n=46 n=46 n=55 n=55 n=53 n=53 n=54 n=54 n=311 n=311

Total M=5 M=7 M=5 M=6 M=5 M=7 M=6 M=6 M=5 M=7 M=5 M=6 M=5 M=7 U(311,311) = R=(1,7) R=(3,9) R=(1,8) R=(2,9) R=(3,9) R=(3,10) R=(3,9) R=(1,7) R=(1,8) R=(4,9) R=(3,8) R=(2,9) R=(1,9) R=(1,10) 31,314.7 P<0.003*** n=58 n=58 n=45 n=45 n=46 n=46 n=55 n=55 n=53 n=53 n=54 n=54 n=311 n=311

Indicator 1: Social networks and institutions; Indicator 2: Community participation; Indicator 3: Level of trust; Indicator 4: Institutional learning; Indicator 5: Equity sharing; Indicator 6: information sharing. M – median; R – range; n – sample number; *** –statistically significant; NS – not statistically significant

As detailed in Fig. 2 (below), social capital There is significant improvement in the stocks are perceived to have significantly social capital perceived by the local declined from pre-colonial times to colonial communities from the beginning of the post- era (Mann-Whitney U(311,311) test =59,547.4; colonial era to commencement of P<0.001, two-tailed) and subsequently programmatic CBNRM (Mann-Whitney significantly escalated from colonial times to U(311,311) test =45,654.2; P<0.001, two-tailed). post – colonial era (Mann-Whitney U(311,311) test =63,911.8; P<0.001, two-tailed).

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1. Maturity / Release Pre-colonial era (earlier than 3. Birth / Conservation 1911) Post-colonial era (1964-1983) x Social institutions and attributes nested, and authority by decree. x Emergent novel social institutions, x Participation by loyalty, obedience and including elite clubs – capitalization on obligation towards collective action. the external influences and integration x Level of trust hinged on reciprocity and into the local traditional structures. commitment to each others’ welfare. x Participation by persuasion in the face of x Institutional learning as identity new ideas such as ‘humanism ideology’. prominent. x Re-birth of trust and confidence, on the x Equity sharing fairly high. theme of unity. Faith based organizations x Sharing of information / understanding of playing a key role. social ecological system highly x Low institutional learning as identity being re-established. x Equity sharing recuperated based on mixture of the modern and traditional systems. x Revamped sharing of information / understanding of social-ecological system, where integration of science was 2. Death / Renewal / also appreciated at local levels Reorganization Colonial era (1911-1963)

4. Growth x Weakened social institutions and attributes. First & Second CBNRM x Participation, not based on motivated Generations (1984-2010) and initiated action. x Level of trust at its low due to social bonding interference. x Integrated and multi-scaled social x Institutional learning reduced with institutions and attributes. identity loss. x Participation by partly initiated and x Equity sharing no longer secured as motivated by community collective action. heterogeneity takes hold among the x Increased level of trust, reciprocity and community members. commitment at community (village & x Weakened traditional channels of household) level. sharing of information / mixed x Regaining of institutional learning, understanding of social-ecological resulting into community identity and rural development. x Equity sharing build – up amidst community heterogeneity and streamlined rules for access to, use of and relations with natural resources. x Increased sharing of information / understanding of social-ecological system, based on facilitation, empowerment and

Fig. 2: Reconstructed phases of social capital of CBNRM in the Luangwa Valley, eastern Zambia from pre-colonial era to 2010.

Social capital in the Luangwa Valley has and re-organization in institutional transcended through multi-dimensional arrangements as influenced by internal and dynamics from pre-colonial era to external factors (Fig. 2). Luangwa Valley contemporary times. The dynamics in the started with high stocks of social capital in social capital have caused transformations the pre-colonial era. Although the social

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institutions were well established at base make inference to social capital, for example, levels, in a horizontal sectional pattern, most of threats and pressures (91.67%, there were limited vertical networks outside n=11) considered were anthropogenic local communities. Traditional authority factors, which further suggests that social was largely by decree. Collective action by capital played part in management of local communities during that phase was Luangwa Valley ecosystem. ensured through expressions of loyalty, obedience and undertakings of obligations In the contemplary achievements there have by local communities. These expressions been, however, some drawbacks in Zambia’s were the sources of trust in posterity among natural resource management which the members, breeding reciprocity in times include: of adversaries and triumph. Local communities created institutional learning x Proprietary rights given to the local with identity, demonstrated in the sanctions communities by the state are only partial. given to non compliant members or rewards Jones & Murphree (2004) observe that due in reciprocity fashion. Institutional responsibility had to be linked with the learning prevented infractions in local authority and entitlements of full communities. Problems of open access to proprietorship if it was to provide the right common pool resources existed, but incentive package for committed and individuals in local communities were given effective management. fair opportunities to equity sharing of x Natural resources are largely under- resources. Information was adequately valued. shared through various nested social x Institutional structures to implement networks, for different mixtures of CBNRM at the base are not well aligned. groupings, conveyed via oral and action x There is absence of holistic CBNRM expressions. The advent of colonial rule policy and strategy. tested the resilience to unprecedented x Conditions for corruption at the base disturbances, changes and surprises to the levels, brain – drain of trained skilled full-fledged social capital by reversing social personnel for natural resources capital stocks. However, the social curators management and inadequate leadership perspired to revive the social capital. The capacity among the local communities advent of Christianity and Islamic belief prevail. systems soothed the loss of social capital, but occasionally clashed with traditional Some of the opportunities for effective norms. During the post colonial era, the community based conservation include: social capital recuperated. On introduction of CBNRM programme in 1984, social capital x There is growing private sector interest grew further largely due to strengthening of in natural resource management to foster conservation legislation, rights for commercialization agenda among the utilisation of resources, increased interest groups. Capacity in local sanctioned power and responsibilities to communities to effectively negotiate local communities and increased social (Agrawal & Gibson, 1999; Jones & Murphree, connectedness and networks for improved 2004) can enhance broad stakeholder collective action and decision-making. participation. Mwima (2007) evaluated management x With democratization and effectiveness in wildlife protected areas decentralization processes currently being using multiple criteria and rated Lupande implemented, there is possibility that area as having high management mainstreaming of direct conservation effectiveness among other Game payments in all sectors of natural resource Management Areas. Most other protected management can be conducted to areas of the same category were poorly adequately compensate local communities managed. Though the study did not directly for their participation.

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x Most of natural resources sector based organizations, market facilitation by policies and legislation are soon going to be external organizations like Rössing reviewed. Foundation, cooperative collection of forest products, mechanisms for equity, and An array of similarities and differences with collaboration between interest groups. comparable aspects of social capital at base Information sharing and adaptive levels in Southern Africa exists. We discuss a management were facilitated through selection of them. According to Roe et al. collaboration platforms. Though (2009) CBNRM is often about major competition over rights, revenues and institutional reforms and fundamental natural resources in some cases result in changes in power. conflicts (Suich & Murphy, 2002; Jones & Weaver, 2009), collaborative features of They further observe that, for instance, local institutional arrangements provide for community participation in land growth of social capital. Jones & Weaver conservancies have resulted in increased (2009) outline that among the key threats to land under effective community based growth of CBNRM in Namibia are weak conservation in Namibia. In selected cases, communal proprietorship, lack of secure and governing principles on benefit sharing and exclusive group land tenure, and inadequate distribution are integrated in CBNRM support capacity by external stakeholders system, though community projects are for profelific conservancies. placed in proximity with the well-skilled, wealthy and politically connected. In Zimbabwe, stakeholders adapt to prevailing economic and political crises by Jones & Weaver (2009) reiterate increased establishing novel types of relationships to community conservation participation, fiscal maintain wildlife production systems on beneficiation and stewardship over natural communal lands (Roe et al., 2009). Among resources in Namibian Conservancies, key challenges, however, is persistent outside state protected areas. However, centralized control over natural resources fuzzy entitlements of the local communities despite unclear change in rhetoric over land and lack of institutional governance and resource management (Child, 1996). membership has also contributed to their Therefore, tension in some places occurs impeded participation in natural resource between the development of locally management (Devereau, 1996; Jones & accountable governance and traditional Weaver, 2009), while legitimacy powers to authorities. Community Areas Management traditional authority hierarchy often Programme for Indigenous Resources overshadowed by statutes ensue (Hinz, (CAMPFIRE), a process that aimed at 1995; Corbett & Daniels, 1996). Jones revamping economic institutions to correct (1996) elucidates how weak leadership and the market and pricing distortions which capacity in local communities of eastern result in wasteful and inefficient situation, Tsumkwe District, Namibia negatively provide robust incentives to local affected the sustainability of CBNRM communities to invest in the wildlife initiatives and provided case study of management and avoid over-exploitation contributory role of institutional due to its high value and proprietorship relationships. (Child, 1996). Child further illustrates that given appropriate information and rights, Suich & Murphy (2002) give aspects of Masoka community in Guruve District, collective management by local women and Zimbabwe, were able to develop and traditional authority leadership in implement sound land use management as Masokotwane, Namibia involved in craft inspirational example of successes of works based on forest products utilization. CAMPFIRE. Furthermore, he stresses that The collaborative actions are characterized institutional networking among “grass-root” by coherence factors such as women political base and other intra-community

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stakeholders were positive drivers for develop them appropriately in a holistic pervasive CAMPFIRE. manner for effective natural resources management, if stakeholders were to Taylor (2009) evaluates performance of address the problems and not employ CAMPFIRE in Zimbabwe for period between symptomatic approaches. 1989 to 2006 and highlights, giving examples from Masoka and Gairezi Acknowledgement communities, Zimbabwe, that direct The study benefited from support given by payments as means of guaranteeing equity Zambia Wildlife Authority. The authors are coupled with effective leadership grateful to the area ecologist, P. Sichone for accountability positively influenced CBNRM. study facilitation role and field assistants for Clear devolutionary legislation, conferring participating in data collection. The map in full use rights for wildlife makes it possible this publication was gratefully produced by for CAMPFIRE to standout different from Chaka Kaumba, GIS specialist. Part of the various hybrids of CBNRM in Africa, though study grant came from Safari Club required developed capacity and systems International (SCI). (Child, 1996). However, like in Zambia with Community Resource Boards, in Zimbabwe the legal legitimacy ended with District References Councils, without further devolution to the Agrawal, A. & Gibson, C.C., 1999. village level at least from legal perspective Enchantment and Disenchantment: The role yet in practice villages are involved at of community in natural resource operational level. conservation. World Development 27 (4): 629 – 649. Roe et al. (2009) envisage that progressive rural communities will have sustenance in Anderson, J., 2002. Nature, wealth and land and natural resource management power: emerging best practice for revitalising when CBNRM facilitation prioritizes local rural Africa. USAID / Africa Bureau interests, agency and capacity in (AFR/SD). decentralized models. This emphasizes the importance of relational capital in dynamic Anderies, J. M., Janssen, M. A. & Ostrom, social systems (Nkhata et al. 2008). E., 2004. A framework to analyze the robustness of social – ecological systems Conclusion from an institutional perspective. Ecological Drawing on the insights of systems Society 9(1): 18 Retrieved from: URL: progression by Anderies et al. (2004) and http://www.ecologyandsociety.org/vol9/iss Gunderson & Holling (2002), we reflect that 1/art18/ on 12 April 2011. robustness of the social-ecological system may persist but may at a given point in time Berkes, F., 2004. Rethinking community collapse due to certain disturbances or crisis based conservation. Conservation Biology in the system. We thus suggest 18: 621-630. strengthening of environmental subsidiarity, implying exercising of preponderance of Blaikie, P., 2006. Is small really beautiful? freedom for decision making by local Community based natural resource institutions (Handy, 1994), the lowest units management in Malawi and Botswana. of management. As human and social World Development 34(11): 1942-1957. dimensions of natural resource and protected area management have remained Bradburn, N., Sudman, S. & Wansink, B., relevant as postulated by Western & Wright 2004. Asking questions: The definitive guide (1994) since inception of CBNRM to questionnaire design – for market programmes, there would be need to pay research, political polls, and social and health more attention to social capital aspects and questionnaires. California: Jossey-Bass.

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Child, B., 1996. The practice and principles management as a conservation mechanism: of community based wildlife management in lessons and directions. In: B. Child (ed). Zimbabwe: the CAMPIRE programme. Biodiversity, rural development and the Biodiversity and Conservation 5: 369 – 398. bottom line. London: Earthscan.

Dalal-Clayton, B. & Child, B., 2003. Lessons Jones, B. T., 1996. Institutional from Luangwa: The story of the Luangwa relationships, capacity and sustainability: Integrated Resource Development Project, lesson learned from a community based Zambia. London: International Institute for conservation project, eastern Tsumkwe Environment and Development. District, Namibia, 1991 – 1996. DEA Research Discussion Paper No. 11. Windhoek: Devereau, S., 1996. Fuzzy entitlements and Directorate of Environmental Affairs, common property resources: struggles over Ministry of Environment and Tourism. rights to communal land in Namibia. Working paper No. 44. Brighton: Institute of Jones, B. T. & Weaver, C., 2009. CBNRM in Development Studies. University of Sussex. Namibia: Growth, trends, lessons and constraints. In: H. Suich, B. Child & A. Düvel, G. H., 1987. Situation determination: Spenceley (eds). Evolution and innovation in from theory to a practical model. South wildlife conservation. Parks and Game African Journal of Extension. 1: 1-10. Ranches to Transfrontier Conservation Areas. London: Earthscan.

Fabricius, C., 2004. The fundamentals of Lewis, D. M., 2007. Opportunities and community based natural resource constraints for protected area management management. In: C. Fabricius, E. Koch, H. through increased connectivity to local Magome, & S. Turner (Eds.), Rights, resources livelihood needs in surrounding border and rural development: Community based areas: lessons from Luangwa Valley, Zambia. natural resource management in Southern In: K. H. Redford & E. Fearn (eds). Protected Africa. London: Earthscan. areas and human livelihoods. Working Paper No. 32, pp. 38 – 49. New York: WCS Institute. Gunderson, L. H. & Holling, C. S., (eds) 2002. Panarchy: Understanding Lewis, D. M., Kaweche, G. B. & Mwenya, A., transformations in human and natural 1990. Wildlife conservation outside systems. Washington D C: Island Press. protected areas – Lessons from an experiment in Zambia. Conservation Biology GRZ (Government of Republic of Zambia), 4 (2): 171 – 180. 2011. Sixth National Development Plan (2011 – 2015). Sustained economic growth Mwima, H. K., 2007. Synthesis of completed and poverty reduction. Lusaka: Ministry of management effectiveness tracking tool for Finance and Natural Planning. protected areas managed by the Zambia Handy, C., 1994. The empty raincoat. Wildlife Authority for the year 2007. Lusaka: Making sense of the future. London: Arrow Ministry of Tourism, Environment and Books. Natural Resources.

Hinz, M., 1995. Customary land law and Nkhata, A. B., Breen, C. M. & Freimund, W. implications for forests, trees and plants. A., 2008. Resilient social relationships and Windhoek: Food and Agricultural collaboration in the management of social – Organization. ecological systems. Ecology and Society 13(1): 2. Retrieved from: URL: Jones, B. T. & Murphree, M. W., 2004. http://www.ecologyandsociety.org/vol13/i Community based natural resource ss1/art2/ on 12 March 2011.

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Pretty, J., 2003. Social capital and 48. Windhoek: Directorate of Environmental connectedness: Issues and implications for Affairs, Ministry of Environment and agriculture, rural development and natural Tourism. resource management in ACP countries. CTA Working Document No. 8032. pp. 46 Taylor, R., 2009. The performance of CAMPFIRE in Zimbabwe: 1989 – 2006. In: H. Roe, D., Nelson, F., Sandbrook, C. (eds.) Suich, B. Child & A. Spenceley (eds). 2009. Community management of natural Evolution and innovation in wildlife resources in Africa: Impacts, experiences conservation. Parks and Game Ranches to and future directions. Natural Resource Issue Transfrontier Conservation Areas. London: No. 18, London: International Institute for Earthscan. Environment and Development. Western, D. & Wright, R. M., 1994. The Strauss, A., & Corbin, J. (eds.) 1998. Basics background to community based of qualitative research: techniques and conservation. In: D. Western & R. M. Wright procedures for developing grounded theory. (eds). Natural Connections. Perspectives in Thousand Oaks, California: Sage community based conservation. Washington Publications. D.C: Island Press.

Suich, H. & Murphy, C., 2002. Craft women: the livelihood impact of craft income in Caprivi. DEA Research Discussion Paper No.

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The first community forests of Gabon: great deal of the riches in their villages. towards sustainable local Today, the rural socio-economic component is forest management? not sufficiently integrated in the management factors of the resource, even though Meunier Quentin1, Federspiel Michèle2, populations that depend on them daily are Moumbogou Carl3, Grégoire Bruno4, supposedly the best placed individuals to Doucet Jean-Louis5 and Vermeulen Cédric6 make wise use of them. In this sense, community forestry helps to promote sustainable use of forest resources at a scale that is at par with the needs of the community, and seeks to guarantee that profits are shared at village level. In Gabon, Summary the process of legalization of community Forest resources abound in Gabon. Species forests is ongoing since 2001. Pilot projects diversity and quality of trees in the Gabonese such as DACEFI (Development of Community forests make it a very lucrative production Alternatives to Illegal Logging) strive to assist niche. Even though international forest communities in securing their community operators are well established there and are forest. However their legalization is slow in making profit, the Gabonese rural coming, while logging activities in the rural communities have not yet developed their forest estate are increasing, and the quality of own operations. In view of their remoteness the species is deteriorating continually. from decision-making centers, villagers often unlawfully lose, without being aware of it, a Introduction abon is part of the Congo Basin, home to the largest dense humid forest 1 Meunier Quentin, Technical Assistant, Project Grange in Africa. The dense forest DACEFI-2, c/o WWF-CARPO, Gabon Country Office, covers almost 85% of its territory, a surface Montée de Louis, P.O. 9144, Gabon. Email: [email protected] area of more than 22 million hectares. If the

low population density and the 2 Federspiel Michèle, Coordinator, Nature+ asbl, rue Bourgmestre Gilisquet, 57, 1457 Walhain, underdeveloped road infrastructures have Belgique. Email: [email protected] partly preserved that vast area, logging 3 Moumbogou Carl, Forest Manager, Project companies have gradually established DACEFI-2, c/o WWF-CARPO, Gabon Country Office, themselves and today their concessions Montée de Louis, P.O. 9144, Gabon. cover almost 12 million hectares – more Email: [email protected] than half of the forest surface area. Even though traditionally, rural populations have 4 Grégoire Bruno, Senior Technical Assistant, Project had little interest in commercial logging, DACEFI-2, c/o WWF-CARPO, Gabon Country Office, they have, for generations, maintained close Montée de Louis, P.O. 9144, Gabon. Email: socio-cultural ties with the forest. The [email protected] communities directly rely on this ecosystem

5 Doucet Jean-Louis, Professor, University of Liège, as a source of food, medication, fuelwood ULG/Gembloux ABT, Laboratoire de Foresterie and construction wood, and more recently tropicale et subtropicale, Unité GRFMN, Passage farmland. However, their formal des déportés, 2, 5030, Gembloux, Belgique. Email: involvement in the management of this [email protected] resource is only minimal. Relegated to a role

6 of passive actors, they are barely taken into Vermeulen Cédric : Professor, University of Liège, account in the process of allocation of large ULG/Gembloux ABT, Laboratoire de Foresterie permits and perceive only a small part of the tropicale et subtropicale, Unité GRFMN, Passage profits of this activity which is nevertheless des déportés, 2, 5030, Gembloux, Belgique.Email: performed, in most cases, in areas where [email protected]

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Figure 1. Map of forest concessions around Makokou, capital city of the Province of Ogooué-Ivindo, Gabon.

their customary rights apply1. What are the In these instances, it is difficult to reconcile provisions made in Gabon to include rural some rural activities such as shifting communities in the sound management of agriculture, non-wood forest products forest resources? What are the alternatives harvest and the exploitation of this same to this imbalance? resource for its timber. Numerous conflicts emerge following the cutting of trees The rural socio-economic component in preserved by the populations for their fruits logging in Gabon today or medicinal properties. In order to avoid By superimposing the map of licensed forest these frequent confrontations, the Gabonese concession (Figure 1) with map of the government has planned to establish a rural villages, we observe several overlapping forest estate which would restitute to areas; several villages are located at the villagers a forest strip (5 kilometers on both center of the legal forest concessions. sides of the highway) within which they could engage in their traditional activities. However, this provision, applied in certain regions, has never been legalized, and numerous conflicts and misunderstandings remain regarding the exploitation of the forest resources. More often than not, village 1 Decree n° 000692/PR/MEFEPEPN establishing communities can rely only on the good will the conditions for enforcing forest, wildlife, hunting and fishing customary use rights.

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of logging companies to willingly retrocede €7503) or enough planks to build the outskirts of their concession to them. community structures. Since community needs are local and not industrial, this In order to integrate communities in the enables, on the other part, smaller scale forest sector and promote rural economy, logging for an improved management of the the government has also established a resource. special permit, by mutual agreement, which enables villagers to perform selective Develop the local economy through cutting around the village. However these community forestry: a socio-economic harvests are generally performed by alternative for sustainable management intermediary economic operators. Often By allocating a well defined rural forest foreigners, these operators are seldom estate to communities within which a village controlled and charge prices that are awfully can organize itself to create a community inferior to the market value and do not forest, the State attempts to promote their hesitate to cut protected species or log development. By following an exploitation beyond their minimum logging perimeter. methodology adapted to the rural context, These practices mainly result in the rapid that is, with simplified administrative impoverishment and degradation of the procedures and technical expertise adapted available resources. The mutual agreement to and affordable to rural populations, they permits are today denounced as an can legally benefit from substantial incomes unsustainable provision of the law (Meunier corresponding to their needs. This includes et al., 2011). mainly the repair of old huts, the building of dispensaries and schools, or the Another alternative of social forestry exists establishment of water boreholes or village in the Gabonese law; inspired by community electrification. forestry experiences from Cameroon, the first steps in the long road to community To that effect, the DACEFI project forestry in Gabon started in 2006 (Development of Community Alternatives to (Vermeulen & Doucet, 2008). However, the Illegal Logging) funded by the European legal texts are older; since 2001, seven Union, active in Cameroon and in Gabon, has sections of the law1 and an implementing provided villagers with simple tools and order2 govern community forests in Gabon. assists communities in going through the According to Article 156 of the law, “The different steps of the legalization process of community forest is a portion of the rural a community forest. Since 2006, five forest estate assigned to a village community communities have been guided to put in for their activities or to engage in dynamic place management units (Bracke et al., processes for the sustainable management of 2008a), support the delimitation of their natural resources using a simplified future community forest (Schippers et al., management plan”. The re-appropriation of 2008a), realize adapted inventories (Bracke forested lands by a community enables it, on et al., 2008b) and finally develop a simple the one part, to derive some profit from the management plan (Schippers et al., 2008b). sale of wood and its byproducts, profits that It is important to adapt the management can be directly invested to improve the tools of these forests since the surface areas living conditions of that community. The to be transferred to communities are limited harvest and artisanal sawing of a single log (about 5,000 ha) and the available labor is can earn almost FCFA 500,000 (about inadequate to perform sophisticated management and exploitation inventories. Various frameworks and tools have been 1 Law n° 16/01 of the Forest Code, establishing developed through the experience acquired community forests in its Articles 156 and 162. 2 Decree ° 001028/PR/MEFEPEPN dated 01/12/04 establishing the conditions for the 3 Available figures in the Province of Ogooué- creation of community forests. Ivindo in the first quarter of 2011 in Gabon.

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from project DACEFI (Vermeulen & Doucet, produce annual inputs of more than FCFA 2008), however lack of enthusiasm could 20,000,000 (about €30,000) for still be observed at the Ministerial level. In communities. Coupled with the profit effect, even though the Gabonese law derived from supplementary agricultural governing community forests was enacted in and agroforestry activities, this would 2001, no community forest has been created facilitate the development of a local as of yet. economy and beyond, the development of village communities, at infrastructure and If they were legally recognized, community service levels. Figure 2 illustrates what ten forests would secure diversified income villagers were able to create after sawing sources for the benefit of rural communities half a Movingui (Distemonathus through the sale of timber, but also the sale benthamianus) and Sapelli of non-wood forest products, and even (Entandrophragma cylindricum) log over 8 agricultural products. Very low removals of days (4 days of sawing and 4 days of 1 foot per hectare at a moderated frequency, building). which do not exceed 40 feet per year, would

Figure 2. Realization of a nursery and a double hut by ten villagers after the artisanal sawing of two half logs. Makokou, June 2011.

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Conclusion Bibliography The challenges of putting in place the first ANONYME (2001). Loi n°016/01 portant community forests in Gabon are enormous. code forestier en République gabonaise, Even though the forest areas concerned are Présidence de la République, Libreville, 64p. restricted to the national scale1, the future community forests will be located in areas MEFEPEPN (2004). Décret particularly disputed, along highways, the n°001028 /PR/MEFEPEPN fixant les places of numerous embezzlements, where conditions de création de forêts various operators abuse the credulity of communautaires, Libreville-MEFEPEPN, 4p. villagers in order to remove protected species, disregarding any attempt at MEFEPEPN (2004). Décret managing them. This exploitation barely n°000692/PR/MEFEPEPN fixant les benefits these populations. A well conducted conditions d’exercice des droits d’usage collective management at local level, is one coutumiers en matière de forêt, de faune, de of the possible ways to check unsustainable chasse et de pêche, Libreville-MEFEPEPN, illegal practices and to integrate villagers in 4p. a profitable economic dynamics. MEFEPEPN (2004). Décret In order to encourage the sound n°0725/PR/MEFEPA fixant les conditions management of forest resources, the d’attribution de Permis de Gré à Gré, Gabonese government should intensify its Libreville-MEFEPEPN, 4p. engagement with rural communities so as to assist them towards a sustainable BRACKE C., DOUCET JL., OVONO EDZANG N., development and entrust them with the NGANDA B., VERMEULEN C., 2008a. Rendre resources they depend on. However, these opérationnelles les entités de gestion : une provisions should be accompanied with démarche consensuelle. In Les premières clear laws specific to community activities in forêts communautaires du Gabon. Récits order to protect them against current d’une expérience pilote, FUSAGx, Nature+, manipulations. These measures should be WWF, VERMEULEN & DOUCET Editeurs, taken as early as possible because even if Gembloux-FUSAGx, pp. 39-45. only slight variations of the forest cover have been observed, the quality and BRACKE C., SCHIPPERS C, NTCHANDI-OTIMBO quantity of exploitable commercial forest PA, DEMARQUEZ B, BONNEAU O, DOUCET JL., tree stands are being degraded within the 2008b. Rendre les inventaires forestiers rural forest estate. The speed and the extent accessibles aux populations. In Les premières of logging of the forests have given rise, in forêts communautaires du Gabon. Récits some zones, to hectares of secondary forests d’une expérience pilote, FUSAGx, Nature+, with low economic value. It is now time to WWF, VERMEULEN & DOUCET Editeurs, recognize these forest estates and legalize Gembloux-FUSAGx, pp. 57-67. their community management before these forests are completely skimmed and lose MEUNIER Q., VERMEULEN C., MOUMBOGOU C., their appeal. 2011. Les premières forêts communautaires du Gabon sont-elles condamnées d’avance ? Parcs et Réserves, volume 66 (1), pp. 17-22.

SCHIPPERS C., BRACKE C., NDOUNA ANGO A., NDONGO NGUIMFACK C., MIHINDOU V., BOUROBOU F., DISSAKI A., VERMEULEN, C., 1 The surface area of the rural forest estate is not 2008a. Délimiter les forêts known since it is not clearly defined by the law. communautaires : une approche par However, considering the surface areas of permits, contraintes multiples. In Les premières forêts parks and reserves, it is inferior to 15% of the country’s surface. communautaires du Gabon. Récits d’une

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expérience pilote, FUSAGx, Nature+, WWF, Récits d’une expérience pilote, FUSAGx, VERMEULEN & DOUCET Editeurs, Gembloux- Nature+, WWF, VERMEULEN & DOUCET FUSAGx, pp. 47-55. Editeurs, Gembloux-FUSAGx, pp. 69-80.

SCHIPPERS C., DOUCET J.-L., BRACKE C., VERMEULEN C., DOUCET J-L. (2008). Les BOLDRINI S., VERMEULEN C., 2008b. Une forêt premières forêts communautaires du Gabon. communautaire n’est pas une CFAD : Récits d’une expérience pilote. Projet DACEFI, adapter les plans simples de gestion. In Les UE, Nature plus, FUSAGx, Belgique, 101 p. premières forêts communautaires du Gabon.

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Promotion of forests and land Involvement of the French National governance by local communities: Federation of Council Forests (FNCOFOR) The experience of COFOR- in Cameroon International It is in this context that mayors of municipalities in Cameroon approached the Joelle Brams1 and Jacques Plan2 French National Federation of Council Forest (FNCOFOR) in 2003 to request its assistance to formulate a programme for the creation of council forests in Cameroon. In effect, Cameroon was a pioneer in decentralization of forest management. Cameroon’s 1994 Forest Law provided for The context of decentralization the creation of council forests through the he process of decentralizing transfer of part of the permanent forest governments was initiated in most estate from the State to the councils. TAfrican countries in the 1990s. It was However, 10 years later, only one council motivated by the inability of central forest had been created with the support of governments to meet the basic needs of the French Cooperation (Dimako Communal their populations, the prescriptions of forest: 17,000 ha), since the Administration structural adjustment programmes imposed and several donors favored the emergence on countries and the emergence of local of community forests in the non-permanent elites motivated by local development. forest estate. A partnership convention was Decentralization is supported by local signed between FNCOFOR and the communities appropriately skilled with Association of Council Forests of Cameroon executives elected by the population. (ACFCAM) in June 2006 in Yaoundé. This Through this act, the central government partnership was concretized by the joint formally transfers part of its authority to formulation of a programme for the creation actors and institutions at lower levels in the and sustainable management of council political, administrative and territorial forests in Cameroon, financially supported hierarchy (Ribo, 2007). Decentralization by the French Fund for the Environment ensures an improved balance of authorities (FFEM, Fonds Français pour and brings citizens closer to the decision l'Environnement Mondial) and GTZ. The making process, thus facilitating the programme was launched in November emergence of a local democracy. Countries 2007 with the installation of the Technical consider decentralization as a major Center for Council Forestry (CTFC), the strategy for reaching development goals, implementing agency of ACFCAM. By the end producing public services and protecting the of 2010, 80 municipalities were members of environment (Agrawal and Ostrom, 2001). ACFCAM, 41 council/communal forests reserves (630,000 ha) were gazetted or in the process of being gazetted, 16 1 municipal/communal forests (404,000 ha) Joelle Brams, Specialist in Forest, Nature and Society, AgroParisTech/ENGREF. had management plans and 6 of them were 3 Email: [email protected] being harvested (80,000 m exploited in 2010). FNCOFOR assists the project 2 Jacques Plan, Executive Director, COFOR- manager and provides training, organization International. Fédération Nationale des Communes and formulation services for new forestières de France, Immeuble "les Athamantes" programmes (including REDD + with Bat. 4 ; 740, Avenue des Apothicaires, Parc funding from GEF 5) Euromédecine 34090 Montpellier, France. Email: [email protected] Telephone : +33(0)4 11 75 85 17/ +33(0)6 71 40 12 95

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FNCOFOR’s support to the management participatory management of natural of forest resources by local communities resources and rural development. In France, In 2008, the Cameroonian experience FNCOFOR manages programmes and reached the Republic of Benin where 5 proposes tools for the development of forest Councils in the Moyen-Ouémé Region had lands. In Europe, the organization plays constituted an association to undertake the advocacy role within the Federation of management of natural forests, badly European Council Forests (FECOF) and degraded by the illegal and uncontrolled actively participates in the debate on harvesting of wood for charcoal production. decentralization of natural resources A partnership agreement was thus signed by governance. FNCOFOR seeks to share this FNCOFOR and the association of Council conviction with elected officials at all levels. Forest of Moyen-Ouémé Region (COFORMO - It encourages elected officials to adapt and association des Communes Forestières du enrich the concept of communal forests and Moyen Ouémé) in May 2008 and a facilitates cooperation among decentralized programme for the creation of 9 council programs, placing the forest in the heart of forests was developed. To this day, with rural development. In this context, funding from the French Fund for the FNCOFOR took the initiative to create Environment (FFEM) and the World Bank, COFOR-International in November 2009, the implementing agency of COFORMO has with the aim of improving the structure and launched its activities for the concerted development of its external actions. delimitation and management of 5 communal forests over 300,000 ha, starting COFOR-International is a non-profit in 2011. The Economic Community of West association dedicated to promoting natural African States (ECOWAS), was interested in resources governance by municipalities, in the Benin initiative and requested FNCOFOR support of States decentralization for local to jointly organize the first congress on development, poverty alleviation in rural council forests in West Africa. This congress areas and climate changes mitigation. To was held in Ouagadougou (Burkina Faso) in this day, COFOR-International includes June 2009 and brought together about one district and council forest associations from hundred parliamentarians, members of the France, Europe, Cameroon, Benin, Burkina administration, researchers and donors Faso and Côte d'Ivoire. from 11 ECOWAS Member States. In the spirit of the Ouagadougou Congress, COFOR-International invites local associations of Council forests were created communities in Europe to become members. in Côte d'Ivoire (COFOR-CI) and in Burkina Moreover, membership of COFOR- Faso (COFOR-Ganzourgou). These International is now open to associations associations have developed programmes to and environmental NGOs, banks and local addressl forest degradation under the development agencies, educational authority of local communities and have institutes and research institutions, requested funding from FFEM and GEF. The consulting firms and companies interested down-to-earth approach of FNCOFOR in in cooperation among local authorities to promoting forest governance by municipal manage natural resources. communities obviously convinced the French administration since the Federation now benefits from its financial and Activities and perspectives of COFOR- institutional assistance to develop International programmes for creating council forests. In Central Africa The creation of COFOR-International Under the auspices of The Central African The international commitment of FNCOFOR Forests Commission (COMIFAC), COFOR- is based on a strong conviction that elected International conducted in May 2011, the local officials are key actors in the first congress on communal forests in

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Central Africa hosted by the Association of In the Mediterranean Basin Communal Forests in Cameroon (ACFCAM). During the second celebration of the This congress followed the format of the Mediterranean forest week in Avignon Ouagadougou congress held in 2009 and the (April 2011) organized by the “Silva spirit initiated by the programme to support mediterranea”, COFOR-International communal forests in Cameroon. Over 200 presented tools for community forest participants (local representatives, governance, including: forest charter, plan parliamentarians, experts, scientists, for fuel wood supply at district level, administration executives, NGOs) shared development plan for woodlands. their experiences in the area of decentralized management of forest These tools are relevant in the resources, focused on the relevance and Mediterranean zone where forests play peculiarity of communal governance of several roles (production of wood, fruits, forests. A key product of the Central Africa fodder, hunting, tourism, soil and water congress is the drafting of a strategy for protection, biodiversity conservation …). communal forests development. A legal and Therefore, the local representatives need to regulatory framework is being put in place fully play their role as mediators and in other COMIFAC Member States in the animators to prevent conflicts and to context of the decentralization process conciliate local development and forest (Democratic Republic of Congo, Republic of protection. Congo, Rwanda and Burundi). The Lebanese Mayors of Donnieh and In West Africa Bkassine have shown interest in In Senegal, the regions of Kaolack, Fatick, experimenting with these tools in their Zigenchor and Kolda support a project of respective territories where there are still participatory management of communal prestigious mountain forests and where the forests (PERACOD). The local conservation objective ought to take into representatives solicit the support of account the vital needs of destitute rural COFOR-International to organize themselves population. and provide training in the management of their local forest. In Ecuador (South America) COFOR-International currently participates In addition to the programmes developed in the formulation of a REDD+ programme and supported by COFOR-International in supported by the Association of Ecuador Côte d'Ivoire and in Burkina Faso, other Municipalities (AME) and the “Consorsio countries have created a conducive forestall de Manabi”. This programme, environment for the emergence of supported by the representatives of the communal forests, however several province of the Municipios and the Juntas challenges remain. Among these challenges parroquiales includes the reforestation are: (i) the sharing of forest management through agroforestry of 1,500 ha and the skills among newly constituted communities protection of 1,000 ha of severely degraded and villages, in which customs and agricultural lands. traditions have to be respected, (ii) mechanisms for the transfer of village or Decentralized cooperation clan lands to the municipalities, (iii) the COFOR-International constitutes a strong emergence of intercommunality, network of municipal forests of the North indispensable to the concerted development and associations of locally elected forest of traditional lands, (iv) the relevance of a managers of the south. This peculiar communal land development plan which position enables COFOR-International to includes communal forests. recommend to the municipal French and other European communities a reliable institutional framework in developing

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countries within which to conduct In sum, the commitment of COFOR- decentralized cooperation activities. These International is part of a legal and districts or communities in the developing irreversible process: the decentralization of countries are already organized in States and the emergence of a governance of associations for the direct benefit of their natural resources by the decentralized people. It is also the case for forestry communities. It is the responsibility of local investments made under a commitment to representatives and their partners to offset carbon emissions, made by a advocate for the relevance, legitimacy and community as its municipal climate plan. efficiency of this peculiar type of governance without competition with more conventional modes of natural resources management (public, private or community management).

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Sangha Tri-national Landscape in the subsistence. This paper will explore how Congo basin: Socioeconomic management of this Landscape integrates dimensions of transboundary human and conservation needs, while the conservation area ecological and economic needs are not within its scope. Chi Augustine Muam1 Protected Areas are the cornerstone of biodiversity conservation and the TNS Landscape offers diverse sets of natural habitats for plants and animals. Vegetation- wise, the Central African Forests

Commission (COMIFAC, 2006 p.160) reports that in the Congolese section more than Introduction 1,700 species are found and among the trees The initiative for the establishment of a several species appear on the IUCN Red List regional Trans-Boundary Conservation Area of Threatened Species, including Autranella (TBCA) came from the Heads of State in congolensis, Pericopsis elata (afromosia), Central Africa, who officially made a Diospyros crassiflora (ebony) and Swartzia commitment in March 1999 to conserve and fistuloides (pao rosa or African tulip wood). sustainable manage their forest. This was As for fauna, in the Central African Republic contained in a common declaration of 12 (CAR) sector, 195 species of land mammals resolutions dubbed the 1999 Yaounde have been identified (Blom, 2001), in Declaration, later recognised by the UN’s particular, the African forest elephant; th 54 General Assembly on 1/2/2000 in a UN sixteen species of primates, among them the Resolution entitled “Conservation and gorilla, the chimpanzee and at least six small Sustainable Development of Central African nocturnal species; fourteen species of Forest Ecosystems” (Resolution ungulates, including the bongo antelope. A/RES/54/214). The first item on the COMIFAC also reports that the Avifauna Declaration of the Heads of State called for includes 428 species in the Congolese the ‘creation of transboundary Protected section, 379 in the CAR section and 350 in Areas’ and undertook to ‘reinforce the Cameroonian section. management of existing protected areas’. It

was within the context of the latter These resources were directly threatened by commitment that the Tri-National de la human activities such as unsustainable Sangha (TNS) Landscape was created. commercial logging and hunting (ivory). According to WWF (1999) the main This is noticeable in Cameroon and the CAR objective of the “existing tri-national (COMIFAC 2006, p.164), where forest network of independent Protected Areas logging roads and industrial logging have formally linked as the Sangha River Tri- opened up the forest to outsiders. National Park, was to enhance regional According to some conservationists, collaboration, encourage integrated although loggers may take only one or two conservation management and ensure the of the largest trees per hectare, the canopy future of this important forest area”. of tropical forests is usually so strongly Indisputably, the TNS Landscape forest linked by vines and interlocking braches biological diversity represents a that felling one tree can bring down a dozen fundamental resource because it includes others (Cunningham & Cunningham, 2006, species and their constituent genes upon p.129). Building roads to remove logs which the local population depend for destroy more trees, but even more importantly it allows entry to the forest by 1 Chi Augustine Muam, PhD. Faculty of Law and farmers, miners, hunters, and others who Political Science, P.O. Box 4982, University of may cause further damage to the forest. As Douala, Republic of Cameroon, Email : [email protected], Cell +237 77 70 53 57 mitigating measures, COMIFAC (2008,

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p.284) states that the requirement to upon maintenance of their biological develop Management Plans approved by diversity. Triggered by this exigency, government has obliged a number of forests international institutions such as WWF and concessionaires and forestry companies to National Geographic Society (NGS) progress towards certification. (undated) have developed the concept of Consequently, a total of 1,051,600 ha out of “Eco-region”, which is defined as a relatively 3,388,803 ha of forest concessions are large unit of land or water that contains a Forest Stewardship Council (FSC) certified distinct assemblage of natural communities as being sustainably managed. sharing a large majority of species, dynamics and environmental conditions. But COMIFAC (2006, p.19), preferred and The TNS as a bio-geographical area or adopted the concept of ‘Landscape’, defined Landscape as a vast “ecosystem consisting of intact core As a natural bio-geographical area, the TNS zones, comprised of priority areas for Landscape represents an entire ecosystem conservation, with extraction and human with its associated land, water, air and plant impact zones increasing towards the edge” and wildlife resources that must be buffer zones (emphasis added). The TNS managed as a unit if we are to preserve all benefited from this appellation and became its values (ecological, economical and one of the 12 ‘Landscapes’ of the Congo social), which values are dependent on its Basin Forest Partnership2. biological diversity and its sustainability on good governance. Good governance of the Landscape The management of the TNS is governed by Biodiversity status of the TNS Landscape a year 2000 Cooperation Accord that obliges The TNS landscape is a TBCA spreading over the Parties (countries) to “cooperate in the three countries in the Congo Basin Forest management of a complex of protected areas (Cameroon, Central African Republic and the named Tri-National de la Sangha” (TNS)3. Republic of Congo). It is “tri-national” The concept of ‘cooperation’ is supported by because these countries share the same Principle 24 of the 1972 Stockholm natural resources consisting mostly of Declaration4 that reflects a political forests with contiguous (classified) Parks commitment to international cooperation in and Reserves in each country. These shared matters concerning the protection of the forests are within and not beyond national environment and is echoed by Principle 27 jurisdiction of the countries concerned. of the 1992 Rio Declaration Arguably, countries or parties sharing the (A/COF.151/6/Rev.1, 13 June 1992). The same natural system should manage that requirement to cooperate is affirmed in system as a single ecological unit virtually all international environmental notwithstanding national boundaries or state sovereignty. Though focus on 2 Type II partnership composed of approximately 30 ecosystems within the context of biological government and non-governmental organisations diversity is relatively new in international launched at the 2002 World Summit on Sustainable environmental law1, it is imperative to focus Development in Johannesburg, South Africa in on this because the maintenance of order to promote the sustainable management of the ecological processes is highly dependent forest of the Congo Basin and improve the quality of life of the region’s inhabitants (COMIFAC, 2006:2). 1 see, especially Articles I and II of Antarctic 3 2000 Accord de Coopération Marine Living Resources Convention (1980), but 4 Report of the UN Conference on the Human also see Article II of the Polar Bears Agreement Environment, UN Doc.A/CONF.48/14 at 2-65, and (1973), Article 2(2)(d) of ECE Transboundary Corr.1 (1972); 11 ILM 1416 (1972). For an Watercourses Convention (1992), and, generally, excellent account of the Conference and the the Convention on Biological Diversity (1992). In Declaration, see Louis B. Sohn, ‘The Stockholm addition, see Article 20 of the ILC Draft Articles on Declaration on the Human Environment’, 14 International Watercourses (1994); Harvard International Law Journal 423 (1973).

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agreements of bilateral, regional (see Article reserves’ (see Article 3 of 1968 African 1 of COMIFAC Treaty) and global application Convention) or ‘strict wilderness reserves’ (see Article 5 of 1992 CBD). Such (see Article 3(a) of 1940 Western cooperation in the Landscape is Hemisphere Convention). To do this, the demonstrated by the creation of present 2000 Cooperation Accord delimited decentralized governing cross-border two areas within the TNS Landscape - institutions1. These are four in number: Tri- ‘protection zones’ where all human activities national Supervision and Arbitration are prohibited or restricted (core zones), and Committee (CTSA) at the ministerial level ‘peripheral zones’ (buffer zones) where assisted by a Tri-National Scientific participative processes for the sustainable Committee (CST); the Tri-National management of forests and wildlife Monitoring Committee (CTS) at the level of resources are developed2. The protective the provincial administrations, which zones consist of three national parks - includes representatives from the agencies Lobéké (Cameroon), Nouabalé-Ndoki funding and/or executing programmes as (Republic of Congo), and Dzanga-Ndoki well as the conservators or national (Central African Republic)3 covering a total directors of each site; and the Tri-National of 4,520,000 ha. These areas are certainly Planning and Execution Committee (CTPE) ‘strict natural reserves’ regulated by at the level of the sites, made up of national laws and COMIFAC (2008 p.166) conservators, project managers and has clearly indicated how these laws are to associated technical assistants (COMIFAC be enforced. For example, mobile guard 2006 pp165-166). It falls outside the scope patrols and fixed surveillance posts on the of this article to discuss how these access roads have been maintained over the institutions are coordinated, but experience entire extent of the Congolese sections of the shows that this form of decentralized landscape, in the national parks as wells as governance can improve outcomes for both in the forest concessions. Consequently, local livelihoods and biodiversity elephant poaching in the Nouabale-Ndoki protection/conservation. National Park (PNNN) has remained nil (COMIFAC 2006, p.166). TNS Landscape as compared with Biosphere Reserves Transboundary wise, thanks to the signing Both the TNS Landscape and Biosphere of the 2005 Protocol Accord, bi-national Reserves are concerned with the protection patrols are organised every six months with of critical areas - core zones to boost agents from the Republic of Congo and conserve biological diversity which in turn Central African Republic (see photo 1). It is underpins the provision of a range of envisaged that, with the signing of the recent ecosystem services on which human well- 2008 COMIFAC Sub-regional Accord, control being depends - and working with local on the harvesting and circulation of communities and other stakeholders in the commercial forestry products in the sub- buffer zone area to ensure that the region (Article 3 d’Accord Sous-regional), Landscape contributes to sustainable will become a routine. It must be livelihoods, is outlined in the principles of emphasised that this is Biosphere Reserves.

Defining critical areas to be protected (core zones): One strategy in the protection of ecosystems and the conservation of biological diversity is the establishment of special legal protected areas such as ‘strict nature

2 see Article 3 supra note 4 1 see Article 11 supra note 4 3 Article 4 supra note 4

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Photo 1. State agents on patrol stopping logging trucks to check contents

different from what occurs in the peripheral or surrounding “use zones” and professional hunting areas (buffer zone areas) that amount to 3,751,800 ha (COMIFAC, 2008 p.283). Therefore, if the ‘buffer zone’ is combined with the ‘core zone’ the TNS Landscape can be likened to a Biosphere Reserve, capable of integrating Photo 2. Children playing with toys conservation and meeting of human needs, they made from forest products especially where the participation of the local population is ensured. As concerns traditional hunting, in Bayanga, Central African republic, a gorilla Working with local communities and conservation project presages a new era for other stakeholders local people. Each year, tourists visit the The 2000 Cooperation Accord demands area where they are offered extraordinary Parties to involve local communities and opportunities to accompany the BaAka concession holders in the management of pygmies on guided tours to observe western the TNS (see Article 9). This can be done by lowland gorillas and see the elusive forest letting the people improve their living elephants. Proceeds from this project are conditions from accrued benefits from eco- spent on the provision of health services, tourism, trophy hunting and other income education and training in agricultural generating activities (COMIFAC 2008 p.294). techniques of local people and has helped Another important aspect is the granting of legalise traditional village hunting by BaAka access to forest resources to indigenous pygmies in the area. COMIFAC concludes forest people and surrounding Bantu that around Lobéké National Park, trophy communities (see photo 2). hunting in a community hunting area is generating some $50.000 each year. These funds are managed by a local wildlife management committee and is invested in education, construction of schools (see photo 3) and the provision of potable water. The outcome is that there is greater involvement of local communities in wildlife protection (COMIFAC 2009, p.294).

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provide people sustainable means of livelihood through well managed forest concessions, sustainable agriculture and integrated eco-tourism programs (WWF & NGS undated).

Bibliography Accord de Coopération entre les gouvernements de La République du Cameroun, La République Centrafricaine, La Photo 3. School built using revenues République du Congo, relatif a la mise en generated by sport hunting place du Tri-National de la Sangha du 7 Décembre 2000, COMIFAC, Yaounde, Cameroun. The above type of co-management of activities, according to COMIFAC (2006, Accord Sous-Regional sur le contrôle p.167) have stimulated greater local Forestier en Afrique Central du 26/10/2008, community participation in the support for COMIFAC, FAO, Yaounde, Cameroun. conservation work in the area, in several ways. For instance the Village Chiefs and Blom, A. (2001). Ecological and economic local administrative authorities impacts of gorilla-based tourism in Dzanga have become key players. They are Sangha, Central African Republic. Thesis. consulted at the time of decision-making Wageningen University, The Netherlands. regarding strategies for sustainable development and conservation. They are COMIFAC (2006). The Forests of the Congo also tasked with managing the proceeds Basin, State of the Forest 2006, COMIFAC, from exploitation of biodiversity: 40% of the Yaounde, Cameroon. revenue from taxes on logging and 40% of the taxes on eco-tourism are set aside for COMIFAC (2008). The Forests of the Congo rural development organisations. This is Basin, State of the Forest 2008, COMIFAC, compatible with the requirements of Yaounde, Cameroon. international law within the context of equitable sharing of benefits (see Article 1 of 1992 United Nations Convention on CBD) such as timber royalties. Biological Diversity (CBD)

Concerning working with other 2005 Central African Forests Commission stakeholders, mentioned in Article 9 of the (COMIFAC) Treaty 2000 Cooperation Accord, the Congo Basin Forest Partnership (CBFP) is seriously 1968 African Convention on the involved. For instance various partners of Conservation of Nature and Natural the CBFP are currently active in the Resources, 1001 UNTS 4 (1968) management of Landscapes in the Congo Basin forests, notably the European Union 940 Convention on Nature Protection and and a number of NGOs. According to Wildlife Preservation in the Western COMIFAC (2006 p,19), CBPF Landscapes Hemisphere, 161 UNTS 193 (1940) cover about 685,400 km2, that is, approximately 38% of the forests in the Cunningham, W.P., & Cunningham, M.A; Congo Basin, and contain around 30 (2006). Principles of Environmental important protected areas (national parks Science, Inquiry & Applications, Third and wildlife reserves), amongst which are Edition, McGraw Hill, New York. those of the TNS. It should be noted that one of the priorities of the CBFP is to

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Protocole d’Accord sur la circulation du WWF & National Geographic Society personnel TNS entre les gouvernements de la (undated) Conserving the Western Congo République du Cameroun, la République Basin Moist Forest Eco-region, WWF, Centrafricaine, la République du Congo dans Cameroon. le cadre de l’Accord de Coopération relatif a mise en place du Tri-National de la Sangha WWF (1999). New proposals for forest (TNS), 2005, COMIFAC, Yaounde, Cameroun. protection, The Yaounde Forest Summit, WWF, Cameroon. Resolution A/RES/54/214:http://www.undemocracy.c om/A-RES-54-214.pdf

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Challenges of managing forest highlights the institutional arrangements put reserves: case study of Atewa range in place for their effective management. The forest reserve, Ghana. study identified several challenges facing the Atewa Range forest reserve despite the efforts Jesse S. Ayivor1, Christopher Gordon2, James K. of the Forest Services Division to maintain its Adomako3and Yaa Ntiamoa-Baidu4 integrity. The study concludes that greater support for law enforcement and greater inclusiveness of local people as well as support from private sector that provides

increased livelihood opportunities for the poor would help reduce forest exploitation.

Introduction orests and forest resources play a Summary significant role in the socio-economic Forests provide livelihoods to considerable Fdevelopment of most African numbers of rural communities in Africa. countries. The continents’ forest cover has, Unfortunately, most of the continent’s forests however, come under intense pressure as a and their resources are under intense result of human activities (Giliba et al., pressure and threat from inimical human 2011). From 1990 to 2005 for instance, activities associated with high population Africa’s forest cover reduced from 699.361 growth and economic demands. Efforts at million ha to 635.412 million ha, with annual regulating overexploitation and conversion of reduction rate of about 4% (FAO, 2009). In forests through the bio-reserves concept face Ghana, population induced pressures, weak several challenges due to livelihood pressures. institutions and national economic The importance of forest as a repository of aspirations have exposed the nation’s biodiversity, provider of ecosystems services, forests to excessive exploitation and bequest value, cultural importance and conversion to other uses leading to a drastic intrinsic value cannot be compromised. Using reduction in its cover (Fairhead and Leach, the Atewa Range forest reserve as a case 1998). Within the last century alone, study, this paper examines the various Ghana’s forest cover reduced from 8.2 challenges faced by the Forest Services million ha to 1.7 million ha (Glastra, 1999). Division of Forestry Commission of Ghana in This obviously has a direct impact on the managing forest reserves in Ghana in the face over 2.5 million people who depend on the of pressure from other users. It discusses the forest for its services. Forestry in Ghana concept of protected area establishment as a accounts for 6% of the GDP, 11% of export way of in-situ biodiversity conservation and earnings, and employs a labor force of 100,000 people (Forestry Department, 2001; Ghana Statistical Services, 2007). 1 Jesse S. Ayivor. Institute for Environment and Sanitation Studies, P. O. Box LG 209, University of Protected areas are geographical areas set Ghana, Legon, Accra, Ghana. E-mail: [email protected] aside by the state, community or private 2 Christopher Gordon. Institute for Environment entities for the purpose of biodiversity and Sanitation Studies, P. O. Box LG 209, conservation (IUCN, 1999). Protection of University of Ghana, Legon, Accra, Ghana. E-mail: tropical forests is particularly important [email protected] because they contain about two-thirds of the 3 James K. Adomako. Department of Botany, P. O. world's plant and animal species (Raven Box LG 55, University of Ghana, Legon, Accra, 1980). Globally, protected areas cover about Ghana. E-mail: [email protected] 12% of the world’s total area, constituting 4 Yaa Ntiamoa-Baidu. Department of Animal over 460 million hectares (FRA, 2010). Science and Conservation Biology, P. O. Box LG

67, University of Ghana, Legon, Accra, Ghana. E- mail: [email protected]

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Within the high forest zone of Ghana, prioritization of protected areas approximately 1.76 million ha of forest, methodology (RAPPAM) (Hockings et al. constituting about 21% of the land area, are 2006), conducted in April 2009. The last set permanently protected. Out of this total, was derived from focus group discussions about 126,600 ha are under the jurisdiction conducted in four nearby communities of the Wildlife Division as wildlife protected involving a total of 30 individuals, as well as areas. In total, there are about 282 forest interviews with five forestry officials in reserves where wood harvesting is charge of the Atewa range forest reserve in regulated, and 24 wildlife protected areas January 2011. Secondary data to supplement (National Parks, Strict Nature Reserves, primary data sources was extracted from Resource Reserves, Wildlife Sanctuaries and the relevant literature. The analysis was Ramsar Sites) established by law in Ghana. carried out in the context of the bio-reserves Unfortunately, most the protected areas concept under the land allocation strategy, have come under severe pressure as relating to do the designation of institutions tasked to ensure their effective geographical areas for biodiversity management are poorly resourced and protection (Noss, 1994). unable to execute their mandate effectively (Jachmann, 2008; Ntiamoa-Baidu, 2008). The Atewa Range Forest Reserve This study focuses on Atewa Range forest The Atewa Range forest reserve (Atewa reserve in the south-eastern part of Ghana, RFR) presents a classical example of forest which has suffered massive degradation protection and resource-use conflict typical over the years as a result of illegal human of most bio-reserves in Africa. The reserve is activities. located in the Eastern Region of Ghana, off the Accra–Kumasi road about 75 km from The paper examines the challenges of Accra (Fig. 1). managing the Atewa Range forest reserve, with specific reference to the institutional context, pressures and threats facing the reserves, as well as forest management and livelihood-conflicts. Ghana is signatory to several international conventions on the environment including the United Nations Convention on Biological Diversity, and has an obligation to implement national programmes under these conventions. It is therefore important to investigate the challenges militating against effective implementation of these programmes, notably management challenges of protected areas.

Methods The data for this paper were derived from three different surveys conducted between November 2007 and January 2011. The first set of data was collected through questionnaire administration of 73 respondents in thirteen nearby communities Fig. 1. Locational Map of Atewa Reserve of the Atewa Range reserve in 2007. The

second data set came from a protected area It is the largest forest reserve in Ghana effective management assessment exercise, covering a total of 23,663 hectares and lies which employed the rapid assessment and

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within the moist semi-deciduous forest admitted during the field survey that they zone. The reserve, together with Tano Offin treasure the forest for its intrinsic value, is one of the only two reserves in the enhancement of micro-climate and the country that contains upland evergreen freshness it provides. forest. These two reserves together hold about 95% of the upland evergreen forest in Atewa RFR is, therefore, of vital importance the country with Atewa reserve alone both to conservationists and economic containing about 17,400 ha of this unique users. There is however intense pressure forest (Ntiamoa-Baidu et al, 2001). It from individual community members, contains nationally rare avifauna including private companies and government to Columbus unicincta, Cercococcyx olivinus, exploit the economic resources of the forest Indicator exiilis, and Smiththornis capensis, whilst conservationists, on the other hand, among others. The forest is also endemic to advocate strongly for its protection. six butterfly species namely Mylothris atewa, Deudorix sp., nov., Cupidesthes sp. nov., Institutional context Anthene aurea, A. helpsi and Acraea kibi, out The Forest Services Division is one of the of a total of 460 butterfly species that are five main divisions of the Ghana Forestry found in the forest. This makes the reserve Commission, in charge of forestry in Ghana. the smallest single forest in West Africa with The Division has four main units namely such large number of butterfly species administration, development, management (Ntiamoa-Baidu et al, 2001). Atewa RFR has and working plans, and rural forestry, each therefore been officially classified as of them administered by a deputy chief Globally Significant Biodiversity Area conservator of forests (Asante, 2005). It has (GSBA) in 1999 and listed in 2001 as an the mandate to ensure effective Important Bird Area (IBA) (Ntiamoa-Baidu management and protection of the country’s et al, 2000; Ntiamoa-Baidu et al, 2001; Rapid forests. The other related divisions include Assessment Porgram, 2007). The reserve is the Wildlife Division, responsible for the also very significant for the ecosystem conservation and management of wildlife in services which it provides. It serves as the general, and the management of wildlife main watershed for three nationally protected areas in particular, within important river systems namely, the Ayensu representative ecological zones of the River, the Densu River and the Birim River, country; and the Timber Industry all of which play significant roles in both Development Division responsible for rural and urban water supplies to parts of development and utilization of the nation’s southern Ghana (Ntiamoa-Baidu et al, 2001, timber resources. The other divisions are Rapid Assessment Program, 2007). the Wood Industries Training Centre and the Resource Management Support Centre, both The Atewa RFR contains valuable economic of which provide training support to the resources, including rare tropical timber Forestry Commission. species like mahogany (Kyaya sp.) and odum (Milicia excels) and habours a variety of The Atewa RFR is under the authority of the forest wood and non-wood products useful Fanteakwa District (Eastern Region) of the for local livelihood enhancement. Parts of Forest Services Division. The reserve is the reserve contain deposits of gold and divided into three Ranges, namely the bauxite. Indications during fieldwork are Suhum Range in the south, the Kibi Range in that the government has granted license for the centre and the Anyinam Range in the the exploitation of bauxite in the reserve to north. Each of the three Ranges is headed by feed the national aluminum industry. The a Range Supervisor who is accountable to forest further has cultural significance as the District Manager. At least four forest some rivers within the forest are considered guards are assigned to each Range as deities and objects of worship by the local Supervisor to help maintain law and order population. Most inhabitants within the area and to clean the reserve boundaries. Each of

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the Range Supervisors is tasked to manage, rewarding to most of the respondents whose protect and develop the portions of the average consumption of forest products for forest reserves under their control. the year 2007 was worth about US$234 per household. Since the Atewa RFR was declared by Conservation International as a Globally The dilemma here is whether to prioritize Significant Biodiversity Area (GSBA), funds the needs of the rural poor whose lands to finance activities in the reserve come were taken over by the government for directly from the government through the protection, without providing any Forestry Commission. By its status as GSBA, compensation to the individuals who used Atewa RFR is supposed to enjoy total the areas before, or protect the forest with protection excluding every human activity all the benefits that goes with it. This is a apart from education and research. conflict situation for which Sommerville et However, the reality is that the reserve is al. (2009) suggested that, unless there is under severe pressure and risks losing its fairness and transparency in benefit sharing, status as a GSBA in the near future. “win-win” solutions or the “win-win-win” solutions suggested by Meffe (2002) (in Socio-economic significance of the Atewa which the needs of local people, institutions RFR and ecosystems are met) cannot be The Atewa RFR provides livelihood achieved. enhancement opportunities for most local community members, who are farmers. As Management challenges of Atewa Range Morgan (1996) indicated, most peasant Forest Reserve farmers will carry out parallel activities like Based on the RAPPAM methodology, the hunting and gathering to supplement their research findings revealed that the Atewa earnings and dietary needs. During the field RFR is faced with pressures and varying survey, respondents admitted that they degrees of threats. As illustrated in Fig. 2, extract wood products from the forest for illegal logging constituted the highest the local handicraft industry to produce scoring pressure and the biggest threat to items like pestles, mortars and cane baskets conservation, followed by agricultural for the market. Chewing sticks and sponges encroachment and adjacent land-use. (for brushing the teeth), wrapping leaves "Adjacent land-use", in this context, refers to used by market women and construction other types of land use outside the reserve, poles are also collected. Non-timber which make protected areas isolated products extracted from the forest include "islands" in the landscape, especially in the wild honey, wild fruits, herbs for medicine, absence of buffer zones established around mushrooms and spices. Trade in bush-meat, them. Such activities include small scale including snails, is also a very lucrative mining, farming and logging. Other venture in the area. Collectively, 95% of the pressures and threats with high scores sampled population who reported that they included mining, illegal entry including were farmers engaged in one or more of poaching, high human population density these activities. Such supplementary and poverty in nearby communities. activities were reported to be very

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Fig. 2. Pressure and Threat in the Atewa Range Forest Reserve

Responses from the interviews with the of these companies have exhausted their forestry officials managing the Atewa RFR concessions and are encroaching upon the confirmed the results illustrated in Fig. 2. reserve to prospect for gold. The operators According to these interviews, illegal cut down trees, clear the forest, divert chainsaw operations, illegal farming, stream courses and completely remove the poaching and mining were the most serious top soil that might support re-growth. These management problems. Chainsaw operators activities have also lead to the opening up of without licenses often walk deep into the numerous access routes into the reserve, forest and carry out their activities mostly at through which encroachers entered. night. The forest guards on duty sometimes only look on helplessly especially when overwhelmed by the numbers of the operators, who can be very hostile. The field survey however revealed that, in some areas, illegal chainsaw operation seems to have reduced tremendously after licenses to operate were granted to small scale mining companies in the area. The reason for this was that most of the young men hired by illegal chainsaw operators to transport sawn timber out of the forest have changed to working in the mines. The greater majority of the youth however remain unemployed, which remains a great source of worry.

Another challenge is illegal gold mining. Plate 1. Abandoned licensed surface gold mine Areas outside the reserve have been given at the fringe of Atewa RFR near Kibi out by government as mining concessions to small scale mining companies (Plate 1). Most

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Yet another major potential threat is the on- weaknesses and poverty in the rural areas going discussions by government to open up remain unaddressed. Habitat destruction, the reserve for bauxite mining. Several disruption of ecosystem services and attempts by conservationists and civil erosion of biodiversity is likely to continue society organizations to discourage the under the prevailing conditions. It is government from this have so far not therefore incumbent on policy makers to yielded any positive results. The understand the complexities of these government’s short term economic gains challenges especially the local context so as appear to supersede long term to adopt appropriate strategies to address environmental benefits of the reserve and them. should be reconsidered. Conclusions and the Way Forward Lack of cooperation from village elders and Forest conservation in Ghana has played a chiefs, is another major challenge according significant role in protecting the remaining to the respondents. The forest was regarded forests, especially in the high forest zone. by most of the local people living close to the Local livelihood issues and national forest as a major source of livelihood. Some economic aspirations coupled with weak of the chiefs, therefore, looked on institutions have, however, posed major unconcerned as the forest was being over challenges to the effective conservation of exploited on daily basis. Others cooperated the reserves. Given the challenges with the illegal operators for their own confronting institutions mandated to parochial interest. manage the reserves, it is obvious that the success of any intervention measures would Military support was brought in occasionally depend greatly on institutional capacity to to maintain law and order in the reserve and address the challenges. Greater involvement to confiscate illegal lumber. This approach of of local people and support to the private law enforcement is however difficult to sector that provides increased livelihood maintain since the district office, which opportunities for the poor especially those hosted the military, was not well resourced living close to forest reserves would help to maintain the military presence over time. reduce forest exploitation. Support from other security agencies, notably the police, also did not achieve the There is also the need to enhance staff required results because these agencies are capacity to enable them handle illegal under-staffed and have other duties to carry encroachment more professionally. This out. Penalties prescribed for forest offences calls for better training and possibly arming under section 17 of the Timber Resource forest guards since the poachers and Management Act, 1997 (Act 547), and intruders they have to face are often well regulation 41 of LI 1649, are not severe armed. An alternative is to deploy a enough to stop the illegality. permanent military task force to protect the forest reserves from insistent encroachers. It was clear from the discussions carried out The task force could include both the police during the survey that local people will and forest guards to ensure constant continue to exploit forest resources as long surveillance. as the fundamental issues of institutional

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Regulations in Ghana’s statute books, such Food and Agriculture Organization of the as those under section 17 of the Timber United Nations, Rome. Resource Management Act, 1997 (Act 547), now considered obsolete, should also be Forestry Department. 2001. Forestry repealed and new ones enacted to ensure sector outlook studies: Ghana Ministry of that stiffer penalties are imposed on Lands and Forestry Country Report. offenders. FOSA/WP/12. Accra. Community education also needs to be intensified and the dangers of forest loss and Ghana Statistical Service. 2007. Economic its negative impacts should be carefully Survey 2001-2005, Ghana Statistical Service, explained to local people through local radio Accra, Ghana.131 pp. stations and other channels of communication. Already there have been Giliba, R. A., Celestine, S., Mafuru, C. S., reported cases of hitherto perennial Paul, M., Kayombo, C. J., Kashindye, A. M., streams, which take their sources from the Leonard, I. Chirenje, L. I. and Musamba, E. Atewa RFR, drying up during the dry season B. 2011. Human activities influencing because of loss of forest cover. There were deforestation on Meru catchment forest also reports that the area in which the reserve, Tanzania. J Hum Ecol, 33(1): 17-20. butterfly sanctuary within the reserve is Glastra, Rob. (ed). 1999. Cut and run: Illegal found has been cleared and it is not known logging and timber trade in the tropics. where the butterflies have moved. International Development Research Centre. Community education is therefore necessary Ottawa Cairo Dakar Johannesburg for biodiversity protection in the reserve. Montevideo Nairobi New Delhi Singapore.

Finally, traditional authorities namely Hockings, M., Stolton, S., Leverington, F., village elders and chiefs should be Dudley, N., and Corrau, J. 2006. Evaluating empowered to prosecute offenders when effectiveness: A framework for assessing caught. Chiefs known to be in the habit of management effectiveness of protected condoning illegal activities should face areas. 2nd Edition, IUCN WCPA and severe sanctions. University of Queensland, Gland Switzerland and Brisane Australia. IUCN, 2003. References Asante, M. S. 2005. Deforestation in Ghana: IUCN, 1999. Parks for Biodiversity. Policy Explaining the chronic failure of forest Guidance based on experience in ACP preservation policies in a developing countries. Prepared by the World country. University Press of America. Commission on Protected Areas of IUCN— Lanham, Maryland. The World Conservation Union. European Commission, Directorate-General for Fairhead, J., Leach, M. 1998. Reframing Development (DGVIII), Brussels. 119 pp. deforestation: Global analysis and local realities – Cases from West Africa. London: Jachmann, Hugo, 2008. Illegal wildlife use Routledge. and protected area management in Ghana. Biological Conservation 141 1906 – 1918. Forest Resources Assessment (FRA). 2010. Key findings of global forest resources Meffe, G., Nielsen, L., Knight, R. and assessment, FAO Media Centre. Schenborn, D. 2002. Ecosystem http://www.fao.org/forestry/fra/fra2010/e management: Adaptive, community-based n/. conservation. Washington, D.C.: Island Press. Morgan, W. B. 1996. “Poverty, Food and Agriculture Organization vulnerability and rural development” in (FAO). 2009. State of the World’s Forest Benneh, G., W. B. Morgan, and J. I. Uitto 2009. (eds). Sustaining the Future; Economic

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Social & Environmental Change in Sub- Raven, P. 1980. Research priorities in Saharan African U.N.U. Press, Tokyo, pp 17- tropical biology. National Academy of 51. Sciences Press, Washington, D.C., USA.

Noss, R. F., and Cooperrider, A. 1994. Sommerville, M., Jones, J.P.G., Saving nature's legacy: Protecting and Rahajaharison, M. & Milner-Gulland, E. restoring biodiversity. Defenders of Wildlife 2009. Local perceptions of fairness and and Island Press, Washington, D.C. benefit distribution in a Payment for Environmental Services intervention, Ntiamoa-Baidu, Yaa. 2008. Managing Menabe, Madagascar. Ecological Economics, Ghana’s natural resources and the doi:10.1016/j.ecolecon.2009.11. environment since independence: a critical assessment, In: K. Gyekye Ed. Ghana@50 Anniversary pp 133-166, G-Pak Ltd, Accra.

Ntiamoa-Baidu, Y., Owusu, E. H., Daramani, D. T. & Nuoh, A. A. 2001.

Important Bird Areas of Ghana. Chapter in Fishpool, L. D. C & Evans, M. I. (eds.) Important Bird Areas in Africa and Associated Islands, Priority sites for Conservation pp 367-389.

Ntiamoa-Baidu, Y., Asamoah, S., Owusu, E. H. & Owusu-Boateng, K. 2000. Avifauna of two upland evergreen forest reserves, the Atewa Range and Tano Offin in Ghana. Ostrich, 71: 277-281.

Rapid Assessment Program. 2007. Biodiversity in the Atewa Range Forest Reserve, Ghana. Conservation International, Arlington, VA, USA.

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Harvesting and commercialization of Introduction Gnetum spp. (Okok) for poverty netum spp. is a non-wood forest alleviation and food security in product found naturally in the humid Cameroon G forest zone of Nigeria, Cameroon, Central African Republic (CAR), Gabon, Julius Chupezi Tieguhong1, William Armand Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC), Mala2, Ousseynou Ndoye3 Equatorial Guinea, Angola and Mozambique and Sophie Grouwels4 (Hoare, 2007; Bamoninga, 2006). Gnetum spp have a number of vernacular names: koko in the CAR, Gabon, Congo and Angola; fumbwa in DRC; okazi and afang in Igbo and Efik/Ibibio tribes of Nigeria, eru and okok in Anglophone and Francophone parts of Cameroon respectively. Okok is an indigenous leafy vegetable largely consumed Summary because, nutritionally, its protein richness A survey was undertaken in the Centre Region (eight essential amino acids) makes it useful of Cameroon (Lekié Division), where the as a meat substitute in areas where meat is harvesting of a leafy forest vegetable known scarce, thus good for fighting against as Gnetum spp. (okok) is commonplace. The malnutrition and certain ailments (Abia et results showed that the collectors of okok al., 2007). Okok comprises two species of were mostly young people (mean age = 25 climbing vines (Gnetum africanum and years), 89% of whom were women and 51% Gnetum buchholzianum), found in farms, native to the area. The analysis of the income fallows, secondary and primary forests, portfolios of okok harvesters showed eight available year-round. Its abundance is income sources classified as major or minor however presently declining (Tieguhong et sources according to individuals. Okok al., 2009a, 2009b; Ndoye et al., 2006; harvesting was considered by 29% of Shiembo, 2000). harvesters as a major occupation. Typically, Economically, okok plays an important role gross annual income from okok varied from in the national economy, where a significant one harvester to another with 58% of them quantity is sold to raise income for local getting less than 200,000 CFAF and 17% populations, providing employment getting more than 400,000 CFAF annually. opportunities to many women (Noubissie et The article highlights some challenges facing al., 2008). Moreover, large quantities are the sustainability of the resource and the exported and sold in other countries such as opportunities it offers for poverty alleviation Nigeria, many European countries and the and food security in Cameroon. United States of America (Tabuna, 2007). In 2007, 4,180 tons from the Southwest, Littoral and Centre regions of Cameroon were harvested, with 2,000 tons worth US$ 13.8 million exported to Europe (Tabuna, 1 Tieguhong Julius Chupezi, PhD. Regional 2007). Coordinator GCP/RAF/408/EC FAO-PFNL Yaoundé. Cameroon. Tel: +237 75622222 Email: Major threats to this important forest [email protected] vegetable include: the use of unsustainable 2 William Armand Mala. FAO-NWFP, BP 281 harvesting techniques, forest clearance for Yaoundé, Cameroon. Email: farmlands (loss of habitat), increasing [email protected] demand and a low level of domestication 3 Ousseynou Ndoye, FAO-NWFP, BP 281 and lack of integration of the species in the Yaoundé, Cameroon. Email: agroecosystems (Shiembo, 2000). Despite [email protected] the importance of this forest vegetable, the 4 Sophie Grouwels, Forestry Officer, FAO, Rome, Italy. Email: [email protected] challenges facing its year-round availability

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have not been fully documented and precise contributions of okok’s harvesting and data on its contribution to poverty commercialization to the livelihoods of alleviation and food security of those harvesters are discussed below in terms of households that depend on this species is poverty alleviation and food security. lacking. The article aims at filling this knowledge gap as well as making Poverty alleviation suggestions on ways forward to promote the The analysis of the income sources of okok use and sustainability of this valuable food harvesters showed eight different source. occupational categories as major or minor sources of income (farmers, okok Methodology harvesters, traders, students, collectors of The study was conducted in the Centre other forest products, tailors, hair dressers Region of Cameroon, a biogeographical zone and carpenters). Okok harvesting was characterised by humid forest and forest considered by 29% of those interviewed as a landscape mosaics with a high level of major occupation. Farmers, students, natural resource use and population density. traders and collectors of other forest The region also encompasses significant products represented 31%, 29%, 5% and spatial variation in market access, soils and 2% of harvesters respectively. The study climate. The Lekié Division was selected showed that the gross income of households within the Centre Region because it is one of was influenced by both major and minor the main areas for the collection of okok in occupations. Most respondents with Cameroon. Thirty-eight villages from three earnings between 10000-50000 CFAF and sub-divisions were selected for the study: above 200000 CFAF got their gross income Sa’a (25), Monatélé (8) and Ebebda (5). In from major occupations. Respondents with each selected village, two to four households gross income between 50000 CFAF and were randomly sampled for detailed 200000 CFAF got an appreciable proportion questionnaire interviews, giving a total of of their income from minor occupations. 101 household interviews. Students were mostly minor harvesters of Results okok, 17% of whom earned between 10000- Collectors of okok were mostly young 50000 CFAF, 37% between 50000 – 100000 people with mean age of 25 years (Standard CFAF and 34% between 100000 -200000 deviation (SD)=11 years) with overall range CFAF; appreciable income for meeting of 11-60 years. 89% of them are women. The school needs. Typically, gross annual income locals of the area represented 51% of the from okok varied considerably from one harvesters while 45 percent were settlers harvester to another with about 58% of and 4% migrants. Only 3% of the them getting less than 200000 CFAF and respondents had no formal schooling, 51% 17% getting more than 400000 CFAF per had attended primary school, 21% annum (Figure 1). For most harvesters that secondary and 25% higher school; typifying earned more than 400,000 CFAF annually, a relatively literate group of people involved their income from okok was influenced by in the harvesting of okok. For the 101 the quantity harvested per trip, number of harvesters, their total household members trips made per month, number of months was 1087 people, with an average worked per year and distance to harvesting household size of 11 persons (SD=6). The sites.

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Figure 1: Gross annual income from okok harvesting per year (CFAF)

Food security given as gifts to friends and relatives. Total The role of okok in food security was monthly income from okok was estimated at reviewed in terms of proportion 1 623 480 CFAF; of this, 79.5% was used for consumed/used at the household level and buying food for personal or household use, the use of the income earned from selling 8.8% for paying school fees, 4% for paying the product to buy other food items. For the house rents and the remainder for meeting 101 harvesters studied, 80.2% retained part other needs such as buying clothes and of the okok harvested for personal use, funerals (Figure 2). mostly for cooking (74%); the rest was

Figure 2: Use of income from okok harvesting

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Conclusions Constraints and Opportunities. The The harvesting and commecialisation of Rainforest Foundation, 56 p. okok contributes substantially to the 4. NDOYE O., AWONO A. PREECE L., 2006. livelihoods of people, especially women, in Contribution of Non-Timber Forest the Lekié Division of Cameroon, in terms of Products to MDGs Evidence from CIFOR increase of incomes and diversification of research in Central and West Africa. diets. This is especially important for Communication made in CIFOR, Cameroon where 50.6% of the population Yaoundé, March 2006. lives on less than US$2/day. With dwindling 5. NLEND V.G.B., 2007. L’exploitation de availability of okok resources in natural l’okok (Gnetum africanum) par les forests, and in order to perpetuate benefits femmes au Cameroun. Analyse from okok harvesting, the integration of sociologique de l’émergence d’une okok within traditional land use systems cueillette de rente et de ses implications requires urgent attention. Fortunately, socioéconomiques et environnementales research over the last 15 years on the dans la région forestière de Sa’a. domestication of okok has provided Mémoire de DEA. Université de promising results. Some questions arise, Neuchâtel. however, as to the social and economic 6. NOUBISSIE E., TIEGUHONG J. C., NDOYE O., implications of domestication of okok on 2008. Analyse des aspects socio- local people, presently dependent on wild économiques des produits forestiers populations for livelihoods. These include non-ligneux (PFNL) en Afrique Centrale. the need to review present land tenure FAO/GCP/RAF/398/GER. FAO/CIFOR, impediments related to women; and the Yaoundé. distinction between domesticated and wild- 7. SHIEMBO N.P., 2000. Pour une gestion harvested okok with reference to the durable des Okok (Gnetum africanum et prevailing government taxation system (10 Gnetum buchholzianum) : des produits CFAF per kilogram of product harvested and forestiers non ligneux surexploités dans sold in Cameroon, giving that domesticated les forêts d’Afrique Centrale. FAO, Rome. products are not supposed to be taxed, 8. TABUNA J., 2007. Commerce régional et similar to agricultural crops). international des produits forestiers non ligneux alimentaires et des produits References agricoles traditionnels en Afrique 1. ABIA W. A., NUMFOR F., WANJI S., Centrale. FAO, Rome. 139p. TCHEUNTUE F., 2007. Energy and nutrient 9. TIEGUHONG J.C., NDOYE O., TCHATAT M., contents of “waterfufu and eru”. African CHIKAMAI B., 2009a. Processing and Journal of Food Science, October 2007, Marketing of Non-Wood Forest Products 016-019. for Poverty Alleviation in Africa. 2. BAMONINGA, B.T. 2006. Analyse de l’état Discovery and Innovation 21(SFM de lieux du secteur Produits forestiers Special Edition No.1): 60-65. non ligneux et leur évaluation à la 10. TIEGUHONG J.C., NDOYE O., VANTOMME P., contribution de la sécurité alimentaire GROUWELS S., ZWOLINSKI J., MASUCH J., en République Démocratique du Congo. 2009b. Coping with crisis in Central Rapport d’étude. FAO, Kinshasa. Africa: enhanced role for non-wood 3. HOARE A.L., 2007. The use of non-timber forest products. Unasylva 233(60) forest products in the Congo Basin: 2009/3: 49-54.

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Utilization of non-timber forest products (NWFPs) by the FAO (1995, 2001), products (NTFPs) for economic include all goods or items of biological origin development in Nigeria as well as services derived from forest or any land under similar use, and exclude Borokini Temitope Israel 1 wood in all its forms. Furthermore, Andel (2006) defined Non-timber forest products (NTFPs) as wild plant and animal products harvested from forests, such as wild fruits, vegetables, nuts, edible roots, honey, palm and medicinal plants, poisons snails and bush meat. However, ntfps should not be limited to those from the forests, but also Summary covers those from the savannah woodlands Non-timber forest products (NTFPs) and other wooded lands. contribute immensely to food security, poverty alleviation, economic development, NTFPs have contributed immensely to and household and national income sustainable development and growth in generation among many other benefits. This Africa. Pimentel et al (1997), for instance, paper gives a synopsis of ntfps in Nigeria, estimated that some 300 million people their diversity and diverse uses, with specific obtain part or all of their livelihood and food examples of the economic potentials of from forests, while ntfps worth about US Moringa oleifera, Lonchocarpus cyanescens, $90 billion are harvested each year. FAO Vitellaria paradoxa, Acacia senegal and (2004) reported that more than 1.3 billion Dacryodes edulis. The paper highlights the people depend on fisheries, forests and challenges facing the economic utilization of agriculture for employment – close to half of ntfps in Nigeria and solutions were suggested. all jobs worldwide.

Selected Nigerian NTFPs and their Introduction economic potentials he term ‘non-timber forest product’, Nigeria is blessed with vast biodiversity, also called ‘non-wood forest products’ mostly in the forest ecosystems, many of T(NWFPs) in some regions of the world which are used as ntfps. Okafor (1980) gave has been used (of recent) to replace minor an account of 150 edible indigenous plant forest product as it was formerly species of ntfps in the rainforest and 51 particularized (Aiyeloja and Ajewole, 2006). species of food and fodder trees and shrubs Non-timber forest products (NTFPs) are in the savannah, while Isichei (1995) also defined as all the biological material (other identified over 200 plants and animal than industrial round wood and derived species used as ntfps inside the Omo sawn timber, wood chips, wood-based panel Biosphere reserve, Southwest Nigeria. Some and pulp) that may be extracted from selected ntfps used in Nigeria and their natural ecosystems, managed plantations etc economic potentials are stated in table 1. and can be utilized within the household, be marketed or have social, cultural or religious significance (Wickens, 1991). The NTFPs, also described as the Non-wood forest

1 Borokini Temitope Israel. Scientific Officer, National Centre for Genetic Resources and Biotechnology (NACGRAB), Moor Plantation, Ibadan, Nigeria. Email: [email protected] Telephone: +2348054506902

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Table 1: Selected Nigerian NTFPs and their economic potentials

S/N Plant name Economic uses and potentials 1 Moringa oleifera Parts sold for medicinal uses, seed for water purification, biogas production, seed oil used in cosmetic industries (Foidl et al, 2001). In the case of water purification alone, the use of Moringa seed for water purification was reported to have 99% success of bacteria removal and also used for tanning leather (Ozumba pers. comm.). This will save Nigeria up to US$2.25 million a year used for importing alum. 2 Acacia senegal Nigeria is the third largest gum Arabic producer in the world, producing 17,000 metric tonnes as at 2003, reaping about US$12.75 million in export. However, gum Arabic farmers claim only 40% of the capacity is tapped (NGARA, 2004). A tree has the capacity to produce up to 500g of gum Arabic, and up to 200kg/ha. Gum Arabic is used as preservatives in soft drinks. Most of the production comes from the wild, Acacia plantation should be encouraged to increase production, hence economic potentials. 3 Lonchocarpus The plant yields an indigo dye for making popular adire cloth cyanescens (Oyelola, 1992). The textile was very popular in the 1950s and 1960s, but is fading away in Nigeria due to popular acceptance of other textiles. A huge investment in this area can yield hundreds of thousands of US dollars, especially in sales to international tourists, who like them. 4 Vitellaria paradoxa Nigeria is the world’s highest producer of shea butter, producing about 414,000 metric tonnes in 2005 (FAO, 2005), but most of it is rejected in the international market. There is no record of revenue from shea butter for Nigeria since 1995, but as at 1995, the revenue generated from shea sector was N3.58 billion (above US$23 million, based on current exchange rate) (OSAN, 1997). The potentials in this tree are yet to be fully utilized. Butter highly demanded in international markets for cosmetics. 5 Dacryodes edulis Widely eaten as food, seeds proteinous, source of income from exportation to Europe. Mature trees yield between 1,500 and 10,000 fruits a year, generating US$75-150 in cash income. 1kg of fresh Dacryodes edulis costs 10-13 Euro (US$14-15) (Adewusi, 2004). The export of Dacryodes edulis from Central Africa and Nigeria to France, Belgium and the UK was estimated to be over 326 tonnes in 1999, worth over US$2 million (Awono et al., 2002).

Challenges facing economic development account in GDP calculations (Osemeobo & of NTFPs in Nigeria Ujor, 1999). The following challenges have It should be noted that income are being been identified as affecting the sustainable generated from ntfps at local, national and development of NTFPs in Nigeria: international levels, but over 90% of NTFPs 1. Technology Incubation: In Nigeria, respond to market failures and most research work end on the tables of the consequently, they are not taken into scientists or at most on the pages of journals

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(Ragasa et al, 2010). Not much has been but also ‘claim’ the ownership of the forests. achieved in the area of technology For instance, all efforts, including court incubation for industrial application to actions, to relocate the communities inside improve the economy, especially the the Omo Biosphere reserve, Southwest technologies that can improve and increase Nigeria had failed. The best solution is to the production of these ntfps. integrate these communities into forest 2. Manufacturing Sector: The management. manufacturing sector of Nigeria is faced x Government Intervention: The with a lot of challenges, mainly erratic Nigerian Government has a large role to play power supply and importation of to encourage industrialization for manufactured goods, which have forced sustainable development, through provision over 850 big and small-scale industries to of steady power supply, capital and land for close down in the past 10 years. entrepreneurs. 3. Dependence on oil sector: Since the oil x Standardization of local products: For boom of the late 1970s, the contribution of instance, despite the fact that Nigeria is the agricultural sector to the GDP has declined highest producer of shea butter in the world, and remained between 37.8% and 41.5% most of it is rejected in the international from 1990 and 2001 (Okonjo-Iweala & market. Research and industrial efforts need Osafo-Kwaako, 2006) and less than 28% to be focused on post-harvest processing of (World Bank, 2003). Today, the Nigerian our ntfps in order to boost trade, export and economy is been described as monoculture revenue generation for the nation’s in that crude oil accounts for about 95% of economic development. national export earning and about 65% of government revenues (World Bank, 2003). In conclusion, Nigeria has a lot of resources 4. Quantity of Raw Materials: Some of the – renewable and non-renewable – that can ntfps, such as medicinal plants, are not be used for sustainable development and available in large quantity in the wild. Any economic advancement. Efforts should be exploitation for industrial use will threaten channelled into the sustainable utilization of the survival of the plants. Furthermore, ntfps as a source of income generation, many of these plants have poor germination poverty alleviation, export earnings, rates, poor regeneration rates and slow employment and food security for the nation growth rates. In spite of their uses and in actualization of the Millennium economic potentials, their present wild Development Goals and the vision 20:20 of populations do not make them economically the nation. viable as raw materials for industries and sustainable development. References Suggested solutions Aiyeloja A.A and Ajewole O.I (2006). Non- x Domestication of wild plants: There is timber forest products’ marketing in Nigeria. the need to select, genetically improve and A case study of Osun state. Educational domesticate some of the wild plants with Research and Reviews 1 (2): 52-58. high economic potentials and possibly put them into cultivation or integrate them into Adewusi, H.G (2004). Bush Plum, Nigerian agroforestry, as a way to ensure steady case. In: Lopez, C and Shanley, P (eds.). supply of raw materials to industries, reduce Riches of the Forest: For health, life and pressure on the wild stock and provide jobs spirit in Africa, 25 – 28pp. for thousands of people. x Community-based Natural Resources Andel T.V (2006). Non-timber forest Management (CBNRM): Rural communities products the value of wild plants. Agromisa are found inside and all around all the Publication and CTA, the Netherlands. protected areas in Nigeria. They do not only depend on the forests for their livelihoods,

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Awono, A., Ndoye, O., Schreckenberg, K., Development in the Humid Tropics, Working Tabuna, H., Isseri, F. and Temple L. paper no. 11, UNESCO. (2002). Production and marketing of Safou NGARA (2004). Production and Marketing of (Dacryodes edulis) in Cameroon and Gum Arabic. NGARA Publication series 2. internationally: market development issues. Network for Natural Gums and Resins in Africa Forest Trees and Livelihoods 12: 125–148. (NGARA), September 2004. 88p.

FAO (1995). Non-wood forest products for Okafor, J.C (1980). Trees for food and fodder rural income and sustainable forestry. Food in the savannah areas of Nigeria. The International Tree crops Journal 1: 131 – 141. and Agriculture Organization of the United

Nations, Rome. Series No 7. Okonjo-Iweala, N. and Osafo-Kwaako, P.

(2006). Nigeria’s economic reforms: Progress FAO (2001). State of the World’s Forests and challenges. The Brookings Institution 2001. Food and Agriculture Organization of Working paper no 6, The Brookings the United Nations, Rome. ISBN 92-5- Institution, 1775 Massachusetts Ave, NW 104590-9. Washington DC 20036.

FAO (2004). The State of Food and Osemeobo, G.J and Ujor, G. (1999). The Non- Agriculture 2003 – 2004: Agriculture wood Forest Products of Nigeria. EC-FAO Biotechnology – Meeting the needs of the Partnership Programme. Poor? Rome, FAO. Oyelola, P. (1992). The beautiful and the FAO (2005). State of the World’s Forests useful: the Contribution of Yoruba women to 2005. Food and Agriculture Organization of indigo-dyed textiles. Nigerian Field 57, 61 – 66. the United Nations, Rome. ftp://ftp.fao.org/docrep/fao/007/y5574e/y Pimentel, D., McNair, M., Buck, L., Pimentel, 5574e00.pdf M. and Kamil, J. (1997). The value of forests to World Food Security. Human Ecology 25 (1): FAO (2009). State of the World’s Forests 91 – 120. 2009. Food and Agriculture Organization, Ragasa, C., Babu, S., Abdullahi, A.S and Rome. Abubakar, B.Y (2010). Strengthening Foidl, N., Makkar, H.P.S. and Becker K Innovation Capacity of Nigerian Agricultural (2001). The potential of Moringa oleifera for Research Organizations. IFPRI Discussion agricultural and industrial uses. In: “The Paper no 01050. International Food Policy Miracle Tree/ The Multiple Attributes of Research Institute. Moringa” (Ed. Lowell J Fuglie). CTA. USA. Isichei, A.O (1995). Omo Biosphere Reserve, Wickens, G.E (1991). Management issues for Current Status, Utilization of Biological Development of Non-Timber Forest Products. Resources and Sustainable Management. Unasylvia 42(165): 3-8 South-South Cooperation Programme on World Bank (2003). Nigeria Policy options Environmentally Sound Socio-Economic for growth and stability. Report no 26215 – NGA, Washington DC: The World Bank.

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Impact of Mangrove Forest be totally lost within 100 years. It is therefore Destruction on the Fisheries imperative to initiate a global strategy for Resources of the Niger Delta, Nigeria sustainable utilization and management of mangrove forest resources. There is the need Blessing J. Oribhabor1 and Mfon T. Udo2 to put an end to the destruction of mangrove forests in the Niger Delta and other mangrove habitats in Nigeria, for sustainable utilization, and recovery of biodiversity loss.

Introduction angrove forests known as ‘rainforest’ by the sea’ are one of M the most important coastal ecosystems in the world in terms of primary Summary production and coastal protection ( The mangrove forest of the Niger Delta, the http:///www.envfor.nic.m). largest in Africa and the fourth largest in the world has witnessed serious depletion, Mangrove forest dominates the low-energy primarily due to the fact that the rural intertidal zones of lagoons, estuaries, and livelihood of the area depends on the coastal systems in the tropics, subtropics, exploitation of the forest and its resources for and along some temperate coast (Twilley et nutritional and economic needs. The al., 1996). Mangrove forests are the most mangroves are threatened by the exotic Nypa typical forest formations of sheltered or mangrove palm (Nypa fruticans) coastlines in the tropics and subtropics. displacement, and oil pollution among other environmental pressures. The loss of Mangrove forest may be felled for uses such mangrove habitats in the Niger Delta, as aquaculture ponds, salt pans, agricultural particularly due to impact from oil use including rice fields, airport and road exploration and exploitation has resulted in construction, port and industrial declining fishery resources, due to loss of development, resettlement and village breeding grounds, livelihood, and biodiversity development . Moreover they are important loss. The inevitable consequences of factors in stabilizing the shoreline uncontrolled destruction of mangrove forest (http://www.panda.org). A number of and sand filling of wetlands for urbanization endangered and potentially vulnerable and industrialization are gradually erupting species are endemic in this mangrove area. in Nigeria. World mangrove experts are of the The importance of mangrove as fish opinion that the long term survival of nurseries has been one of the reasons mangroves is at great risk due to advanced to support its conservation and fragmentation of the habitats and that the management (Sheridan and Hays, 2003). services offered by the mangroves may likely Mangroves are rich in fishery resources, and provide breeding grounds for various species of finfish, prawns and as habitats for 1 Blessing Oribhabor PhD, Department of Fisheries crabs and mollusks. and Aquaculture, Faculty of Agriculture, University of Uyo, PMB 1017,Akwa Ibom State, In the past 20 years, the world has lost Nigeria. Email: [email protected] , almost 50 percent of its mangrove forests, Phone: +2348033558270 making them one of the most endangered landscapes. It is essential to use them as a 2 Mfon T. Udo PhD, Department of Fisheries and shield against tsunami and as a resource to Aquaculture, Faculty of Agriculture, University of secure optimal socio-economic, ecological Uyo, PMB 1017,Akwa Ibom State, Nigeria. Email: and environmental benefits (Osti et al., [email protected] Phone: +2348028901377 2009).

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It is obvious and alarming that the mangrove world (Spalding et al., 1997). The vegetation forest of the Niger Delta has witnessed is dominated by Rhizophora racemosa serious depletion, due to the fact that rural (http://www.panda.org). livelihood in this region depends on the exploitation of the mangrove forest and its The Niger Delta covers 20,000km within resources, and the adverse anthropogenic wetlands of 70,000km2. It is home to 20 impacts. Based on the field experience of million people and 40 different ethnic the authors, encounter with fishermen, and groups. literature review, this paper presents information on the impact of mangrove Causes of mangrove forest destruction in forest destruction on the fisheries resources the Niger Delta and people of the Niger Delta, Nigeria. Habitat destruction through human encroachment has been the primary cause of Location, area of mangrove forest and mangrove loss. Mangrove forests in the population size in the Niger Delta Niger Delta is fast being replaced by Nipa The Niger Delta is located in the southern palm (Nypa fruticians) which was part of Nigeria bordering the Atlantic Ocean introduced from Singapore to Nigeria in in the Gulf of Guinea ecoregion (Fig.1 ). The 1906 to control coastal erosion, yet no result environment has been reported to be highly oriented action plan has been put in place to diverse and sensitive being the home of the conserve the mangrove. The significant largest stands of mangrove in Africa (over 1 threat of oil pollution, over-exploitation of million ha) and the fourth largest in the

Figure 1: Map of Nigeria showing Niger Delta

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fisheries and mangrove resources among (Adeyemo et al., 2009). Oil spillage has been other environmental pressures coupled with found to be impacting the fisheries poor interest and recognition for brackish resources adversely. Oil spills and water bodies and aquaculture pose a great development projects have led to large danger to the sustainability of the Niger mortalities of invertebrates and fishes, total Delta mangrove forests and the diverse fish decimation of shell fish, polychaete worms resources, and consequently the coastal and crustaceans in the mangrove areas. communities. Urbanisation of coastal Defoliation and death or oiled red mangrove communities is another significant threat to (Rhizophora racemosa) occurs 2 – 3 months the mangrove of the Niger Delta. Mangrove after oil spills in the mangrove swamp. forests are felled and mangrove areas sand Damage is due to the smothering of filled for this purposes. pneumatophores of mangroves. Prop roots and attached fauna are killed, and breeding Impact of mangrove forest destruction on grounds for fish are lost. The economic fisheries resources and people of the conditions in the Niger Delta reflect Niger Delta. unequivocally that poverty is endemic in the The growing human population and region and it is getting worse as a result of economic activities of the Niger Delta have oil pollution of the coastal water that been described (Mmom, 2007). The impact provides fish consumed by the people. Over of human activities on the mangrove forest recent years, there have been public outcry during the pre-colonial era was minimal due by fishermen of the region over decline in to the low population densities, rudimentary fish catches as a result of oil pollution and technology and subsistence agriculture. they resort to fishing offshore. This has However, the case is different today. There contributed to the unrest and abating is presently high human population/density, militancy in the Niger Delta. commercial agricultural practices, sophisticated technology as well as There is a decline in the population and size industrialization. The cummulative effects of Typanotonus spp (periwinkle), of these contribute to the depletion of the Crassostrea gasar (oyster) and mudskippers forests and biodiversity decimation. Mmom which are easy source of protein and part of and Arokoyu (2010) have also described the cuisine for the people of the core Niger mangrove forest depletion, biodiversity loss Delta, due to uncontrolled destruction of the and traditional resources management mangrove forest and overfishing due to practices. They posited that the rural increasing population density. Oribhabor livelihood of the area depends on the and Ogbeibu (2010) have reported that exploitation of the mangrove resources, decline in predatory fish assemblage was resulting in over exploitation and rapid loss due to joint impacts of pedestrian bridge of these resources; that the mangrove forest crossing, dumping of domestic wastes and is not in any known form of protection; and regular cutting of mangrove. Cutting of that the local people have an efficient was of mangrove, sandfilling of mangrove habitats protecting and conserving their resources for human settlement, oil pollution among which could be exploited to enhance other anthropogenic activities resulting in mangrove resource conservation of the environmental degradation cause loss of region. habitat for the diverse shell and fin fish resources of the Niger Delta, and The loss of mangrove habitats in the Niger consequently decline in the diversity and Delta, particularly due to impact from oil abundance of the species. exploration and exploitation has resulted in declined fishery resources, livelihood, and Conservation, management and biodiversity loss. It has been estimated that sustainable use of the mangrove forest 60% of the fish in the Gulf of Guinea breed in All conservation efforts require efficient the mangrove forest of the Niger Delta legislation to control activities that might

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adversely affect the ecosystem. Several distribution should be controlled and its countries, notably in the Asian region, have unwanted migration should be blocked established national mangrove committees through coastal development. (NATMANCON) to provide the necessary input for adequate mangrove management. For example, the Malaysian NATMANCOM References recommended that not more than 20 Adeyemo, O. K., Ubiogoro, O. E. and percent of existing mangrove in a given Adedeji, O. B. 2009. Oil exploitation, district should be cleared for pond fisheries resources and sustainable construction, and that there should be a 100 livelihood in the Niger Delta, Nigeria. Nature – metre butter zone along the main high- and Faune, 24(1): 56-61. water, level of the sea. Efforts have been made to abate the depletion of mangrove Dennis, G. D. 1992. Island mangrove habits forest in Nigeria, but such efforts are grossly as spawning and nursery area for inadequate. Such efforts include designation commercially important fishes in the of protected areas, legislation, Caribbean. Gulf and Caribbean fisheries Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA), Institute, 41: 205-225. Environmental evaluation and alternative use of mangrove. Duke, N. C., Meynecke, O. J., Dittmann, S., Ellison, A. M.,, Anger, K., Berger, U., World mangrove experts are of the opinion Cannic, S., Eiele, K., Ewel, K. C., Field, C. D., that the long term survival of mangroves is Kodedam, N., Lee, S. Y., Marchand, C., at risk due to fragmentation of the habitats Nordhanus, L. and Dahdough-Guebas. and that the services offered by the 2007. A world without mangroves? mangroves may likely be totally lost within Letters.www.sciencemag.org. 100 years (Duke et al., 2007). It is therefore imperative to initiate a global strategy for Mmom, P. C. and Arokoyu, S. B., 2010. sustainable utilization and management of Mangrove forest depletion, biodiversity loss mangrove forest resources. and traditional resources management practices in the Niger Delta, Nigeria. Conclusion Research Journal of Applied Sciences, While there is record of estimated loss of Engineering and Technology, 2(1): 28-34. mangrove forest in Asia and America, there is little or no record of the extent of Mmon, P. C., 2007. Impact of human density mangrove decline in Africa. There is the and economic activities on the mangrove need to put an end to destruction of forest of the Niger Delta. Paper presented at mangrove forest in the Niger Delta and the the Annual Conference of the International other mangrove habitats in Nigeria, for Association for Impact Assessment, held in sustainable utilization, and recovery of Seoul South Korea, 1 – 9th June. biodiversity loss. There is the need to intensity effort in the protection of the Niger Moffat, D. and Linden, O., 1995. Perception Delta mangrove forest. The government of and reality: assessing sustainable Nigeria should enact stringent laws for development in the Niger River Delta. sustainable utilization of mangrove Ambio, 24: 527-538. resources. Mangrove areas should be included in marine and coastal protected Oribhabor, B. J. and Ogbeibu, A. E., 2010. areas. Monitoring and research is necessary. The ecological impact of anthropogenic Further uncontrolled cutting of mangrove activities on the predatory fish assemblage and sandfilling of mangrove areas for urban of a tidal creek in the Niger Delta, Nigeria. development should be discouraged. Nypa Research Journal of Environmental Sciences, fruticans should be exploited for the many 4(3): 271-279. goods and services for which it is used. Its

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Osti, R., Tanaka, S. and Tokioka, T., 2009. International Society of Mangrove The importance of mangrove forest in Ecosystem (ISME), Japan. tsunami disaster mitigation. Disasters, 33(2): 203-213. Twilley, R. R., Snedaker, S. C., Yáňex – Arancibia and Medina, E. 1996. Sheridan, P. and Hay, C. 2003. Are Biodiversity and ecosystem processes in mangroves nursery habitat for transient tropical estuaries: perspectives of mangrove fishes and decapods? Wetlands, 23(2): 449- ecosystems. P. 327-370. In H. A. Mooney, J. 458. H. Cushman, E. Medina, O. E. Sala, and E. D. Schulze (eds). Functional roles of Spalding, M., Blasco, F. and Field, C., 1997. biodiversity: a global perspective. John Wiley World mangrove ecosystem atlas. The and Sons Ltd. New York, NY, USA.

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regional guidelines from the Central African Impact of laws and regulations on the Forests Commission (COMIFAC) for the use of non-wood forest products and sustainable management of NWFP of plant the wellbeing of forest dependent origin provides an orientation for communities in Central Africa governments on how to improve their legal and regulatory frameworks. Lessons learnt Juliane Masuch1, Ousseynou Ndoye2, from consequent national efforts led by 3 Julius Chupezi Tieguhong , governments in Central Africa and the Food 4 5 William Armand Mala and Armand Asseng Zé and Agriculture Organization of the United

Nations (FAO) are documented.

Introduction

on-wood forest products (NWFP) provide sources of food and income Nfor forest-dependant people and Summary revenue for small and medium scale Non-wood forest products (NWFP) comprise enterprises (SME) involved in the national, a variety of natural resources and represent a regional and even international trade. FAO valuable source of food, medicine, income and defines non-wood forest products as “goods employment for local communities in Central of biological origin other than wood, derived Africa. Despite their importance, NWFP are from forests, other wooded land and trees not properly taken into account by national outside forests” (FAO 1999). They are also policies and legal and regulatory frameworks used for medicinal purpose, construction, e.g. access to NWFP resources for local tools, furniture and cultural traditions. In communities is limited to their own economic crises or during food shortages, consumption needs and excludes commercial NWFP often serve as a safety net for urban use; the tax system and administrative and rural dwellers and contribute to the procedures for trade licenses are not adapted stability dimension of food security to the realities of small and medium scale (Tieguhong et al. 2009). enterprises; quotas for exploitation of NWFP do not exist or do not enforce the sustainable Although, it is well-known that NWFP use of endangered species. A set of sub- contribute to household livelihoods and generate revenues for SME (Sunderland et 1 Juliane Masuch, FAO Representation, P.O. Box al. 2004), existing legislation neither 281, Yaoundé, Cameroon. promotes the sector’s development to tap Tel.: +237-22-202 742, their economic potentials, nor does it Email: [email protected] promote sustainability. This article 2 Ousseynou Ndoye, FAO Representation, P.O. Box documents regional and national efforts to 281, Yaoundé, Cameroon, Tel. +237-22-202 742, improve legal and regulatory frameworks in Email: [email protected] Central Africa and the lessons learned. 3 Julius Chupezi Tieguhong, FAO Representation, P.O. Box 281, Yaoundé, Cameroon, Methodology Tel: . +237-22-202 742 Email: [email protected] Most of the information used in this article is 4William Armand Mala, c/o FAO Representation, based on FAO’s work on NWFP in Central P.O. Box 281, Yaoundé, Cameroon, Africa conducted since 2005 in collaboration Tel: . +237-22-202 742, with the German Agency for International Email: [email protected] Cooperation (GIZ), the Centre for 5Armand Asseng Zé, FAO Representation, P.O. Box International Forestry Research (CIFOR), 281, Yaoundé, Cameroon. the World Agroforestry Center (ICRAF) and Tel.: +237-22-202 74 the Netherlands Development Organisation Email: [email protected] (SNV) under the supervision of the Central

African Forests Commission (COMIFAC).

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Analyses of national legal and regulatory x Legislations regarding forests are frameworks governing the NWFP sector in focused on the exploitation of timber for Cameroon, Central African Republic (CAR), exports; the forest codes generally make Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC), Congo, reference to NWFP as secondary or Equatorial-Guinea and Gabon were accessory products and list only some key conducted between 2006 and 2007 and NWFP of national importance. In contrast to summarized in a regional synthesis (FAO COMIFAC’s commitment towards a 2007). Based on a regional workshop in harmonisation of forest and fiscal policies, a 2006, decision-makers, politicians, scientists harmonized definition for NWFP in national and partners from development cooperation laws is missing. discussed the findings of the studies. x Harvesters and traders of NWFP need to

legalise their entrepreneurial status and An interdisciplinary working group has have to obtain licences for their activities. analyzed constraints for the development of Administrative procedures are often the NWFP sector in order to elaborate a oriented to the timber value chain and not regional model law that was geared at giving adapted to local realities. Most small and an orientation to COMIFAC member medium scale producers and traders countries on how to improve their laws, operate illegally; both, legal and illegal policies and institutions. In 2008, the so- traders are subjected to illegitimate called Sub-regional guidelines on the payments at numerous roadblocks. sustainable management of NWFP of plant origin in Central Africa were validated by all x The NWFP tax system distinguishes stakeholders and officially approved by upstream taxes to be paid on the quota or COMIFAC’s Ministerial Council (COMIFAC quantities allocated and downstream taxes 2010). to be paid on exported products; the first having a low recovery rate and the latter Results having a higher recovery rate. In the context The majority of laws and attributed forestry of domestication as a key element for a codes in Central Africa have the following sustainable NWFP use, no tax difference is common elements related to NWFP (Ndoye made between products collected in the et al.): forests and products harvested from x Land-use and forest legislation stem agricultural lands. from colonial times. The state has x Statistics on the potential of NWFP and inalienable rights on lands and sub-soils their exploitation in the production areas as which are superimposed on all other land- well as on their trade do not exist. Quotas use related legislation. Forests of the are allocated without knowledge of the permanent domain are state-owned and resource base and are not adapted to the comprise logging concessions, protected specific regeneration rates of the species. areas, communal forests, etc. Forests belonging to private parties and community x Private and government investments for enterprises are restricted to non-permanent the development of the NWFP sector are not domains. encouraged as these products are not included in poverty reduction and food x Although the indigenous right to “use, security strategies. At the moment of fructify, and abuse” is recognized in modern analyzing the legal frameworks, no national law, its interpretation and application raises or sub-regional strategies for an effective considerable difficulties due to valorisation of NWFP existed. contradictions between legal texts at different hierarchical levels. Generally, Lessons learned forest codes limit these rights to auto- The studies showed that policies and consumption excluding commercial use. legislations governing the NWFP sector in Central Africa do not encourage its economic

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development due to a multitude of reasons, In addition, FAO supports governments to key of which are (i) local communities bear develop national strategies and action plans the socio-economic risks of illegal NWFP for a sound sector development. Such trade, and benefits such as purchase of food, strategy already exists in Congo and is medicine, payment of transport or school currently elaborated in a multi-stakeholder fees are kept marginal due to limited NWFP dialogue in Gabon and the CAR. Although, user rights; (ii) small-and medium scale the implementation of these strategies is traders pass costs of illegitimate payments government’s responsibility, the realization at roadblocks, due to high administrative of planned activities tends to be slow due to hurdles and unclear taxation, on to missing financial resources and only step- producers by decreasing purchase prices or by-step changing priorities on stakeholders’ to consumers by increasing retail prices; and agendas. It is necessary to extend the limited (iii) ministries in charge of forests allocate sector view towards a wider approach quotas for NWFP exploitation without including different sectors involved in NWFP profound ecological knowledge and detailed value chains. National NWFP advisory economic statistics for concerned species committees initiated by FAO in Cameroon, leading to unsustainable use of certain Congo, DRC, CAR and Gabon respond to this species. In order to stimulate a pro-poor idea and involve stakeholders from oriented development of national NWFP ministries and civil society related forest, sectors and to promote the regional agriculture, small and medium scale integration and trade of NWFP and their enterprises, food security and environment, sustainable management, COMIFAC’s Sub- etc. regional guidelines on the sustainable management of NWFP of plant origin in References Central Africa propose common bases for All FAO documents are available online at their inclusion in the political, legislative, http://www.fao.org/forestry/50255/en/ fiscal and institutional frameworks. The set (Project GCP/RAF/398/GER), of guidelines focus on the extension of http://www.fao.org/forestry/enterprises/n traditional user rights of local communities wfp-centralafrica-eu/en/ (Project allowing a low-level commercial use, GCP/RAF/408/EC) and simplified procedures for the delivery of http://www.fao.org/forestry/nwfp/55079/ exploitation permits, improved tax and en/ (Project GCP/RAF/441/GER). trade regulations and the need for NWFP inventories for a sustainable allocation of COMIFAC (2010). Directives sous- exploitation quotas (COMIFAC 2010). régionales relatives à la gestion durable des produits forestiers non ligneux d’origine Since 2010, integration of COMIFAC’s végétale en Afrique centrale. Série politique guidelines in the forestry laws of Cameroon, No. 2. Also available at Congo, Gabon and CAR is underway with http://www.comifac.org/Members/tvtchua FAO’s support. Experiences show that this nte/directives-sous-regionales-relatives-a- process needs to be adapted to the country la-gestion-durable-des-pfnl-dorigine-vegetal specific context: In Cameroon and Congo, ongoing forestry law reviews allows FAO (2007f). Le cadre législatif et integrating NWFP-related changes into the réglementaire régissant l’utilisation des overall revision process whereas the Central produits forestiers non ligneux (PFNL) en African forestry code dates from 2008 and Afrique centrale. Produits Forestiers Non changes are focused on by-laws and Ligneux Document de travail No.6, also regulations. In Gabon, single articles of the available at forestry code are added and consequently ftp://ftp.fao.org/docrep/fao/012/ak426f/a by-laws adapted. k426f00.pdf

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FAO (1999). Towards a harmonized Sunderland, T. C.H., Harrison, S. T. Ndoye, definition of non-wood forest products. In: O. (2004). Commercialisaton of non-timber Unasylva, Vol. 50, Issue 198, no page, also forest products in Africa: history, context available at and prospects. In: Sunderland, T. C.H., http://www.fao.org/docrep/x2450e/x2450 Ndoye, O. (eds.), Forest Products, e0d.htm#fao%20forestry Livelihoods and Conservation. Case Studies of Non-Timber Forest Product Systems. Ndoye, O., Ebamane, S., Grouwels, S., Volume 2 - Africa. 3 Volumes. Jakarta: Knoop, D., Asseng Zé, A. (2008). Impact of Indonesia Printer (2), Vol. 1, p. 1–24. regulation on the performance of small and Tieguhong, J. C., Ndoye, O., Vantomme, P. medium forest enterprises (SMFE) in Grouwels, S., Zwolinski, J., Masuch, J. Central Africa. Unpublished manuscript. (2009). Coping with crisis in Central Africa: enhanced role for non-wood forest products. Unasylva, Vol. 60, Issue 233, p. 49–54, also available at http://www.fao.org/docrep/012/i1025e/i1 025e10.htm

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forests mainly occur in catchments and river COUNTRY FOCUS: valleys. Lesotho What is the economic significance of The Kingdom of Lesotho covers 30,355km2. It forests in your country’s sustainable is the only independent state in the world that development? lies entirely above 1,400 metres in elevation. Over 80% of the country lies above 1,800 metres. Lesotho is also the southernmost Nchemo Maile: Lesotho’s rural population landlocked country in the world. It lies is dependant upon biomass resources between latitudes 280 and 310 S, and including shrubs, cow-dung and crop longitudes 270 and 300 E. residues to meet their own energy needs. Lesotho’s harsh winters have meant that people require substantial energy for warmth in addition to food preparation. The overwhelming reliance of rural households on biomass fuels has placed tremendous pressure on biomass resources, while the use of dung and crop residues as alternatives to fuel wood has had adverse implication on soil fertility. In real terms, firewood provides 64% of the household energy in rural areas, with cow-dung and crop residues accounting for over 27% of the balance.

Nchemo Maile1

Nature & Faune: Please describe Lesotho in the context of its forest endowment.

Nchemo Maile: Of Lesotho’s total land area, less than 1% is under forest cover. Despite its scantiness, the patches of remaining indigenous trees and shrubs fulfill important socio-economic and ecological functions. Many rural people rely on indigenous trees Forest Reserve and shrubs for fuel and other products.

Large numbers of livestock obtain fodder, Basotho (the people of Lesotho) utilize trees shade and shelter from the meager to provide a wide range of values in addition indigenous woody vegetation. By providing to fuel. Studies have shown that trees in vegetative cover, indigenous trees and Lesotho provide edible fruits (especially shrubs play a critical role in protecting land peaches); serve as windbreaks and shelter from soil erosion, particularly as such for houses, people and livestock; are a source of tools, furniture, fencing, browse 1 Nchemo Maile, Deputy Principal Secretary of the for animals and medicines. Ministry of Forestry and Land Reclamation, P.O. Lesotho imports most timber products from Box 774 Maseru 100. Lesotho. Tel.: (+266) South Africa. Available 1999 figures on 22312826; Fax:(+266) 22310515. imports indicate that over US$30 million Email:[email protected]

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worth of timber products are imported It must also be noted that the statistics given every year. Hence, a demand, supply and has been collected by value and not by consumption study of forest products in volume (quantities).There are no exports of Lesotho is essential. It is worth noting again forest products such as structural timber that the Ministry of Forestry bought a and furniture from Lesotho. All trade in mobile sawmill to demonstrate to Basotho forest produce and service relate to imports, that structural timber comes from trees in except for firewood and treated poles. order to instill interest in planting more for the future generations. How would you rate the social worth of forests in Lesotho? This year the world is celebrating the International Year of the Forests under the theme forests for people, what in particular would the majority of the people in Lesotho hold dear when they think of their forests?

Nchemo Maile: The social worth of forests is rated very high in Lesotho given the fact that the country is virtually treeless. Hence, the government established the Ministry of Forestry and Land Reclamation separate from its sister Ministry of Agriculture and Food Security. This stresses the vital role that forests and trees play in addressing problems faced by the rural communities. The majority of the people in Lesotho think of their forests as sources of firewood and, to a lesser extent, as sources of building material given that Lesotho experiences very harsh winters and again because other alternatives fuels such as paraffin are expensive. This mindset is changing day by day as a result of awareness campaigns Demonstration sawn timber with Pinus mounted by the government with the aim to radiata grown in Lesotho show that forests and trees are an integral part of the global environment and human well being.

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Celebrations of the International Year of Forests at Kolo, Mafeteng (Photogragh by Roland Hilbert 2011)

Describe briefly forest administration in To what degree are the local communities your country in terms of responsibility for involved in the management of the forests forest management, policy formulation resources of Lesotho? Any new policy and implementation to improve the socio- and/or law to facilitate this? economic contribution of forests to the well being of the people of Lesotho. Nchemo Maile: The adoption of a National Forestry Policy in 1997, which was Nchemo Maile: Primary responsibility for subsequently reviewed and translated into national forest development within the local language in 2008, marks a radical government lies with the Forestry shift in direction, by emphasizing the role of Department which is institutionally communities in forest management. In this domiciled within the Ministry of Forestry policy, the government firmly committed and Land Reclamation. The latter was itself to local ownership of forest resources. established on the 21 March 2003 with a The Policy seeks to maximize, through four-pronged mandate i.e. afforestation, soil actions consistent with other sectoral and water conservation and range resources policies and development goals, the management. The Ministry operates in all contribution of forests towards poverty ten districts of the country through District alleviation, livelihood security and Forestry and Land reclamation offices. With environmental protection. The Policy the advent of decentralization, further recognizes the participation of rural implementation is done jointly with the local communities, NGO’s, the Private Sector and authorities and major groups at community the marginalized groups in forest level. development. The enactment of the Forestry

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Act of 1998 supports the notion of “forest Enlighten us on the activities your country for people”. The Act recognizes the intends to undertake or have already entitlement of different groups of carried out in respect of celebrating the individuals and communities in taking International Year of the Forests 2011. ownership of various types of forests. Nchemo Maile: In March 2011 Basotho Nation joined hands with His Majesty the King to plant more than 100,000 trees across the country in one day as part of the celebration of the International Year of Forests (IYF) 2011. Various NGO’s and the business community have already contacted the Forestry Department and preparations are underway to plant many more trees. An action plan has been drawn specifically for IYF 2011 and among other things awareness campaigns, through public gatherings and media, are key planned activities.

Army involved in tree planting activities

What are the major drivers of deforestation in Lesotho and how is the country fighting deforestation?

Nchemo Maile: Currently, deforestation in Lesotho is mainly due to fuelwood collection rather than agricultural activities such as shifting cultivation. A much larger area of the scrublands is being removed than can naturally re-grow, in order to meet the demand of fuelwood. In order to address this problem Government has, over the years embarked on a massive afforestation programme using fast growing tree species. This noble idea has gone a long way in trying to address the problem because even the most unwanted tree species such as wattle in Lesotho can still be contained due to high

firewood collection activity that keep it His Majesty King Letsie III within special sites where it checks soil

erosion.

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Celebrations of the International Year of Forests 2011 - Local communities and schools planting trees on top of a hill - Photograph by Roland Hilbert

On the platform of International Year of control of livestock in Lesotho. In fact, the Forests 2011, would you want to share neither the grazing productivity nor wood with our readers any specific issues of productivity of any particular existing forest concerns you may have on the fate of the grove or patch has been individually Lesotho‘s forests. determined.

At present, no silvicultural treatment is Nchemo Maile: The areas where patches given to groves and patches of growing and groves of wild (that is unplanted and indigenous trees and shrubs in Lesotho to unmanaged) indigenous trees and shrubs ensure that they will give the maximum exist are invariably open to grazing. It is benefits to rural people on a fully- very likely that this will continue in practice. sustainable basis. As already recorded, the The forest groves or patches will have to be only form of management given to some of managed in a way suitable for both grazing the areas of the wild trees and shrubs is the and wood production whether protected by traditional control of cutting which is law or not. They may also have to be exercised by some chiefs. Generally, the managed for environmental protection, the main aim of this is to allocate cutting areas maintenance of biodiversity, etc. However, during the year, or to allocate cutting areas maximum productivity of existing in different years to ensure sustainability. silvopastoralism (wood production/livestock grazing system) has The daunting challenge facing government still to be determined, as there is little regarding both the indigenous forest

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patches and the 485 planted forest reserves toward sustainable forest management in Lesotho is to prepare and implement a within the context of participatory decision- sustainable ecosystem management plan making. based on a sound understanding and integration of biological and socio-economic issues. Furthermore there is an overriding Thank you Mr Nchemo Maile for need to assess and quantify the multiple shedding light on key forestry issues in benefits that Basotho society derives from the Kingdom of Lesotho. its forest resources. This data will establish a solid baseline essential to institutionalizing communal responsibility

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The FAO Forestry department provides to FAO Activities countries, legislative and policy support, Forestry in improving food security and capacity development, and technical guidance nutrition: on sustainable forest management, including FAO’s work in Africa trees outside forests, and sustainable management of wildlife within and outside of 1 2 Kafeero Fred , Gauthier Michelle , Grouwels protected areas. The aim of this work is to Sophie3, Steierer Florian4, Berrahmouni Nora5 and support improved livelihoods and poverty Vantomme Paul6 alleviation. There are some challenges related to policy environment, lack of hard data on

contribution of non wood forest products to Summary diets, and other governance constraints that Forests and trees make a big contribution to mask the visibility of forestry and its improved diets and nutritional quality, by important role in national Food security and adding variety to diets, improving taste and Nutrition policies and strategies. palatability of staples, by providing essential vitamins, protein and calories. They provide a Background great range of edible foods such as seeds, orests, trees on farms and rangelands fruits, leaves, roots, mushrooms, gums; are are a source of cash and subsistence habitat for wild animals, insects, rodents, and benefits through the various products fish; provide fodder for livestock; and F directly harvested, or indirectly through fuelwood for food processing (FAO, 1991). protecting the environment and therefore Forestry contributes significantly to food maintaining agricultural production security through its role in maintaining systems. These benefits come from both agricultural systems which are the basis of trees that are planted or managed on farms cropping. In the last two decades, there has as well as from forest resources in been more and more interest in the role that communally managed, open-access or state- forests play in food security and improved managed areas. The most direct way in nutrition, as a result of increased realization which forests and trees contribute to food of the dependence of local people on forests security is through contributions to diets and trees to meet important needs like food and nutrition. Fruits, seeds and roots of and income. trees and other plants found in forests provide important nutrient and vitamin-rich supplements for rural households. They do

this by adding variety to diets, improving 1Kafeero Fred. Forestry Officer (Participatory taste and palatability of staples and by forestry), FAO Headquarters, Rome. E-mail: [email protected] providing essential vitamins, protein and 2 Gauthier Michelle. Forestry Officer (Landuse calories. Forest foods often form a small but and agroforestry), FAO Headquarters, Rome. critical part of otherwise bland and E-mail: [email protected] nutritionally poor diets (FAO, 2011). Poor 3 Grouwels Sophie. Forestry Officer (Community households in particular depend on non- – based enterprise Development), FAO wood forest products (NWFPs) for essential Headquarters, Rome. food and nutrition, medicine, fodder, fuel, E-mail: [email protected] thatch and construction materials, and 4 Steierer Florian. Forestry Officer (Wood nonfarm income. Energy), FAO Headquarters, Rome. E-mail: [email protected] 5 Berrahmouni Nora. Forestry Officer (Arid Zones), FAO Headquarters, Rome E-mail: [email protected] 6 Vantomme Paul. Senior Forestry Officer (Non- Wood Forest Products),FAO Headquarters, Rome. Email: [email protected]

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The FAO Forestry department work ranges in general and specifically to food security from legislative and policy support, to and nutrition. The paper concentrates on capacity development and technical support. forests and tree products, and does not It assists countries in developing income- address other important contributions generating tree and forest product related to enahnced agricultural production enterprises while also having greater systems. incentive to sustainably manage and protect those resources. The work aims to improve Forestry for better nutrition livelihoods and takes different forms, Many botanical and anthropological studies including: have documented edible forest products gathered by forest dwellers and non-forest x FAO –led projects in remote rural areas, dwellers alike (forexample Arnold et al Agroforestry in peri-urban and urban 1985, FAO 1983, Gura 1986, Malaisse and areas, and also in diverse ecological Parent 1985). Agroforestry systems also zones including in dense tropical integrate woody species to landscapes, and forests, in arid and semi arid allow for a sustainable and diversified woodlands, and in mangroves. production, and social, economic and x FAO National Forest Monitoring and environmental benefits (Leakey, 1996). Assessment Programme which They contribute substantially to nutrition by undertakes national forest assessments proposing solutions that integrate food that include specific information on security (diversification of household trees outside forests, namely production and family diet), public health agroforestry systems and tree-based (conservation of traditional medicinal plants systems in urban environments. and) and social protection (source of other x Developing practical guidelines such as incomes). the FAO forestry paper, 149 - Better forestry, less poverty – which offer FAO’s field projects on dryland forestry, guidance to practitioners in setting up Non-wood forest products (NWFPs), forestry interventions aimed at community based forest enterprise reducing poverty, including Non-wood development, wildlife management, and forest products for food and better trees outside forests (including urban and nutrition. peri-urban forestry) promote the use of x Developing guidance material for forests and trees for income, food security countries, to undertake systematic and better nutrition. Within poor integration of agroforestry systems in households, gender unevenness in rural and urban environment. ownership and access to productive x Carrying out studies aimed at resources, such as land, causes women to supporting FAO’s 5-yearly Forest rely heavily on NWFPs for income and Resources Assessments to incorporate nutrition. data about the reliance of local people Below are specific examples of the on forests for food, income, and poverty contribution of forests and trees to alleviation in a broader sense. improved nutrition. x Strengthening understanding amongst policy makers, donors and senior Leaves officials from other development Wild leaves, either fresh or dried, are one of sectors on the importance of forestry to the most widely consumed forest foods. improved nutrition and food security. They are often used as the basis for cooking soups, stews, and relishes which accompany carbohydrate staples such as rice or maize. This paper shares some of the selected This is important as it adds both flavour and examples of FAO-led field projects on the nutritional value to diets. Wild leaves and contribution of forestry to better livelihoods, leaves from planted trees in agro-forestry

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systems can be excellent sources of vitamins A and C, protein, as well as micronutrients such as calcium and iron that are commonly deficient in diets of nutritionally vulnerable communities. Common “leaf vegetable” species eaten across different parts of Africa and rich in minerals and in Vitamin A & C include, Gnetum africanum, Adansonia digitata, Cassia obtusifolia and Moringa Oleifera.

Fruits Fruit is most commonly consumed raw, as a

snack or dietary supplement. Forest fruits Photo 2: Mixed cropping of papaya with are also widely used for making beverages, cassava, Maldives (courtesy of S. Braatz) most notably beer. Fruits are especially good

Seeds and Nuts Seeds and nuts generally provide important contributions to diet through the addition of calories, oil, and protein. Edible oil (fat) consumption is often low in developing countries, and often constitutes a major household food purchase, (Truscott 1986). In addition to the energy they provide, fats and oils are also important for the absorption of vitamins A, D, E and K. There are numerous examples of nutritionally important nuts and seeds gathered in

Photo 1. Woman in Democratic Republic of forests, for example the nuts gathered from Congo selling fruits. (Photo courtesy of Ndoye) pine-nuts (Pinus pinea, P. edulis, P. koreensis), Cola- (Cola edulis) and chestnuts sources of minerals and vitamins and (Castanea sativa). sometimes contribute significant quantities of calories. A study by Campbell (1986), on The Shea Tree (Vitellaria paradoxa and the consumption of wild fruits in Zimbabwe, Vitellaria nilotica) which grows naturally found that three species (Diospyros across the West African Sahel region is an mespiliformis, Strychnos cocculoides, and important household resource in savanna Azanza garckeana) were the most frequently regions of Cote d’Ivoire, Ghana, Burkina consumed and also the most highly prized. Faso, Mali, Togo, Benin and Nigeria, where it In Senegal, wild fruit species such as Boscia, is used as cooking oil/fat, food which fruits all year round and Sclerocarya, accompaniments and topical treatments of which fruits at the end of the dry season, are various skin conditions. There are more most commonly used to meet seasonal than 500 million fruiting shea trees across shortages of vitamins, which occur at the the production belt and FAO, estimate that beginning of the wet season. Agroforestry total shea nut production is approximately trees like Psidium guajava, Annona 600,000 metric tonnes per year, (Ferris et al. squamosa, Papaya sp, Mangifera indica are 2001). important sources of Vitamin C to many households.

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Roots and tubers and their eggs, insects, rodents, and other A big variety of forest plants (climbers) have larger mammals. For people living in close edible roots and tubers. These provide proximity to forests and fallow areas, wild carbohydrates and some minerals. In animals are often an important part of their Swaziland, Ogle and Grivetti, 1985 found diet and in some cases supply the only that approximately 10% of edible wild source of animal protein. In West Africa, species commonly eaten were either bulbs where the consumption of “bush meat” is or roots. The only species used commonly high, the most important game meat species were the bulbs of Aloe saponaria. are small animals (such as rodents) due to their natural abundance and unrestricted Mushrooms hunting. Mushrooms, gathered wild from forests and woodlands, are favourites in many cultures, Fodder and browse for livestock where they are added to sauces and relishes Many species of trees found on-farm, (as for flavouring. In many cases they provide well as those in forests and associated substitutes for meat. under-storey shrubs and grasses) are used for animal feed, providing protein, minerals Honey and vitamins - either as browse or fodder. It Trees in agroforestry systems and other has been estimated that 75% of the tree plants growing in forests often play an species (7,000-10,000) of tropical Africa are important role in honey production as they used as browse (Wikens et al. 1985). Fodder provide year-round fodder for bees because trees make a significant contribution to of different flowering times. In some domestic livestock production, which in turn cultures, honey is collected from wild influences milk and meat supply. Fodder colonies, although most honey is harvested contributes to maintaining draught animals from hives placed around farms or in and producing manure for organic fertilizer, neighbouring woodlands or forests. FAO has thereby boosting agricultural production. supported projects in Uganda, and several Tree fodder may consist of leaves, small West African countries to produce honey branches, seeds, pods and fruits, all of which from forest ecosystems. Honey is a good supplement other feeds and which can be a source of sugar and is also an important crucial component of livestock diets during ingredient in many traditional medicines. the dry season.

Gums and sap Fuel for cooking and processing of food Sap is frequently tapped for beverages, and Fuelwood is the main energy source for is often high in sugars and minerals. Gum is cooking and/or heating in most developing used as a food supplement, has medicinal countries. Fuelwood and charcoal often uses and can be a good source of energy. represent the only domestically available Palm wine tapped from Raphia hookeri is and affordable sources of energy. Since popular in W. Africa as an important cultural many dishes require cooking to make them beverage consumed in households several digestible, fuelwood supplies indirectly times a week, FAO 1989. FAO projects in the affect the stability, quality and even quantity arid zones promote the collection and of food consumed. Taste is another strong processing of Gum Arabic (Acacia senegal) reason for using woody biomass for cooking for food and source of income for pastrolists. - grilled or smoked dishes have their place in diets in every society. Traditional meals and Animal foods from forests and farm trees dishes evolved around characteristics and Wild animals and fish are other important energy content of available biomass. forest food products. Forested areas, mangroves, streams provide a habitat for FAO’s work on community forestry, many wild animal species and fish. The Agroforestry and trees outside forests range of species consumed includes birds therefore enhances the access by local

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people to sustainable sources of fuelwood. the contribution of forests and trees in This work also involves augmenting energy food security and improved nutrition, in efficiency of wood fuel and charcoal cooking different ecological zones and cultures of systems, as well as improved production of Africa. It is important to raise the charcoal to abate the pressure on natural awareness among decision and policy- resources. makers on the need for development programmes on food and nutrition that Generating income from forests and trees consider the contribution of Non Wood Food insecurity is generally related to Forest Products (NWFPs) to local poverty and limited opportunities from consumption patterns. Better inter- employment or income generation. Where sectoral and inter-institutional poor households are able to get some coordination is vital in fostering the income, this is often directed towards integration of agriculture, pastoralism, improving food security. Trees on farms and forestry, water, energy and other land- forests have been shown across the world to use sectors at policy, management and provide important and often unrecognized research levels. sources of household income. In some cases this comes from employment in forest References industries or from the collection and sale of unprocessed tree and forest - derived Arnold T.H. et al 1985. Khoisan food plants: products. The production of Non-Wood Taa with potential for future economic forest products (NWFPs) for local markets exploitation. In G.E Wickens et al (eds.), can provide part-time, seasonal, occasional, Plants for Arid land. Allen and Unwin, or full-time year-round employment, London. depending on the product, location, and individual household. This flexibility makes Campbell, B.M 1986. The importance of NWFP-related activities particularly wild fruits for peasant households in appealing to women, enabling them to Zimbabwe. Food and Nutrition 12(1): 38-44 combine collection and trade of these products with their other domestic duties FAO, 1983. Food and fruit bearing species. and responsibilities. Incomes can be Examples from East Africa. FAO Forestry substantially increased through the paper no. 44:3, Rome. establishment of small or medium forest- based enterprises, which may secure better FAO, 1989.The major significance of “minor” market access and share, or add value to forest products: Local people’s uses and harvested products. values of forests in the West African Humid zone, Rome. Conclusion Although forests and trees outside forests FAO, 1991. Household Food Security and make significant contributions to food Forestry – an analysis of socio-economic security, improved quality of diets and issues. Rome. prevention of malnutrition in many parts of the world, this contribution is Ferris R.S.B et al. 2001.Evaluating the generally little known, especially outside Marketing Opportunities for Shea nut and of the forest sector. Therefore, they are Shea nut processed products in Uganda. rarely taken into account in food security Natural Resource Institute and FoodNet policies. The lack of data on consumption of forest products is equally responsible Gura, S. 1986. A note on traditional food for the general under-reporting on the plants in East Africa. Their value of Nutrition vital role forests and trees play in and agriculture. Food and nutrition. 12(1): improving local diets. There is need for 18-26. case studies to be carried out to quantify

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Leakey, R.R.B. 1996. “Definition of ecological, nutritional study. Ecology of food agroforestry revisited”. Agroforestry and nutrition. 16(3): 193-208. Today 8(1): 5–7. Truscott, K. 1986. Socio – economic factors Malaisse, F. and G. Parent 1985. Edible in food production and consumption. Food wild vegetable products in the Zambian and Nutrition. 12 (1): 27-37. woodland area : A nutritional and ecological approach. Ecology of Food and Nutrition. Wikens, G.E et al. (eds.) 1985. Plants for 18:43-82. arid lands. Proceedings of Kew international conference on Economic plants for arid Ogle B. M. and L.E Grivetti 1985. Legacy of lands. Allen and Unwin, London. the chameleon edible wild plants in the kingdom of Swaziland, S. Africa. A cultural,

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Can fragile states reduce their LINK deforestation? This is the title of an article about to appear in Forest Policy and Economics. The originality of the REDD proposal is its incentives-based mechanism designed to reward the governments of Forestry investments in emerging developing countries for their performance markets - new video in reducing deforestation as measured bout 50 investors, investment against a baseline. This mechanism is advisors, and forest business founded on the hypothesis that developing developers attended the meeting countries ‘pay’ an opportunity cost to A“Forestry Investments in Emerging conserve their forests and would prefer Countries.” The meeting took place other choices and convert their wooden from May 17th to the 19th 2011 in the lands to other uses. The basic idea is, Netherlands, and was organized by FAO and therefore, to pay rents to these countries to the NFP Facility together with Tropenbos compensate for the anticipated foregone International, the Business in Development revenues. The reference to the theory of (BID) Network, and the Ministry of incentives (in its principal–agent version) is Economic Affairs, Agriculture and implicit but clear. In this REDD-related Innovation of the Netherlands. Seventeen framework, the Government is taken as any business fact sheets from seven countries economic agent who behaves rationally i.e. provided the basis to discuss the risks and taking decisions after comparing the relative opportunities to invest in forestry in prices associated to various alternatives, emerging and frontier markets in concrete then deciding to take action and implement terms. The cases included plantation effective measures to tackle deforestation forestry, natural forest management, and shift the nation-wide development path. processing and alternative businesses. Impressions and perspectives from Such an approach ignores the political participants have been summarized in a economy of the state, especially when video: dealing with “fragile” or even “failing” states http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=m_To72 facing severe but chronic institutional crises. 7wN3A. Two assumptions underlying the REDD proposal are particularly critical: (i) the idea For further information, please see: that the government of such a state is in a http://www.tropenbos.org/index.php/en/ne position to make a decision to shift its ws/news-outcomes-bussines-event development pathway on the basis of a cost– benefit analysis that anticipates financial Growing forest partnerships – Briefing rewards, and (ii) the idea that, once such a papers - Published January 2011 decision has been made, the “fragile” state is x Empowering communities through capable, thanks to the financial rewards, to forest partnerships implement and enforce the appropriate x Sustainable forestry: connecting local to policies and measures which could translate global and vice versa into deforestation reduction. The first x Investing in locally controlled forestry sections of the article discuss the pertinence x Making local voices heard: the Three of applying such a REDD version of the Rights holders Group theory of incentives to Governments, and The 4 Briefing papers can be down loaded particularly to Governments in fragile states, from: with respect to the historical patterns and http://www.growingforestpartnerships.org/r the practical way those states work. The last esources-and-downloads sections discuss the possibility of alternative architecture for REDD, focusing on policies and measures targeting the drivers of

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deforestation, and investments for Source: Alain Karsenty ; CIRAD, intensifying agriculture, reforming land Département "Environnements et Sociétés", tenure and enhancing the functioning of the UPR 36 judicial system. The article seeks to show TA C-36/D, Campus de Baillarguet. 34398 why incentive mechanisms should be used Montpellier Cedex 5 France. Tel : +33 (0)467 at another scale, for the benefits of local 59 39 48. Fax: +33 (0)467 59 39 09. Mobile: economic agents (companies, rural +33 (0)6 72 88 47 03 households, communities, etc.), and how a Email: [email protected] Website : scaling down is likely to alleviate some of www.cirad.fr/ur/ressources_forestieres the constraints faced by incentives when operating at Government level. For the whole abstract, visit: http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/articl e/pii/S1389934111000748

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global aggregate of individual communities Theme and deadline for meeting the needs of its citizens through the Next Issue responsible, local production and exchange of goods and services. The theme selected for the next issue will incorporate a wide range of issues highlighting sustainable natural resources management related activities including: x the issues surrounding small and he prevailing world economic order is medium enterprises, and how to be regarded by many as a system in economically profitable and still in the Tcrisis, in which economic gains have vanguard of the sustainable green economy; come at the expense of depleted natural x multipurpose management of forests for resources and the degradation of the products and services allowing for articles in environmental well being of our planet. carbon as a potentially important new Africans know all too well the detrimental economically viable commodity from impact of these prevailing patterns. As part forests; of the efforts to reverse this situation, and in x aspects of urban and peri-urban order to work toward the establishment of forestry, benefits of green spaces; more environmentally sustainable x how a ‘green economic approach’ can production and manufacturing processes, satisfy the huge demand of forest products the “Rio+20” agenda has adopted “ green for African cities, now a source of negative economy” as a key theme in the context of pressures on the forest resources; sustainable development and poverty x there will be room to explore how well eradication. Further, the United Nations the management tools are being applied and General Assembly declared 2011 as the how best to remove barriers to application International Year of Forests (IYF 2011) to of prescribed rules and policy that aim for raise awareness on sustainable realization of sustainable forest management, conservation and sustainable management objectives. development of all types of forests1. In this context, the African Forestry Wildlife Overall, our theme embraces topics related Commission and the FAO have dedicated the to forests and food, agroforestry, sustainable December 2011 edition of Nature and Faune intensification of smallholder crop to examining how the forest sector has met production, water management and and will continue to meet the needs of the green economy in Africa. The theme of the conservation, institutional arrangements December 2011 edition of Nature & Faune is and legal frameworks for the forest sector in therefore “The forest sector in the green the green economy in Africa; economy in Africa”. We are wrapping up celebration of IYF 2011 UNEP defines a green economy as one that and heading to the Earth Summit in 2012 results in improved human well-being and (Rio + 20), thus we need to track social equity, while significantly reducing experiences in and articulate plans for the environmental risks and ecological forest sector in the green economy in Africa. scarcities2. The Global Citizens Center, led by Kevin Danaher, defines green economy as a

1 http://www.un.org/en/events/iyof2011/ 2 UNEP, 2011, Towards a Green Economy: Pathways to Sustainable Development and Poverty Eradication - A Synthesis for Policy Makers, www.unep.org/greeneconomy

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