Introduction: Cross-Dressing and Cross-Casting 1

Home , Amadis (Lully), Ercole amante, Le Bourgeois gentilhomme, Le Roi Danse, Le tartuffe, Pantomime dame

Notes

Introduction: Cross-Dressing and Cross-Casting 1. Dorothy Keyser, “Cross-Sexual Casting in Baroque Opera: Musical and Theatrical Conventions,” Opera Quarterly 5:4 (Winter 1987–88): 46–57 (46). 2. All quotations from Ecclesiazusae are taken from David Barrett’s trans- lation, Penguin Classics, London: Penguin, 1978. 3. Jeffrey Henderson, “Older Women in Attic Old Comedy,” Transactions of the American Philological Association 117 (1987): 105–29 (118). 4. “The Myth of Shakespeare’s Squeaking Boy Actor—Or Who Played Cleopatra?” Shakespeare Bulletin 19: 2 (Spring 2001), consulted online. 5. See their edited volume, En travesti: Women, Gender Subversion, Opera, New York: Columbia University Press, 1995, 3, 5. 6. See Republic, Books 3 and 10. 7. In the seventeenth century, the concept of homosexuality as such did not exist. A man might choose to participate in acts of sodomy, but he was not considered to be a homosexual. Same-sex relations between women were even less clearly understood or defined. See Joseph Harris, Hidden Agendas: Cross-Dressing in 17th-Century France, Biblio 17: 156, Tübingen: Gunter Narr, 2005, 27–28. 8. Judith Butler, Gender Trouble: Feminism and the Subversion of Identity, New York and London: Routledge, 1990, 137. 9. Vested Interests: Cross-Dressing and Cultural Anxiety, London: Penguin, 1993. 10. See her book The First English Actresses: Women and Drama 1660–1700, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992. 11. The related topic of disguise plots (i.e., cross-dressing as opposed to cross-casting) during much the same period is the subject of Georges Forestier’s monumental tome Esthétique de l’identité dans le théâtre français (1550–1680), Geneva: Droz, 1988. See also John D. Lyons, A Theatre of Disguise: Studies in French Baroque Drama (1630–1660), Columbia, SC: French Literature Publications Company, 1978, and Joseph Harris, Hidden Agendas. 164 Notes

12. The first major study of cross-casting in Shakespeare was W. Robertson Davies’s speculative and gloriously opinionated Shakespeare’s Boy Actors, London: Dent, 1939. This was followed by, among others, Michael Shapiro’s Gender in Play on the Shakespearean Stage: Boy Heroines and Female Pages, Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1994, Stephen Orgel’s Impersonations: The Performance of Gender in Shakespeare’s England, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996, and Dympna Callaghan’s Shakespeare Without Women: Representing Gender and Race on the Renaissance Stage, London and New York: Routledge, 2000.

Chapter I Unattractive Women: Cross-Casting in Comedy 1. For an excellent study of attitudes toward cross-casting in England, see Laura Levine, Men in Women’s Clothing: Anti-Theatricality and Effeminization, 1579–1642, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994. 2. See Henry Phillips, The Theatre and its Critics in Seventeenth-Century France, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1980, 174. 3. Tertullian, De Spectaculis, trans. Pierre de Labriolle, Paris: 1937, 26. Cited in Phillips, The Theatre and its Critics, 177. 4. Ph. Vincent, Traité des théâtres, La Rochelle, 1647, 8. Cited in Phillips, The Theatre and its Critics, 202. 5. For an equally excellent study of the impact of the professional actress in England, see Elizabeth Howe, The First English Actresses: Women and Drama 1660–1700, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992. 6. See Lynette R. Muir, “Women on the Medieval Stage: The Evidence from France,” Medieval English Theatre 7:2 (1985): 107–19. Documents dealing with Passion plays produced in Mons in 1501 and in nearby Valenciennes in 1547 include a small number of roles for “junes filles” (young girls), but none for married women. Elsewhere in France, married women did perform, for instance in a 1509 production in Romans of the Trois Doms, which included eleven women in its cast, nine of whom were married. In this instance, only one female role was taken by a man: that of Proserpina. Similarly, women performed in a 1526 production of the Trois Martyrs in Valence. Muir also gives details of the one recorded example of a women playing Mary in a Passion play, of an actress of unknown age playing the eponymous saint in a production at Metz of St. Catherine in 1468, and a woman playing in the Vie de Sainte Barbe in Nancy in the early sixteenth century. 7. The rise of the Italian actress as a permanent fixture coincided almost exactly with the birth and development of the commedia dell’arte tradition in the sixteenth century, and her presence constituted an integral part of the originality of this particular brand of theatre. See Rosamond Gilder, Enter the Actress: The First Women in the Theatre, Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1931; New York: Theatre Arts Books, 1960, 57. Notes 165

8. See Gilder, Enter the Actress, 56. Unfortunately, Gilder provides no reference for this quotation. 9. I return to the effects of the papal ban on female performers in my discussion of castrati in chapter V. 10. Gustave Attinger, L’esprit de la commedia dell’arte dans le théâtre français, Paris: Librairie théâtrale/Neuchatel: A la Baconnière, 1950, 98. 11. Bernard Jolibert, La commedia dell’arte et son influence en France du XVIe au XVIIIe siècle, Paris and Montreal: Harmattan, 1999, 39. 12. La piazza universale di tutte le professioni del mondo, Venice: Somasco, 1585. Cited in French in Attinger, L’esprit de la commedia dell’arte, 45. 13. Le Théâtre de l’Hôtel de Bourgogne, 2 vols., Paris: Nizet, 1968–70, I: 26. Deierkauf-Holsboer writes the “Hôtel de Bourbon,” but she must mean the Hôtel de Bourgogne. The French parliament, however, disap- proved of the performance, doubtless owing in part to the appearance of women on stage. 14. Isaac Du Ryer, Le Temps perdu, Paris: Du Bray, 1610, 65–66. 15. Léopold Lacour, Les premières actrices françaises, Paris: Librairie Française, 1921, 9. 16. See M. Barras, The Stage Controversy in France from Corneille to Rousseau, New York: Publications of the Institute of French Studies, 1933. 17. Maximes et réflexions sur la comédie, reproduced in Urbain and Levesque (eds.), L’Eglise et le théâtre, Paris: Grasset, 1930, 167–279 (267–68). 18. Sentiments de l’Eglise et des saints Pères, Paris, 1694. Cited in Phillips, The Theatre and its Critics, 187. 19. J. de Voisin, La Défense du traitté de Monseigneur le prince de Conti, Paris, 1671, Lettre I, 477. Cited in Phillips, The Theatre and its Critics, 188. 20. Jan Clarke, “Women Theatre Professionals in 17th-Century France” in Women in European Theatre, ed. Elizabeth Woodrough, London: Intellect, 1995: 23–31 (23). See Mme du Noyer, Lettres historiques et galantes, I: 15, in P. Mélèse, Le Théâtre et le public à Paris sous Louis XIV (1659–1715), Paris: Droz, 1934; Geneva, 1976, 176. 21. See P. Mélèse, Le Théâtre et le public, 174. 22. See Le Théatre François, ed. Georges Monval, Lyon: Guignard, 1674; Paris: Bonnassies, 1875. 23. J. de Courbeville, La Critique du Théâtre Anglois, comparé au Théâtre d’Athènes, de Rome et de France, et l’Opinion des auteurs tant profanes que sacrez, touchant les Spectacles, Paris, 1715, v. See M. Barras, The Stage Controversy in France, 144. 24. It should be noted that the principal female roles in these plays were performed by actresses; probably by Mlle Le Noir and Mlle Villiers who were then the leading actresses of Mondory’s troupe (soon to be called the Troupe du Marais). 25. Henry Lyonnet, Les “Premières” de P. Corneille, Paris: Delagrave, 1923, 28. 26. Such was Alizon’s close association with playing grotesque, elderly women, he even lent his stage name to a number of contemporary plays, including Discret’s Alizon (1637). 166 Notes

27. See Barbara C. Bowen, Les Caractéristiques essentielles de la farce française et leur survivance dans les années 1550–1620, Illinois Studies in Language and Literature 53, Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1964, 14, 51 and 111. 28. See G. J. Mallinson, The Comedies of Corneille: Experiments in the Comic, Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1984, 1–7 (3). 29. Neither does he comment on the shift from cross-casting to straight casting, even when he refers to Corneille’s own discussion of this very transition (77). Similarly, Théodore Litman cites Corneille’s words and fails to comment on either the fact or the implications of the cross-casting mentioned. See Théodore A. Litman, Les comédies de Corneille, Paris: Nizet, 1981, 93. 30. Louis Rivaille, Les débuts de P. Corneille, Paris: Boivin, 1936, 194. 31. Unfortunately, we only have Chapelle’s side of the correspondence in which he writes of “le déplaisir que vous donnent les partialités de vos trois grandes actrices pour la distribution de vos roles” (the displeasure you felt at the preferences of your three great actresses with regard to the distribution of your roles). Cited in G. Michaut, La Jeunesse de Molière, Paris: Hachette, 1922, 182. 32. “Discours à Cliton sur les Observations du Cid,” in La Querelle du Cid, ed. Armand Gasté, Paris: Weller, 1898; Geneva: Slatkine, 1970, 241–82 (265). 33. In addition to stimulating the introduction of new types of female roles in comedy, actresses also encouraged the development of tragedy—the theatrical genre for which the century is probably best known today. Tragedy was for obvious reasons considered a more respectable genre than its comic counterpart and therefore a more appropriate genre for women to perform. While it is clear that early French actresses did perform in comedies and even in vulgar farces, their professional ambition appears to have centred around tragic drama, as they sought to gain their reputation from performing the female roles of playwrights such as Corneille and, later, Racine. 34. See Roger W. Herzel, The Original Casting of Molière’s Plays, Ann Arbor, MI: UMI Research Press, 1981, 21. 35. Quoted in Claude and François Parfaict, Histoire du Théâtre François depuis son origine jusqu’à présent, 15 vols., Paris, 1745–49; New York: B. Franklin, 1968, XII: 474 and in Herzel, The Original Casting, 12. 36. See Herzel, The Original Casting, 67–68 for a discussion of the first production of George Dandin. He concludes, after some debate, that Mme de Sotenville was premiered by Béjart (and not, as others have suggested, by Hubert). 37. As Herzel reminds us, the 1685 cast lists were drawn up in the Autumn of 1684 and offer “the ideal casting for each play,” showing us “the primary possessor of each role” (3). He describes the Repertory as “a prospectus for plays to be performed at the Court” (22). See also Henry Carrington Lancaster, Actors’ Roles at the Comédie Française Notes 167

According to the Repertoire des Comedies françoises qui se peuuent joüer en 1685, Baltimore: John Hopkins Press, 1953, xv. 38. See Lancaster, Actors’ Roles, 35 and 45. In the 1685 Repertory, the cast lists are divided into “Damoiselles” and “Hommes.” Interestingly, cross-cast characters appear under the heading that corresponds to the sex of the actor rather than to that of the role. 39. Richard Parish, “Molière en travesti: Transvestite Acting in Molière” in Molière, ed. Stephen Bamforth, Nottingham French Studies 33:1, Nottingham: University of Nottingham, 1994, 53–58 (56). In addition to the four parts we have identified, Parish suggests that Lucette in Pourceaugnac was also premiered by a man and that the eponymous countess in La Comtesse d’Escarbagnas “rapidly joined the transvestite camp” (55), although he gives no supporting evidence for this. 40. René Bray, Molière, homme de théâtre, Paris: Mercure de France, 1954, 81. 41. His article was originally given as a paper at a conference in Nottingham, U.K. in December 1993. It was then that the discussion points emerged. 42. This is one of many such lines that spell out Tartuffe’s hypocrisy and that, one imagines, may have been added during revisions after Le Tartuffe was banned in 1664. 43. Stephen Dock, Costume and Fashion in the Plays of Jean-Baptiste Poquelin Molière: A Seventeenth-Century Perspective, Geneva: Slatkine, 1992, 148. 44. In his edition of the play, Parish notes that the 1938 production of Le Tartuffe at the Théâtre Pigalle included for “the first recorded time since the seventeenth century, a Madame Pernelle played by a man,” Le Tartuffe: Ou l’imposteur, Bristol: Bristol Classical Press, 1994, xxiv. 45. Dock writes (correctly) in his discussion of George Dandin that the role of Mme de Sotenville was premiered by Béjart, but confuses the issue somewhat in his conclusion where he writes of Hubert playing the role. See Dock, 208, 343 and 344. 46. George Dandin has sometimes been interpreted as a serious play owing to its apparently bitter ending and the unhappiness of Dandin’s mar- riage. This, however, is to overlook both the joyful ballet with which the play (or rather, comédie-ballet) originally ended and the spirit of Molière’s œuvre. There is no doubt that the cross-cast Mme de Sotenville is a highly comical figure. 47. H. Gaston Hall, Molière’s Le Bougeois gentilhomme: Context and Stagecraft, Durham Modern Languages Series FM5, Durham: University of Durham, 1990, 61. 48. Roland Bruyelle, Les personnages de la comédie de Molière, Paris: René Debresse, 1946, 118. 49. See Claude Abraham, On the Structure of Molière’s Comédies-Ballets, Biblio 17:19, Paris: PFSCL, 1984, “From Comédie-ballet to Carnaval [sic]”: 41–94. 168 Notes

50. Molière: Le Bourgeois gentilhomme, Critical Guides to French Texts 92, London: Grant and Cutler, 1992, 52. 51. Roger Herzel, “Problems in the Original Casting of Les Femmes Savantes,” in Actes de New Orleans, ed. Francis L. Lawrence, Biblio 17:5, Paris, PFSCL, 1982: 215–31 (224–26). 52. Lettres familières (1661), 139, cited in Joseph Harris, Hidden Agendas, 89. 53. “Des Femmes,” 52, in Œuvres completes, ed. Julien Benda, Pléiade, Paris: Gallimard, 1951, 123. 54. As Parish notes, “the distinction between Philaminte and the other (less dominant) ‘femmes savantes’ was well served by her travesty,” 58n. 55. Bray also suggests that Bélise might have been played by a man, although there is no evidence to support this claim. 56. Dock comments on Pierre Brissard’s 1682 engraving of Les Femmes Savantes in which Philaminte appears as an attractive young woman (Dock, 319–20). I wonder if this is not a depiction of Armande and Henriette, rather than of Philaminte and Bélise? 57. The play was so popular that the authors shared a staggering 5,651 livres in receipts for its first performance run, which is, according to Lough, “the record” for professional writers. See John Lough, Seventeenth-Century French Drama: The Background, Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1979, 47. 58. Gustave Reynier, Thomas Corneille: Sa vie et son théâtre, Paris: Hachette, 1892; Geneva, Slatkine, 1970, 380n.

Chapter II Boys Will Be Girls: Cross-Casting in School Drama 1. This chapter was published in an earlier, shorter form as “Cross- Casting and Women’s Roles in School Drama,” Seventeenth Century French Studies 26 (2004): 195–208. It is reproduced here with permission. 2. Cited in Le théâtre et l’opéra vus par les gazetiers Robinet et Laurent (1670–1678), ed. William Brooks, Biblio 17: 78, Paris: PFSCL, 1993, 87. 3. See William H. McCabe, An Introduction to the Jesuit Theater, St. Louis, Missouri: Institute of Jesuit Sources, 1983, 64, and Ernest Boysse, Le théâtre des Jésuites, Paris, 1880; Geneva: Slatkine, 1970, 31. 4. Cited in L.-V. Gofflot, Le théâtre au collège du moyen âge à nos jours, Paris: Champion, 1907, 96–97. 5. In the Latin original “nec persona ulla muliebris vel habitus introdu- catur.” See Ratio Studiorum: Plan raisonné et institution des études dans la Compagnie de Jésus, ed. Adrien Demoustier, Dominique Julia et al., Paris: Belin, 1997. 6. Responsa ad postulata congr. prov. (Acta congr. Prov. 1599). Henri Fouqueray, Histoire de la Compagnie de Jésus en France des origines à la sup- pression (1528–1762), 5 vols., Paris: Picard, 1910–25, II: 717. Notes 169

7. All references to Jesuit repertoire, unless otherwise stated, are to productions at Louis-le-Grand/Collège de Clérmont. 8. Opere edite e inedite in prosa ed in versi, Venice, 1799–1801, XIX, 22 ff. Cited in McCabe, 191. 9. Œuvres complètes, ed. Georges Couton, 3 vols., Pléiade, Paris: Gallimard, 1980–87, III: 129. 10. Boysse provides a version of this scene in French, 171–76. 11. René Rapin, Reflexions sur la poetique d’Aristote, Paris: Muguet, 1674, 185. 12. Supporting this notion, Allardyce Nicoll has commented more recently that “the feminine in high tragedy . . . must either be made hard, approaching the masculine in quality, or else be relegated to a position of minor importance in the development of the plot.” An Introduction to Dramatic Theory, London, 1923, 109. Cited in McCabe, 188. Interestingly, Nicoll nonetheless insists that a feminine element is important in tragic theatre and that “its absence mars the dramas of Marlowe” (108). 13. It is not, as Boysse rather patronizingly suggests “pour les mères, un plaisir suffisant, que de voir leurs fils dans des costumes d’empereurs ou de martyrs, gesticuler et déclamer agréablement sur le théâtre?” (ample reward for the mothers to see their sons dressed as emperors and martyrs, performing and declaming well on stage?). See Boysse, 89. 14. J. H. Phillips, “Le théâtre scolaire dans la querelle du théâtre au XVIIe siècle,” Revue d’histoire du théâtre 35: 2 (1983): 190–221. 15. Ménestrier negotiates these difficulties with some deftness, writing: Si tout ce qui paroist sur les Theatres étoit de la nature de ces rep- resentations, il n’y auroit pas lieu de déclamer contre des actions où tout est grave & serieux, mais les mœurs ne sont pas toûjours aussi reglées, & souvent on a raison de deffendre le Théâtre, & les spectacles qu’on y represente, aux personnes qui font profession d’une vie un peu reguliere. J’écris pour ceux, qui bien loin d’en abuser s’en servent pour instruire la jeunesse & pour la former. If everything that appeared in our theatres were like these performances, there would be no need to cry out against such activities in which everything is solemn and serious. But morals are not always regulated in this way and often there is good reason to prohibit people from entering the theatre and from attending its performances who choose to lead a somewhat steady life. I am writing for those who, far from abusing it, use the theatre to instruct the young and to help them in their growth. Des représentations en musique anciennes et modernes, Paris: Guignard, 1681, 4–5. 16. Voisin, La Défense du traitté de Monseigneur le prince de Conti touchant la comédie et les spectacles, 282. Cited in Phillips, The Theatre and its Critics, 205. 170 Notes

17. This is reproduced in Gofflot, 190–93n. 18. “Women on the Medieval Stage: The Evidence from France,” Medieval English Theatre 7: 2 (1985): 107–19 (116–17). 19. Cited in Achille Taphanel, Le Théâtre de Saint-Cyr (1689–1792) d’après des documents inédits, Versailles: Cerf et fils; Paris: J. Baudry, 1876, 4. 20. This was the case for the boys at Jesuit schools too, although the question of the education of women was of course a good deal thornier than that of their male counterparts. 21. Fénelon, Traité de l’éducation des filles, Paris: Klincksieck, 1994, 81. 22. Les Souvenirs de Madame de Caylus, ed. Bernard Noël, Paris: Mercure de France, 1965, 95. 23. P. Manseau, Mémoires, cited in Anne Piéjus, Le théâtre des demoiselles: Tragédie et musique à Saint-Cyr à la fin du grand siècle, Paris: Société française de musicologie, 2000, 96–97. 24. Manseau, Mémoires, 111. Cited in Piéjus, 536. 25. F-V, ms. Rés. F.629, 92. Cited in Piéjus, 536. 26. F-Pn, ms.fr.23499, f.52. Cited in Piéjus, 536. 27. The girls in the audience dressed up in a more modest way, wearing special ribbons in their dormitory colors. 28. Interestingly, the 1689 privilege for the publication of Esther was made out not to Racine but to the Dames de Saint-Louis. The privilege for Athalie, on the other hand, was accorded to the author. See Jean Dubu, “Autour d’Esther et d’Athalie” in La littérature et ses avatars, ed. Yvonne Bellenger, Paris: Klincksieck, 1991: 241–48 (241). 29. P. Bardou, Epitre sur la condamnation du théâtre, reproduced in Urbain and Levesque (eds.), L’Eglise et le théâtre, Paris: Grasset, 1930: 279–84 (281). 30. Œuvres, III, 182. Cited in Jean Orcibal, La Genèse d’Esther et d’Athalie, Paris: Vrin, 1950, 45n. 31. Correspondence de Quesnel, ed. Le Roy, I: 129 and 123. Cited in Raymond Picard, La Carrière de Jean Racine, Paris: Gallimard, 1961, 423. 32. Mémoires du Curé de Versailles, François Hébert, 1686–1704, ed. G. Girard, Paris: Editions de France, 1927, 123. Cited in Picard, 425. 33. Mme de Maintenon’s sexagenarian cousin, M. de Villette, apparently married one of the actresses who had performed in Esther—see Madame de Maintenon, Comment la sagesse vient aux filles, ed. Pierre-E. Leroy and Marcel Loyau, Paris: Bartillat, 1998, 24. 34. Mémoires du Curé de Versailles, 123. Cited in Picard, 425. 35. To Nicaise, ed. Le Roy, I: 123–24; see also his letter of July 1689 to P. du Breuil, I: 129. Cited in Orcibal, 45n. Also cited in Phillips, “Le théâtre scolaire,” 210. 36. Mme de Maintenon, 423. Cited in Phillips, “Le théâtre scolaire,” 207. 37. Mémoires du Curé de Versailles, 123. Cited in Phillips, “Le théâtre scolaire,” 208. Notes 171

38. L’Instruction chrétienne, 21. Cited in Phillips, The Theatre and its Critics, 113. 39. Mémoires du Curé de Versailles, 123. Cited in Picard, 424. 40. Mémoires du Curé de Versailles, 123. Cited in Phillips “Le théâtre scolaire,” 208. 41. Like Néron in Racine’s Britannicus (1669), they are moved by the sight of youthful innocence combined with feminine beauty. 42. Mémoires et lettres de Madame de Maintenon, ed. Voltaire, Maestricht: Dufour and Roux, 1778, VIII: 87. 43. The elimination of elaborate costumes is very important, but it is not strictly true to claim, as Jean Dubu has done, that without them “le problème du travesti ne se posait pas” (the problem of transvestism was no longer an issue) (“Autour d’Esther et d’Athalie,” 245), for even in their school uniforms, the students playing male roles remained cross-cast, if not cross-dressed. 44. P. Manseau, Mémoires, 157. Cited in Piéjus, 551. 45. Manseau, Mémoires, 193 (March, 1692). Cited in Picard, 428. 46. Mme de Maintenon’s private view of the male sex as expressed here is particularly striking when one considers that she was the morganatic wife of Louis XIV, the one man in the kingdom who was supposed, in theory, to be beyond the type of behavior she is alluding to.

Chapter III Female Roles in Court Ballet I: Men Playing Women 1. See “Le Balet Comique” by Balthazar de Beaujoyeulx, 1581: A Facsimile with an Introduction, ed. Margaret M. McGowan, Medieval and Renaissance texts and studies 6, New York: Center for Medieval and Early Renaissance Studies, 1982. 2. Mark Franko, Dance as Text: Ideologies of the Baroque Body, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1993, 1. 3. Des ballets anciens et modernes selon les règles du théâtre, Paris: Guignard, 1682, 55. 4. For an investigation of French ballet before Louis XIV, see Margaret M. McGowan’s L’Art du Ballet de cour en France, 1581–1643, Paris: CNRS, 1963. 5. See Marie-Françoise Christout, Le Ballet de Cour de Louis XIV: 1643–1672, Vie Musicale en France sous les Rois Bourbons 12, Paris: Picard, 1967, 17 and Charles I. Silin, Benserade and his Ballets de Cour, John Hopkins Studies in Romance Literatures and Languages, Extra volume XV, Baltimore, Maryland: John Hopkins Press, 1940, 203n. 6. Cross-cast singing roles in opera under Louis XIV are examined in chapter V. 172 Notes

7. Exceptionally, this same piece includes an instance of a male role being sung by a female singer: Mlle Bergerotti sang the part of the “gallant” in the closing entry. See Les Contemporains de Molière, ed. Victor Fournel, 3 vols., Paris: Firmin Didot Frères, 1863–75; repr. Geneva; Slatkine, 1967, II: 447. 8. In the same ballet, Louis XIV also played Apollo, a dryad, an acade- mic, a courtier, and the allegory of war. 9. “Herakles: The super-male and the feminine” in Before Sexuality: The Construction of Erotic Experience in the Ancient Greek World, ed. David M. Halperin, John J. Winkler, and Froma I. Zeitlin, Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1990, 21–52 (29). 10. Unless otherwise stated, all quotations of ballet verses are from Isaac Benserade, Ballets pour Louis XIV, ed. Marie-Claude Canova-Green, 2 vols., Toulouse: Société de Littératures Classiques, 1997. I retain the spelling given in this edition throughout. 11. I discuss this issue in some length in my article, “The Gendering of the Court Ballet Audience: Cross-Casting and the Emergence of the Female Ballet Dancer,” Seventeenth-Century French Studies 24 (2002): 127–34. 12. See also my article “Conflicting Signals: Images of Louis XIV in Benserade’s Ballets” in Culture and Conflict in Seventeenth-Century France and Ireland, ed. Sarah Alyn Stacey and Véronique Desnain, Dublin: Four Courts Press, 2004, 227–41. 13. She is reported to have said, “I know I have the body of a weak and feeble woman, but I have the heart and stomach of a king, and a king of England too.” 14. See also my article “Conflicting Signals: Images of Louis XIV in Benserade’s Ballets.” 15. Much of this discussion of his appearance as a girl in the Ballet des Fêtes de Bacchus comes from my article “Cross-Casting in French Court Ballet: Monstrous Aberration or Theatrical Convention?” Romance Studies 21: 3 (November 2003): 157–68 (165–66). Reproduced here with permission. 16. Abbé de Choisy, Mémoires pour servir à l’histoire de Louis XIV, ed. G. Mongrédien, Paris: Mercure de France, 1966, 185. 17. From birth, both boys and girls wore dresses. Boys were normally “breeched” between the ages of five and seven, whereas Philippe d’Orléans continued wearing dresses until the age of twelve or thirteen. 18. For an interesting (though borderline homophobic) account of Monsieur’s homosexuality, see Nancy Nichols Barker, Brother to the Sun King: Philippe, Duke of Orléans, Baltimore and London: John Hopkins University Press, 1989, 56–65. 19. Victor Fournel, II: 444. 20. See my article “Cross-Casting in French Court Ballet,” 165. Notes 173 Chapter IV Female Roles in Court Ballet II: Women Playing Women 1. As Canova-Green has noted, the first appearance of a female professional in French court ballet was, strictly speaking, that of the child dancer, “La petite Molier,” in the Ballet des Fêtes de Bacchus (1651) (see I: 67n). Rather confusingly, Canova-Green also states that the Ballet de la Raillerie (1659) was the first court ballet to include female professionals (see I: 26n). Undoubtedly, she means adult female professionals, but their appearance had, in any case, been preceded one year earlier by Mlle Verpré’s performance in the Ballet d’Alcidiane. 2. We remember that the roles that professional actresses often refused to perform were those that were for old women—see chapter I. 3. The one exception appears to be Mlle Verpré’s appearance in the king’s suite in the Ballet de l’Impatience (1661), which I discuss below. 4. As in chapter III, unless otherwise stated, all quotations of ballet verses are from Isaac Benserade, Ballets pour Louis XIV, ed. Marie-Claude Canova-Green, 2 vols., Toulouse: Société de Littératures Classiques, 1997. I retain the spelling given in this edition throughout. 5. Hercule amoureux (or Ercole amante) was an Italian opera with music by Cavalli, interspersed with French ballet entries—see also chapter V. 6. On the subject of praising the king, see also my article “The Problem of Praise and the First Prologue to Le Malade imaginaire” in Seventeenth-Century French Studies 23 (2001): 139–49. 7. Having stated that he will combine the ladies’ praises, Benserade nev- ertheless goes on to write a stanza on each one of them, employing his customary references to their adopted roles as well as to their good looks, youth, and the powerful effect of the gaze. 8. Professional ballet featured in the new genre of French opera at the hands of Jean-Baptiste Lully, who took over the Académie Royale de Musique in 1672 (see chapter V).

Chapter V Cross-Casting and Gender Ambiguity in Opera 1. Given the Catholic Church’s inescapable—and uncomfortable—association with the castrato, it is perhaps fitting that long after the castrato had disappeared from the operatic stage he continued to perform in Italian churches. The last known castrato was Alessandro Moreschi (1858–1922) of the Sistine Chapel, whose voice features on the only known recordings of such a singer: in 1902 and 1904 Moreschi made recordings for the Gramophone and Typewriter Company. 2. Laurence Senelick, The Changing Room: Sex, Drag and Theatre, London: Routledge, 2000, 193–94. 174 Notes

3. See Roger Freitas, “Un atto d’ingegno: A Castrato in the Seventeenth Century,” Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, Yale University (1998), 18–21. 4. Wendy Heller, Emblems of Eloquence: Opera and Women’s Voices in Seventeenth-Century Venice, Berkeley, Los Angeles, and London: University of California Press, 2003, 18. 5. In Pietro Ziani’s La Semiramide (1670), for example, the principal male and female protagonists, Nino and Semiramide, are dressed in each other’s clothing during the greater part of the opera. See Heller’s chapter on “Semiramide and Musical Transvestism” in Emblems of Eloquence: 220–62 for an interesting analysis of the musical implications of this phenomenon. 6. Some popes had a more relaxed attitude toward the appearance of women on stage than others. See Patrick Barbier, Histoire des castrats, Paris: Bernard Grasset, 1989, 136–38. 7. These include Carlo Broschi (1705–82), known as Farinelli, who became famous again in the late–twentieth century thanks to Gérard Corbiau’s excellent film, Farinelli (1994). 8. The second male role might also be taken by a castrato with tenors singing the parts of kings and old men. See John Rosselli’s entry on “Castrato” in The New Grove Dictionary of Opera, ed. Stanley Sadie, 4 vols., London: Macmillan, 1992, 1: 766–68. 9. See Enid R. Peschel and Richard E. Peschel, “Medicine and Music: The Castrati in Opera,” Opera Quarterly 4: 4 (Winter 1986/87): 21–38 (27), and, by the same authors, “Medical Insights into the Castrati in Opera,” American Scientist (November–December 1987): 578–83. 10. Charles de Brosses, Lettre d’Italie sur les spectacles et la musique, Paris: La Flûte de Pan, 1980, 35, my emphasis. Later in his letter he describes a castrato whom he names “Porporino” (a student of the composer and singing teacher, Nicolas Porpora) as being “joli comme la plus jolie fille” (as pretty as the prettiest girl) (39)—words that are very similar to the Abbé Choisy’s description of Phillipe d’Orléans (see chapter III). 11. Hogwood believes it to be a scene from Handel’s Flavio, performed at the King’s Theatre in London, in 1723. See Christopher Hogwood, Handel, London: Thames and Hudson, 1984, 111. 12. Charles d’Ancillon, Traité des Eunuques, n.p.: 1707, 2. 13. Cited in Peschel and Peschel, “Medicine and Music,” 34. 14. Dympna Callaghan, Shakespeare Without Women: Representing Gender and Race on the Renaissance Stage, London: Routledge, 2000, 71. 15. Thomas McGeary, “ ‘Warbling Eunuchs’: Opera, Gender, and Sexuality on the London Stage, 1705–1742,” Restoration and 18th Century Theatre Research, second series 7: 1 (Summer 1992): 1–22 (15). 16. Johann Wolfgang von Goethe, “Women’s Parts Played by Men in the Roman Theater,” trans. by Isa Ragusa, in Crossing the Stage: Controversies on Cross-Dressing, ed. Lesley Ferris, London: Routledge, 1993: 47–51 (49–50). Notes 175

17. Opera in Seventeenth-Century Venice: The Creation of a Genre, Berkeley: University of California Press, 1991, 119n. 18. Lodovico Antonio Muratori, On Perfect Italian Poetry (1706); cited in Enrico Fubini, Music and Culture in Eighteenth-Century Europe: A Source Book, ed. Bonnie J. Blackburn, Chicago and London, 1994, 41. 19. Italian castrati were also a common object of satire in England. See Jill Campbell, “ ‘When Men Women turn’: Gender reversals in Fielding’s plays,” in Crossing the Stage: Controversies on Cross-Dressing, ed. Lesley Ferris, London: Routledge, 1993: 58–79. As was the case with the cross-cast boys of Renaissance England (see chapter I), one of the principal preoccupations of English anticastrato discourse was the danger of effeminization. One of the most notorious detractors of Italian opera in Britain was John Dennis, author of an Essay on the Opera’s after the Italian Manner . . . with some Reflections on the Damage which they may bring to the Publick (1706). Italian opera was thought to be effeminizing owing to its musical language, its association with luxury and decadence, and to its dependence on castrati. Moreover, it was foreign, and other, and thus “[struck] at the very heart of British Publick Spirit” (Thomas McGeary, 5). 20. J. Benjamin de Laborde, Essai sur la musique ancienne et moderne, Paris: 1780, 508. Cited in Barbier, 195. 21. Alexandre Maral, La Chapelle Royale de Versailles sous Louis XIV: Cérémonial, liturgie et musique, Sprimont: Mardaga, 2002, 76n. 22. Cited in Marcelle Benoît, Versailles et les musiciens du Roi, 1661–1733, Paris: Picard, 1971, 186. 23. An exception was a man named Blaise Berthod (or Bertaut) from Lyon, who was known as “Berthod le châtré.” See Benoît, Versailles et les musiciens du Roi, 187. 24. See Rosselli, Singers of Italian Opera, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992, 47 and Benoît, 269–70, 324–29 and 348–50. 25. Freitas notes on the other hand that Atto Melani’s singing had delighted Anne of Austria so much that she did not want him to leave after the performances of Orfeo were over and persuaded him to spend another two years in France. See Freitas, “Un atto d’ingegno,” 63–64. 26. Letter of January 26, 1657. Cited in both Italian and English in Freitas, 221. 27. See Freitas, 227 and Lorenzo Bianconi, Music in the Seventeenth Century, trans. David Bryant, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1987, 239. 28. Rosselli, Singers of Italian Opera, 36 (and, following him, Senelick) wrongly states that Don Filippo Melani played the part of a woman disguised as a man in Cavalli’s Ercole Amante in 1660. Filippo Melani did play such a role in 1660, but it was in Cavalli’s Serse. 29. Letter of March 1, 1660. Cited in Freitas, 225–26. 176 Notes

30. See Henry Prunières, L’Opéra italien en France avant Lulli, Paris: Champion, 1913, 278 and Norman Demuth, French Opera: Its Development to the Revolution, Sussex: Artemis, 1963, 86–87 for details of the cast. 31. Maugars, Réponse faite à un curieux sur le sentiment de la musique d’Italie, 1639; Paris: Claudin, 1865, 35. Cited in Barbier, 107. He was, inciden- tally, writing about two of the great castrati, Loreto Vittori and Marc-Antonio Pasqualini. 32. François Raguenet, Parallèle des Italiens et des Français en ce qui regarde la musique et les operas, Paris: Jean Moreau, 1702; Geneva: Minkoff, 1976, 13. 33. Tallemant des Réaux, Historiettes, 2 vols., Pléiade, Paris: Gallimard, 1960–61, II: 60. 34. Lettre à l’Archevesque de Turin. Oeuvres de poésie, 1661, 287. Cited in Prunières, L’Opéra Italian, 267. 35. Despite Lully’s aversion to castrati and his deliberate decision to exclude them from his new form of French opera, the tragédie en musique, the resident castrati at Versailles were occasionally called upon to participate in the choruses of musical productions at court. According to Sawkins, the castrato Antonio Bagniera (born in Switzerland, and castrated in France, much to the horror of Louis XIV) performed in the chorus for the court performance(s) of Lully’s Alceste in 1677. There is no reason to think that any castrati ever performed at the Paris Opéra, however, where the dessus parts were usually taken by women (and occasionally by boys or falsettists). Although the partici- pation of castrati at court did not translate to the town productions of Lully’s (and subsequent) operas, Lionel Sawkins observes an interesting phenomenon whereby “the presence of the falsetti and castrati in the choruses of opera performances at court resulted in fewer female sopranos being employed than at the Paris Opéra.” See Sawkins, “For and Against the Order of Nature: Who Sang the Soprano?” Early Music 15: 3 (August 1987): 315–24. 36. Claude-François Ménestrier, Des représentations en musique anciennes et modernes, Paris: Guignard, 1681, 236. 37. These were Atys, Psyché (Cupid), Bellérophon, Persée, Phaëton, Amadis, Armide (Renaud), and Acis et Galatée. 38. James R. Anthony, French Baroque Music, from Beaujoyeulx to Rameau, revised and expanded edition, Oregon: Amadeus Press, 1997, 105–06. 39. Lully’s tragédie en musique is well-known for having displayed a strong emphasis on dance, a tradition inherited from the ballet de cour and from the comédie-ballet (two genres for which Lully had previously com- posed music). Since I have already written at length about cross-cast dancing roles in the ballet de cour in chapters III and IV, here I shall focus uniquely on the small number of cross-cast singing roles in Lully’s operas. Notes 177

40. Carl B. Schmidt, The livrets of Jean-Baptiste Lully’s tragédies-lyriques: A catalogue raisonné, New York: Performers’ Editions, 1995. 41. Quinault and Lully were criticized for their inclusion of comic ele- ments in their early tragédies en musique, and it was largely in response to those criticisms that they came to eliminate all such episodes from their later works. 42. Buford Norman, Touched by the Graces: The Libretti of Philippe Quinault in the Context of French Classicism, Birmingham, Alabama: Summa, 2001, 89. 43. All references to the livrets of Lully-Quinualt’s tragédies en musique are to Philippe Quinault, Livrets d’opéra, ed. Buford Norman, 2 vols., Toulouse: Littératures Classiques, 1999. 44. Lully-Quinault, Alceste, La Grande Ecurie et la Chambre du Roy et l’Ensemble Vocal Sagittarius, dir. Jean-Claude Malgoire (Montaigne/ Auvidis, 1992/1994, 3CD). 45. Benoît Bolduc, “From Marvel to Camp: Medusa for the Twenty-First Century,” Journal of Seventeenth-Century Music 10: 1 (2005): par. 5.3; http://www.sscm-jscm.org/jscm/v10/no1/bolduc.html. 46. Lully-Quinault, Persée, Maîtrise du Centre de Musique Baroque de Versailles, les Chantres de la Chapelle et Les Talens Lyriques, dir. Christophe Rousset (Astrée, 2001, 3CD). 47. Now 20: 9 (November 2–8, 2000). 48. Eye Weekly (November 2, 2000). 49. Lully-Quinault, Phaéton, Ensemble vocal Sagittarius et Les Musiciens du Louvre, dir. Marc Minkowski (Erato, 1994, 2CD). 50. Schmidt, 414 and Lully-Quinault, Armide, Chœur et Orchestre du Collegium Vocale et de la Chapelle Royale, dir. Philippe Herrewegghe (Harmonia Mundi, 1993, 2CD). Bibliography

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Discography Lully-Quinault. Alceste. La Grande Ecurie et la Chambre du Roy et l’Ensemble Vocal Sagittarius. Dir. Jean-Claude Malgoire (Montaigne/ Auvidis, 1992/1994, 3CD). ———. Armide. Chœur et Orchestre du Collegium Vocale et de la Chapelle Royale. Dir. Philippe Herrewegghe (Harmonia Mundi, 1993, 2CD). ———. Persée. Maîtrise du Centre de Musique Baroque de Versailles “les Chantres de la Chapelle” et LesTalens Lyriques. Dir. Christophe Rousset (Astrée, 2001, 3CD). ———. Phaéton. Ensemble vocal Sagittarius et Les Musiciens du Louvre. Dir. Marc Minkowski (Erato, 1994, 2CD). Bibliography 189 Filmography Farinelli. Gérard Corbiau (1994). Monty Python’s Life of Brian. Terry Jones (1979). Le Roi danse. Gérard Corbiau (2000). Saint-Cyr. Patricia Mazuy (2000). Index

Académie Royale de Danse, 122 male, 14, 16, 52, 61–2, 68, 75, 87, Académie Royale de Musique, 122, 148 105–6, 172n actresses, 8–9, 12–18, 21–5, 42, 69, 80 arrival on the English public stage, Balatri, Filippo, 133 8, 12, 17, 80 ballet, 8–9, 45, 48, 50, 77–127, 138–41, arrival on the French public stage, 157, 173n 11–15 see also Beaujoyeulx, Benserade, reluctance to play unglamorous Buti, Lully roles, 8, 20, 23–4, 27, 150 ballet programs or livrets, 9, 78, 81, Italian in France, 11–14 83–4, 86, 87, 89, 103, 149 in Italian theatre, 12–14, 164n see also Benserade perceived immorality of, 15–17 Barbieri, Nicolo, 12 see also women Barbier, Patrick, 134 all-female casts, 43, 60, 70 Bardou, P., 65–6 all-male casts, 2, 4–5, 8, 43, 44, 52, 80, Beaujoyeulx, Balthazar de, 77–9 86, 103, 104, 136, 159, 162 Balet Comique de la Royne, all-male plots, 47–8 77–9 Amazons, 83, 85, 94, 95, 109–10 beauty, female, 9, 13, 53–4, 58, 61, 64, Ancillon, Charles d’, 133, 135, 139, 147 66, 69, 75, 86–7, 94–100, 104–14, Traité des Eunuques, 133, 135, 139, 147 123, 126, 146, 153 Andreini, Isabella, 12–14 see also feminine ideal d’Angleterre, Henriette, 112 Béjart, Louis, 25–6, 29, 31 anti-theatricalists, 6, 8, 11–12, 15–16, 17, Béjart, Madeleine, 36 65, 159 Benoît, Marcelle, 138 anxiety, 6, 8, 85, 104, 131, 134, 137, 145 Benserade, Isaac Aquaviva, Père, 46 Ballet d’Alcidiane, 97, 104, 116 Ratio Studiorum, 46, 55, 56, 168n Ballet de Cassandre, 86–7 Aristophanes, 2–4, 151 Ballet de Flore, 104, 114, 118–22, 127 Ecclesiazusae, 2–4, 151 Ballet de la Galanterie du Temps, Arnauld, A., 66 80, 95 audiences Ballet de l’Amour malade, 84, female, 46, 51, 52, 86–7, 99, 100, 139–40; see also Amor malato, 118–19, 126, 127, 172n Buti, and Lully 192 Index

Benserade, Isaac––continued in France, 129, 137–41, 176n Ballet de la Naissance de Vénus, 80, French responses to, 141–8 112–13, 115, 127 in Italy, 9, 130–1, 134, 136–7 Ballet de la Nuit, 87, 95, 96, 99 sex of, 132–4 Ballet de la Raillerie, 116 sexuality and, 131–2, 134–6 Ballet de l’Impatience, 116 similarity to women/boys, 135, 137, Ballet de Psyché, 83, 94–5, 98–9, 103, 145, 157, 174n 105–7, 109 Cavalli, Pietro Francesco, 140 Ballet des Amours déguisés, 83, Ercole Amante, 140–1; see also 110–11, 117 Hercule amoureux Ballet des Arts, 108–10 Serse, 140 Ballet des Fêtes de Bacchus, 88–90, 92–4 Chappuzeau, Samuel, 16, 23, 55–6 Ballet des Muses, 85, 92, 104, Théatre François, 16, 23, 55–6 113–14, 127 Choisy, Abbé de, 92 Ballet des Plaisirs, 99–100 Clarke, Jan, 16 Ballet des Plaisirs troublés, 97–8 clothes, see costume Ballet des Saisons, 90–1, 117 Comédie Française, 16, 26 Ballet du Triomphe de l’Amour, 114, Corneille, Pierre, 17–25, 40, 43, 48–9, 122–6, 127 56, 58 Les Noces de Pélée de Thétis, 81–2, “Discours à Cliton”, 24 103, 107 La Galerie du Palais, 21–2 Les Noces de village, 91–2 Mélite, 18, 19–20, 22 see also ballet and ballet programs La Suivante, 22–3 Bérain, Jean, 62, 71 La Veuve, 18, 20–1 Blackmer, Corinne E., 5–6 Corneille, Thomas, 26, 40–2 Boileau-Despréaux, Nicolas, 71 La Devineresse, 40–2 Bolduc, Benoît, 153–4 see also de Visé Bossuet, Jacques-Bénigne, 15–16, Costa, Anna Francesca, 139 54–5, 63 costumes, 6, 19–20, 30, 35, 38–9, 40, boy actors, 5, 8, 11, 14, 133, 157 46, 56, 58–9, 62–3, 65, 71, 74, 75, Bray, René, 28, 38 81, 110, 116–17, 162, 171n Brosses, Charles de, 132, 133, 174n Coustel, P., 15 Buti, abbé, 84, 139–40 cross-casting, 1–9, 157–60, 162 Amor malato, 84, 139–40 as convention, 1–5, 7, 80–1, see also Benserade and Lully 83, 84, 95, 103–4, 117, 158, 159, Butler, Judith, 6–7 160, 162 as device, 1–2, 4–6, 9, 80, 83–4, 95, Caffaro, Père, 54 100, 104, 117, 158, 159, 160, 162 Callaghan, Dympna, 133 distinct from cross-dressing, 1–2 camp, 5, 153, 159, 160 men playing unfeminine roles, 9, Canova-Green, Marie-Claude, 85 19–20, 23–4, 27, 29, 35, 36–9, castrati, 129–31, 132, 133–48, 149, 155, 41–2, 153, 155, 159 157, 173n as trigger, 5–6 effeminacy and, 130, 137, 145, 174n see also ballet, castrati, opera, school in England, 137, 175n drama and theatre Index 193 cross-dressing, 1–2, 4, 6–7, 11–12, 59, de Gissey, Henry, 81, 82 62, 75 Goethe, Johann Wolfgang von, biblical prohibition of, 6, 11, 55 136–7, 146 distinct from cross-casting, 1–2 Gougenot Comédie des comédiens, 14–15, 16 Damville, Duc, 84–5, 98–9 Guy, Bishop of Arras, 56 dancers female, 80, 103–27 Hall, Gaston, 33 male, 79–100 Harris, Joseph, 20, 37, 163n professional, 45, 79, 80, 83, 103–4, haute contre, 129, 148–50, 152–5 115–18, 122, 126, 173n Hébert, François, 67–8, 69 relationship between performer Heller, Wendy, 130, 174n and role, 83–4, 88, 104 Henderson, Jeffrey, 3 relationship between performer Hercule amoureux, see Cavalli and and spectator, 78, 83–4, 126 Ercole Amante Deierkauf-Holsboer, S. Wilma, 13, 14, 15 l’Hermite, Tristan, 58 desire, 3, 4, 5, 6, 19, 37, 75, 94, 99, 106, Marianne, 58–9 124, 126, 134, 135, 146, 151, 157 Herzel, Roger, 25, 26, 36, 166n de Visé, Donneau, 40 Hesselin, Monsieur, 97 La Devineresse, 26, 40–2 d’Heureux, Monsieur, 97–8 see also T. Corneille homoeroticism, 5–6, 19, 31, 53, 85, 100, disguise plots, 4, 8, 130, 163n 127, 146 Dock, Stephen, 30 homosexuality, 5, 41, 94, 146, 163n, 172n drag, 6–7, 151, 153–4, 159 see also sodomy dressing-up, 75 Howe, Elizabeth, 8 Du Ryer, Isaac, 13–14 Hubert, André, 25–6, 33, 36, 38, 40, 41, 42 feminine ideal, 86, 96–101, 103, 104–7 irony, 94, 97 see also beauty comic, 2, 4, 27, 38, 104 Fénelon, François de Salignac de la dramatic, 2, 5, 27 Mothe, 57–8, 71 Traité de l’Education des Filles, 57–8 Jesuit drama, 43–57, 145 Franco-Italian rivalry, 142, 148, 155 Andronicus martyr, 48 Franko, Mark, 78–9 Constantinus, 47 Freitas, Roger, 130, 135–6 love plots in, 9, 43, 46, 49–51, 75 French court ballet, see ballet Le martyre de sainte Suzanne, 53–4 Freud, Sigmund, 7, 131, 132 see also l’Hermite, La Rue, Lejay, castration complex, 131, 132, 137 and Lucas third sex, 7 Jouvancy, Père, 45–6 Ratio docendi et discendi, 45–6 Garber, Marjorie, 7, 132–3 gender identity, 6–7, 93, 94, 107, 147, 157 Keyser, Dorothy, 1 gender roles, 35, 36, 38, 39, 57, 157 Genlis, Marquis de, 87, 94–5 Lacour, Léopold, 14 ugliness of, 94–5 Laqueur, Thomas, 159 194 Index

La Rue, Père, 50 McGowan, Margaret, 78 Cyrus, 50–1 Melani, Atto, 135–6, 138–41 La Vallière, Mlle de, 108 Mémoires de Saint-Cyr, 65 dancing with Louis XIV, 108–9 Mémoires de Dames de Saint Louis, 64 legs, visibility of, 8, 62, 81, 106, 116–17 Ménestrier, Claude-François, 79, 81, Lejay, Père, 48–50 148, 169n Eustachius martyr, 48 Mercure galant, 25–6 Loret, 51–4 Mirepoix, Marquis de, 85 Muse historique, 51–4 Molière, Jean-Baptiste Poquelin de, 8, Louis XIII, 12, 77, 79 24, 25–40, 41, 42, 43, 56, 70, 158 Louis XIV, 8–9, 52, 77, 79, 137–8, 139, Le Bourgeois gentilhomme, 26, 157, 160, 162, 171n 33–6, 40 dancing roles of, 9, 81, 82, 87–92, 94, George Dandin, 26, 31, 32, 40, 167n 100, 107–9, 116, 117, 127, Les Femmes savantes, 26, 36–9, 40, 139–40, 172n 168n opera and, 137–40, 142 Le Tartuffe, 26, 28–30, 40, 42, 70 Saint-Cyr and, 57, 62, 63, 70, 71, 73 Monglas, Marquis de, 96–7 Lucas, Père, 48 Monty Python’s Life of Brian, 1–2 Catharina, 48 Muir, Lynette, 12, 57 Lully, Jean-Baptiste, 8, 122, 129, 137, Muratori, Lodovico Antonio, 137 148–55 Alceste, 152, 176n New Globe Theatre, London, 159–61 Amour malade, 84, 139–40; see also Norman, Buford, 151 Amor malato, Benserade, and Nueillan, Mlle de, 105–6 Buti nurse figures, 18–23, 40, 139, 149, 150–1 Armide, 154 Atys, 150 opera, 6, 45, 122, 129–55 Cadmus et Hermione, 150–1 French, 8, 9, 129, 136, 137, 148–55 Isis, 152–3 Italian, 130–1, 136–7 Persée, 153–4 Italian in France, 138–41 Phaëton, 154 see also Buti, castrati, Cavalli, Lully, Prosperine, 153 Quinault and Rossi Thésée, 150 Orgel, Stephen, 8 see also Quinault Orléans, Philippe d’, 87, 92–4, 95, 100, Lyonnet, Henry, 18 109, 112, 172n

Maintenon, Mme de, 57–60, 62, 67, pantomime, 21, 28, 35, 158–9 68, 70, 71, 73–5, 171n pantomime dame, 21, 27, 158 male-female relations at court, 9, 79, principal boy, 158–9 84, 86–7, 103, 115, 123, 127 Parish, Richard, 27–8, 33 Mallinson, Jonathan, 18–20 patriarchy, 7, 94, 100 Manseau, 58–9, 62, 71, 73–4 Perrin, Pierre, 141, 146–7, 149 Mazarin, Cardinal, 138–40 Peschel, Enid and Richard, 134–5, 137 McCabe, William H., 46–7 Phillips, Henry, 54 McGeary, Thomas, 134 Plessis, Comte du, 95–6 Index 195

Quesnel, 66–7, 68 sexual identity, 83, 85, 90, 93–4, Quinault, Philippe, 122, 148–55 107, 109 Alceste, 152, 176n Shakespeare, William, 4–5, 8, 159–62 Armide, 154 Antony and Cleopatra, 4–5, 159 Atys, 150 Twelfth Night, 160, 161 Cadmus et Hermione, 150–1 Smith, Patricia Juliana, 5–6 Isis, 152–3 sodomy, 135, 136, 163n Persée, 153–4 Phaëton, 154 theatre, spoken Prosperine, 153 English, 11–12, 17 Thésée, 150 English vs. French, 11–12, 14, 17, 80 see also Lully perceived immorality of, 8, 11, 16, 45, 54 Racine, Jean, 8, 43, 45, 49–50, 56, 58, see also Jesuit drama, Saint-Cyr and 59, 60, 65–7, 70–1, 79 school drama Athalie, 60, 70–1, 72, 73–4, 170n theatrical illusion, 2, 7, 40, 83–4, 86, Esther, 45, 60–71, 73–5, 170n 100, 158, 162 Raguenet, Abbé, 142–6 theatricality, 1, 2, 39, 40, 157 Parallèle des Italiens et des François, “third sex,” see Garber 142–6 Rapin, René, 51 Vanderbank, J., 132 Restoration drama, 8, 12, 14, 158–9 Venier, Marie, 14–15 Richelieu, Cardinal, 12, 79 verisimilitude, 142, 146, 149, 155 Robinet, Charles, 44 Verpré, Mlle, 103–4, 115–18, 126 Rosand, Ellen, 137 cross-cast role of, 116, 126 Rosenberg, Marvin, 5 dancing with Louis XIV, 116, 117 Rossi, Luigi, 138–9 Vibraye, Marquise de, 113 Orfeo, 138–9 Vivonne, Comtesse de, 113 Rylance, Mark, 159–60, 161 de Voisin, Joseph, 16, 55

Saint-Cyr, drama at, 9, 43, 57–75 Whitton, David, 35 love plots in, 59–60, 66, 67 women school drama, 43–75, 157 as incomplete men, 157, 159 see also Jesuit drama and Saint-Cyr similarity to boys/children, 53, 89, Scudéry, Georges de, 90, 92, 135, 157, 159 Comédie des comédiens, 16–17 similarity to castrati, 135, 137, Senesino, Bernardi Francesco, 132 145, 157 de Servien, Hubert, 52–3 on stage, papal ban of, 12, 129, Sévigné, Mme de, 63, 65, 67, 115 130, 174n