Ó American Sociological Association 2018 DOI: 10.1177/0094306117744794 http://cs.sagepub.com FEATURED ESSAY

Sociology and Journalism: A Comparative Analysis

HERBERT J. GANS Columbia University [email protected]

Sociological researchers and journalists both To be sure, sociologists are not alone in study society and write or film reports about dismissing journalists, for they are treated their findings, but they are not particularly similarly by the other social sciences. I still fond of each other. Many sociologists dispar- remember when the late John Kenneth age and even dismiss the work of journalists Galbraith, arguably the most influential and, equally important, of fellow sociologists American economist of the last century, was they consider to be journalists. called a journalist, and I can think of several Journalists are condemned mostly for contemporary economists who are probably dramatizing, oversimplifying, and sensa- being put down the same way. tionalizing their findings. They are also Journalists are no more complimentary; condemned for methodological shortcom- they see sociologists as given to jargon and oth- ings, such as using anecdotes and samples er forms of opaque writing. Instead of focusing of one or two as evidence. In addition, sociol- on the important or interesting topics about ogists criticize journalists for not under- which journalists report, sociologists produce standing their work or oversimplifying their too many boring writings on topics that jour- reports on it. nalists view as not newsworthy. They also look down on journalists for The critiques that the two disciplines level being only descriptive, and fellow sociolo- at each other reflect their different disciplin- gists who are deemed to be too descriptive ary norms, but also those of the very different may therefore be dismissed as journalists. institutions in which they are embedded. Eschewing disciplinary concepts can result Still, some criticisms are justified, particular- in the same put-down, and so will repeated ly those that impair the usefulness of the two appearances in the news media. disciplines for their audiences, others in the As far as I know, no one has ever systemat- general public, and the country. ically studied sociology’s opinions of and However, this essay is limited to a compar- behavior toward journalism. Nor do we ative analysis of journalism and sociology as know how widespread these opinions and two disciplines studying and reporting on behaviorsare.Myhunch:theyarepracticed the same society. It will argue that they do most widely among sociologists who consid- so for different purposes, that they report er themselves social scientists devoted to their findings to different audiences, and empirical research that contributes to theory- that they differ in many other ways. They building and the literature. Even if their are not even competing for scarce resources, research is publicly funded, they report their power, or other institutional necessities or work by adding to the sociological literature rewards. Consequently, they need not dis- rather than by informing the general public, parage each other. and they may be reluctant to talk to journalists. The essay also suggests that the two disci- Conversely, sociologists who see them- plines are similar in a few ways and some- selves as social scientists and seek mainly to times use each other for their work. As understand American and other societies a result, both would gain from greater mutual probably look more kindly on journalists. understanding and a more cooperative rela- Public sociologists may admire them for tionship. The essay concludes with some their ability to reach the general public. suggestions for advancing both.

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Because what follows is neither a review interviews with named individuals, such as essay nor a research report, I will generalize institutional leaders or the information- more broadly than is customary. My gener- suppliers employed to speak for them and alizations about journalism apply mainly their institutions. to reporters working for the daily legacy Sociologists focus instead on patterns and news media: print, radio, and television. structures, such as processes, networks, and (Too many of my observations probably institutions. While journalists emphasize come from media that cater to the college- unique or distinctive events or acts, sociolo- educated audience, notably the New York gists more often study recurring ones. Times.) Moreover, journalists look especially for The sociological researchers I write about the deviant or unusual event, action, or per- are academics who are primarily teachers, sonality. The plane that crashes is newswor- but at research universities that expect that thy, while the thousands that land safely they will do research and keep course loads are not. Sociologists study the unusual as low for that reason. well, but they report more often on what is I thereby neglect the considerable variety considered typical, normal, and regular. in the kinds of journalism and journalists Journalists aim to expose villains and as well as of sociology and sociological thereby serve a moral and even a penal func- researchers. A comprehensive comparative tion in society, while sociologists are more analysis of the two disciplines would need likely to study the structures and processes to be of book length. that cause behavior to be labelled as law- breaking. Insofar as they act as moral guard- ians, they are concerned with ending harmful Some Major Differences between or criminal behavior even while re-labeling Sociology and Journalism victimless actions as acceptable behavior. Sociological researchers and journalists The research methods of the two disci- play different roles in the division of plines, especially their data-gathering and information-supplying labor, each with their analytic processes, differ too. Because jour- own purposes and responsibilities. nalists must report on the latest happenings Journalists report mainly to members of and then disseminate their findings as the general public and pay particular atten- quickly as possible, they have little time for tion to the latest news about government data collection and analysis. Investigative and politics. They do so in part because their reporting sometimes takes months, but it is profession considers itself to be a bulwark for therefore so expensive that only a few news democracy, but they also seek to inform their media can afford to undertake it. audience of what government and politics do Since journalists serve lay audiences, most for and to the citizenry. of their reports are brief, although weekly Sociological researchers work mostly for and monthly news media can practice so- their disciplinary colleagues and students, called long-form journalism. monitoring the components of society that Sociological methods are frequently just the social scientific division of labor dele- the reverse. Sociologists generally get their gates to sociology. data from and about populations, the roles Perhaps the biggest difference: journalists they play, and the social positions they occu- must report daily, and now sometimes 24/7, py. Researchers sometimes spend years on all events and actions they consider collecting and analyzing their data; and important. Sociologists can study anything because they serve mainly their colleagues, past or present, choosing their research topics they can report it in great detail. based on their personal research interests, The two disciplines report their findings the demands of their field, and what funders in different ways as well. Journalists want studied or are willing to support. have to produce news stories and aim to Journalists like to emphasize the individ- be story-tellers, leaving so-called ‘‘think uals at the center of the events and actions pieces’’ mainly to columnists and commen- they cover. Most of their data comes from tators. Conversely, sociologists write their

Contemporary Sociology 47, 1 Featured Essay 5 findings up as research reports, with exten- even television news to online news websites sive descriptions of their methods. Their and social media. think-pieces are called theory. Sociology departments and research insti- The two disciplines also speak different tutes must compete, too, sometimes with languages. Journalists write plainly, concise- others in the same university; but overt com- ly, and sometimes dramatically to attract and petition is discouraged. The competition hold the attention of their audience. Socio- between universities is more intense because logical research reports employ technical there are not enough students for all of them, language and aim to invent new concepts. Part- but researchers do not have to face the same ly as a result, almost every sociological field pervasive economic decline as journalists. develops a somewhat distinctive vocabulary. Many of these and other variations between the two disciplines can be explained largely by Differences in Audiences the institutions in which their workers are Some of the difference between the two disci- employed. Most journalists work for profit- plines can be explained by the difference in seeking firms that make their money by sell- the size and characteristics of their audience ing their product to subscribers and assem- and by their relationship to it. bling audiences for advertisers. The circulation of the country’s prime In the process, they must compete with national dailies, the New York Times and other firms selling similar products, and the Washington Post, is about two million. those who win in the competition grow and The three network television evening news sometimes buy those who lose. Partly as programs are watched by more than 20 mil- a result, the so-called legacy news industry lion viewers. producing print and electronic journalism The circulation of sociology’s two prime or is increasingly controlled by an ever-smaller ‘‘flagship’’ journals, the ASR and AJS, totals number of large firms. Some of these firms, 11,000, and all of ASA’s journals reach about especially in radio and television, obtain most 43,000 subscribers, although students and of their income by supplying entertainment. other readers who read these in libraries Although the digital news media have now or on the web should be added to both intensified the competition, news-gathering is numbers. still very labor intensive and costly. Conse- Journalists are also involved in more quently, a handful of news websites may complex relationships with their audiences. eventually become dominant as well. The They not only report to readers, viewers, and social media firms such as Facebook that are listeners but must also keep in mind that their now also supplying news are already huge, work is seen by their sources, the people and and Google is much larger than any of the organizations about which they report. corporations that own legacy news firms. Then too, journalists must keep in mind Sociologists conduct their studies in the many different kinds of organizations, departments in which they are mainly politicians, and media critics who constantly teachers and in research institutes where monitor them for perceived political and oth- they must often spend time writing grant er biases. Politicians have long thought the proposals to fund their research. While both news media ought to be their publicists, but departments and institutes are nonprofit Donald Trump attacks them for supplying institutions, they depend on funders who ‘‘fake news’’ and calls them ‘‘the enemy of expect symbolic rewards, whether they are the people.’’ grant givers, donors, or the tuition-paying Sociologists rarely have to worry about students who attend their schools. their sources, most of whom never see their Competition between profit-seekers is writings. While researchers are sometimes always more intense than between nonprofits. attacked for political and other ideological Consequently, the legacy news media are cur- biases by the Right and the Left, the only rently experiencing economic decline brought critics that they must always keep in mind on in part by shrinking audiences and by are their peers. For better or worse, sociolo- advertisers moving away from print and gists are not publicly visible enough to be

Contemporary Sociology 47, 1 6 Featured Essay sought out or regularly attacked by politi- Another source of pressure: making com- cians, although at times of social change, plex subjects clear to a lay audience, even the discipline sometimes becomes a conve- as they must attract it. Consequently, they nient scapegoat. must simplify but should not oversimplify. Journalists’ relationship with their readers, Unable to tell their audience all they have viewers, and listeners might be described as found out, they also cannot add the qualifica- two-sided. On the one hand, their profes- tions that sociologists dare not omit. sional norms urge journalists to supply The reporting task is further complicated news that ‘‘the public needs to know.’’ On for general reporters, who must quickly learn the other hand, they must offer the public enough about the large variety of topics they what it wants to know, which is reinforced have to cover in order to accurately report the by the need to maximize that audience for latest news about them. employers and advertisers. Beat reporters who concentrate on specific The journalists’ relationship is two-sided topics also need to learn fast, since their beats in another way. Those working for the popu- are much larger than the fields or subfields in lar news media assume that their audience which sociologists work. National political consists of a small number of news buffs reporters must understand the entire political who may pay close and regular attention to institution to which they are assigned, and the the news and a much larger number who few social science reporters must understand pay less, and less regular, attention. Its inter- all the social sciences. est in the news is limited, another reason why Sociologists are freed of most of these most news stories are brief. complexities. Their audience is, compara- Also, journalists expect much of their audi- tively speaking, homogeneous, and much ence to be fickle so that it must be wooed for of it is virtually captive. almost every news item. This explains why Researchers must keep up with the litera- the news is communicated as stories and, ture in their field so that they can add to it, when possible, dramatic ones. teachers must keep up so they can teach it, Because so much of the news is about atyp- and students are assigned many required ical events and actions, journalistic general- readings. Sociologists are thus almost guar- izations about what is happening or trending anteed a regular and fairly attentive audi- can sometimes be overly dramatic and mis- ence, which they neither need to court nor leading. However, journalists rarely have attract with attention-getting studies. time to think about all the possible effects Moreover, that audience is not and cannot of their work. be very demanding of the journals they They do not have time to think about their read—if only because they need to be audience, either; and when that audience is published themselves. As a result, editors diverse and in the hundreds of thousands or can choose among a humongous oversupply more, there is no way they can do so. Instead, of authors—and many can turn down 80 to some of them keep relatives, neighbors, and 90 percent of the papers they receive. other lay people in mind, and then mostly to Further, editors and authors need not remember what they know and understand report what is new, either in the society about the world covered by journalists and they study or even within sociology. They how much they want to know. can ignore events, actions, and even the latest Because journalists believe, without much social trends that are headline-making for evidence, that their audience will want only journalists. One of the possible exceptions: the latest news and that the journalists and the textbook business, where novelty is firms with which they are competing believe sometimes a competitive advantage. so as well, journalists are under constant time Originality is highly valued, but because it pressure. Being first with a story and is rare, authors can publish articles and books scooping other news media therefore earns that only report something slightly different, both the news organization and the journal- or that replicate or question what has already ists involved recognition, prestige, and con- been published. In fact, authors’ substantive sideration for professional prizes. findings are frequently less important than

Contemporary Sociology 47, 1 Featured Essay 7 their methods, theories, and concepts— To be sure, not all is well. Higher education especially if they can come up with new ones. is increasingly competitive and under- Since occupational success is too often funded, and too many colleges have had to measured more by the amount of publishing downsize or hire more adjuncts. Perhaps as than by the quality of the work, journal a result, the ASA’s membership has not articles are of lengths inconceivable to jour- grown for a number of recent years. nalists. Because most journals are quarterlies Federal and some other funds for sociolog- or bimonthlies, readers also have enough ical research have been reduced as well, time to read them. Thus, authors need not along with library budgets. The latter reduc- worry that they will lose their audience. tion cuts into the acquisition of sociological Still, even scholars sometimes need or publications, but the content of sociological want the latest news about their disciplines. journals and monographs has changed little Consequently, academic organizations also for many decades, and the number being publish disciplinary, departmental, and published still seems to be rising. institutional newsletters. Nonetheless. their stories are unlike those Some Similarities and Convergences appearing in the news media. Given the aca- demic conception of time, the latest news between the Disciplines could have occurred months ago. Moreover, Although there are many differences between most of the stories tell about disciplinary or sociology and journalism, there are a few sim- institutional accomplishments and announce ilarities. As already noted, both disciplines likely future ones. Routine politics, power report mainly about American society. They struggles, and the like are avoided. Indeed, communicate much of their findings in writ- ‘‘bad’’ news about the discipline is virtually ten texts and to audiences that want or need never reported in these newsletters. to keep up with environments beyond the pri- Last but not least, the two disciplines face mary groups, networks, and institutions they different futures, and that of the news media are in or in touch with regularly. is currently troubled. Although Trump’s Both disciplines also apply some similar intentional and unintentional news-making methods. As suggested earlier, they rely on has increased the news audience, the long- interviews with the people they report on. term trend is an audience decline, especially Both resort to surveys, but journalists rely in the legacy news media. That and the ongo- mainly on those done by pollsters. ing consumer shift from stores to online pur- Journalists, like sociologists, get some of chasing have also contributed to the decline their data backstage, the former through inves- in advertising income. The resulting eco- tigative reporting, the latter by fieldwork. Still, nomic problems have led to elimination of investigative reporters occasionally also resort print editions and even the closing of some to fieldwork and, like sociologists, frequently newspapers and magazines, as well as the among marginalized populations. elimination of jobs even in surviving ones. Both also go backstage in order to find In response, print media have begun to people who are behaving illegally or violating alter the basic news format, for example, widely agreed on norms. However, journalists supplementing print with videos and seek to expose them, and those who do so often podcasts—and even sending out newsletters win their discipline’s most prestigious prizes. and emails to inform audiences of news Sociologists are more interested in com- about topics in which they have shown an paring backstage and frontstage behavior. interest. Almost all news media, both legacy If they find illegal or norm-violating behav- and digital, have also been looking for ways ior, they look for impersonal—for example, of repackaging and putting together news structural and cultural—patterns that cause stories for audiences with specific interests or incentivize injurious behavior and may in order to hold them and attract new ones. suggest social changes to eliminate it. Sociology is in much better shape, and Journalists and sociologists both strive unlike journalists, sociologists do not have to be accurate, to avoid plagiarism and viola- to worry about the future of the discipline. tions of agreed-upon research procedures.

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These are cardinal offenses in both fields and to the general public. The ASA has held news may lead to the expulsion of violators. conferences for many years, and its journal The two disciplines also aim to be as objec- Contexts was originally published to reach tive as possible, to keep personal values and readers beyond sociology. opinions out of their studies. While sociologists Another instance of convergence is sociol- focus on empirical findings, journalists concen- ogy’s increased resort to narrative about trate on reporting agreed-upon facts. In a time individuals, especially in book-length ethno- of ‘‘fake news,’’ they have stepped up fact- graphic and other qualitative studies. Sociol- checking to keep out inaccurate ones, a version ogists may be adding story-telling to their of which sociologists assign to peer reviewers. rhetorical repertoire, though not as perva- In a practice criticized by media critics as sively as journalists. false equivalence, journalists are trained Perhaps the most significant example of to treat ‘‘both sides’’ of law-abiding institu- sociological convergence is public sociology, tions, covering events, actions, and their partic- particularly the kind that communicates ipants as similarly and neutrally as they can. sociological ideas and findings to the general They stick to the facts and to neutrality in public. part because their audiences are politically Public sociology can include both publica- and ideologically diverse and now increas- tions created specifically for the general pub- ingly polarized. Consequently, journalists, lic as well as those that are intended to reach or their firms and advertisers, try to avoid the disciplinary audience. Public sociology antagonizing them. should, however, be distinguished from pop- Sociologists aim for a somewhat different ularized sociology, which is usually written conception of objectivity, in part because, by journalists or free-lance writers. normally,they do not have to keep their audi- If the uses that journalists make of sociolo- ences in mind. They do not have to think gists, and vice versa, can be considered about whether they could be antagonizing examples of convergence, then the social quantitative or qualitative sociologists or cul- and intellectual distance between the two tural or structural ones. disciplines is narrower than their opinion of Instead, sociologists assume that their each other would suggest. readers are prepared to be persuaded by Although few news media establish socio- empirically based findings and practice a vir- logical or social science beats, journalists reg- tually automatic equivalence. ularly use sociologists to obtain information Despite the relative scarcity of similarities for their stories and also as quote-suppliers between sociology and journalism, there are when they want to provide scholarly backup some instances of convergence between the for their conclusions. two, suggesting a possibly greater similarity The reporting of sociological findings in the future. should increase as journalism becomes yet Journalists are beginning to report on more analytic and as data journalism moves sociological and other social science research, toward the mainstream of the discipline. especially when they write about topics also Sociologists use journalists in at least three investigated by academic researchers. ways. Many keep up with the journalistic cov- In recent years, journalists, especially those erage of their research topics. Actually, they news media catering to a college-educated could probably not do their research if they audience, have become more analytic, offer- had not already obtained some basic informa- ing causal and other explanations that some- tion about these topics from news stories. times resemble sociological ones. In addition, They also use the journalists’ reporting to they have begun to include news and analy- help them decide what they should study. ses based on large data sets as well as ‘‘big This can include elaborating on and explaining data,’’ with some journalism schools now journalistic descriptions and conclusions, offering training in data journalism. focusing on related topics journalists do not Sociological convergence with journalism cover, and correcting or debunking what soci- is also taking place, particularly in communi- ologists deem to be faulty or oversimplified cating sociological findings and perspectives reporting.

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In addition, sociologists trying to reach the not have much reason to study sociology general public need journalists to get their and sociologists. However, those with social ideas and findings to that public. To do so, science and related beats should know they must first evoke enthusiasm about their more about the operations of sociology and research from journalists. the other social science disciplines as well Further, sociologists use and need journal- as the academic or other institutions in which ists to get themselves and their employers they are embedded. reported by the news media. Most universities They might also benefit from being more appreciate and sometimes reward their aca- familiar with how sociologists gather and ana- demic employees for publicity that increases lyze data, how they theorize and why, and their institutional visibility. That appreciation how they deal with detachment and objec- increases if the universities are competing tivity. They should know more about the role with other universities in attracting students paradigm changes, intellectual fashions, and and pleasing trustees, alumni, politicians, the Zeitgeist play in academic research, even and others on whose funds they depend. if they are unlikely to cover them. Many sociology departments and research Sociologists would benefit as well from institutes regularly report the work of their journalistic studies of their discipline, if staff members to some news media. Every only because they so rarely study it and issue of ASA’s Footnotes includes a list of themselves. Studies showing how informed members who have been ‘‘In the News.’’ journalists see them might even lead to some innovative disciplinary soul-searching. Both sociologists and journalists should For Mutual Understanding and Closer study why they criticize and disparage each Ties other. These findings could enable them to Both disciplines would benefit from greater determine which criticisms of each other mutual understanding and closer ties. These might be justified, which are groundless, would not erase differences or create many and which have significant negative effects, new similarities, but they could lead to including on the society beyond their disci- higher quality work in both. plines. They might also look into the satisfac- How mutual understanding and closer tions and pains of disparaging each other, ties can be achieved requires discussion in which might then help to reduce it. both disciplines, but I can imagine five Second, sociologists and journalists should ways that could be considered in such a dis- occasionally study together. Sociology grad- cussion. Some of these ways are already uate students and interested undergraduate being pursued in a few sociology depart- sociology majors might take courses in jour- ments and journalism schools. nalism schools, particularly on news judg- First, the two disciplines should study ment and reporting. Journalism students each other’s work. Sociological researchers would benefit from substantive and some and their audiences need to become familiar methodological courses in sociology. Semi- with the many different kinds of news media nars open to both journalism and sociology to understand how journalists decide what is students would be especially desirable. newsworthy and why and how they do their Internships in news organizations ought to legwork, deal with controversial issues, and be available for sociology students, as well as manage serving diverse and lay audiences. research assistantships for journalists on Their research should also include the sociological research projects. news rooms and firms in which journalists Third, the two disciplines could look at work. Although a handful of journalism ways of helping each other. Sociologists and communications professors and gradu- should show journalists how to see patterns ate students are now doing fieldwork in in the topics they cover and complement news rooms, sociologists need to do more journalistic causal analyses with sociological as well. ones. In addition, they could show journal- Journalists charged with the day to day ists how to use some of sociology’s methods, reporting that is their basic function may including sampling procedures that can

Contemporary Sociology 47, 1 10 Featured Essay replace their over-reliance on anecdotes. crisis, and journalists must first assure their Such sociological aid might be particularly own survival. helpful now that journalists more often com- Actually, media sociologists might even be plement description with explanation and able to help a little, by conducting or assisting interpretation. with in-depth audience studies among for- Journalists can teach sociologists how to mer, prospective, and current audience write in non-technical English and encour- members to find out what they need and age them to do more research relating to cur- want from the news and the ways in which rent events and controversies. Sociologists, it is presented. Perhaps such studies could like other social scientists, might therefore help the legacy media compete with the dig- be able to contribute more to an understand- ital and social media that are now reducing ing of the country’s current problems. their audiences. If necessary, they can show aspiring public Also, sociologists need journalists more sociologists what kinds of findings about than journalists need sociologists, because what topics are likely to be newsworthy the news media can provide the discipline and how to present their work so that it with more visibility. Greater visibility might attracts the attention of journalists and, help sociology attract further students and through them, of the general public. research funds, as well as the public’s cultur- Fourth, the two disciplines should try to al and political support when sociology is use each other. Some news media already threatened. hire sociologists as researchers and advisers, One current threat that journalists should but they could do more, especially on already be covering is political opposition reporting projects that require research better to sociological research, especially from con- carried out by sociologists than by journalists. servative Republicans. Some have pushed to Sociologists could use journalists more eliminate federal funding for studies of social often as well. True, they sometimes invite problems the existence of which they deny, journalists to participate in conferences, and or which conflict with their conservative ASA now presents an annual award to the ideology, such as those documenting racial, journalists who have demonstrated ‘‘excel- economic, and other inequalities. lence in reporting on social issues.’’ Still, soci- Some conservative politicians would also ologists could use news stories as research like to discourage political sociologists and materials more often, particularly when political scientists who want to go backstage, journalists have covered sociologically rele- where they could report normative and other vant topics. The findings of investigative shortcuts by political organizations and the reporting could stimulate sociological stud- country’s power-holders. ies of the same sites. A closer working relationship with jour- Fifth, the two disciplines ought to work nalists might even help sociology draw together at times. Journalists might benefit even with the other social sciences that from sociologists occasionally participating already study current events and other topics in their legwork, just as sociological research that journalists cover regularly, notably, eco- projects could use help from journalists who nomics, political science, and psychology. have reported on their research topics. Field- Journalists would benefit as well, since their workers and investigative reporters could coverage would be enhanced if they knew assist each other with their studies and more about the work of economic and polit- undertake joint projects. ical sociologists. Obviously, this list is far too ambitious If the country’s current economic, political, even as a long-range plan; but, like other and social problems—for example, those plans, it can be whittled down to adapt to wrought by its many inequalities, globaliza- funding and other realities. tion, and climate change—continue, the two Moreover, right now its various elements disciplines may discover that mutual under- have to be initiated by sociologists. As I standing and cooperative relationships pointed out earlier, journalism is currently might help them to better understand the experiencing an economic and occupational society they both study.

Contemporary Sociology 47, 1