2.1 FROM IDYMA TO GÖKOVA-AKYAKA

The history of the place and its environment Akyaka is situated in the northwest of the Gökova (Kerme) gulf, 28 km away from Muğla and 32 km from Marmaris. The administration of Akyaka is in Ula, the main place of the district. In its north the mountains raise up to 1000 m high, covered with forest, and its eastern side, there is beautiful valley with a plane, whose sources of fresh water feed the river "Kadın Azmak" (Woman River) and the Akçapınar river. In former times Akyaka was only a "suburb" of the village Gökova village. A few houses which were around today's port (Yeni İskele), which formed the access to the sea for the city of Muğla. Only in the year 1971, the autonomy was given and in 1992, with the appointment as a "belde" the first mayor and the town council were elected. About 1970 it was started the development into a regional tourist center. In the year 1988 the region was declared as the first "Nature Protected Area" (SPA- special protected area) of Turkey. Akyaka is with its forest-covered mountains, the crystals-clear rivers, which look just like an aquarium, the sea, the Forest-camp site, with its innumerable springs, its history and its additional wood-using buildings, a much-visited "tourist paradise". In short, Akyaka is a place to live. The HISTORY It is known that the area is inhabited for about 2600 years. Earlier settlements are not proven. The Carian City of IDYMA In the area, in which today's Akyaka is situated, the city of Idyma was founded. The settlement of Idyma extended east of today's Akyaka up to the village of Gökova (3 km) and the quarters of the İnişdibi and Yazılıtaş up to the ancient port which was nearby the forest camp site. The Necropolis (rock graves) and the Acropolis are on the mountain-slopes in the north of Gökova. The Acropolis was explored in the year 1937 by the French researcher Louis Robert. Idyma was founded as a Carian city. The name originates from the Carian language. The area, where today's Muğla is situated, is known as the antiquate Caria. The most important city of Caria was Milas. Idyma was situated in the southern Caria. The Carians were the earliest settlers in the area. Whereas the customs and the way of life are known, the language of the Carians, since no documents are found, remained unknown. In 546 BC, the Persian army conquered the area under the command of Harpagos. Under the Persian rule the customs and the religion remained unchanged. Between 484 and 405 BC, the Delian Sea-federation (Delian League) under the leadership of Athens took over the administration. Idyma was affected too. In the tax lists of the years 453- 452 BC, of the Delian Sea-federation Idyma is already mentioned. This is the earliest document concerning the city of Idyma. Additionally in these reports a leader is mentioned named PAKTYES, It is considered that the city was governed for a long time by the dynast of Pakytes. The City produced coins. One side was marked with (IDIMION), the other side has the head of PAN. It is well known that the cult of the shepherds, the God PAN was of great importance in the region. The Delian Sea federation ended in 405 BC. Idyma separated already around 440 BC, from this federation. The Spartian general Lysandros destroyed the city Cedrea (Sedir Adası) in 405 BC. At the ridge of Gökova and the eastern side of İnişdibi rock tombs date from this time, dated 4th century BC. One of the tombs has two columns. Architectural style and the mason works are remarkable. It could be made for a member of the house of Paktyes. Near Gökova, approximately 300 m above the rock tombs, the Acropolis is situated. Nearby there are a 200 m long site walls of Hellenistic time as well as the buildings, and the remnants of cisterns. On the northwestern side of the Acropolis, the road from Marmaris extends to Muğla. İnişdibi and the mediaeval fortress that was situated in the proximity is a very old settlement area. The old rock tombs show this. It is certainly the fact that the fortress existed from antique times to mediaeval and Byzantine times and then at unknown times it was left. The Byzantine fortress, also mentioned as Genoose fortress (Ceneviz kalesi), would be worth to be restored. From the fortress an underground tunnel leads to the bank of Kadın Azmak. The neighbors of the Idyma were in the east Callipolis (in the proximity of Kızılyaka), whose name remains still as Gelibolu at the gulf of Gökova. Also Cedrea (Sedir Adası) in the gulf of Gökova was an important naval base. In the west CERAMOS (Gereme- Ören), after it the gulf is named. In the north Thera (Yerkesik) is appropriate, KILLANDOS (Yenice village) and Muğla, at its time a very small settlement. Idyma under the rule of Halikarnassos (Bodrum) Between 387-334 BC, The Persians took again the rule in the area. King MAUSOLOS (377-353 BC) maintained good contacts with the Persians and governed the region like a free king. He changed the capital from Milas to Halikarnassos (Bodrum). Idyma was situated in the east of this kingdom. This epoch ended when Alexander the Great (356- 323 BC) of Macedonia with his army penetrated into the area. There were fortresses in Thera (Yerkesik) and Callipolis (Kızılyaka) at that time. Idyma in Hellenistic Times With Alexander the Great, the Hellenistic times began in Anatolia and the eastern countries. Greek culture and the language spread very rabidly. The area had a difficult time from 334 BC up to 189 BC, when the peace agreement of Apama (Afyon, Dinar) was reached. Different Hellenic kingdoms governed and confused the region at the same time. Idyma under the rule of Rhodes In the third century BC, Idyma came under Rhodeian rule and was called Rhodeian Paraea (the opposite side of Rhodes). Idyma freed itself for some time from this rule, however in 200 BC, it was again connected to Rhodes by Nicagoras with Pisi (Pisiköy village), and Killandos (Yenice village), this knowledge comes from an inscription on the island Karpatos (Greece). With the peace agreement of Apama 189 BC, the city of Idyma was connected finally to Rhodes and remained so until the firts century AD. From these times approximately 10 inscriptions point out that the social life in Idyma is very alive and a "Council" (the Council of the United Idyma) was founded. On these inscriptions we find interesting facts. Inscriptions from the Old Port (the Forest Camp Site) and one attached on a wall in İnişdibi from the later Hellenistic times contain the name of the city. This monument was made for a leading person of the city on the part of the citizens working for him. Besides other different names, which belong to the people from different cities, one reads the name of grammatikos (village officer) DEMETRIUS from Idyma, and Apollonius the son of Antipatrus from Idyma. In stone parts taken in Forest Camp Site in Akyaka (dated 2. Century BC) we hear of the goddess LETO and the priest of APHRODITE. It is assumed that there was a temple in Old İskele, and in the environment of today's Forest Office. The whole environment showing distributed columns with grooves and processed stone remainders affirm this opinion. Additionally in the Old İskele, in front of the Restaurant, in the sea there are remnants of the foundation walls referring how old the landing place is. There were found inscriptions that include names of the office holders who served in this area in the Rhodian times. An inscription used for the building of new mosque in Yeni İskele carries the names Athenagoras, Thangilio Kirnis, and Pratophon again in Kozlukuyu's inscription were found mentioning Rodokles from Rhodes. The Roman Idyma At the end of first century AD, Idyma became a Roman city. Before the year 48 BC, Julius CAESAR (102-44 BC) traveled the area around 48 BC to Rhodes. The Egyptian queen CLEOPATRA (69-30 BC) traveled the Aegean coasts and visited the city of Ephesus in the year 41 BC. Only one inscription dedicated for Roman Emperor VESPASIAN (ruled 69-79 AD) in Roman era is missing unfortunately. Mosaic, was discovered from the Roman time in the excavating in the year 1922, in the ruins of the fortress in İnişdibi. In the third century AD, when Roman Empire was weak inside and destroyed by strong earthquakes as well as devastating plague, the area fell into oblivion. Idyma and the cities in the environment were left. Life in Byzantine times It is not exactly how the area was called in the Byzantine times. On a hill at the south side of today's Camping ground a church with apse was found, built in the name of Saint Kosmas. The adjacent area and the gulf were called after him. From this church stones with crosses, relief and inscription are still to be seen. Additionally two remainders of chapels are at the spring of water systems, and at the creek (Papaz Deresi) that flows into the sea. This place is called "ERENDEDE". At Akyaka the people respected the special feature of Erendede. Rain-prayers were celebrated and wishes were done there. The people cooked Aşure (a soup-like sweet food) and divided it with the present ones. Gökova under Turkish Administration At the end of 13th century, the area came under Turkish administration. Caria became Menteşe (the name of the region during the Turkish times). In these times one called the region in which Akyaka is situated, COVA (Cova Çukuru, Gökova, Gökabad). At first pantheism, after Christianity, with the Turks Islamic faith came into the area. At first Carian language, later Greek, with the Turks, Turkish language became prevailing and exclusive. In the area at first Menteşe Principality (Menteşe Beyliği) was found. The capital of this principality was Milas. In the year 1420, it became part of Ottoman Empire. Muğla became capital of the province and Ula as sub-province center. The highlight in the Ottoman times was the crossing of Sultan Süleyman the Magnificent (reg.1520-1566) with his army in order to conquer Rhodes. In July 1522 the Ottoman Army came to the region and returned back to Istanbul in 1523. Rhodes was defeated and attached to the Ottoman Empire. Although the occupation of Rhodes brought well fare for the region again, it should take until the recent times around the year 1950, to partly dry out the wetlands and fight malaria. The road Muğla-Marmaris was built around the year 1970 and with coming of tourism to Akyaka, brought new life and economic boom. Mehmet Bildirici Web Site: www.akyaka.org/akyaka/idima/idima_eng.htm (This translation was controlled by Bahar Suseven (Heike)

2.3 THE ENGLISH TEXTS OF IDYMA

ENGLISH TEXTS ABOUT GÖKOVA REGION CHARLES NEWTON TRAVEL MARMARİS TO MUGHLA "The whole route from Marmaris, route from Marmaris to Mughla is singularly destitute (empty) of villages, cultivation, or even animals. The great part of the road traverses (rises) pine forests and mountain passes, where the only signs of a men are the black tents of TURCOMANS or their lonely graves scattered about in the glades (open areas) of pine forest. Now and then the monotony of our route was relieved by a meeting a long string of camels with their melodies chime of bells. Conveying the produce of the interior ports of Djova (Cova-Gökova) or Marmaris, along roads fitter for goats then for beasts of burden patches of ploughed land occur here and there in the midst of tracts (arazi şeridi) covered with brushwood. Not a single village is visible on this road and the district is very poor populated.

2.3.1 THE CARIAN COAST III GEORGE BEAN No big river discharges into the Ceramic Gulf, and the silting process here has not been greatly advanced (as it has been in the Meander and Cayster gulfs) during the two or three thousand years of human occupations of the land basin. The water in the gulf is still deep; only at the very head does the coastal plain creep imperceptibly forward, so that sea-going vessels no longer use the ancient anchorage at the north-east corner of Gökova bay, but moor at the iskele a kilometers to the west. The northern shore of the gulf is mountainous. To the west of Ceramus the coast forms low shingle points with cultivated plains between them, the hills in the rear being well wooded and backed by high mountainous land (34). But east of Ceramus the Kıran Dağ rises sharply from the sea to an escarpment reaching 3.160 feet above sea level, being broken only at Akbük, where a sheltered harbour and a Hellenistic tower are reported.35. Von Diest and following him, Robert have given a picturesque description of this cliff as dropping sheer into the sea (sans le moindre faille) from Gökova to Ceramus and not leaving room for even the faintest path36. But in fact, in addition to the harbor at Akbük, there is an İskele on this shore midway Akbük and Gökova, with ancient stones reported at Hayıtlı near by and two paths leading down to it, and from the opposite coast occasional patches of cultivation can be descried at the mountain foot. There could not however an ancient city at the foot of Kıran Dağ between Ceramus and İdyma. Inland from the head of the Ceramic Gulf at Gökova (or Giova )37 stretches a generally fertile plain, which is about 3 kilometers broad and extends 7 or 8 kilometers inland to a low sill dividing the waters flowing to the ceramic Gulf those which flow to the lake of Köyceğiz. (Caunus)38 On the north edge of the plain, between Kozlukuyu and the sea, copious springs give rise to the short but deep Kadın river; presumably they are outlets of water collecting in mountain basins north of Sakarkaya; other such discharges are remarked by Paton and Myres under Kıran Dağ farther west39. "The Mediterranean Pilot" warns mariners against the poisonous miasma arising from the Kadın (azmak), which proves fatal to the inhabitants, who look cadaverous and are apparently not long lived40 and Robert was still able to sense the insalubrity in 1934 when sleeping on the hill-side above. But the recent campaign against malaria seems to have struck at the foot of the pestilence, and the place now appears prosperous. Robert gives some excellent views of İdima42 32 The identification with İdima is due to Cousin and Diehl, who discovered the base of a dedication to Vespasian by the κοινον των Ιδυμιων, (koinon ton Idymon) apparently at the old İskele43. But Robert seems to have been the first to call attention to the classical citadel site. This stood at an altitude of c.300 meters above Kozlukuyu where a narrow crest springs broadside on from the steep mountain flank of Sakarkaya44. The crest was walled to form a fortified summit something over 200 meters long, which present a side not more than 20 meters high to the mountain slope on the north and has the appearance of a great ship perched on the side of gigantic wave. We give a plan, fig.3. The circuit can be followed along the north edge, but on the side facing downhill the citadel is protected by bluffs and there is little surviving trace of walling. The masonry is generally roughly coursed tending to rubble; but at a couple of points45 we noted regular ashlar work. The citadel wall seems to have thickness of a c1.40 m; in the middle part of north side the bottom courses are stepped outwards and of flimsier construction than those above. The very narrow central part of the citadel crest seems to have been occupied by a house or keep a number of rooms; and beyond this on the west is a long area at a level some feet lower, which contains a sunken cistern in more or less coursed, masonry measuring 10 meters by perhaps 6 m. East of the keep and lying at a considerable lower level, is an area littered with stones and overgrown with bushes. The circuit wall here has a tower on the exterior and a row of seven little buttress projecting a meter inward from the inner face. The fortified crest rises again at its north-east end to a sort of rocky poop. From another rocky bluff below this on the east we were able to pick up the line of outer circuit wall, 1.95 m thick built in a heavy rubble masonry, which appears to have run for several hundreds meters downhill, and then to have turned along the hill-side towards a prominent spur under the south-west part of the citadel; we did not have sufficient daylight to allow us to trace its course to the spur, but the presence of terrace walls and sherds indicates that there was regular habitation within this apparent circuit. In this sector below the citadel our plan is marginal and of a very little value. We noted a fair number of fourth-century black-glazed sherds, with one striped fragment of perhaps an earlier one. Hellenistic pottery and tiles were abundant and we also noted some red ware resembling early eastern (i.e late Hellenistic) sigillata; but we saw nothing of Roman date. At Kozlukuyu under the site we saw bronze coin of Cassander, two Ptolemaics and some Rhodian Hellenistic pieces. This site seems to be the classical Idyma, ruled by a dynast46 whose stronghold was presumably on the citadel. Though the territory of Idyma extended to the coast, the city itself in classical and Hellenistic times was high on the mountain-side at a distance of 3 or 4 kilometers from the sea; and it was no doubt this peculiarity of their situation which enabled the Idymians to withdraw from Athenian League about 440 BC. Idyma seems to have been a place of some consequence, to judge by the extend of the site; both the amount of the tribute, exceeding a talent in the first assessment period, and the classical silver coins with legend ΙΔΥΜΙΟΝ support this estimate. In addition, below the city-site there are two groups of rock-tombs with angular vaulted chambers and architectural façades. West of Kozlukuyu at a place which Guidi calls Descemeli Jol-(Döşemeli Yol-Paved Road) and Robert calls İnönü, there are five tombs, of which Guidi has given description. Three of them have simple entrances; but the other two have a deep portal in front of the vaulted tomb-chamber, with Ionic architectural decoration on the faces. Guidi's no 2 seems to have had a central pillar in the entrance. His no 449 is quarried clear of the rock so that one can pass right round the back of it, and it had an elaborate distyle-antis façade; the doorway of the tomb-chamber has a carved surround, and over the lintel receding fasciae with a spiral bracket on either side 50. Secondly, a little above the north-east corner of Kozlukuyu village is a cemetery discovered by Robert, consisting of numerous rock-tombs cut in the steep hill-side, with rectangular apertures for the doors and similarly vaulted chambers. Among them one fine architectural tomb stands out It has shaft in the floor of the chamber, and its badly worn Ionic decoration closely resemble that of Guidi's no 4. Guidi inclined to a date in the fourth century or third 33 century B.C. for the Döşemeli Yol tombs, and Robert dates his fine tomb fourth century at least. The two distyle tombs are clearly to be referred to a single design, as also (in our opinion) are those at Elmalı; Guidi's no 2 is the same type, apart from the fact that it had only a single column. To the same class belongs a fine distyle tomb (which is accompanied by a Chinesegabled hut-tomb cut clear from the rock) in a cliff at Çamköy near Yenice on the plateau behind Idyma (Plate 18 c-e)52 and similar tombs are found in Lycia, at Caunus, and the Cibyratis. The tomb of Amyntas at Telmessus, which is strikingly similar to the distyle tombs of Idyma, was dated by Benndorf and Nieman something after 400 BC. 53 and Paton noted the inscription Νικωνος Απολλωνιδου in fourth-century letters on the architrave of his fine Ionic tomb. We believe that columnar Ionic tombs of Idyma region reflect good eastern Ionic models and should date around the beginning of the fourth century. In a view of the apparent stability of the Carian dynasties in classical times, we have little doubt that Idyma was under the rule of a dynasty at this time, and that the fine architectural tombs, like the contemporary coins of Idyma, are reflections of that rule. At modern İskele we noted no trace of antiquity save the niche remarked by Newton in a cliff face. But in old İskele close to the north-east corner of Gökova there are substantial ruins and remains stretching back from the beach. These seem to be of Roman imperial and Byzantine times; and also to have been late built tombs in the vicinity57 On the crest of the rounded promontory between two iskeles, there is an indistinct trace of a heavy masonry, perhaps a watch-tower sited so as to look down the gulf: and on the east side of this promontory above the old iskele we noted traces of a rubble -built basilica or church measuring 27 m by 18 m, with three apses at the east end, which may possibly be the H. Kosmas from which inner gulf received its medieval name58 The old İskele was presumably the flourishing port of Gökova of which Evliya Çelebi made mention in the seventeenth century. It may well have had some importance in Roman times, to judge by the visible remains-the moor so if the old city on the mountain-sided was abandoned then. Above the springs on the north edge of the plain, between the old İskele and Kozlukuyu, a crest stands out from the foot of the mountain in a manner very similar to that of classical citadel already described; it is crowned by the medieval fortification in İnişdibi, which was been frequently described by travelers, ancient polygonal masonry has been remarked at the west end, but we missed seeing it. Guidi and Robert have reported ancient and Byzantine remains on the edge of the plain under the fortress. In the vicinity the "Mediterranean Pilot" remarks as ancient two bridges and a paved road leading in the direction of Marmaris. On the south edge of the plain at Asımbahçesi (Haşimbahçe) forty minutes east of Akçapınar, Robert noted a ruined church (or monastery) and ancient blocks, but no ancient site62 and Von Diest remarked the foundations of a fort on the Zeytin Beleni, on this side of the plain. REFERENCES 34- Mediterranean Pilots, 5th edition, 1918, gives excellent description 35- Paton and Myres 36. Von Diest, " Pett. Mitteilungen 1909" 37. Dalette, Les Portulans Grecs. 248. Speaks of the gulf here under the name of Hagia Kosmas also give the name τα Κιοβα. 34 46. Paktyes is in the Athenian tribute lists of 453-452 and 451-450 (ATL i.288). "Nesselhaus , Klio Beih XXX (1933) 126, n 2". At both Idyma and Syangela we find that the dynast's name is omitted in list 7-8 and the continuously on through the third and fourth assessment periods. Pigres of Syangela reappears in list 23, Paktyes (or his successor) does not reappear, for the Idymes had dropped out of the list in the fourth period. Thus for the period during which was Idyma was in the League, the evidence for the existence of a dynasty there is precisely the same that Paktyes is a dynast's name. 49- Robert op.cit pl 36, "the right hand anta, with the corner of entablature, has now collapsed. It was under the Mugla-Marmaris highway and it has been covered in 2001. East side of the monument has been lost during the highway construction. (M.Bildirici). See www.akyaka.org/mezar/mezar_eng.htm 50. The fasciae here and on the antae had no doubt painted Ionic decoration, as we noted on the tomb of Amiyntas at Telmessus (Fethiye) 51. A row of tombs here, op.cit.pl 34-3 the architectural one ibid. pls. 35-36-1 52. The distyle tomb has six graves inside, for the position see. Paton, Hula-Szanto. 57. We have nothing to add to the existing descriptions of this site; cf. Robert op.cit.480 FEREK (GÖKÇE) KIZILHİSAR-KIZILASAR On a craggy hill some 300 meters high, close above the village of Ferek, ancient ruins have long been known to exist, but it seems that they have not previously been visited. (32). The site was known as Kızılasar or Kızılhisar, is some ways reminiscent, though on a much larger scale of that at Söğüt. On the east side is a high vertical cliff-face, and on the opposite west side a fine stretch of ancient wall some 40 meters long, still standing 5 meters high. This wall 1,45 to 1.60 m thick, is a quarry-faced ashlar with accurately horizontal courses but occasional rambling bed-joints: the vertical joints are slightly oblique here and there, producing technically a trapezoidal masonry. The courses vary from 0.50 m to 0.80 m in height. Towards its northern end the wall shows a more irregular style of masonry; though not enough so to be called polygonal. In the southern part of this wall is a gate 1.70 m wide, only the lower part being preserved; in the wall of gateway, on either side, is a deep slot about 0.14 m wide, as if for a sliding door, not merely for a bolt or bar. The blocks at the outer corner have vertical draft-lines at the angles (Plate 17 f). About 10 meters north of this gate, where the wall makes a slight projection, is cupboard-like recess 0.90 m wide, 1.50 m deep and more than 1.80 high in the inner side of the wall. Several blocks are missing from the wall of this recess, giving the effect of small windows or archery-slits. The rest of hill-top is covered with the extensive remains of a medieval castle, in which ancient blocks have in some places been reused. There is an abundance of the usual characterless sherds, presumably medieval. From its situation alone we should be at a loss to decide whether to class site at Ferek as a frontier fort of the incorporated Peraea or an outlying position of Idymians. But masonry looks Rhodian, not Carian. And the site resembles the other sites in the vicinity as for instance Söğüt. It may represent the Rhodian outpost in face of Hecatomnid front at Thera and Callipolis, and correspond to the later fortification at Sarnıç at the frontier of the subject Peraea. (32) "They are shown in Admiralty Chart no 1604 and on Kiepert's map cf., Roberts pl 30, Von Diest - (Peter…Mitteilungen 1909, p. 223)-Robert passed close without paying a visit." 35 INSCRIPTIONS 602 9- Kozlukuyu (anc. Idyma) in the wall of a house of Mustafa Yasakçı, a fragment of grey limestone 0.16 m high 0.27 m wide, thickness not ascertainable; inscription complete on the left in lines 1-2, broken on all other sides. Letters 19-23 mm high are not earlier than the first century BC. (στρατη) γ (ησαντος) - stratigisantos is therefore preferable. For these officials see Peraea 82-83, 87-88 608-609 10- Akyaka, west of Kozlukuyu, where the road to the İskele diverges from main road; built into a wall across the road from the Coffeehouse, a block 0.26 m high, 0.41 m wide, thickness not ascertainable: broken on all sides except at the top. Letters are 18 mm high in lines 1-3 decreasing to 13 mm at the bottom. The date we should judge to be latter part of second century BC. Plate 19 b (Now it is in Halet Çambel-Nail Çakırhan Culture House-MB) The inscription was not written at once. As far as line 7, apart from the greater sizes lines 1- 3, it appears that the names were added year by year, a perfectly normal proceeding; the lines 1-7 are no doubt the work of a single stonecutter. It is unfortunate that the greater part of the toponymics is lost. Κοτειτ(ης)−Kotitis in line 4 may be restored with some confidence; the place in question seems to be unknown, but must have been in the subject Peraea, presumably in the neighborhood of Idyma (74- A place by the name Κοτσ is recorded SIG 46, but it presumably lay like other recognizable places in that inscription in the region of Halicarnassus ) There is nothing surprising in finding these unknown names: this part of the Peraea is full of obscure places whose names are recorded once and whose sites are quite uncertain. Peraea 73-75 There can we think, be little doubt that our present fragment belongs to the same inscription as another, still more fragmentary, which was found at Idyma by Cousin and Diehl and published in BCH, Robert op.cit 474 This stone was found "a peu distance de la mer" and so probably in the same general neighborhood as ours. In the absence of a photography it is hard to be sure of the degree of resemblance in the script, but the similarity of the content, arrangement, dialect, and the length of line is striking. At least, we can no hesitation in restoring the line 1 (Λητου)ς και Αφροδ(ειτης) Leto and Aphrodite. For Pedion and Lossos see Robert's discussion loc. Cit.; there can now be no doubt that he is right in regarding them as small places in the region of Idyma (77- On line 2 Roberts notes on restitute Πεδιευς, Pedion. The man in question has changed his place of residence upon adoption; in such a case both toponymics are given to the man himself, not to either of his two fathers). In line 9, Θυσσου Thusso, Carian names are rare in Rhodian territory. The cult of Leto was popular in this corner of Asia Minor, particularly in Lycia, though it does not occur at Rhodes. In the Peraea it is attested especially at Physcus and also at Caunus . We know of no other instance of a joint of Leto and Aphrodite. 603 12. Gφkova at a spot called İnişdibi between Kozlukuyu and Akyaka, some 200 yards southeast of the medieval fortress: (Sarıoğlu House) lying upside down outside house no 92 (in 1957 the number of the house had been changed to 77 and the stone built into a wall beside the entrance from the road to the yard), a block of yellowish stone of 0.50 m high, 1.34 wide, 36 0.45 m thick a small of piece 0.17 m cut away at the top of left corner. The upper surface seems to be plain Hellenic letters no doubt of second century, 15-18 mm high. The stone is said to have been dug in 1953. Squeeze Plate 18.b The inscription is honorific, as is shown by the word of Θεοις at the end, but honorand's name does not occur; it must have stood on some part of the monument above cf. 12 below. We considered reading in line 1 Ζηνωνα Ρ...ω (ν)ος, particularly as the line indented as if it were the first line of the inscription, but we can find no known or likely name consistent with the traces on the stone, which on the other hand exactly fit the name Αρτεμωνος.. We take it then that we have an honorific dedication to a local landowner by six of his servants. Secretary of koinon of Idyma, another Idymian , a man of Callipolis, another local man, and nine foreigners or ten if the Laodician Lymachus in line 11 is different from the man of the same name in line 4. Among foreigners Mydianss are again prominent (see no 6 above) and an equal number of Halicarnassians; the Byzantine Papias comes from farthest afield. (78- Λαοδικεους is most naturally taken to relate to Laodicea on the Lycus (Denizli), but this is not of course certain.) The foreigners are named without patronymic, according to normal rule at Rhodes; the two local men, of Idyma and Callipolis have patronymic and toponymic, also in accordance with normal practice. (79- Natives of all parts of Peraea are regularly described in this way: no indication is therefor afforded as to whether a particular place lay in incorporated or in subject territory, except that on subject territory Rhodian demesmen have the ethnic "Ροδιος" in place of their demotic. Idyma was certanly subject: see Parea 71) The secretary Demetrius was no doubt servile (slave!) status and has no patronymic. καρποθηκειτας. We take it to mean "granary superintendent" or like that is a trusted servant of honorand. We consider the possibility that it might be a toponymic, but this not, in our opinion acceptable. (80- A small locality by the name of Carpotheae would be perfectly possible if it lay in the vicinity of Idyma, but in this case Callinicus should have a patronymic; having none, he would be necessarily be a foreigner, and a city name Carpotheae is hardly conceivable.) In the line 1 Zeno has patronymic and toponymic, and is evidently a native of the subject Peraea, no doubt a local man; if he were a foreigner, he should have no patronymic, and if he were a native of Rhodes or incorporated Peraea, he should be called Ροδιος . The topoymic appears be yet another unknown place, we are greatly tempted to read (Βο)υνειτα(ς), in contrast to the known toponymic Πεδιευς (Pedion-Pedieus) but this is a conjecture only, lacking the support of any actual evidence. From the forms in lines 1-2, it appears that the inscription is written in Doric koine. On subject the Attic koine is normal, but exceptions occur, the published inscriptions of Idyma in fact show examples of both dialects. 606 12. İnişdibi, at the same house no 77 (Sarıoğlu House), recently dug up, a rectangular base surmounted by a circular base-molding, 0.22 m high, 0.53 m wide 0.54 m thick, Letters 19-21 mm high of first century BC or AD Plate 18a. The block is complete, so that the inscription must have begun on the round altar that stood above. Παροχη, παραχος, παρεχειεν -paroki- are regularly used of compulsory supply of necessaries, free of charge, to traveling officials, especially but not always Roman officials: they became indeed technical in this sense. We presume that this meaning here: the inscription is in honor of a Rhodian Governor who among the other good deeds, forwent the free supply of animals ( that is no doubt baggage animals) to which he was entitled__

2.3.2 HISTORY OF CARIA IDYMA BÖLGESİ HAKKINDA GENEL TARİHİ BİLGİLER

2.3. IDYMA ROCK TOMBS PAOVO ROOS

2.3.4 HERODOT TARİHİNDE CARIA

In the time of course of time, Croesus (Lydian king) subdued all the peoples west of the river Halys (Kızılırmak) except the Cilician and Lycian. The rest he kept in subjection, Lydians, Phrygians, Mysians, Mariandyrians, Chalbians, Paphlagonians, Thracians (both Thynians and Bithynians), CARIANS, Ionians, Dorians, Aeolians, and Pamphylians. ….Something similar can be seen in the case of Dorian Pentapolis (or Hexapolis as it used to be called) where the Dorians are careful to exclude their neighbors from use of their temple, the TRIOPIUM and even went so far as to put a ban upon some of their body who failed to observe the proprieties. It is used to be customary at the “Games of Tropium Apollo” to give a bronze tripod as prices, and winners were not allowed to take them away, but were required to dedicate them on the spot to the God. This ancient custom was openly defied by a Halicarnassian called Agasicles who after winning his tripod, took it home and fastened on the wall of his house. In punishment for this offence, the five cities of Lindus, Ialysus, Camirus (Rhodes) Cos and Cnidus excluded Halicarnassus from temple privileges. ….The Ionians, even those who started from the Government House in Athens who believed themselves purist Ionian blood took no women with them but married CARIAN girls whose parents had been killed. The fact that these women were forced into marriage after the murders of their fathers, husbands, and sons was the origin of law, established by the oath and passed down to their female descendants, forbidding to sit at table with their husbands or to address them by name. It was Miletus that this took place. ….After the subjections of Ionia, HARPAGOS attacked Carians, Caunians, and Lycians and compelled both Ionians and Aolians to serve in his army. Carians, now a mainland people were originally islanders. Long ago when they inhabited the islands, they were known as Leleges and were subject of MINOS. But as far as I have been able to get information on the subject, they never tribute in money but manned his ships whenever he had need of them, and in this way because Minos had great military success and extended his conquests over a wide area, they became in his day by far the most famous of all nations. The Greeks are in debt to them for 3 inventions: -fitting crests on helmets -putting devices on shields -making shields with handles Hitherto everyone who used a shield had managed it, not by handle, but by means of a leather thong slung round the neck and left shoulder. Long after this period the Carians were driven from the islands by Dorians and Ionians, and settled on the mainland: (that at any rate is the account the Cretans give) though the Carians themselves deny it and claim to have been mainlanders from the first and claim to have been known by the other name, than their present one. In support of their claim to be aboriginals; they point to on ancient temple of Carian Zeus at MYLASA, the use of which is shared by Missians and Lydians as brother races of Carians- Klsus and Mysus according to them having been the brothers of CAR …The Caunians I believe myself to be a native stock, though their account, they came originally from Crete. As to dialect they have come to resemble Carians-or the Carians them, for I can not say definitely which round it should be. But in their way of life, they are very different from Carians, for indeed from every body else, for they drink it is finest thing in the world for men, women or children to organize large drinking parties of similar ages. Again they are having decided on one occasion not to use foreign temples which had been established amongst them. But to worship only their own gods, all but the boys put their armour and went as far as the boundary of CALYNDA (Dalaman) string the air with their spears and saying they were driving out the foreign gods. …The Carians were reduced to slavery by Harpagos, and in the fighting, neither them or any of the Greeks who lived in this part of the country managed to distinguished themselves. Amongst these others were the Cnidians, colonist from Lacedaemon, who occupy a district on the coast, called Triopium adjoining the peninsula of Bybassus. ….Inland east of Halicarnassus, there were the men of PEDASUS, these people and their neighbors used to get warning of an impending disaster by the priestess of Athena growing a long beard, a thing which actually happened on three occasions. They were only Carians who resisted Harpagos for only length of time and they id in fact caused him a good deal of trouble by holding out behind the fences, on Mount Lida. But the place was ultimately taken. …Persian Commander who are married to the daughter of Persian king, on his way to Parium, hearing that Carians had made a common cause with Ionians and thrown off the Persian yoke, he turned back and marched against Caria. Somehow or other the Carians got wind of the movement before he arrived, and massed at a place WHITE PILLAR on the Marsyas (Çine çayı), a tributary of the Meander, rising in Idrien territory. When the assembled Carians were debating how to deal with the danger which threatened them, what I think was the best suggestion came from PIXDOROS, son Mausolos, a man of CINDYA who had married a daughter of Cilician king Syennis. The proposal was that the army cross the Meander (Menderes nehri) and fight with the river in their back, this would prevent them from running away, and every one forced to remain at his post, would be even braver than nature made him. But this excellent plan was not adopted. It was decided, instead that the Persian not the Carians should have the Meander at their back-for if Persians were defeated and compelled to retire, they would than fail to get away and driven into the river. Soon the Persian arrived, crossed the Meander and was engaged by Carians on the Marsyas. The struggle was long and violent and the Carians were finally overwhelmed by the weights of numbers. Some 2000 Persian were killed and about 10.000 Carians. Carian survivors shut themselves up at Labranda in the great grove of sacred plane trees known as the precinct of Zeus Stratius. While they were, they discussed plans for saving themselves – not knowing to surrender to the Persians or to leave Asia for good. However during the course of time their deliberations a body of Milesian troops and their allies came to offer assistance, and the Carians changed theirs mind entirely and prepared for fresh resistance. The Persians attacked and there was a second battle, and the result of it was even disastrous than before. The whole Carians and allied forces suffered severe losses, but Milesians contingent the worst of all. Carians however recovered from this blow and fought another action. Learning of Persian intention to attack their towns they laid a trap on the Pedasus road. The Persians fell into it during a night marsh and were cut into the pieces. Three of their commanders were killed. The man of Carians Force which caught them was HERACLIDES son of Ibonollis of Mylassa. ARTEMISIA …Pigres and Damasithymas son of Candoules from Caria with 70 tritemes (warship with 3 rows of oars) sailed against Greece on the rule of Persian king. There is no need for me to mention all the other subordinate officers, but there is one name which I cannot omit, that of ARTEMISIA. It seeks to me that a most strange and interesting thing that she – a woman- should taken part in the campaign against Greece. On thr death of her husband the sovereign power had passed into hr hands, and she sailed with the fleet in spite of the fact that she had a grown up son and there was consequently no necessity for her to do so. Her own sprit of adventure and manly courage were her only incentives. She was a daughter of Lygdamis, a Halicarnassian on her mother side she was a Cretan. She sailed in command of men of Halicarnassus, Cos, Nisyra, and Calynda, and furnished 5 ships of war. They were most famous in the fleet after the contingent from Sidon and one of the confederate commanders gave Xerxes sounder advice than she did. The places I mentioned as being under her rule are all Dorian. ….All troops came as far as Attica and the rest of the fleet arrived at Phalerum. Here (Persian King) Xerxes paid a personal visit, because he wished to talk to the various commanding officers and to find out what they thought about the coming campaign, so he had seated himself with all proper ceremony. The rulers of the states and the commanders of squadrons were summoned to appear before him, and took theirs seats according to the degree of privilege which the king assigned them. The Lord of Sidon the first, the Lord of Tyre second and so on… The answers with a single exception were unanimously in favor of engaging the Greek fleet. Artemisia said: ….Spare your ships and do not fight at sea, for the Greeks are infinitely superior to us in naval matters …. If you keep fleet on the coast where it is now, whether you stay here or advance into Peloponnes you will easily accomplish your purpose….. …Artemisia’s friends were dismayed when they heard her speech and thought that Xerxes would punish her for trying to dissuade him from engaging the Greek fleet…. The Persian fleet was defeated at Salamis… I must mention Artemisia on account of an exploit which still further increased her reputation with Xerxes. At a stage in the battle when Persian fleet lost all semblance of order, Artemisia chased by an Athenian trireme, as her ship happened to be closet to the enemy and there were other friendly ships just ahead of her, escape was impossible in this awkward situation. She hit a plan which turned out greatly to her advantage, with the Athenian close on her tail she drove ahead with all possible speed and rammed one her friends – a ship of Calynda with Damasithymus the Calyndian king on board-. ….At the end King Xerxes’ saying is famous. “My men have turned into women, my woman into man”. (More about the details of the engaging in the “Histories” of Heredot ….

DAHA SONRALARI MAUSOLOS (377-353 BC) In 387 BC after the king’s peace, Caria fell into the hand of Persians. We see a satrapy under Persian rule in Caria, the first satrapy of Caria was a man of Mylassa by the name of Hyssaldomes. He was succeeded by his son Hecatomnos and in 377 BC the latter’s son MAUSOLOS. Mausolos was an able, energetic and ambitious man and he took the advantage of great distance of his satrapy from Persian capital to make himself virtually and independent ruler, thought he never actually took the title of king. Mousolos’ capital was at Mylassa (Now Milas), the principal city of inland Caria and his home town. Seeing however the much finer position of Halicarnassos, he decided to rebuild that city on a much greater scale and make it his headquarter. This was one of the first steps the greater plan to which his life was devoted, nothing less than the Hellenization of the whole Caria. At the extremities of his satrapy, he fortified Latmus and Caunus with splendid walls. He died in 353 BC

ARTEMISIA THE YOUNGER Mausolos died in 353 BC and was succeeded by his wife and sister Artemisia the Younger. She ruled for only 3 years, but in that time made herself famous in 2 notable respects. The first of these was superb tomb with which she has perpetuated her husband memory, the MAUSOLUM, one of the seven Wonders of ancient times. For the form of this monument we have to rely on the description given by Elder Pliny eked out by rather scanty remains unearthed by Sir Charles Newton in 1857 and in more recent years by Danish expedition. This monument stood for 1500 years, Bishop Eustathius in 12th century, in his “Commentory on Homer” observes that it “was and is” a marvel. But when the Knights arrived in 1402 they found it in ruins, destroyed presumably by one of the earthquakes. They used the stones in their castle. Artemisia’s other claim to fame is of a totally different character. That a woman should rule over Caria seemed to the Rhodians an indignity and also no doubt an opportunity, they therefore equipped a fleet and set out to take the kingdom from her. Artemisia learning of this hid her own fleet in a secret Harbor joined by a canal to great Harbor. This had been constructed by Mausolos close under her palace, so as to have his ships under his eye and to take his decisions without interference. The Rhodians sailed in and put their men ashore to occupy the city, whereupon the queen led her ships quickly out of the sacred Harbor, seized the unmanned Rhodian vessels, and carried them out to the sea. The Rhodian soldiers deprived of their retreat, were surrounded and destroyed in Agora. Artemisia then their put her own men on the enemy ships and sailed to Rhodes. There the Rhodians supposing their own ships to be returning victorious, admitted the Halicarnassian and the city easily captured. To celebrate this victory Artemisia had a trophy erected there, in the form of a statue of herself branding the city of Rhodes. On Artemisia’s death in 350 BC (she had no children) the succession passed in turn to other children of Hecatomnos.

QUEEN ADA The city, Alinda was purely Carian foundations. The city’s first and only appearance in history was in connection with Queen Ada, sister of Mausolos. She was dethroned and expelled by her brother Pixadoros about 340 BC. Ada withdrew to Alinda, where she continued to maintain herself semi-royal state, ready to take any opportunity of reigning her throne. She had not, as it turned out, very long to wait. When Alexander the Great advanced into Caria in 334 BC, Ada went to meet him, offering to surrender Alinda and to help against the usurpers, pointing out that they were own kinsmen. She proposed also, with a truly regal self confidence to adopt him as her son in return she asked that he would restore her lost throne. Alexander’s response was characteristically gracious, he declined to take Alinda from her, and disdain to be called her son, later when Halicarnassus was taken he appointed her, Queen of all Caria, including Caunos