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soumise a la Loi canadle~esur le droit dauleur, SRC stttrsequent amenpments 1970;~ C-30, et ses amendements subsbquents
e > - CATFOLIC IDEALS 'AND POPULIST ,SELF HELP: IDEOLOGY AND ACTION IN THE ANTIGONISH ,, CO-OPERATIVE; AltllL'r EltlJCATTDN MOVEMENT IN EASTERN NOVA'SCOTIA, 1920--1940
3 / - - ") j/' RONALD NORMAN MCGIVERN I - 4 / B.A., Simon Fraser University, 1984 . /' - P
/'* t * ,/ - / , - A THESIS SU,BMITTED IN PART1 FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREME - - MASTER OF ARTS /.i - in the 1 of - -- /' Soc~ologyand ~nfhropolbgy
- /
' * /' - / /
@ Ronald ,Norman McGivern SIMOM FRASER UNIVERSITY t '4 August ,- 1990 11 - D
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NAME : Ronald McGi ~ern
.n DEGREE : Master of Arts
TITLE THESIS : Catholic Ideals and '~opulist Self el p: ldeology . and Action .in the Antigonish Cooperative, Adult Education Movement in. Eastern Nova Scatia, 1920-190
- EXAMINING COMMITTEE:
- Chai rperson : Michael Kenny -
John hitw worth ' Sehior Supervise;
Robert ~fllie- supervisory ~ommee
- Rennie Warburton , External Examiner Dept. of Sociology
The University of Victoria -
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-, 1 Title of Thesis/Project/Extended Essay ' 1 1 4I
- 1 P ~atholii Ideals and ~opulist Sel f He1 p: Ideology ' j + -
I and Action in the Antigonish Cooperative, Adult 1
t 'V ,Education Movement in Eastern Nova Scotia, 1920-1944 1 1
Author:
Ronald MCG~vern --
(name)
August. 16, 1990
(date) ABSTRACT
- - i' I -. 'The focus of the thesi* is the Antig7 nish Movement, a - 1 Catholic inspired co-op'erative, adult education moveme"t in e i-
+astern NO$ Scatia- that substantially altered the .socib-L * i ed ac.onomic relationships of the farmers, fishermen, and miners .
- within the- - many communities it reached. %Thethesis explores- --&-- the relatalonship betugen th'e belief system of Catholic
0 - soclal theology and populist reform ideology =in the shaping 2 r~fthe Antigonlsh +Movement as a distinct kve-social movement. It examines the nature of the inter--relationship between ideology and organizational structure through an analysis of, C f how both the leaders, a cadre of priest-intellectuals from St Francis Xavier University, and the lay-members of the
Ant igonish Movempnt : a) defined the socio-economic t problems . of eastern Nova Scotia; b) defined the solutions to these - -
problems; c) acted as the agency of change in effecting w these solutions and; d) reacted, in differing ways at the Z , cornmunit? level, to the program of cooperative action and
ad111t education-- offered . The introductory chapter situates the Antigonish Movement'within the social history of the region and within the framework of Catholic theology and related social action. Next, the analytical framework~employed in the thesis is located in the historico-sociological tradLtion of - studies f religiously inspired socialmovements. The substantive chapters utilize this framework in the analysis of the origins; development., and stru~t~ureof the * ' Antigonish Movement. First, the ideological baiis of. the \ '+&- - - .' i4
E I \
\ ------+i- - Antigoni3h Movement is $xamiped. Next. the speolfid social - -- technologies cadre of priest-intellebtw and Catholic to implemen
\ ideological blueprint of Tociety are- analyze he fopus 1s 4L . I on they -t his vision of i -
t .- four outlines the results $f the Ant It i critical examination of the reasons
-- - - and- failures of the moveme*. The conclusions focus \oh the ab y of ideologically I insiired movements Po estab:l+sh and mpintaini divergent
'9 1 t patterns of social and econbmia arrangements ,Githin the 8
with particular emphas/is on dhe importhce of recognizing b ideology 4s at once arlurcc of blueprlnts fr change and f - \, a stimulus towards posefui. #progrzimned suc a1 action. \>, I - I 7Y. e . l . - 0
t I \ * -
, 14',
1
/ 0
I .#
9
+ - - 6 -
N
support - and prodding - provlded by Dr. .lohn Whi twnrth I:; a. % debt 'T' humbly aclcnawl~d~e.'iile input qf Pi-otessor. fi. ' - , - - - -Wyllle,,and Dr. M.irh_eal Kenny was lnstrurngntal ~rlthe Y I.. '", dcveJopment' of this +thk%is.- .Jesy ~ordanand f.hr1 s Ward . . cheerfully gulded,' C me through the blireaucra t lc maze known rjs
f by *graduate. . studies . 'The lnancral support, provr~d~d t.h~ L A' A L. , * ' ~g~artmknt,of, Sociology and Anthropology, the U,fYlc~iok . -. B ':ontlnuing --Studies, 'the liftlce ot thG .'Dean c#f f;raduat,ta - . ii ,'i Studies; and S.F.1). . Financial Aid and &wards allnwsd me 1 I: 4 \ , 91 - 'h feed mjr children- during thyis ordeanl. , . . .. \. \
(-'hap tar One a INTRODUCTION TO THE THESlS QUESTION 1 Outline of the Early de~~elopmentof the 'p * Antigonish Movement 4
P Review of the Literature 13
/ Method 27 I -
- . . F ('hapker I'wo THE IDEOLOGICAL BASIS-OE 'THE ANTIGONISH ! BP MOVEMENT f 39 ~recZnhitionsof the ~ntigonishModmen?' 58" - - P Th? Founding of the Antigonish Mouement 69-
lT t,ar t~l-'i'hree ' IUEOL~GYAND ADULT DUCATI ION : THE, SOCIAL ------TECHNOLOGIES OF THE ANTIGONISfl HOVBHBNT 77 ------% - Adult Education as Ideological Purpose 9%
\
r'hript er 'r our 1DEqOGY AND ACT1ON:'RESULTS AND NON'RESULTS OF THE ANTIGONISH HOVEHENT 103 4, Results 6f the Antigonish Movement -. - '
' TP,~.Antigonish 'Mnv&rnent- ~ :~s~g;Pr~pulis+, . . -. .Mc~vernent, l:,$li-- . '1 -L . - - >. - " , '
. * \ ~ k e r ct ri (2 i 1 i r~k; P r e v i 1-1 u Y; Id (:&I-k 5; Q 11 t, 1, c - e I .~
, - ~ Ant, i g~:~ri-ishMovement. 1 ij.15 -. The importance ob';&liglon in early twentieth century
Cmadian society is Hell ocumented. 1 Hawever, this ' thes'is
is a codtribution to a p eviously neg'lected area of the +-- - P- A - - - 3. ------sd&iology 'of religion in Canada. It is an attempt to . . - understand the relationshipb between the distinctive id&ologies of catholic social theory and-populist . . - regionalism, and a co-operative reform aAd educational movement that floupished in eastern Nova Scotia from the 1920's'to.the 1940's. Known _as the ~ntigonishMovement, it a originated out of the Extension Department of St. Francis I
- Xavier University in Antigonish,- Nova Sc0ti.a. At i-ts peak, P *' in 1938, it boasted over -10,000 members, 1,100 study clubs,
142 c'redit unions, and over 78 formal economic ventures -2 -
1
1) Beligion was a primary social force in Canada at the turn of the century and for several decades afterwards. The well known ' social, gospel ' 'movemgnt. that swept across North America, influenced the social fabric of the Canadian west in particular. This was aft-attempt by the Protestant churches to /inf;se Chgistiah,social principles into the new,. de&ederate, 'frontier' th&y pereeived around them. The - movement~quicklyturned to harsh-yriticism of society and * attempts 'to redress the abuses of ~apitalismon society and the worker. The Co-operative ~hmmonwea-yderation has honorable roots within the social~gospeeYtZitioii-Severala workston the social gospel are available .including Richard Passion, - - Gospel,-- Allen's The Sn-1 (197-lJ, and The-S-oeial k- C-, C-, 1975. Pin excel-lent work utilizing 'primar~church documents is Staart Crysdale's The 1-1 Stwle ~nd Prot.ast,ant Ethics- (1961)3. On Catholic social * activism in Canada see 43-2m'S TdCian 7
SociaJ&m. ( 1980). \ _ C. .( - i ,b J'€ , -* .'. . !. , /' '* , . # - * ' . e .:n2 I* ' --_ ------_; -. ----__ 2- -- A . while the movement '.s two men. . , -' - - Father Jimmy P. - remainjmg leadership was predornjnantly-drawn from the many * 0. \
priests, nuns, le o&*:t,he Catholic I , r *' Uioces-e of Ant #-. ' -v
i , rIn I '8 '- , To some degree, the Antigonish, Mnv-erpent 's study clubs - \ 1 (r _ f and co-operative- venturesJ_ affected many OF- the. farmers, ' - _ - -- ?L A - - - - _ A- fishermen, and miners b.f eastern Nova ~~ot.ia.'~erke.tin~ co-
. L ,operativks were formed-by farmers -to improve"
prices for their goods. ,, Advanced techniques "
were taught, fish _canneries were ,o ened an4 credit was made - Ji' 4 available. In Cape Breton, miners organized consumer co; - 3 I T operatives: The .first non-communa co-operative housing. Aineriea were blished.4 \L arge numtew eastern Nova began to see the - onish Movement as agay out of the economic depression r had daboured un$er for decades. The Antigonish Movement, and the Extension Department of St. Francis XavLer, _ -- -_ 2) ~r&k Mifflen, The ~ntiaonishMovement: A Kevi- unpublished PH.D. .thesfs, 1914, p. 20.) 3) See Ida Delaney, Bv ,Their Own Hands: A F-er's Accoilnt. of th~An-sh Mnverne~*,1'985, and Dan Maclnnes, . . d WorkBrs: Remon &and
t iaonish -ent., , i unpuBlished PH . D, thesis 1978. 4) In,November, 1938, the first co-operatively built and financed housing project in Canada Vas 'the Antigonish
Movement inspired -Tompkinsville, Nova-ScoX=- The " pl instigator of this housing wasJ. J. ~o<~kinswho later became a driving force in the ~ntigonishMovemerrt. +editors were so wary of this venture that Tompkins had- to lend his own retirement savings ko-get the projqct off the ground. Although co-operatively built, the units then became mortgage-free private dwellings. See 'Father Jimmy< Tompkinq: The Reserve Mine Years', in Ca~eRreton's -, No 16, 1977. ). The concept of a continuing - d - --. , L * . .. - -- I Y .-- '.. ,. ', P -. <- - . ?- ~ . - ... , , , I i i . :, '
. ~ 9- ' ., -- . . .>-. , . - ". I 1 "1 . ~ . * 'i'hjs thesis explores the complex relationship'tetween -:-
+xam i ties Lhe -rk J at-ll3nshlp between catholic socla 1 theology I and pop~llistreform denl logy In shaping the unique featurks - , PI - 01 tkie Extension Department of St.Z;raneis Xav~eras a cadre - f or social?,act ion- ,in particular, and the Antigonish Pfovernsn<- - - a? a d~st~nctivesocial movemegt in general. Subsidiary
s - issues include: What type of social movement was the ce Antlgonish Muvexent?; What conditions, tGth social and . . 1t1rled to the particular form of development that bhe 3 A An tigonish Movement undertook? : Where did thls particular t - iorm of development lead the Antiganish Movement?; and. what ,- *- - nrgnn izational pvsslktilit ies were preclkded by this - deve Lupment ? Flna f ly, this thesis establishes the
tisl>fulness of n ijarticular methddological and -theoretical 1 \ p'aradlgm utlllz~c!9s an analytical tool within the sociology
hnl~slngco-operative IS only two decades clfd in Canada. See Alt~xanderLaidlaw, Housm You Can Afford, 1377, p.122. 5) Alexander Laidlaw. The Campus and the Cnmrnunitv: The ~~~~l~'ac~~fthe Antlggnish Movement., 1961. -
s. 4" Thq decade 1910-20- saw the beginning- of the ~ntigonish g Movement in eastern Nova Scoti~One.,-of the founders whs -
d ' Y The Reverend J.J. Tompkins, a university .professor, and vice-president of/~t.FrancisXavler 'University in 'Antigonish. The A\t igunish Hovement began as - / . an, adult educatiorr program in wh.c_h 'I'ompklns 3irnBd t'o quip' his parishioners to better them elves both cconomloslly and socially within their communitieC; % was:
- 1. / the principle of self education and' actlon't~~tY ,. / people themselves, organized In commun lty groups ' e / - ' J~onpkinshad concrete reasons-for his condfirns for t.hp / 7. people of eastern Nova Scotia. By the end of the 19th' . century, economic and social stagnation had settled , throughout the province. Historically, Nova Scotia had t.hSe / - /
privileged position gf 'hart for lumber , -
- shipping. It was this whicb also made i - Nova Scotia a ma>or independant lifestyle pf the fishermen was a " rapidly, eroding. Farmers were 'ghettoized' into their
, family based subsistence landholdinAgs unable to expand to-
- - p-
allow a livelihood for their children, while at thk same 1 4 time capital intensive farming-agribusiness was developing alongside then.7 The use of offshore trawlers and
6) Johnson H .G., The Antiaonish MovernenL, Unpublished lecture delivered at Acadia University, 1844, ry:3'!. 3 -
/* 5 .------P ------refrigerated boats, whlch harvested huge quantities of fish, \Y / -- posed direct conpetitfin to t-he sma'lf f'lshermen- ,mep - " - returns received by the fishermen were steadily eroded in I real dollars and the truck' system of dependance upon local mer'chants to stake them for goods incre-ased its grvip.8 e
& - - This rural deterioration fzrced the people -of eastern
Nova. Scotia in two directions.- From 1671 tb 1921 Nova
------Scotia lost through Gutmigration nearly half a million-
people .@ Those who left their homes -were predominantly from 1 ther,drala??"-eas. For example,. between 1901 and 1911 in Nova It - .Scotia, there was a'decreasein the rural population'of 9546 ' people, yetrduring the same decade the urban population 'grew r- by 56,745 individuals. 10 Most of the rura.1, peoglle Post were /
b - -? young workers and rural cr-smen unable to maintain >. - themselves ir~the traditional manner of their family. ll >
. . 7) Jdmes Sacouman, Social Or~~nsof the Antiaonish w : Mova, unpublished PH .D. thesis, 1976; pp. 148-149. - 8) Durinsthis time, the families of the farming, fishing ; and mitflng 'communities of Eastern Nova ~c~tiawere.&eaviPy I dependant upon the local merchant for survival. .The . - merchant offered goods on credit to the families in return -* for payment in whatever primary resource the family was a . ~nvolvledin.. In effect, the merchant rec-eived profit from both wnsumer sales and dredit, and in reselling the fish or* farm produce to wholesalers. In the mining Vmmunities; th& merchant was invariably a company owned store. Called the 'truck system', this cycle of dependence was one of the most- serious problems for the people of Eastern Nova-scotj;a~- It also afforded the merchants,.or company store, f.guaranteed Ihigh profits and a high level of community prestige and power. This thesis is informed by George H-ilton's The Trd LyE&!2m, (1960). 9) Canada mr Rook, 1908, 1916-17, 1327. c 10) Ibid., 1916-17 . . P 1 I Alan Brobks. Out - Miw-e Provi.~ces. . . 1860- 1900 : Some Prellmlmv C~nsiderations' - in P.A. Buckner 1
- _ While the province w ble to. actually increase its
population .through a hihh 6irth rate and extefisiye - ppp-----
immigration, the new settlers found their1 homes In the newly - = -
ro- burgeoning urban/industrial centres. By 1911, over -11, OUU
foreign' (sic) 5orn and a further 4,8UU U.S. born i individ~alswere residing in Ngva Scotla.*Of the foreigh-
- b-orn, over fialf were of European origin. 12 Finally, the saving grace fdr'Nova Scotia's population was a bi,,rth rate that saw an excess of' between 4,000-5, (100 b ir ths over deaths per annum between 1911 and 1315.13 L -
The second choice for eastern Nova Scotians was, llke _ - 'W the immigrants, to seek their livelihood in the growing urban areas such as the coal mine towns and the ~alifax,/ , harbors. This meant elther the loss of people from Eastern Nova Scotia to other areas of Nova Scotia such as Halifax, OF their 'migration to the developing coal mlne towns-on Cape , - Breton Island. An indicator of t'he crlsis of rural - outmigration was the fact that more women were leaving th6 L * - farms for paid work than men. By 1611, thkre were 94 women - h- " in rural Nova ~cot$afor every 100 men114 The rapidly L. 0 9 9 expanding coal mines were financed by foreigl capitalists P ,. who were determined to achieve the highest'retu~n-ontheir - 0 investment in the shortest t imB .I5 . 8albpan.t and open union i
t ', busting, with the blessing of. theaprowincial government "and
suppork~dby the Canadian army, coupled-with bitter internal -
union squabbles relegated the wcrker td\a position of * \ a and David Frank, At.hntic Canada after Confedesatlon, 1985, pp. 34-63. 12) -Canada Year Book, Table 18, p. 90.
13) Ibid, Table 24, p. 107. v 1 14) Ibid'. , 1916-17, table 11, p. 86 T ,
2 #
-i.$
-pppp 7 -- - - Lp - -- - 0 t- extreme dependance ,upon the company* mine, the company town,
- - -- ppp- +- and eventual ly, the company union .is- - -
Q. I Q* w I - r- A process ofo unacrZeveqepment radically affected the fsrmjng, fishing, and mining sectors of Easte'rn Nova Scotia.
Thi3 underdevelopment was clearly .linked to the* capital - I concentration, in external hanas with external, centralization, of both the' fishing and mining industries.
------I The influx of foreign capital, first into the Cape Breton i
- mining fields, and later into the trawler fleets, created a \. variegated and highly depkndant clasq and the seasons when unemployed, had to supplement his ' , - existence with both the traditioka-1 dory and meagre garden plot. B -\ - .a . 'L The precarious nature of labouring in the Cape ret ton '* s mines was clearly connected to 'the origi& of-t-heir capital - financing . External control of the' coal and steel industry ensured athat only extraction and primary processing took place in Eastern Nova Scotia nhilefurther secondary , processl'ng was done in rgmote industrial regicms suchpasNe~. - '15) Seb Paul MacE,wan, bers and Steelworkers, 197& 16) See avid Frank, "Tradition and Culture in the Cape Breton Mining Community in the Early Twentieth Century', in K. Donovan, ed'. , keRretnn ,~t200: Historical Essavs m Honour of tl-~cIsland'sBicentennial, 1985; and the film, lC!,UUU Men, National Film Board of Canada, 1978,. , * England or Ontario. External control was detrimental to secondary and tertiary-production.: Sacouman n2tes: - "...the structure of ownership of coal sn13 - steel te'nded to determine the extent of secondary proqessingFof coal fired steel produets".l7 - IC ~in$lly,the external c~ntrolover the mines eliminated any control over his [the minarzs] working I codditions and life situation.le * 6 P , The -f isherken was equ-ally dependant on external - I ', -* factors. Not only.,was the market price for the Independent fisherman's catch set by external monopolies, but he also 4 I had to compete with the much more eff+icVi&nttrawler operations. This double squeeze forced the fisherman into a vicious circLp of economic dependance which he could vreak C l out of only by emigration. Sacouman, in marxist terminology,. accurately the marginaA nature of ' a 1 the local fishermen: ' - , . ,- 'I L / "Existing minimal means ofproduction yield I minimal, , returns for.investment in means of '\ -a \ n. Returns were offten -insuff ic-ient ,. on -I ge, for even the replacement -of e;xhau"sted - product ion. However, in the f-isberies - - thisI internal underdeveloped .di-lemma is Ls'icj aggreg3ted by dir.ect control by big fisheries 17) Sacouman, op.'cit. p. 149.* 18) Frank, op. cit., 1985, pp. 203-218, and MacEwan, op. cit., 1976. - - - C"r ------9-- -- companies- over the costs and returns oif > - ~ -- --- 'fishing" . 1s' - - - 6 ~. 17 - Inagricul(ture, t3 e move towards surp'lus production, or cash crops, was hindered by both a lack of capait'al and, or v because of, a labk of markets. Underdevelopmerit, iri coal a~nd / 9 steel and the offshore harvesting qf fish dr:ied up potential , - markets that would be created through indigenous secondary ' ------processing. ~h?farmer had to look off -the farm for -cash- \ "- generating labouring opportunities. Conversely,-the' seasonal nature of-fishing, coupled with a foreign 7- - contkolled mining industry' tied to a precarious bo'rld - m?rket, forced people to fall back up@; subsistence 1arming t - to a large extent. What developed within the family economy. was a series 'of subsistence agriculture-wage labour; subsistence agriculture-independent fishing; and -at times - subsistence agriculture-independent fishing-wage labour - - c~omhinatior~sfor a large segment of the Gopulation in /' Eastern Nova Scotia.20 Thls precarious mode of existence was propped apd - - perpetuated -through the extensive method of merchant credit, ~trtru~k. a't the community level. The cycle of dependance - I seasons, world coal prices, monopol9 fish and agrir-ultural prices, and the truck system of credit ensurkd 'the sLcial and econdrnic Stagnation bf the of Eastern \ ------, Ill _I But Eastern Nova Scotia was not only a complex & ------structure of occupational r-elationshids. It was also .I, internally segmented through ethnic/religiaus divisions that . had clear geographical representations. These . 1 ,ethnic/religious boundsrles cut deep and wide into the class* segmentation'. of Eastern ~bvaScotia further compli'cating ~ts - system of social stratification and relationships. ~f pariticuler relevance to this thesis were the Scots Catholics - - -- who did not participate in the rxpidly expanding ~nclust'rlal L s development of Eastern Nova Scotia-. Ipstead, they - 0 I. maintained social strongholds within the more subsistence basgd farming and fishing areas, while the Scots - Presbyterians moved quickly into wage and commercial 6 pursuics close to, and 'withih the urban centres. The small n 4 -a cadre of catholic, Sc,ottish leaders t'hiit did develop was - quite important for the developmerit of the Ant igon ish Movement for it was they who fbrmed the political block' that agitated behind the ~ntigbnishMovement s leaders. In a I rather classic Wet5erian sense, Maclnnes (1978) sums up the i position of these elites and why they wished for their t, b people tomove ahead and participate wit,hin the perceived -# fdrtunes of Eastern Nova Scotia industrializa'tion; +'lhbdicational basks of the Scots Catholi c elite had been classical rather than commercial and hence their vocational ap$titude tended more to such - 3' profesSiona1- activities as religious ministry, law, medicine, and teaching. While such activities - (exs3epting law) did not predispose them to engage in , MacInnes' assertion thqt the failure of'the Scots * - Catholi; leaders to move' into industrial enterprise was i because of _their inappropriate training' is questionable empirically, but he does accurately portray how these ~ * + leaders saw themselves and their community in-relat ion ta Easter~N-ova Sdotia industrialization. -It was clear to these'people that the effects of outmigration were devastating. Even though this outmigrabion took place over +'t srsveral,decades, the effect upori. a people of close ethnic f - van& religious affiliation was intense. The loss of;one - farmhouse family represented a1serious decay for the immediate community. The realization that the young would , leave for *the urban centers of Nova Scotia or the United , States when dld enough gripped the hearts of the parents who often represented the last of several generations upon the soi 1 or the sea. It was -this malaise, th2 s community fragmentation, this loss of the pastoral ideal as revered by - , - church and polity alike that gorced the leaders of the Scots r. Catholic cornmuni~tyto seek out-a solution. -The solution, agreed upon over a series of meetings and conferences by 8 ,* both Scottish lay *lhaders, and the highly influential cctholic priests of Eastern Nova Scotia, was to focus upon - co-operapon as a way out'of this socio-economic halaise.22 The first conference was heldLin 1918 ahd focussed upoq the - 21 ) Mac'Inpes, op. cit., 1978, p. 112. 22) John Glasgow, The Rnle of Educational and Rurd es Inheb Development of the Ewlon Department amls Xavier Universitv, unpublished B.A. thesis, 1947. question of access to, and the worth .of &&cation. - By 1$2~, - they were formally organized with, ath her Tampkins- elected as President. The conference objectives for thi,s ;ye%arwere to: C- 8 a) emphasize 'true' education, - - b) emphasize religious instruction as a basis of. # morality and szund- education. c) propagate Christian Sodial Principles and * *, - 0 r encdurage their application 23 - - - -A - > A The Antigonishc~ovement leadership was drawn f rum the ..P many priests, nuns, and Catholic lay people of the Catholic - Diocese gf Antigonlsh.24 However, the guiding geniis cgnle , from a core group of priest/Lntellectuals at-St. Franc'is - - Xavier University led by Father 3immy Tompkins and the .Reverend (Dr.) Moses Coady. The Reverend CoadyZoften - boasted of the 'middle way' the Antigonish Movement took J between 'communism' and 'big capitalism'.25 To some degree, every community in eastern Nova Scotia was affected by' : ., Antigonish Movement ventu~es. The Antigonish Movement, and a - the Extension Department where it was based, began to - receiv; both national and international attentidn. -3 But, during this time, the Antigonish Movement leaders '\ ,- had to deal with much more than just the plight of the people of eastern Nova Scotia. The close relationship I - I 23) Ibid, p. oh. 24) See Delaney, op. cit., 1985, and Mac. - "The Lord helps Those ..." (sic) b - "If We don't do it ; the Communists will!" bet,weer~ the rnrjvement s leadership" ad the Catholic Church i - - --- A -- - -- Illol~ght, ~t under careiul and critical scrutlny from the; bishop. There was concern tahat church personnel- wese ' becoming preoccupied with secular bffairs at the expense 6f i their spiritual 'mission. The federal governmenk was I B atternp%in'g, wlth sqme degree-of success as it was a source - \- - . of fcnd-s, to use the Antigonish Movement to co-opt an < - ~ncrebsrnglymilitant group of east coa,st fishermen. :- < -- - -- Cvrporations s;ch as Eatonrs were aghast at the f--- ' d (29-operative stores cpmpeting their trad$tionallx ' - . d* ~xcluulvedoma~n. This -concern pas translated int8 abstrijng t lobby group tr~inf lilence the ~rovincialgovern&n+'to limit* ? 0 I 'J the growth of co-uperatives and credit un'ions. c~-Pinally; unluns dismissed the Antigahish Movement and lts leaders- as , 1 misguided and Irrelevant. - ' i - In this respect, thls thesis .,explores the complex - h relat ivnshlp between the Antigonish Movement and the social -rultilral context within which it grew-I-n an effort to what 1s the relationship betweenJrellgious ideology and \ s~l~ia.1 st.rurt.o~~ and social process:/ '~~ecificall~,this - - thesis wlll analyze the ~elationshipbetween Catholic- social - - ?, - t,ht-.13l~gy' and populist reform ideolcgy In shaping the unique - , ,+ - traturcs of t,hc Extension Department of St. Francis Xavier, . Ih-r~y~rs~ty3s a cadre for social action, and, more broadly 2 a wl 11 seek tcg analyze the Antigonish Movement as a ' 1 dlstinztive social movement. '1%e revl'ew will examine the available writings on the I - Ant lgonish Movement- and .out,'line the theoretical and > - .- r - - 9 14 --- methodological work^$-tinent into two groups. First, the movement. Written in an explicitly laudatory P?shion, - A, .- - .> these works reflect tpie perspective of the catholic21ay - . authors. The second group consists of aca$emic .works. Th& * -a iost signkficant of these are theses, with a *few articles 2 C and on4 chapter of a book. # - . ? a) THE POPULAR WRITINGS: 9 I Within'this category, there are those who.attribute the 'success' of the ~ntigonishMovement to the specific - qualities of its leaders. Writers such as Beck,(1935. 5 > ,Landis,u1938) ,Theresa, (1953), and Ward, ( l!l42), consider the * $1 success of the movement to be a direct result of the - charismatic powers of its leaders; Laidlaw, ( lY.71). b attributes near evangelical powers to Moses ~oady. Ot,her popuJrar writers attribute the success of the mqvement to the social impact of the Catholic Church guided - by thk series of papal encyclicals, known as the social B encyclicals, such 'as Pope Leo FIII 's RerumNovarym(b1851) , or Pius XI'S 'Btladraaesimo Anrfn(l93l) .z6 These writers 8 -" - generally1&ccept the fundamental principle of cdrporatlsm in their analysis of the Antigonish ~ovemkt. This doctrine ,' 26) The various so icals were the heclnitive papal ,- word on current so . The most influential - encyclical in the vant to this thesis w-as -- Quadra~esimoAnn~ s XI in 1931. This! document critiqued the abus oly capitalism, condemned - socialism, and adv hird way', or Catholic policy, between capitalism ommunism. The Catholic social r 9 , teachings are of funkmental importance for this thesis-see Chapter 2. Also seeBaum, op.cit., 1880, Abell op.cit., 1963, 1968,- - and Mueller, ~-~bh md the Social huestion, 1984. I - + I 7 - ,--wL* ". v- . - . . P - 3 ,* . - ------A ------__- .15 =a - a- - __.- demqnds a'mo a1 basis for the social and-economic - -3 ,- . ". ., -" ---i I - relationships within industrial society. Both employers and < 2 workers have an obiigation toward each other in the pu;suit nx - ., of a -digbif.~edlife'. But this reciprocal obligation is subservient to both groups* obligation to God ankfhe cl' B Catholic Church. 27 In thege writings, the ~ntigonish -- - Q - thevehicle by means of'which the,. 4 - - and miners of Eastern Nova =Scotia cpuld 2------A --- the -ideals of the sbcial enLcyclicals. One theologian, Bonzfcina ( l95l), succinctly out lines I the cGnservative nature of this doctrine in relation,kb" < 0 v iidustriai society, class d=fferences, and the primac? of. - - Y) - the Church: . i , 1 '. "(The Catholic church) .'. . does not cur,$ souls - - in vacus. She cures them in the. bodies they dwell 7 in and amid the concrete circumstances of their materigl existence. The men, and women Zrho look to . her for strength and' guidance, have tor achieve ? ' - salvation in the -lass to which they belong and in ' the trade or calling which they follow."2~ -. - Writers such as Theresa( 1 , Desjardins ( 1960) ,Pluta - (19'74>, and Pluta and Kontak ( ), regard the success of the' movem- as directly attributable to the power of the Church's social teachings. All of these works extoll the 8' virtues of the independent, autonomous individual as th/ shaper of his own desting. The prinacy-f ~sel*~h&p, &he: 'great destiny' of the ceommon man that,Pluta and- Kontak- 6 - , 27) Camp, Richard., The Pa~alIdeoloav of Social Reform: A -t. -t. ' 18'78 - 1963, 1969,pp . 24-29. 28) Conrad Bonacina,' The Catholic Church and Modern Democracy', in Qoss Currents, 195'-52, Vol. 1, No. 2, p. 12. C - . I- 16 - -- - >- * -:- - - --7------reflect -thebCatholic thedlogical principle of the < r - 6f the 7~dicy.* 7%-raiman, the digiifipd - - I - I individual. within-. a catholic world, recelxes his*or her g~idance~throughthe% teachings of the church. ~orpom;at<&t P theology demands a.dual responsibility from both the G,hurch 1 - and the individual. To use religious metaphors, the Church, 4 J u A' as the, head,of the holy b0d.y can'onay guide that body, it is , a d ,-7 \ d . , up to the body to perform\-the actions .'30- Finally-, an * 6. ------a actkist,s eEellerit A accoun-f of -th% *Antigonish Movement is" .. J' Delaney'p Bv ~heAOwn Hands: A Fieldworker , s. Acconw of the d I - h Movem ent (1985). This wojk -gives a generab. , - - 2 - though optirnistlc, ov0erview of the actual workings within - - . the movement. Her book breatheszlife into the movement L; ,I , ,. throdgh description', story telling and anesdotks. .- + One important criticism of these writings is their P failure to' recognize the theologically stressed rEciproca1.-- W basis of corporatism. They ignore, as the sctual founders of the ~ntig:nish Movement did not, the fact that the Antigonish Movement was a reaction against @e abuses of- industrialism and capikalism. Contradictory -to theiru acceptance of the concept of corporatism in analyzing the a movem-ent, these writings contain no critique of the responsibility of industry and. the state to the 'commpn A 4 man'. -This thesis will- consider this relationship.\ Despite I the apparent nqivety of these writings, they do give a + glimmer -of the importance of catholic ideology an-the - Formation and development of the moveznnt. - * - 29) Pluta and Kontak, 'The Social ~condmicsof the kvtigohish Movement * , in- ,--. , Vol. 34, April, 19T6, p. 63. -. . 30) Mueller, op. cit. pp. 13-24. - + + l~j A(:-(=- ARTICLE; ON SH MOVEWT: , ' Aeadent~e'articles iltelud& Gr-ry ftarrm'-r+fcme~.- <-I , . Grltislle of Capita- (l977), and the chapter'catholics in - , LeFfacy (1985) The major contributidns of the above authors ' 0 ," - dr-9 ~FIplacing the movement .in the larger con-tekt of ------ ' populist democrat~~politics combined with religious - ) particularly, CaLholic - activism that was sweeping North * America ,during this era.31 The populist' characteristics of regional- protest. in North America have ,been 1' documented'. The affinity between popuk i L/ politics, religious activism, and,petitkbourgeois commod.ity producer economies is well'estaDlished.32 &. Discussion of- religious influences on social movements this inclu'de Alleri's work. on tncial.~ospelin era . . tw:' , -, \ - . Cariabiz~~prairie west, and the Macpherson study of Social, - t? ~rbditin Alberta-33 The larger*picture of U.S. Catholic -*A @ '. w social action is contained in A. Abell's 1865 - 1950 (1964), and .&nerican C~th~ncThomt on Snci& fi. $ #. st lons ( 1960). ,- - i .? )I 31)" On American Catholic social act , see Abell, op. 1 c i t . , - 1963 and 1968. ------" 32 $ On, dcf ining the-petit-b~~r'geoisiehsee Frank Bechhoffer . . -and Brian Elliott's The Petit R~u~~eolsie-- - - Comti-ve Studies of the Uneasv 'Straturn; ( 1981); a.nd Ha_rr\iet Eriedman s World Market. Stat-e and Emlv Farm . 1. 3 a of Wage Lnbo (1978). The g-apter-2. 333 Allen, op.. -c?t ,, 1971 and 1975, and MacPherson's, cracv ~n Alberta, 1953. at tempt's to redress the ba larice. A1~;d., ntjrlt- LI~the atil~vt. E writers explore the ~ijllt1~31 rat I ri' t th+>-nl~v~?l~l~~r~t 14ospel carrled t.he: r message well bey~ndtnr. con1 i.~ier; t t~t church into ~'anadian~ioli tlss. The Co-!Ijie~at ~ve c:l?mrnonwealth E'ederatlon was 2t~clalGospel. ~n-C'anada .34 FIn such \ b , takeri by the leaders of the works also 41-1 not adddr.ess the fact that the crl-tll_.ji r,f,*t~':~ - ot the movement concent-rated excZ4 slvely on the 31~trltlutors,whether of consumer ga7ads, W~TJ~F-I;~LE' - '\ ixarketing, cr access to loafis and credit-s. , . - Baum s earller articles ( 1!3'7"/3, 13'7'7h ), Lster 3 ~.hripltt.r / , m In hls book Cathc~licsana an-1 snr,lu:__p;'y 1~~p;al , - C ,T- lho~htrtie,and rl-rrt~t2- r l YiJlJ ) , glve :3 ~rlnr.~st2 overvlew of the Ant igonish Movement;. HIS h13r~C:OU~ l lrrPs the - ambiguous relAtionship bet,u&en the canaAlnn C8t hrid I $- ['Ii,~rltti?- and the rapidlk burgeoning urban trade un I IJ~I:; 3nd ~(ILIa l L. 1 - fer,vor. Generally., " th'e book is an 13utline ~_,f,t ht-. r a? i~rr,ul the ~Aurcht.s grapple with the growth .~isijr:lallrm ?rid cJ soclal democracy in Canada. As i3aui-n notes. wl? h171 th+ \ - t 34 j See Crysdale op. cit . , 1961 Prr-t&tri co'll fielrii; or t.he r:ecently emrrglng C.C.F. 1n the - I -, L~II12 t 1(;3,1 realma.a HIJW~V~I-.Baum dc~esnote the importanch . -< - I of r In the Antigon~shMovement. Uslng a Weberian * cC -7 . - C JI1,t:a~~rn J.ooks at, the abi llty of established ipI I to drvelop i ti; own internal criticai prophet14 - - g~lgT1-!11..-.-. rrrnd~i~-:~~ym~~-* C t t.hr dominant soclai 2tructure uh'ile at another 1~"velCerlerstlng a ~ritlcslsp~rituality-/khat - ~~~fff+-'~~~t~~e~-t..he-t~ominantstructures. ' 38 _I,.---- ' - 3nil (Joes. sc-1 as a patalyst nf change l'h~pr.~-~jh~t and the .prlcst tend tc~speak the same, technical & 4 ti 3 ~a'r~gi~ngc-.hut tt~enearllngs can and do differ. 4 6 i Ilnf I-lrtunate l y, tial~rn does 'not ask*what happened tn thi's e I 1. "n b , I:a Pvcn prr~phetic,fervor wlth'ln the Ant@onis'h F H~~vrment A Lso. !?Idurn ectly reads. 8 Marxist thread in imc'3rY , the wdrks clt (_'oady.Ye Coady was first. and foremost a - > = $'at.t~c 111: pr lest who took his social,. responsibll it les very - r-1'There Irs good rea'son to believe that. Coady's a i e L lrw ~ltthe ~ndivldualIn sclclety was far more influenced by ' ------1.3t cul lc ~~cia-1- and sociological - teachings than by Marx: :>:I i See Hsum, IYHU, op. clt. pp. 2UO-2~3. - - z :>ti ) Gregory Baurn, Moses Coady: Critlque of (labitaLism' , in The Chelse~Jourd,Sept/Uct. , 197'/, p. 23.. ., . , 3''' See Paul Johnson, & History of Chrlsti- , 1975 .3,7) t?,?~irn. 1 r~p.cit. FI 195. - - i L .-. , - - - - - Sf - % > - -# d - 'tF-" - -2L-l~ - toady' was a doctoral reandidate at Catholic ~n'iversity'wh6n - s .n -John Ryan, head of the 'Bishops Program of_Sooial Kecon~trnct~ion' . was Chairman bf Sociolagy and Adult - - - Education. 3s3 The 1921 Edurational aucialConference - held- in Antigonish,- Nova ~cntia,had .lo$ ~yanas its -- keynote speaker.40 It was the people besiding QveK this .. ' . . and earlrer 'conferences that went on to become the leaders - - ., of h& Antigonish Movement". - 4 ". I Finally, Baum's criticism of Coady's co-operative ,- \ Y 'vision issimplistic. ~aumnot~only does not understand the - I relationship bet,ween co-operativesp and the !larger Bronomy *- ------whether capitalist. or socialist ; but he arlso does not L e i understand the 'internal workings ow-operat ives . Co- &L operatives in China face- problems iimilar tg thos& of PO- - operDatives in the West ?41 Co-operat ives have d ist'inct: = I . = economic and social confi-gurations, +whether in capikalist, or ? socialist countries.42 However.' Baum does situate -the Anwish Movement -in th; context of national catholic , - I sociaP action. Nowhere else in Canada did 'Catholic social -- T action reach such a- level as- iSn Eastern Nova. Scotia.4" P J- \ Longer, though not necessarily more comprehensive, works on thk Antigonish Movement 'include the M.A. thesis The + * * - -- - AbpIf-I,.W6-p~ctt . , - 40) Frank, 1985, op. ~it.p.' 209, and Glasgow, op. ~it.p. 8. - -41) George Melnyk, Mty:F~QQ~~t~pla ty - - a Co o~erativeSoclety , 1985. - 42) G. Fauquet, The Co - o~sativeSectm, 13.51 - 43) Baum, op. cit., 1980. - - (No Date) Sharpe compares -the- relatioriship between the- Antigonish Movemerrt'cooperatives and earlier cooperative "3' organizing on Prince Edwara Island. All cznsider th& P, - movement to have been a failure,- and in particular, condemn C , its leaders for havlng mcorrectly perceived the econamic 0 f csqitions of eastern Nova scotia. Sharpe denounces the priest ledders of the ~ntigonishMovement \as .servants of * , the bourgeois class', while Webster claims that the .-- P. leadership, =while of good intent, bid not truly represent d the p&ple of eastern ibva Scotia.44 ~aradoxicaliy,the rn ------+ emphasis upon leade-rship ability permeates these writings g. 4 even thwgh they all cla.im to take a Marxist approach. The -. theme of (these "works i"s~that the leaders, knowingly or not, - misguided thempeopleof eastern Nova Scotia when they should have taken mor'e appropri;l'te action. But instead of- =^ , condemning a .failureF to-move towards some linear utopia. we should instead be asking-questions such as what were the ' b - specific socio-gconomic conditions that shaped the movement A - into what ic actuiilly became? Conversely, we can ask what f was the.pr.evaiiing ideological paradigm that in turn shaped* i; e I - 'both the^ Antigonish Movement and the perceptions of . - - - structural conditions upbn which it was bked? * - -Specifically, -the question is: What was the ideology of the -L Antigonish Movement and why was it so conducive to social ------b i e ------;------44) ~harie,A Peo~le' ,s Histnrv of Prince 1slan'dr.(-unkhown saurce), Extract "supplied by the Extension Uepartment of 'st. Francis Xavie; University, ppz 178, - and "Wghster. Gary, "Tigonish and Antigonish: A Critlque of the Ant igonish Movement as a Cadre for -Co-operativism" , in, &RH em.Volume 2, Number 1, Spring, 1975 p. -96. * . - - ! G, - L- i2% * action in the peculiar social-economicl condi'tions, uf .eastern - - When questions are framed. this way, he can move away - from a linear analys'is of reform movements in Capitalist . - - society. Bya this-, I mean that mueh work on social' movements . n r, n 1 seems to proceed- from the linear view where a > the - ,. irrationgi structurk of capitalist soclety creates the. t I I impetus -fdr social movements, and b) the world hegemony of e monopoly capitalism necessarily guarantees the ultimata. +. ' failure of social movements. that attempt to compete withrn - its sphere.45 Such a perspective ignores the impact of ------ ideas upon social organization. - Much of the diversity of - * soc-ial movements f~omotherwise similar socio-economic backgrounds stems from their distinct interpretation of the world around them. This interpretation, or etbos, in turn directly influences their member's-definition and , L> , - ,/ - . r appreciation of the-situation and hence affect? their , - 3, * - behavior and the form and impact of the movement. 'Finally, ' i i 9 such afialysis doeswnkt explain why members of these - / - . - . . k. mov-ements develop such a commitment to success, whether/' / ; religious or politically articulated, that leads th,em' to ,. 6 - - defy andatkempt to change apparently intransigent A - :realities. - . - -. 0 * ; - r i - z. < i I ------+ -- ppp -, - p------L 45) See for exaJple, -$,A. Banks, -W4 i Soci,oloay of Socld Hovements,' 1972; J . R. ~usfield, Protes,t. Ref orud Revolt : A Reader in a1 Movement&, 1970; Also, R. J,: &Byrnr and R. - - sacdunan .19%aye recently applied 'this approach\ to-the . -. Atlantic provinces in 'their edited Underdevewnt and - " s. a ovements ~n Can-, 1979. 1 a /' n 7 Y, .. . .. k Mifrlen ne Ant~gQ~ushRovement : 4 Scotia (1974) is- modelled after ~allad~*s.theory and typology of * re-vjtalization movements. This work proposes that the - Gove~entwas .an alternative 'cultural response* to the 1 ' cultural distortion '_of rapidly industrializkg eastern _ Nova Scotia. 46 To iff len, this- dis-tortion is typified by \ - nigh emigration coupled wi€h even higher immigration out of the area, and a loss of tradi.tiona1 occupations such as ' \ . - t ' subsistence farming and fishing to industrialized capital- ------intensive med,es of product ion within these' areas. "This. paves the way for a 'period of revitalization' where-culture is open to altermative interpr&atior?s that reformulate the - - cultural 'identity into a 'new -steady state, that accommodates t.he new industrial modes and strives for Miff len "s empirical s'tudy of c'o-operative ho'using as a \ -manifestation.gf the 'routinization' of the movement is - problematic. He takesan isolated urban example of co- operB tive enterprise and generalizes from this to the movement as a whole. But the Antigonish Movement.was ' largely aimed at rural areas'of-eastern Nova Scotia. Next, there are problems with &llaceps model. While his I typologies may have analyticalutility, he does not adequately account for social transition bvetween these - --- A------t.ypologica1 stages. His theory lacks process. Secondly, ------a '* Wqllace's model precludes a study of the internal diversit~y " 4 46) Mifflen, 1974, dp. cit. p. 45, and A.F - 'Revitalization Movements', in , Na. * 58, .April, 1956, pp. 264-281. 47)'Mifflen, 1974, op. cit. pp. 36 and d ! - , - 4 r; ---arru uynamics tlThln-a movement. This a- has forced W(.iff.len to maintain the macro-typological appI, oach of WalYace. ' Finally, biifflen takes as fact the as;Zkption tKat there was \\ actual 'cultural distortion' amongst the farmeks and J fishermen of eastern Nova Scotia. As Porter has noted we 'i - 7 . - - tend to accept the rm'tion of the primacy of the independent petty producer in the early twentieth century. It refledts - L-~~~~a~~~~nrr.i-~*%Y w 1 t = - i who : - - - - " ... arenostalgio and concerned about the loss - of &he self-sufflc-jient family and-irs valu&s~whl~~------i perhaps were never as dominant a characteristic of Canad*ian- life a< sometimes is assumed. "48 On agrarian popu-lism in the U .S., Preston makes an - observation that could be apptlied to the Ant*igonish - t Movement : - i '\ I -* "While the populists' protest often focussed * . 6 upon ecdnomic grie'vances, those grievances, when 03 carefully examined,, frequently appear to have been \ ,..'- ill-based in economic realities: What was eve'n more \ ,' I at. stake was the farmers' sense of ability to control their destiny and to pursue their social , - role. "4s 3 This hypothesis will' be explored in the thesis, --A -- % ------L -- 48)-- John porter, .Rural D3lin.e and the N*wC!!!han ~trnf. in Social and Cultural Chme in CW, Vol . 1, 1970; p. 3 r 134. 49) Robert Preston, XeNew Populism and the Old: Llemands, for a New International Economic Order and AgrarTian Protest', in hteknational O-ti~n, Vol 37, No. 1, I *. Winter, 1983, p.46. . . MacInnes (1 8) utilizks Hans Mol's sacralization of L > 7 \ - -. \ i2entity. theory i$ analyzing .the movement,. 50 But, aside from history of the socio-cultural - his use of Mols' model is essentially similar \to Mifflen's routinization thesis. Both , theses- are subject to the criticisms outlined above. Also, - both Mifflen-and MacInnes accept the funciionalist teleology - .I -.\r implicit in the theories of Wallace and hol. -While both i. I Mifflen and MacInnes see the Antigonish Movement as a religious vehicle of change, stability and order are seen as - he paramo;nt goals of the movement. As Beckford (1983). and ------, Robertson and Holzner (1980) have noted, order is as much u t negotiated as it is perceived as coercive from overhead.51 Struggles are as paramount in attempting to defiine what the I _prevaiIing order should be,- as they are in achieving that order. The works of Miff len' and MacInnes hdve focussed on an assumption of a need to always seek a steady stq'te of 5- ;st,ability and order while neqlecting to ash how G'h order 'I becomes realized-and accepted. ' -> 1 i Sacouman '( 1976) takes a marxist approAch to I interpreting the movement. Discounting any religious or b ideological basis of the movement, he emphasizes the: a"... structure of capitalist underdevelopment as the primary constitutive basis for the format'ion of / Antigonish eo-operative Movement 'Societies in Eastern 9 ------Nuva S~0t-i~-32- - - +=" 0 50) HacInnes, 1978, op. cit. p. 14. , ' 51) See'James Beckford, 'Thk Restoration of 'Power' to the Socioldgy of Religion', in Sncielo~ical-hub, 44-1, 1983, pp. 11-32, and Roland Robertson and B. Holzner, ed., LcLcatitv and Autboritv, 1980. 52) Sacouman, 1976, op. cit. pp. 76 and 231. 4 - - I A \ 2.j - ,, -- - . While Sacouman adequately outlines the economic pre- . . - cditlor~sconducive to such a movement', his perspective - - - i cannot explain not only whydit was the Antigonish Movement 1. that moved the people of eastern Nova Scotia, but also why , 1' *the movement developed when it did.. The economic situation of eastern Kova Scotia prevalled for severa-l decades befoqe the inception of the Antigonish Movement. Sacoumarl . emphasis on the economic conditions undermines the A importance of ideology as a detgrminant in the shaping of , - * the Antigonish Muvement. ,, . - 3 \ - Finally, t-here is Anne ,McDonald's me Mew-of ------berabon in mlt Ed~lcatianas Revea-led hv Mnses Cod& , - C on-wt l985), and Anne Armstrong ,s paper . . - Masters of t.heir owm Destiny: A Cnm~arlsonof ths ThouahtL& d - Coadv and -Freire, (1977).53 The -McDonald thesis postulates 4 Y two dichotomous models as a basis for understanding. the \Jmotivations of the Antigonish Moyement 's"' leaders. One set, / - is that of volunteerism and community input and cwntroJl; versus professionalism, institutionalism and external input. P and cantrP 1 of the movement. The second is the dilemma, uhichchas plagued adult education and 'so'cial movements. b between community and social action, and individual self - help and self-realizatiGn. \ McDonald's thesis clearly situates the leaders 'of the * Antigonish Movement within the field of adult education - theories. However, while she outlines at 11~ngtLLhe ------e- ------33) Armstrong, Anne, Wsof their own,DWu: A Comarisan of the Thouaht of Coafiv and Friere, (working paper), University of B.C.,1977,rn and McDonald, Anne, Tbrt It Ebatlon Revded bv nnlsh Movemu, unpublished Hheunivs3'ty of Alberta, 1385. \ \ - - * _ i - \ i - 27 - .-- - --, \ relevance- of Father to the present practise b - - \ incomp1,ete analysis of .the'isocial-historical underpinnings . . - '\ that led &tothe writings an$ theories of Coady and Tompkins. This thesis also contains the\ most comprehenskve literature I reqf the Antigonish ~ovhentto date. oArnstrong.s -T t '\ paper presents a content analysis of the writings df Moses <. ------'The Ankigonish Movement was-hFavily influenced by other \ political and social currents -that \circulated,during this era. The Antigonish ~ovebentdeveloked out of a cultural * \ - . milieu that was steeped in the tradi ions of catholic sobial. 4 - theology, p~pulistpolitic; and the new evolutionary . C1 - opt imlsrn found within theories- of adult education -54 Yet ,, L the- catgyst of successful Antigonish Mbvement organizing came from th; Scots ethnic communities. \ \The issue here is . IT% to develop the specific theories utilized'.and the d interpretive schema based upon them. The ~pecificproblem ' - -. is the relationship between ideology and social action.' \ 3 - The primary issue in this thesis with all'of these - 3 . traditions 16 ideology. What foll-ows i-s an analysis of the 6 - - t'heoretical basis ut.ilized in- order to understand the 0 i.deol%gical impetus af each tradition. In :chapter I------\ outline of each t adition is presented along with their - - 'i.. 0 / - -- specific relation hip to the ~ntigonish~ovenent. (" 54; See the following Chapter for an outline of these issues. c, t - -- e ' ~us: , also encompasses the' behavioral conse~uencesand limitation;' -at either the individual or social level- that a particular world view imposes upon its adherents. Ldeology , whether / religious or political, gives us a -'blueprintr. to follow for < 8 our own lives. Just- as important, this blueprint gives us a J grogrammed series of expecta'tions of others. ' An excellent , - a-, ':, ideological systems is Whitworth, 1975; Whitworth, in his - analysis of three utopian communities outlines how Yeligious 2 and sectarian ideology-becomes the , blueprint-' for 1, i. - - indilidua1,'-and social behaviour within enclosed - - 1 commun iuties .55 . \ - + F - Works such as Therborn(l980) p6stulates a typology qf ideological process as a basis for actyon: Ideology as a 3 blueprint demands many things . It must attempt to ask 1) what exists, 2) what is good, and 3) what is possitle.~e \ To recogniz,e what exigts is to acknowledge the social world 6 Ej around 0s. In a kundane sense, it is an affirmation of not ' P only the# world, but ones place within $t.' - - ' Secondly, according to.J ideological reasoning, human agency demands a utopia. Not only do we recognize a mundane - reality, but we are critical of it. '- his crtical stance - -, provides the impetus for behavioral manifestations towards bhat.is ideally desirab'le and yet believed possible-utopia. ------, - " In" essence,-ideologies make empirical claims upon both the' 1 - -- - P - 'k condition -what exists and what is good - and the direction 55) See John Whitworth, God's Blueprints: A Socim dv of Three Utn~ianSect.s, -1975. 58) Goren Therborn,, The -2v of Power and the Power of - Ideolo 1980, p. 18. L i C - &' &' ',Y\, 'r - "C i - - +L ..+ . 6 " D + > 5 I. -p - - '" _-, , -- . L-L -m,_-- of society '-&hat is possibf e. he moral .rhetoric that .seems - - a necksap; 4cdmponent of any ideology. can be sebn as the . " .* , means' for action with which to test these claims.57 Apter. - 1 - # in an egrly but important piece, defines i&eology.as the . < g@idingp%*petus .behind the behavior of icdividuzlls in a 9 vd " - social setting of "action-in-relation-to-princ.iple."6@ =. A- A- Here, "...the vaguest'of ideologies can be made to shine in ,, - 6- ~ -'> the reflected glow of moral indignation"5Q After establishing both what exYsts Ad what ig Eood, I - .' ideology is then translated into a blueprint for action Y i towaras what is4 possi4>el Ideology is not only a refle'ckion - - 7- of the material basis of a particular class or community, it is a4so a theory ofthe capacity and potential ty of that y. i \ I 'class or community along a critique oaf its \ability to \ - \ adhieve -those goals i-0 necessary. Therborn 'then, - L succinctly denonstrate?: how thesuccess of politic 1- 1: ideological mobilizations hinges- largely on thkir \-at).ility*%.o L- I f * 'v. . . tap and harness the existential dimenslcqs of human - subjectivity"~0 - y \. * I' 1- \ $ Finally, ideology is not to be taken as an -explicitly d - .*f- - recognized aspect of a community or class identity. L "- i Instead, A / , 'I.. .ideq3ogies are sdrsens th;ough which we perceive -the social wor 1"d. Their elements arer 4 =t . a, ' I assumptions, beliefs, explanations, values, -and - <-- <-- J-LA+ ----r L------or jentat3ons7 TKgvKrFseldom taught explicitfy qd C *- z i - --i. . ------T- - - - I - !Jk \ - - 57 Clifford Geertz. Ideolm~va~ a Cuual Svstem6 J , in David - - Apter's Ideo- Discontent, 1964., 4. 72. @ . * 58) Apter, opy cit. p.17. gr 16.. - _ 59) Ibid. p. b 60) Therborn; OF. cit., p. 17. * ? ? 1 .r , * , . - ., -. d 1 - - , t- 8; - -"- " - 40 - ,S.% - .+ * - L systemx€~~cally.They are rather transxitted through - I A.. example, c'onversations, and casual observation. "el; There is imple, 40rk supporting theAstudytof ideological - systems within communities, the impact of religious ideology \. .- - ~'yon-develqping sbcieties, and the ideologi.es of conmunity \ -e de-velopment . Early works such as Andrain( lY64j) outline hpw ~ - - the ,ideology and rhetoric of African leaders clearly a 1- represents, and Is represented by, the type of society they - / wish to- establish.62 Diffeqing definitions of democracy: socialism and ljheralism, all Gith deep moral and ethical 8 bases, are clearly reflected in the differing economic and f - . ------. * , social programs and structures developed-within these 0 - -countries. Closer to the topic of this thesis- are .works -. * :, such as that of Sabella (1980) who analyzed the supposed inability of Peruvian fishermen to develop large-scale co- ' . < - operatives .63 Here, the ideology of co-operativgs and -co-- CA , * - >opesation, where the f ishlng economy and the.boats-would be @, , controlled 'collectively' by the co-ogerative, was in direct - contrast to a long standing tradition of independent boat 4 ownership and the individualistic ideal -and'idealogy- of - - making ode'sE own living.s4 Orbach (1980) demonstrates the. individualistic, and situation-sp-ecif ic nature of fish - I buying and selling that often circumvented co-ops~tive - v' ideals.65 Contradictory do the ideal of formal co- +, _ran:*dl .. ,I- 61) Pat Marchak, &olo~icraIl Permectives in Can& 3 , 1373, P,. 1. --p-pp--- - 627 Charles fi6rai~'~emocFaTi~Focial~ism~~deologies of African Leaders', in Apter, op .'cit . , 1964, p: 163. a -- .L - 633 -J~mex-Pabella7J~sTUlaya:-AnalysipE-Peruvian - ' Fishing Cooperative that Failed', in AnthroP- Quarterly, Jan. 1980, Vo1.53,- No.1, pp. 60-61. 64) Ibid. I 65) Michael Orbach, 'Fishery Cooperatives on the Chesapeake Bay: r R T= Advantage or Anachronism', in Wo~o- . Qllarterk, Jan. 1980,, Vol. 53, NO.^ 1. p. 52. -3-. - - - - la --, the .sucio-economic betterment, and trad'itional lifestJles of ; 2 P I the f ishgrden.e6 ~inaliy,oh the structural effects of - - t . e - ~deplogy,there is JacksonSs (1972) study of-coinmunity > ,- 9 development organ2zations. This will be important to my - metihdological approach .e7- C ?'he' An'tigonish Hovement, like other. social movements sseki'ng arnelio*ative r@fo%ms withiii a' lazger society, f directed its efforts to specific 'social problems'.*a How - these social probl-ems were defined, and who defined them are - < - - -I - - - -- A-. - * , key issues here. John Jaekson, whose work Commlmitv - ,* - , Pev~!l~wrnent,: Ideul~~v and TF!C~F~O~V(1972)-. thi$. thesis is - modelled upon,, asks similaY questions,QB Jsckson assumes /- that '~rganizati~onalactiv-ik.%s-are linked to theHhistory and - ideology. of both the organization and its members. Jackson tests this assumption with a study of three separate - community development agencies operating in rural Ontario. il . Each of't-hese organizations - the Y.M.C.A., the Company of - Young Canadians, and the office of the Agricultural and - Rural DevelopmentQct - pursued differing pxoblsms' and - solutions that Jackson shows were clkarly predicated upon the socioLhistorica1 conditions that each organization - 9 developed from. As Jackson states sf his own work; - " The fundamental assumption from which this Q ------.- - w s c b;r c h free eeded-was t hatorga~tj;za~tam1~~5vktyy -**--I--: ------&l.-+ I. 1 YL Ibid. p. \ + 66, 5Y. \ 67) John D. Jackson, C-itv De~-~f. Ideol~gv,and 1 tv -ent Apencies, 1972. 68) Gusfield, op. cit., 1970, and Banks; op. cik., 1972. 69) Jac.kson, op. cit., 1972. - - - \ * -- casB : o rnd+l*v a~~t-~esir~rn a ee-mp~ex, I \ -in which- an organization ,s major ori~ntat~ionarising - - - out uf the 1tsel.f 1s- I# compounded .the - -: - G, organization perceives as problernstic, the way ~t -*u ameliorative activities toward their 'organj zatienal p~rronne1. the st~ldywas - - 1 ~n the exper - events they I approach tk t.hekr prol&ms. 71' 0 1 -- . Particularly important; here LS Jat-kson s aria 1yt IF~~1 sch~ma.HIS research quest, son rio::lt s four : - - 4) The effect.^ r_lf their ~ictlvities.'~2 ideological I orientations of the agencies studled. Hr:rp. 311 ernerped f'rr t,ti~1 _ understandi-ng of how the agencle-s have +@ r historicpl background .ti3 thelr' interna l struct.ure:~2 7 - - developed. Jackson posits three quest loris In t h I :-: rcjgr r1-l , , . - r' ------p-~ ------p------~ ai from what broader social m~vernerit haze rfid ~ja,:i! ijg!crri;y - - i O) -Ibid., p. IV-3. - - - , 71) Ibid., p. IV-1. ) following out llrre was extracted prrmar r lj. f r.i,nr i 12 The Ib~d.,pp. IV3-IVY. - - - , \.\. atems )zlf thQ bight refers-to thR process which ,takes - % i ! i -'place prior-+ ta untervention -\ with the target population. - Wtrat, 1s the spe~lf- lc paiadigmatlc process that leads to ttre. selec:t~nnof-one target popT11atlon over other posslhi! I t~~a. HI~Wwas thl s lnvolven~cnt r~aiized: Why gas there only - j~art131 inv~Jlv~nientKI th the reolpient- yopuiatinn;'? Was th~s \ gr-~~upswlt h~ri t&e Larger populatlon? Flnal ly, In what way , - / 'm_x_t'fst~ratrgr*rlze the t'arget population itsel?, - - ~r~r-1I tc resp~~lns~tt,i agency intervention. In what manner was I,~tn~~~(i~~enr.es'. .{s.-ltson stsates that hls .primary interest was . - I ri t ht. reh' 2 t lortship beLween the behavioral conseauew, and , ~~.~.';ltlr;ga t7ausal or determlnistic'model . The 4 I ,,-* b. I;??:, 35 t$ C?UZT 'that. ager.cy to deiibe $he social I " k . " 8 - - / .-*34 r' ,,problems and thus th2 appropriate intervent'ion ''3 Instead, .., -Jackson posi t,s these four categoiies' as. ar! interac,t ing ", /. sys,tzm af variables. In this respect his Sociology 1s - interpretive in .igs analysis. He was looking at .process. lri ". ..a prqc-ess ,in which r-.$rtain pas-itions assumpd- - - >.by an ag'encg a,t a ceCt!tain point in time set lim~tatiutis " on the availabie a-ltesnatives -with 'rckp&ct to a future * - point in time." 74 ' , , , - / , I In essence, Jackson has taken the sociological question r ------of what is the relationship between5~deologyand behav~oral action, and has operationalized it Into 'a 'testable - a- '5 '5 ,. hypothesis. y I _ - - : - r The following is an outline*of the methodological tools. . formulated in order to test the theorptical premises of t-6is . - ..thesis. The investigation of a social movement t.hat reached , , - , it's peak in membership and organization ,over 'fifty ( 511 ) - - I. ,- - years ago, has raised questions of liml*tatinns In data , . - J - 93 - - collection and verif icatei6n. . The contlrigency of ++ interpreting historical data is recognized hew In a * Weberia* sense, the-'methodo40gy of thls thesi-s is L - constrained by a realizat'ion that behavior is,not solely - . \. r . grappling------with..tlax -- - Weber's-- historpal sociology is succlnpt: 1 0, - "The question of wh~ere,we stand and are likely to ~ - go is dexlt with on the letel-of situational analysis ~739Ibid., p. IV-11. 74) Ibid., p. IV-11. . * 35 - and of extrapolating'perreived. . trends. In the absence \ of a belief-in determinism and evolutio.nisrn, thlsis an - 1, # \ ,open-ended trend. g analysis. Wherg should we go?" 75 c - I T I ------The imposition of &ocio3ogical fhe~r-~and conceptual # v - , -schemas ohto the iimited data gleaned from historid1 ". ma.terials has been a long stwing iss~e.~Historical sociology involves the imposition of a sociological template , w _ upon. historical data. 'l'he ;erifi&bility= of hist*6ricai - s~ci~logyis based upon the organizing of historical events - - * jn a-logical pattern of.order. This pattern sf course is Several recent studiV&sfruitfully utilize both the - - theoretical and methodological approach employed in.this ; thcsig. Adriance ( 19E5.) outlines how the Church 'in3 Latin - = America has assisted in developing grassroots social change . / < at the expense ,of' the -previously traditional relationship ' with the st~ateand the military. Her confiqmation of the . .i - positions of .priest-intellectuals as linKs between both the I. \ . * church hierarchy and the laity, and as catabtsfor both r t J - a 75) Roth, Guenther, '~ationalizationin ax 'Webex's- ' b - Development of History'. in 5. Whimster and 3. Lash, Ki%x ber. Ratianalitv and Modernitv, 1987, p. 89. - 78) The use o'f historical methods in sociology has only . - recently 'been~givenserious. attenthn in the texts. such works include Abrams' -Historical ASocinILpav'(l98:!), and Skocpol' s edited Vlslon H~storicalSociology . . ------1-1984k. --The-Brrt~sk Jmnal- of -Sociolo -pt+;-amd-=ad -bc e 3 presented thematic editions ,on historical sociology in 1976. - k~t+i F-b 4 - . , a's rnentlon~dear 1 ler, lbrlngs back tile c~lriPt.~?ti~f pnw5l- kc? .b '* - the s0c1010,gy oi religion . He resurrec.t,s t11~.r- 12s:; 1 I a soi-.luloPiral concern witah the ~ntent~un%l~,~~-~rll~l t 1t.ri clt' - - Y ( - ~ co influence ,' manipu l3t_e, al-l-cl co~~tro1 F~PT~~I~F!s t.hr~~~~?ht.~;, . - feelings and -acf,ia in .ac?.r~rd:-lnc:t;-'w i-t,t-i val- i I-III:: - - of the & ultural and moral frnmewo~-kwlthln whlct~r!llwPr - I p-.a struggles operate In modern sctclety. He errph.asizp:; t.he nfar;-rl for a cultural framework. whether articulated wlthin a rellglous or patriot-mythologicat framewnrk. in order for of' c. Final, Westhues. (1983) outlines the defensive stature , organizations whose religious ethos clearly necessitatgs * , they consider religion as & paramount model for society.' \. - Thi? theslis is a cont'ribution to the above lyterature on the ~ - . - , . , s~clologyof knowledge and the sociology-of reliEion.ez The next, chapter situates tfie Antigonish Movement $ WI thin the social and intel-lectual ethos'of the' elra (1910- , 1Y4U). The focus is on the affinities%etween the , - concGr-rent phenomena of catholic social theology, rural yopdlisk unrest, ethnic identity-mai~tenance,and adult - - -- - ,. education development, within the ~'orthAmerican , intellectual- environment in general, and that of Eastern -1 I Nova hcotib, based in St. Francis of Xavier University in ~ paft icularl. Following ,Jackson's methodology, out lined i - , . . above, this chapter is then devoted t'o the e&btm_tial b~ of the Antigobish ~oveme'nt. Here the focus is on the articu latinn of key structural linkages between these " ,in'tellectual currents: and the actual leaders, both within - these movements, and those of -the Ant igonish Movement. e3 Chgpter 3 will outline the development of the formal I ' and inforrrial structures of the Ant-igonish Movement in order 1 : , to determine what particular religious, economic, and - nceupational strata the movement. did, and did not appeal- to. I H3) For an outline, and defence, of the usefulness of this ; methodological paradigm 'in understanding $-he structural i connections between ideology and action, S.ee Kokosalakis op. J cit. pp. 367-376. i . - - 1 , - \ This analysis will focus .on, determining the afflnal i relationship between the above ideologies and'the social groups involved with the htigonish Movement. 9 y Chapter 4 will focus on the results of the ~ntigonish Movemen$. The relationship between -the ideological . orientatibns of the Ant,igunish Movement and its specific 'b programs of action,. and of course non-action, will be ", considered. The assertlpn presented is that the - J limitatiU2ns, or non-actions pf the Antigonish Mavemerit / stemmed directly from the movement's ideol-ogy. .# r' The conclusion~uillsummarize these ksues with a - .- - d-iscussion of both a re-interpqetation sf the origins of the - - * Antigonish Movement, arid* an analysis of the theoretical ar~d meChodologica1 paradigm utilized in the attempt to further + our understanding "of the relati-onships between ideology, se, - particularly religious beliefs, and social behaviour. 2 - - - t" 7 Between 1910 &Ad 1940, the concurrent manifestations of - * r~ligiou-ssocial activi$m, rural. populist unrest and ethnic I lrfentity maintenance, all in the face of modernization and socialc and historical changes experienced by Canada in , general, and East'ern Nova Scotia in particular. Important .. ------here is that t-he- An-tiganish Movement in eastern Nova Sc~tia resulted from and-- represented- a unique convergence of these - - phenomena.Y The coalescirig ingredients, the catalyst of 3 these phenomena, were the newly de-veloped theoriei of adult education sweeping the continent at this time. In this chapter, an outline of these important social currents will be provided as the foundation for the analysis of the . ideological- basis of thepAntigoniS-h Movement. Drawing upon Jackson's methodology,-the purpose here is to outline 'the existential basis that created this unique I movement. The following outline 'will establish th~linkages ' between the above mentioned social phenomena, and the major ideological orientations of the Antigoni5h Movement as it ., emerged frurn this historical background. his' existential - J base, o,r put simply, the social history of the era and the organization (here the ~ntigonishMovement), conditioned its- - -- actual experience throughtime.1 It was the interrelationship of the above phenomena that led to the _ 1) Jackson. op: cit.. p. IV-9. , , - 1. I - * A - : I 0 40 ' '? I actions of the Extension Department, ~ts - e t followers. 2 - I !-/+ !-/+ - 1 /i I E 1 P i i ~he'first . true ' social enuyclluai. - r The - - "-I Condition of ~abour), L 18911 struck at the Ke'arts of social- - , cathdics. 1t blamed' the sufferings ef t he worirlng class- OII - , , industry and industl-ia51isDs. Leo XI1 1, unl lke his \ i predecessors, accepted capitalism as an inevitable trend 111 i the western'world. not crltica hoy capitalism hu~Lhis we21 th d 4 was distributed- Ker~~mNnu (The Co~idltionof Labour) / 3 - ) 8-. met the isslies of ~-list,ribut>l?rl;/" of naiional wealth as a . C problem of all nations, ric,~i and poor. and propused a \ blueprint for the inclusl 'n of the wodker wit% a'dignifleil 7 1 position fn industrial society .a 5 d- - \ 1 Leo XI11 was the Pope who inspired the t'hurct~and >. Catholics to champion the cause of the workingmah an3 a society where the Church would have relevance He ed a soclety where \justice uo '4 Id be ach~evsdw~t.h~rr the exisking order when both industrialist and worKer - - t , accepted their duties as partners wlthin a corGoratist society.4 * :'The great mistak~madk in regard t,o the matter '- now u'nder consideration is to take up w,ith the nutivn . 2) The impact of Christian social gospel on Canada s history ------b is extensive. The protestant social gospel movement in the 1930's is a classic example. Allen has written extensively on the -subject, op. cit., 1971,and 1975. See also Crysdale - Ii op-. cit.. - 3) Camp, op. cit., p. 86. - 4) Ibid., p. 91. B that class is naturally hostile to class and the 0 L wealthy and kbe uorkingman are intended by natur'e -to live in mutual~conflict. So irr'ktional and so fal-se is' _ this view, that the 'direct contrary is the -truth.. .Each needs the other:. Capital cannot do witheut ~abofr,nor - - Labour without Capital. Mutual agreement results in - pleasantness of life .and the beauty of good order; .+ while perpetual conflict necessarily produces confqsion and savage Now, in pr6v~ntingsuch strife F - as this - as& in uprooting it, the ~fficacyof Christian n' institutions ismarvel~ou~~andmanifold.Fir~t--~f~_all, ---p-pp - - there is no intermediar'y more powerful than Religion / ('whereof the Chur-ch is the interpreter d guardian) in Y' -7. \ drawing t-he rich and the poor breadwinners together, by - remindi-ng each class of its duties to4 the other, and B t especially of the obligations of jdstice. "5 ' . . In 1919 Pope Benedict XV explained *that the workers had . < - a special interest in- Leo XIII-'s encycljrcal, because it sp-oke of the reciprocal rights and duties of both workers and employers. By 1920, he exhorted that Catholics should t~eInvolved in the material corrditions ,of the working d) , masses, and that the clertgy needed to take an interest in 'C economic and social action.6 ' In 19y1, forty years after Leo. - .XIII's historical encyclical,' Pius XI celebrited this anniversary with a new - 5) Quoted in Manschreck's A Historv of C-, Vol. 2, 1981, p. 365. - 6) Camp, op. cit. p. 92. 7) Freemantle op. cit. p. 80. C . - > - & . t4 '2L a * - of unrest'bn the European and North Amer icsn, .ccsn~in6nts. $. The churchbecognized that labour was now on the defe'nsive. t - Like Leo XI;~. Pope Pins demanded that capitalisti kssume '- the responsibility of justice a"d responsibility' for -their- ? - ers. There._was not a better time for this blueprint of -1 - " betterment, or what the pope called a crusade for A - -4 d. kY , charity". The depression was stfeamrulling over whole economies and millions were unemployed and on the streets. m. i Like Leo XIII, Pius called for a corporate sftrLcture with - \ 0 \ 'just wages' bqsed. on the familu's needs to maintain .a dignified existence.- - His vision of wealth redistribution- - - also called for'the opportunity for every worker to become a proper,ty owner in order to cultivate land and shgLter his These pronouncements had a profound effect on the 'T - Catholic masses throughout Europe and North America. .In - f Europe after 1878, Catholic social action groups broke out of the traditional mold of reactionary upper class intel lectuals and begun to undertake serious stu4y of the ' conditions of the working class. In Italy, the Opera der cn . ;-Y5 e cbngreesi, traditionally the national orgdnizatlon for , Catholic Action. "developed a second section which concerned itself with gocia1 reform and popular Christian action".e France, Germany, an'd Belgium developed influential movements with the support of t'he Pope. In 185O., German Catholics I publicatiqn of pamphlets and lkctures design;d to *educate 8) Camp, op. cit. p. 11. , J- p' - - . -L --- Ge&qn Catholies on *'the social qu n".e -Study . congresses, "mutual aid associations and labou~organizations + proliferated across Catholic Europe. 1 The Pope desired and - 'decreed hope for the establishment of organizatidns, true to - 'the- Catholic way, that remained independent from the state and acted as corporate intermediaries i,n the delivery of true Catho-lic soc,lal jwstice. ~athal-ics- in North America were struck by the exciting- '. new' social- theology. It was near the second decade of A - this century before Catholic action took hold but it swept* ~. across the consciences of Catholic priests and laity alike, ------&;ing the first two decades of this century, Catholic , 3 , - action was an aff~rmationof reforming impetuses already in . . motion. As' Abell notes: - - a "By ,and .large, reforming Catholics approved- the, - 'crusade for protekrjve legislation, especially the 1) minimum- wage .laws, deemed essential to the realization of the 'living wage' program of Popes Leo XI11 and Pius However, the U .S.'khurches- wag'ed war on th; evils of 'social'ism' during this same era. In 1904, Reverend William J. Kerby, professgr of sociology at the CatP olic University of ~merica,was outspoken in his condemnatiop of socialism "...for it is a menace, immediately, to'our institutions zind P - remotely 'to our faith."11 t hc evils--of saci a 1 ismh W-rades-un-iom-a~c - organization6 sprang up across the courltry with a high level 9) Ibid, p. 12. 10) Ahell; 1963, op. cit. p. 139. - 11) Quoted in ibid, p. 146: . - . 34 - of ecclesiastical .le,adership and support. Catholic study. - clubs on sacial and economic conditions relating to-Cathulic =, labourers were th-e order of the ciay.12 4 - t - The first national impetus came in 1Y2U with - statement of where the Catholic Church should direct its social enefgies in the decades to Come. 'khe 'pr inar; author - of tps document was William- Ryan of the Cq,tholic University .. - C of lImerwicac t in-Boston. Comprehensive jrn scope, t'he Prsgram" s ' '1 I - \= platfork called for a living' minlmum -wage based upon need. housi~2programs for the worklng class, child labour 'laws. . , -J 3 C -K , ------,:age and unemployment insurance, and most. important here, _ 1- .L a vision of - .(lo-operation and Co-partnership -for the Cd labouring &asses, and the elimination of monopu!iks . - I Regarding the position" of wage Parnejs, the document exhorted that "the majority mus,t somehow become -owners, or . at least in part, of the instruments of production. "1" Thls- ideal was-to be gained through. "co-operative productive 2 3 8 societies" which while they would involve "to a great extent I the abolition of the wage system, ~ouldnot mean the , abolition of the private ownership."l4 Monopolies were to , / - * - be disma%tled so a small group of capitalists, could not receive 'unearned profits'. The document r%-iterated the I - * corporate notion t-hqt: ' ' - " . . .the emp3 oyer has a right to, get. a reasQnable ~ - l-iv-1ng out af- his -b&esss,bt~t he &as norightto- - - - ------1------' il - See ibid, pp. 137-188. - Quoted ih Abell 1968, op. -tit. p. 345. Ibid, pp. 347-348. , , i 45 . > - interest on his-investment uAti1*- his employees have - - ot?tained a& least living wages. "55 - a - - The second cornerstone document was A Haes for a - ,Rud - I;'I:cJQI:~~published in ,1920 by E.V. O'Hara for the Catholic i 1 Educational Association. O'Hara placed the rural priest at -t ' the top of the social ladder of rural communities as the 5% e 4' -x steward, -or aricho'r, for the rural Catholic population. The - i - rural pr%t would: .% -l - q ".. .be the centre of a Ca$@olic colonization program; he will warn his people against the allurements of city life and encourage them to build up - - --- a- rural culture worthy-of the historic profession *of . *1 agriculture16 ' - C , C It is interesting to note that these ~atholle~ocial cclrrents raging within the 1J.S. were of greater im6act upon ' the ~gtholicChurch ,in Antigonish, ova Scokia? than t%ea ' - Q conservative tehchings of the Canadian -Church. There were many reasons f,ir this. ~mportan't hare was the'fa$ that st.' Francis Xavier University in Antigonish was primarily - - - staffed with Catholic psiest professors who we-re trained within the U.S., particularly the Catholic University of Ameripa. Moses Coady received his Doctorate. of Sociology and Adult Education at this university when John Ryan-was 1 - Cfialr of the department, and' William Kirby was a professor .17\ *It should be polnted out here that the sociology taukht at.the Catholic University of America was a Catholic soclulo& as opposed to the more secular, though reformist, ' sociology emanating from otner American universi-ties. , Cstholic sociology begins from very basic assumptions of 46 , But even before thls, Father 'rompklns had spent consluerable rrme III Enrupe where he ~lslr;eas.rla s myriad of Catholic groups., This Congress of Universities of the ~mpireof England wtiere he . .A - was 'converted' to adult education as the key t,o social Q 4 b reform.le This conversion was clearly based on a realization -of the affinities between the aduIt educat.ior~:-i1 metho~ologiesadvocated akthe time andThe emp3ssi.s on CIJ- - - b operation and study clubs as the foundation fdr the advancement of catholic soclal theology and Thoinistic - - - -P-p . ideals. The fourth 'Educational Conference hosted in 1921 by - i + * the Catholic Church at St. Francls XaVler ilniversity 11-1 *c, Antigonish, Nova. Scotla. had John Ryan as 1ts keynotr .* speaker.'B The key to-plcs of the contereni7i were a &lfr,,r . I \ CatAolic social activist, made several visits to the - - mafitimes promoting the wholesomeness.of rural 11fe and the - importance of organizing rural women/'wives Into st.udy and action clubs based on caaolie te.achings. Both Coady and Tompkins qere active participants and speakers at, tie r b ongolng paralie1 Catholic Confnrences in the Eastern ~ln~+,& . * States. The full ramifications of the structural ir: connections betwee* the kntlgonish Movemerit, .the Catho 1 PA-p ------_ -_ principles. It was and is a religious sociology. f / 18) Mifflen, 1974, op. cit. p. 9. , 13i The ance 0% these conferences 1s d~altwith l@ter -" / T 20) See Glasgow, 1347, op. cit.. p 8'' - /' b J - I 47 \ --r 2. (-'hurch in Antigonish, Nova Scot ia, and NorFh Ameriean 3 I _ - 1 1 1 ,7 .;, . I acclun ,will be uea~tW~LII 111 CRa r;er 3. - Y " b- * - - The development of adult education as a distinct # + I - dlscipllr~ecame of age- at the turn af this century. Adult I I a -9 education as a discip-line was a respondse to both. the' growth , r~funivers9t a ebS a~dcolleges and the burgeoning enrollments ' wln-T~h~ey.artir=uiate rauring Chis era. 07 a 0, D - 9 ' . sclcrlse of higher education wag Thorstein ~gblen.21,An avid 1 a!% propbnent of "a ^ rationalizatibn , Of higher education ;: 1 i ------Veblen, a from the newly founded Ne7w Schoolpfor S'cial j Hesearch, propounded his ideas to students who then lgt-er '2 I bekame leaders in an adult education environment that 1 . <-i- - I retlected his/ evolutionary opt'imism. These leaders wdre / . 1 t'lnancrd by the endoknehts of major philanthropists such as the Carn,egle Corporation, and ockefellei'Foundption . I In - I turn. these theories struck a 'familiar chord with ~afhblic - if 4. I SScial theories. of the time .and were syhpatheticaplly 1, 4. I received by .Catholic adult educators. Father Jimmy ~ohpkins - and, Reverend Mose,s'Coad$ of ~ntigonish.were no exceptibn. - ,-4. E3rtuer1-i 1916 and 1320 the Rockefelier Foundgtion e a~k!a\:he t'arnegir ~orporatlodhid donated over 4 million dolla s to - B ------\ - 6 21) See Vehlen Thorstein, Thein A~nwca:*. A ,-- # . . - ers~tlesbv Rusiness Men, -pp p- - -- pp ------1365. TKe relationship bekween the Carnegie Corporation and , theAmerican A_ssociat~onbf Adult ~duc~torsisou&&h_edin Hsrsl'd- Stubblef ield's Towards a >.Histor? of Ad'llt FducaL-l~~~ , 1988. See rhapter 2, The Carnie Caution. motion of , pp. 22-41. - ?.he ,Mmaritimesand Newfoundland, including substantial surrrs \ to st. Francis Xavier On,iverslty far various edu&ational * / Ventufes. 22 The Carneg1.e Corporat'ion and the Hu.ckefel+ler =". ,- . "Foundat.iori realized a two fold soaial -return onathelr i fc investments lnto the Canadian Ma~lt imes and Newfoundland . One, it was prlrne ground for testing Vtie rat,ionallzat2ion of higher education In a rapidly ~ndustriallzing and urba'niz social laboratory to test .ameliorative programs that wt:~u ld offhr the opportllnity for people to better thems~lv~s - i>di,vidually and- subvert. the efforts of' su~:lal1st. and ------~:r~mmunisfagitakions in the region I - The recipient organizations were mu1 t-1-facet erl, yet a thread of ideolc?gical consistency was woven thr~)ughout,the ~~rnjects This 1sterlc.y was based upnn ~JOt h t. he B rat l~lnalization and higher edrlratlcbr~ lrl t kit* mar it imes. and the 12pport~unityto d~llver program:; t hat , would promote and maintain rapltalist, industrial ~zat.ion. 'L which -was. 'the fnund'ation upon whlch u-~vilizat.ion ~t SFJJ 1- , -rests."23 The consistency of this ~deohgicalgu tda11c- within the Carnegie Corpurat~on was reaffirmed I~I1!32Z wher~ actlng president Henry- S. F'r -itchett commented ~n h~sanriua 1 22) The economlc impact upon the maritlmes and Newtoundlanrf -, of *the Carnegie Corporation and the- Rockefeller Foundatlr~r~ ------lc extensively covered In John 'G. Held s Health. E~IIc~~~QII,. . hr0~lc-bundatlons&w ( fi. J + PegLon in the 1920 s and 193U s ( 1984) ; and M ichea 1 Law ,s 0 4r 'T repOrtA, that th.e foupdatlons' monetary aliocations were for *. the: - - - "-intelligent and discriminating assistance- of such - - causes and forces in the social,order as seem In 1324, Father Tompkins was, invited to attend- a* meeting of the Carnegie Corporation to di-scuss adult L 5 - ducati ion.- Here. Tompkins urged for the necessity of co-. rjperatlon, credit unlons, and study club techniques to - ? 4 i%r~ate-thelocal impetus fer economic and social r .h A tetterment.25 Based on this and other meetings, the - ('arnegie Corporation latqr suppli'ed much of the f.Tnancia1- *',/.. -c.'.< ..'. 2 support to the it. Francis Xavier Extension Department, and : . *:+ t,t~e Ant, igon,ish Movement o+er the nextre15 years. , Between -%. * f *. 1!41Y and 1940, over $129,000 was spent on St.. Francis i Xavler, with $65,000 gslng to the Extension Department.26 - Later both Tompklns and Coady weee active members'of. t t~eCanadian Association of Adult Educators (C. A.A. A. ), * - C founded in 1936. Coady also served on the board of the , > 3 American Association of Adult Educators. Agai.n the Carnegie - 4 ",. Corpurat-ion had a hapd in this matter wm two prewious-ly- urlsr~ccessfu~attempts to organize Adylt Education ventures . ------, 25) Lot2 and -Welton in "Knowledge for the Peopl'e": The 3 ' Origins and Development of the Antigonish Movement', ln. % Michael K. Welton s bi7wledae for the .Pen~le:The Struaale ' 6 bldkb&-k.a.uuU In mh.,S~e-a Cmria. 1028 - 19=, Y , 0.1 s.E Prpss, 1987. pp. 97-111. t* ' 1 up. r~t. p. 83. in Canada into one nat-ional assuriatlon prigr to 1932.2'' by 1935, the then Carnegie Corporation President, Keppell, and the ~msrieanAssociation of &du lt Education L)i-rector. ' ~orsc. - Cartwright, fogmer. assistant of ~eppell,were successful - t: t: 'arid the groundwork wa& laid for &he f urmat ion- of the I 0 I> C.A.A.A.. A& committee of 17 Csnadlan adult educators, - including A.E. ~ac~on~a'ldof St. Francis Xavier University ,, - Extension ~e~artmentswlfkly took steps to 1ncorporat.e what ' was ta'bethe C.A.A.A,. Corbett hecame the flrst Direcbur ' and a natbma'l .forum was in place fbr the art.lculatlon of & e I the new gd$pel'gf ad.ul t education d - + ------9 * 'the connections between Corbett and the Antigonlsh *I* tIovgment precede the. on of the C.A.A.A., with Coady 11 travelling to Alberta as early as 1934 -to assist Corbett In $ developing rur.al discussion grQups there. The relat.ionship \ I lastdd ,throughout the time- of the Ant igonlsh Movement and ' - -f . well into the -1950rs. - I d 'I . 11 PqPUJtIST ~kI TEdT 1: IN mF: MAhIlIMES. I "I wish he would cohe down with me 480 the shor~s -, "bf. Noia potia and see conditions as they exlsL. We I have there a-great fcishing industry wlth resources Y $, , - - , p'raYctica1ly inexhaustible and we have. a people who are 1 0 adapt.jd to the indu5tE~y.y:yet I can take him to villages - - - ' -.where the aGerage earnings last year per man-were less ' ,. "J- 0. ------th an $? 0 0; 00 r and -t hosem en-a r-eheads-+&m+1 +es;------A. A. -K - - Those $re not isplated villages. . . L can point out to *. 3 him reports-of this government that since 1914, ten - -9. 27) Ron Faris, The Passionate- EducaLurs: Val- nd the Stru~dlefor CWol of Arlult, ,- , q- 7 thousand- men have be& last to the industry.- I can \ I - - show him villages wheie house after huuse had the \ - - windows bdarded up and the occupants have go-ne to the- United States to Gloucester and ~oston".2e The th-ird mobilizing fac-tor of the Antigonish Movement I - wasxthe well articulated grievances of the rural and - regional lead'ers of the Maritimes. By the turn of the century, Canada was. well underway t-o becoming an urban - industrial country. Eastern Nova Scotia was no exception. I Yet this pr'ocess was-not undertaken without a struggle from \ those who defended the virtues) of rural life. The ideologl of rural and petit;bourgeousie grievances articulated - > ' 0 t-hrough-a cadre of leagership, whether indigenous or imposed, has been pa elled populist in the literature. J d- I Early North American biters used the term dopulism to , describe the pol-al\ agitations of the farmers and small u - producers at the turn of the century. BopuJist platforms; - * *, reflecting the- voices of,ihe'rural inddpendpnt producers included calls for a larVger return on their crops, a return to thelr once dominant representation in the political - ,/ sphere, protection f rorn the consolidation- of capital and its effect& on thelr once independent rural ecoaomies, and a - rornar tic ' harking-back' to th; re-establishment of a tj / moral order in ind6strial capitalism.2a / .WMle * - pulism had its roots.in the early turn of the century ------28) The Honourable Mr. Ernst, Member of Parliament, on the of t-he -~-~~pal-hrnm-i~i~n--on~ist-reriesi-k bMasikim-anL ttie Magdalen Islands. (The MacLean Commission), February, . . 27, 1928, (in) ThmReaort of the Debstes. House of s. 1927-1!323, p. 814. - 29) 'See Hichard Hofstadter 's .~orth-~merica'in IoneScu and , Gel ner's mlism. 1969, pp. 1-27. - t - P morally articulated ideology of demands for redress. 'rhb farmers, f is-hermen, and to some- extent, the miners of - eastern Nova Scotia, were conscious of their rapidly I - diminishing p-oslt ions in Canadian -society. - * The literaturk "on populism is wlde ranginfi' in its ' , definitions and conclusions. There is Juhn Conway's class reductionist approach %here: - "Populism is the political expression of the \ petit-bourgeoisie in type class struggle characterlst ~c II - , Of a modern.lzlng and developing capltalls$."30 - This appro-ch-gl~ss~sover the divers1t.y of popul I st - - hgitatlnn wlthln the petit- bourgeois sectr~rs. It relegato:; ' the concept of populism. to the unhelpful tautology where - I populism is thk political articulation of the prtlh - - bourgeousie, aid the petit-bourgeoisie exbress themselves a ,through popuIist politics. Y (Ither writers, such as Laclau, seek to look a& ~deology as a means of understanding the myriad of 'populisms J While still drawing upon marxist categories, he bases trls . ' : argument upon the premise that populism does nut arlse*. wt~~r~ .* - classes- are merely 'dominated by others. Instead, it, IS an * kldeological manifestation "of who the people arn, ani what. , - - 30) Conway, in 'The Nature of Populismr A Clarif icatlori, in, . . Idles in Pollhcal Econornv, no. 13; Spring 1984, p. 141J - - - -&her -wsrksinclude-Marga - -- L Revolt, !l362;WI;rowth and Welfare In the- ' L Past, 1966; and Preston, .1983, op. -tit.. Critical surveys 'of- the literature include hllcock,s Po~Ssrn': a Rrkf Biogxaphy 1971; and Athey's wm.. cdome Recent 1954. - 3 4 , 53 khe 'per~yle'demand in a - - h - intiuutrlal lzat ron. n IS DetWeen cnis ' perceived peoples and a power b2oc. es that to understand populism in its many guises, accept that: - - - " . . .classes exis& at the and political / 4 level in process of - reduct ion. "31. - - / However, Laclau's polemical move away from - redact lonlst class anaiysrs of popn l. ism relegates Ris 5 argument to the unverifiable realm of a reified ideology: I The positlon of this thesis in acceptihg populism as a - - - - , concept for understanding pet it-bourgeoisie grievances I f oll~wsfJico Mouielis' critique of Laclau. Houzelis asks that we look at the specific structural underpinnings of " - populist parties. 32 The examination of the 'organizational 1 > structures of populis5 parties and ideologies, and their 1 relationship to the larger society allow us to understand the basis of populism.~3 . . The Antigonish Movement was born out of the populist demands for sucioeconomic redress within eastern Nova 4 t Srutia. 'The demands came from varying sectors that both compete4 and intersected with each other. The agitabions of - the leaders of the Cape Breton coal miners openly espoused commurilsm and the ove'rthrow of the external monopolies 2 1.ontro1llng the mlnes. J.6. McLachlan, the labour lea-der of t.tlct. Cape &reton mlners, had visited Lenin's new Russia and ------P - I / --- - pp---- . . 31 ) Ernesto Laclau, Polltlcs and~vin Ma-st Theary, - 19'/'7, p 161. +found7t the utopia for his men. HcLschIan tisd Tittle time the mining communities both hefore and after .- the -1ncrptlv11 of the- Antigonish Movement . Instead, M1.h,:hl8n s 11llrrt.r~ - conf irmecL their- rad leal stance regar-ti lng t he C'ape Breton labour situation with reports f ron~ret~~r-k ir~g W W I vetera~is 4 on the newly emerging svcia 1 i st PXI)P~1111erl t,~ 111 Eilri.rpe 34 - The labour crlsis in Cape Bret~n,fueled hy t~rutr-ll , , - . . a; - *; 4 GYP srtd ~,-L-~O~LIRII-~&L-I~. 1-1 TI-+ the werrkrr-. :> place in society, coalesced with the parallel ~:I.LSLS WL~~II~I the rural farming and f ishin~society Both croups. laha-jur in reactlon to external ownersh~pand contr-vl of the Cap~ - 0 . - Breton mlning ~ndustry,and the farmers and 1.~shrrrner1 +. e -reacting to the perceived loss of thelr ci~~risedv;rllles nf D P rural autonomy, clashed with &he rapidly indust r I a1 1:: ink? ari(l urbanizing existence being thrust upon t he? f rr~m tjie outside. The outcome was a tenuous alli and farmers at the provinc-ial poditical % undercurrent of popukist support, The p latform t~fwhat was - to Secome the Farmer Labour Mo-vemer~tcon sisted of rlassic popylist demands for a return to the perceived pre-em.inence of the rural social and political arena. the reversal of the waves of outward emigration of the sons ar~ddaughters of the. region's families, and ror a new rural economy safe from th~<. inroads 'of external mining and fishing cap5 tal , federal and provincial ministries, and* the consolidated corrsumer ------p------ merchants who were perceived as taking over the Fjrclnornlks rlf' 34) See George Hawlyk The Farmer Labour Movement and the Failure of Socialism in Nova Scotia' ,(p 3U') ~n mvsor] Left by Laurier LaPierre (ed) 1971. * - B the rural villages and mining towns.35 The populist agitation lead~ngup to' thkthe incedtion of the ~ntlgdiish . Hovsment falls cleirly uithinthe condeptual .dema.nds of what . Gorsn Therborn 'call's 'mobilization by revival ' .3e , - 8 . . s in Grups SS Ethnlplt , Early settlements in eastern Novar Scotia reflect the ekhr~ir,religious and kinship patterns-of newly settled v * ~mmigrants.37 Catholic and Presbyterian Scots H-ighlanders, I Presbyteiian Lowlanders, 1rish Catholics, Acadians and t Loyalists formed the major ethnic wd religious groupings_.------W'hile kinshlp-cia( affiliation informed settlement - - patterns, religion was the .predominant factor.38 Based on - the 1321 Census, four of the sev& counties within eastern - N~va5'cotia were of predominantly one religious denominational orientatiop. 4 35) Ihid, p 32. q 37) An extensive outl-ine of the early settlement ,patterns in eastern Nova Scotia is found in the MacInnes thesis Gp. cit., See pp. 78-80. An extensive outline of Scottish settlement and inf l&nce on Nova Scotia can be found in Campbell and MacLean's Fevond the Atlantic Roar: A Skudv ofI. N_irva-I* %dotz (1374). The close kinship networks of the Scots wlthin tshese communities are examined in D.G. ' 4 Whidden's-m*skorv -af - An (19349, 41ld %-e~-ernf------Nova D J. Rankins, &.History of the Comtv of uonish. * =-<-1929j .-- , :3W One derives a feel of- the ipportance of kinship identity LT maintenance as a factor of generat,ional community cohesion ' from readifig various opublished genealogical histories of rsstern Nova ~cot1.s. See' Whidden op. - clt.,8. and Rankin op. CL~.. - d & -/ 192 1 CENSlJS ( % Presbyterian Cat,hol lc. PICTOU 6 Ll 18 VICTORIA 57 f .j2 ANTIGONISH - L) 8 H'/ - - B \ INVERNESS 25 '11I <. * - I - - 1 - The Acadians, whose forced sett.1ement dated Parlier 7 represented in f ishirlg communities of 3ichmond County and 111 - , 1 the Cheticamp area of Inverness. Yet the beginnings c)t' concerted &tempts 4-0 develop ethn~cidentity, through ------. B * '0 . ethnic clubs. \language schools, and rhurch organrzing, wer~--. - - # *in direct response to the rapid depopulation of the e'astcrn , " . - counties to serve both the newly formlng industries in th~? urban sectors of Nova Scotia and Eastern-Nova C,cot>ia and the - - -\ burgeoning mining tpwns of Cape' Breton Tsland. 3" 18'/1-1531 POPULATION SHIFTS % + or - (extracted from . @ 4 fi ! . \ -- MacInnes, Appendix A, pp 45U) PICTOU urban + 181 6 ANTIGONISH - 3Y ' INVERNESS t - 11 CAPE BRETON urban- + 1476 - PI rural + 04 GUYSBUROUGH - U 7 RICHMOND - .2:j 39) 'On this mass exodus,, particularly.. of rural craftsmen, . . see Aran Brookes Outmigration from the Marltime Provinc:~:; 1860-1900: Some Preliminary Considerations' (in) P.A., S Buckner and David Frank. , (ed ) Atlant;LcU This population decrease was more than a slow general - Loss wlthln the rural town and countryside. It was a direct - P attack upon the ,weekly head count of the parish church, it a C - - whittled away the hope for a proud future af those whose past, was dePined by the pr~udhistory of theis clan genealogy, and it was the malaise felt by the community when thqy heard the hammers upon the waoden- shutters of their i neighbor's homes. The heart felt loss of a 'communal homogeneity to use flaclnnes. term, set the ' community - leaders to work - local leaders. merchants. and rural- parish - - priests - to create a renewed identity based up,on the , ------. pristine ideals oT rural, ethnic identity, and of course the, Catholic faith. This communal homogeneity' of the counties - became fertile ground for organizing on an ethnic'level. - , What developed were a myriad of local Scottish Socieqies and '* 3 , Clubsa to address these grievances .40 Two groups in . . particular, the, St. Francis Xavier '~niversityAlumnae - L - - Society, and the newly formed Scottish Cati~oLicSociety became the centres of debate and' calls for action dn the - 'plight' of eastern- Nova Scotia.41 Both of these societies accepted the .issue of rural and regional redress and shoved , -. . 40) The Smporiance of education, particularly adult education techniques as a mobilizing factor in ethnic grpups and movements is disc"ssed in R. Paulston*~(ed) Qther Drew, Qther Schools: Folk Xollee~?sin Social And Ethnic Ham-. !1980) In this- collection, Paulston and D .Lejeune ------7-- -- d~ve-lopa methodology of analysis on the role of educatiog ln sucia1 muement- in& artideAM&hod ~hgy~cir-~ Studying Education in Social Movements. pp. 26-34. 41) See J.R. McSween, The Role Plaved 'hv the Scnttish hcietvofr3nadaXntof the St,. Francis X~vrer~xtenslonDepxi~$~~~nt, (unpubgished Manuscript ) available in the St. Francis Xavier University Library \ b - clear affinities with the proposals put forth by J.J. - Tompkiihat St. Francis Xavier University should take -a 4 ,central role in this fight. Coady apd Tompkins had tles to + both of these societies, and Tompkins heavily influenced the . x -. view.- of the regional Catholic newspaper, The Las&7 , on how 1 rural redress should be' undertaken. 42 - -. -'i - -5:. . ECONDITIONS OF THE ANTIGWSH,. .t tiUYMMX . - . . , - ogical currents previously - described - catholic social theology, rural popu lid< protest, adult education, and ethnic identity maintgnance r - - and renewal - took root ;nd blossomed in the reglun. ,During l91*5-l928, these cdurrents manifested themselves in the d&ily " C d - political and social life of eastern NOV& Sjotla in a ntiriad 4_ D L' \ of ways. The major institutional miniqfebt,atidns were; the . u - .*& . ;-> . i P - Catholic Educational Co,nf erinces , tk!e deSelopmeqt.:bf. !he - . Scots-Catholic Forward Movement, ~r~g1natin2.inr Ant l$unish, - provincial demands for redress with the inception pf thi. .- P * - Farmer Labour Partyc, church embattlement uves schem7s to ., - - r. develop a universify aldalgapa%;nn 'as favgured h/ the n - - " Carnegie Cqrporation,, the dgve$o~me,ntpf- the. @ccrtt.ish 3. 7 J -* 0 n , > - - 42) The Casket' puQlished weekly in Antigonish, -the , leading Catholic newspaper of eastern: Nova Scotia. - - = . - , Purchased in 1915 by the ehprch. it was considered a 'forum - f sr the dissemination of a ~a~holic-~~er's~ective on' the - , @local, regional and nakioraal issues, of 'the day .' fie Casl&& - -took- - - - 'a - conservative------, ------stknee, i$fdrm&dc by Church .t'raditioh on ------% most matters. ~owe;~r,-rural. issbes such as agridulture &rld e-a %'ion-&dk:a%ader+ +&+~ibera-~f~~NE~LL~-L-W~:~~~F~-~-- , catholic traditlons,',of Ghiob J.J*. ~ompkinswas tht' '.,,- ' 8' . I. . newspaper *s major voice. ' .~ompkihswas egitor QQ,~ I l for Several yiars pr4p~'fh 1922 &d.yas.'prolific In his . a 2 - submissiofis on tQeG ipjes,. ." P$s~ issues nf I3.e Cask&a> a;s at the St. Franci? Xatier -~.ibk~&i. i , , 6 '- - . ' , d 2, .l-' ; 7. t k . 11- - _t - . - 0' 4 i i+ * - &. Y - S~cj.ety, ---, <&tholic and the introduc_tion of- adult education - s. technique; intovthe region. While all of thepe issue$ , - . / * 7' overlap, for purposes of analysis each will be consid-ered . 2' - 4 /- for its merits as a.stepplpgfstone in the devel~pment-Aa/----of * what' was to be considered the answer -tb the &ocioecpflS.)micU * r /' - , - i = -. problems Bf eastern' Nova ~c?Ci?+'the~foundiY& the \- , 1913, a local - - -- - 7 , - /' - land Liners and local py,iests-. of the areas2. he focus of the ?A- mketing wg~sthe necessity to rejuvenate the local social-and economic interests of the dpmmunity.*a Soon after, a series J of discussions began in The Casket, organization was -. \ undektaken,!9 and the Forward ~obmentwas formed iA- Antigonish. \ bbever, the origi~almerchant 'concerns of the town of Antigonish, for the town was, a service and supply centre for' * a the county, 'were qulckly usurped by the larger concern for rural and agrjcultural issues. During these meetings', the - tao main protagonists for rural and &ricultura'l-'concerns . t were J.J. ~om~kinsand Moses Coady. At thisXtimg Tomgkins 9 was a Vice President of St. Francis Xavier University and. ------their presence lent ' -mt~&-w&&-f, 4 ub~aen.~ agr.icultura1 matters. ~peakersberebrought in on these - I 43 ) The ('asket ,, November-lltfi, 1913. The Forward Movement was well documented in the Casket from November 1,913 bntil I the movement's demise in the summer of 1914. - tju 5 sgbjects along with discussions on the QChurch, -state and society as outlined i.n Pope Leo XlII s -1 Novarum. These - early meetings, quickly,. became testing grounds for the, promotion of tentative. theorles and solutions such as &cient?fic agriculturefand training. markctlng cu- p operatives. and m-ethods uf rural re population . ,' I 3 Specific plans. of' acstlon included a "market day to t it. - k the bonds of town:and country' adv*ocatt-;.d by Tompklns, ar~t-l \ .* - - - co-operative measures betaween town an3 i;oun try were \ - advocated by iloarfy ta dev~loplocal m3rket.s for regional i Archdiocese of the county, as well tram telng th~market, Scot ia . Hdwevcr , the k orw-ard Movement dcmarlded a more . - equitable sharlng of the wealth for the rurality with ~ts emphasls on both rural and town eel-operat lon i~rmulaual benefit. A drive for funds was instituted for t,hr h'r,rw~r(i i Movement, and it is interesting to note that most of t>hi. EL future leaders of t,he Ant,ifs,onish Movement. lncludir~fi , . v Tompkins and Coady, were contrlbutors.45 Hdwewer, soon after the inceptlari.of the Fnrwnrd Movement, many of the town merchants and Leaders Lf,st their - , - enthusiasm. Redefining the issues SO that t'hey cent~rerlon rural redress was too much.to expect, of' the town rnarr~hants and by the- summer------of- 1514 &he Forward ~ovemehtall hut died ------* - within the town of Antigonish. Yet chapters oi the movement / 44) The Casket, Deceniber 18th, 1 p , 04 - 43) The Cpket, March lZth, 1914 - I P 1, - - 0 5 , I I . I I I 6 1 \ - $ sprang up ln the pred$minantly rural counties of St.' Andkews p - \ aridlculated the grievances of the rllrality , part lcularly~in f I respect- to expectatir~rlsr~f tile town merchants in developing - solutions for the rural areas, brought out in stark relief the m~r~'hant,and servire nature of the town and "the - merchants own vlew _of thelr place in re-lation to the - rural I ty st hey served. _ 1 - - Kurai ecr~nclmlc redress was not on the agenda for these- m~rrhants,and they expressed their animosity toward these ------views, and towards the chergy who advocated .these views, by vot,ing wlth their- feet With the downfall of the- tpwn of - Antlgor'irsh ; br~rwardMrlvemeni, The Cask~t.soon lost interest a 6 in the venture ::,,i~~r afterward Wrjrld War I began and it was not until 1318 t t~ata ersnc3ert,.ed program of rural action was again _ * 7 ~~ndortaker~t~y this cadre of priest-inteklectuals in' Anti~c~nish But the se-ed- had been planted. - TKri,U13AL ANh EDUCATIOUL CON- \ "E~onornicprojects must be used to work out, the -_- - ...... ' 46) Iliues oi -a_YPenin@ Adrjpess of the Rural arid . " - ' in hdll~trlali~~en~e. Moses Coady, 1933, quoted Glasgbw;. , .! "f. c1t.. , p. 13. ' "" not questlon whether ~n,dustrlal lzat i~~n,and eastern Nova - I Scotla s place wlth~n~t, was good t.>r evil but rather what - was to be their pl&r:e within inclustriallzatior~arld how co~cld th-ey further the interests of C'at.h~~ilus,wlthinft,. tit l&d 'For t he People: Uevot,etf Ma irdy to Sl~c.-lal. Ecorr~~n~i,~ and Edu(:at ianal A'f hlrs- 111 1 t 13i lv, t ht:stl 3r t 11:les w&r+> - - -- , g13id@d by Fat h~rTompkins al thclu~hhc did r11n1. hlmst.lf . au t-hrjr envirorlrnent ret lec-ting,the current :;~,r13 I ~rfr:~:: pr~va1 en t of action to c~lrrectthe evil:-; tl~set.t.lngeast err1 Nnva - *. L . 63 mat articulated or- rural redress Adult r~ , d from the newly -emerging sChools of th~oughtin the U .S., o L . - along with the honurable history withln the ChudSh of study -, and social actlon clubs influenced the prlesk-i tellectuals e - (;f-St. Francis Xavker as the means to effect so ial change. - . 4 <" r 1 I trese methodologies merg&d ' with 'the purposeful ttempts at - * - - - L F. ethrijc identjky maintenance by the Scots Cathol 'c .gocietiesd 9 * 41 . b that. spmup iF7 1 nvpr emrfi -;a ScU-. ,. - I Education was t'he answer for the farmer, fisherman, .and 8 L, miner to pull himseslf out of t.he morass of econamic /. I skagnat inn,, snd the- sbudy club was' ,chosen as the nethod in------ f, whlch this educational- proeess+ffas to-be disseminated. The object of the' sociql study cldb is; tcf qtFudy ', , t 5 \ ( i -these econ~mic-relationships, to find out bow this , - , - - cc~mplicatedsystem works .47. . . . . - I flrst Educational Confeience wasChe.$d in, Antigonikh yS , ' > I k -'_ \ , x part rc.lpants madslup a who's who of the Antigonish clefgy? 3 , , m+? L * -3 . P i and St Francis Xavler professors. -Frofi the begimairlg it* ; '4 . I) * .( was the, priest -intel,lectuals who dominated these Con,ferenceq 'a - *, . :sr, L both ln numbeis, and. in setting the agenda'. - The en,f*ire I d : IQ %. t'onference was devoted to rural grade and college education. ' . + k. As was presented' In articles in The C~sket'sEbr the Peowk, ' I by this time the general philosophy and methodologies . ! pp ------7------t,uunrds rcgional socioeconomic redress clearly articulatgd ------qni3 reflected the agenda of this Conference. - 4'~k~tskke~; For the People.', February 14th, ly18.'pOZ -- 'l'he 1913 and 1920 Conterences were ~c?ntinuat,lon ilf , -- 1...-:b) aLlu-4. W I LII , J .1J. Tompkins ,elected President for next year. LY,~ saw the 1 - first calls actzon. The stated c~b,l~ct,~vesof SO - the -emphasis of true educat.lon ,* - basis of morality and sourid D - 2 . e'ducatidn ' and important Ly , to 'propagate c'hr~st,lanSor-liil I conce~teduse bf the press. C, 1622 saw jhe uldening- > of the >~-lnf~ren~r'smnn2rit.e + 11 - I - - -P - Include the ' - severaq soclal roncerns and ~tsname becamp .I I - 1 Educational and Soclal Conference . 'i'he topics thishyear '. - , + included Detterl houslng. soclal ~nsurance,cn1l~r.t lve - I T bargaining , rerned les for unemployment , and one sr-ss 11III I 1 titled the hierarchy of the United States and F;.;~J~.I:I1 WIII-k I Thls conference also farmally acknowledged thv ~rnportar~crof, .I.J. Tornpkins proposal for a Y,eopies School, where - I!, : r prumising young people from parishes w~uldbe broupht, tn tht. JB " university for the first practical applil~ationin t/~:ac.t~lng \ i I , the ph?ilos?phies arid nethods developed -by the leaders {iur-~n~? , - However, at the same time, rumblings wery heact3 Lhroughout this Conferencq, ,regarding the -much pub1 lclsed . . - % r universit'y merger issue $that had caused dlssension t~ptweer, - , *Catholic intellectual cadres and their consarv~t~vr 48) Glascow, op. cit. p U6 - - sfrve;.rql; lit her priest-in tel-lectuals were transferred to remote*p~~rish~s, '.and the lmpetus for continuation went wlth - 1 hem. P B The Issue of the ynlversity- merger" 'proposal was sf ' ma.jr5 importance in the creation of the Antigonish Movement: - In 1,the i:a;negle ~o~~6rationcommissioned a repqrt on' - - %tieqmaritime u1;iversities and colleges. Bykthis time the . e i:armgle Corporat 'on had donateC$-'o"er 1.5 million dollars to L' i - maritime educational institutes. In lYl9, through direct - - lobbying wif.h- his colleagues at the Corporation, Tompkins . L r-tsolved $SU.ilOU.OO dollars for a Chair ln French at St. d- - - - & -- \ Frat-~~1s Xavrer IJniversity .50 The report recommended that ,S t,irc maritlrne cul leges be centralized in a federation u (:ur~~c~rat101-1 was convinced that large scale centralizing-' - schern~s.81med at modernizing higher education in the msrlt lmer;, would brlng them up to the .stand'%rdsi of their I . : CC~ULIterparts . "1 Then Vice Presxdent of St. Franc&s. 1. 9 Xavler. 'I'ornpkins and many other faculty members and - :~dnrirr~stratorsenth~~slastic~ll~ endorsed ,the report and tlt>gan l(ltlttying adm lnistration and the Board of Governors for ~tssrlpp~)rt and implementation. However, Tumpkins w-as only , -j\il~t.o rearh the ltberal sectors of the university, ,? I-lar-t i1.u lar ly new members that he had recently hired after l~rtdrrtakirlg a long fundraislng qarnpalgn for several years. \ - +---- h t t e rf- st r rraf-y~ ths - 11b e ra 1 e 1emeen~eer~Iso~cadre0f -- 1 e Reop. crt.. p 69. -&l) WI lliarn S Learned and Kenneth C.M. Sill, Friucation in L~~_~~L~+'~cwlllcesof Ca-. . The Carnegie Corporation, Nt~w'illrk, 19%;:. y. 4H - - -? . - , Ht; ,the development of the early People s ~chosls,and wrote artlcles ln the ,kor the People ' Columnof Xhe c'95kp$. - - But thls strong support frok the llheral sertors. of thC- - s university was met with equal resistance fron: i.hp re "that Bishop ~orrisiln, ' an oppun n t r~i' the rpprirt , commissioned his 13wn report.. to1. be presented t(~t ttr university Board. This repurt, stro;lgly (:rlt 1t:al of ttle - 9 - m 1 Carnegia report argued nut only agalnst. tedrratl~tn.\but lt 1 <. SrlorT af trr , the BlshLlp removed 'I'r~rnpkIn:: a:: V11.r' , t-'r?sllj~nt, i-lf the unlverslty, alilrlg wlth .-,evcjral ~rth~r lsberal prr~st//nttllert~uals. and relegated them tr, rernr~tc1 parishes withln the Archdlo(:ese. 'Fr~mpk111s wa:; to r-Qrnaj11 a parish priest for the rest of hi,s llfe and the federat 1011 - \ Issue died During this controversy, Moses ('oady was in t - United States studylng co-operative and adult edut:at I on A 4 groups-and returned unscathed from thls issus~ - 52 > See, A Report on the kru~c).~;edE'edeLm~-_~L-Lhc..h~tu~ llniversit ies Submitted -tt~ the Goverqors of 5t., &ancis Xavier CoLlege bv a Coxunittee Appointed by His ZYAShu Bishop Morrison, St. F~anclsXavier Un iversl t.y Archives, 1922. - 53) Ibid., pp 8-111. I 'l'h~sexile dld npt stop Tompkin s agitations for hls ,- - T~PQ!'-;' . ~t s-rn-afnrlbLL-IACbU +haL,ll~ nv - r ' - trrt h~stheGries at 'the community level. Under hl& a- - - ~~ildanr.e,the people of Canso Bn$ little Dover successfully p%t.itloned to have a road bullt. -He negotiated a seven . . - hundred dollar loan, and WIth a fuFther three hundred dollar - loan hrcjm his retirement. fund, helped the people build -their . - qwn cc- operative lobster cannery. The men cut the timbers, cuII1mericed operations. After one year of operation, the cannery earned en~ughmoney to pay oft 'the ent~reloans, and C -- glve the fzshermen an ,extra two cents a pound for thelr catch between 193~1and 1937," the return on lobster catches - 7 - lr~creasedfrom SLX c:ents to twenty cents a pound through co- ui~eratlve oann ing and market lng. Tompkins also brought in - r goats fur fresh mllk ar~dpeople formed buying clubs to cut t t~%cost oi Y ishing material and community purchases. - (i This exp6rlenc-e taught Father ~ompkinswhy hls earlier t.fbfurts ta re3 ate adult education to community renewal had ii r~alixiitlanthat the university bad to come to the ". t.~~rn~r~ur~itJy ,' nut the people to the university. This experlenue left a stamp on the later developments of what was t n become the Ant lgonish Movement, - After 3 few yea s 1n Canso for Tomp#ins, and an equal exile for many of-hlsL colleagues, the political divisions in ------pp-pp------Antrgnnlsh had died d'own somewhat and efforts wereh -- - - i~nd~rtakenFb resurrect the now defunct Conferences 'in . ~nti~onis'h.In 1924. the First Rural Conference was I P organized and' agaln the agendars topics were focussed on - participants were predominantly college faculty. L~LL\L-PS~ clergy, arid a few laymen. 54, 'I'hl-5 gat her ink: cal l~df'or agricultural educat~~rtto 'ke~p pcnp le on t.htb f2rms. ,rind , a department of extensirln wr~rk wlth St Frar~r.~:;Xavi~r t tl I 13~c~lrese. 55 By 1924, the demands f llr rurs 1 a;ld rPt? LOII:~ 1 s, redress weFe reshaped intn demands f nr -idu 1 t rtltl~~sf 1 ~tnx 1 -. - p.lrr>gr ms that wonid emphasi~pth~ r~i7t ~nn trctw~cn ~tiirrn+rnn - -- - and econnrnlr and st-1c.i a L prrlgress. 3" - a - extension department , and d~mandsf~lr I:IJ I I t~ei.c.vrr L,.II l11s1 The Seventh Hural iorrference ( lYL"/ j ~r,[,nrrdk.~iI t :. manda.te and for t he first time rconcerneri ~t SI' 1 t w 1 t h t,hrL - industrial workers and fishermen of the reglor1 by th1~5 t i me -&yal -won on&sh~rl~bha1.l tj~carr cofiplet,ed, and the Conference delegates ag ~t~tedf lor t,h~ * implementat Ion of ~tsrecommendat Ions- r>rl urgarl I zlrrg tttr- - marltime fishermen into co-,operative assor:lat ior~sb* 'I'ttl:; ------ agitation by the spokespeopl~of the reg r LJ~I, tt~cpar ~st~ ------t 54 Glasgow, op. clt , p 14 55) Ibld., p. 16. - 56) Ibld., p. 18. 57) Ibid., pp. 19-20. 58) The orlgins and lmportanse of t,he Maz.L+an (:l)n~n~lss~onix I the subject of a 1ate.r section elf this charlt er \i pr ,.;.sty, th- priest-~ntel~lectuals, the leaders of the Scots- - Cathollr: Society, ar~dthe St. Francis Xavier University . Alumnae, all active part~clpantsover the year's of these w \ C(JII~I~~~.I~IC~:~.CIJ~lesceri ~r~t~va strong demand for the return qif a rural primacy to thelr reglon. But these groups and leaders were not on'l y .art, lcu lators of these grievances, over tt~~c!~urse ui several years t,hpy had developed a vision of . how t.hls re-organlzatzon of thelr soclety could be undertaken. 'I'hey had a.'plan. That plan involved a speclf ic - form of adult education, whose leadership was to be draw% f rim the ranks of clbergy and lalt~_~governdent officials, ; -- -- and ldentlfled rural leaders, which was to be taken to the , ~Gopleunder the institutional guidance of an ExtenSion \ill ly 1st. 1927 was the Diamond Jubilee Anniversary if (lsnari3 as a natlon. .Celebrations were planned or already underway across Canada-. However, in Little Dover, Canso, Y' % Ltie mood was anything but festive. Immediately prior to thls nat it~~~a1 celetjrpt.lnn, 'I'ompkins was again agitating for , a knyal Commission on fhe plight of the fishermen, this time .it an ,annual retreat of forty priests. A meetingwas called I - of' t4hq parish region together with invited newspaper ~t~port~rs.The genera 1' consensus was that Canada had ------' ------f~yFa$sFd Canso and was shamefully ignoring -the farmers and , upun, and a tefegram was dispatched tfi the Canedian - I- tl:irllamer1 t out lining the reasons why. there .would be no frstlv~tles~n Canso. Even though the House of Commons was P i U hot sitting at this time, the uproar in the press forced t.hr government to take- action. During the Fark~amentsry break. t- the government formed the HovUmm~ssLCOIL-~_IE_~S~~~.~~-_~I~ 1 . . Lhf3 I-faxlLuUL-%,ad tk.h&delene Islands r?'itr MacIea11 , pommlssion) at a cost of J10C'.I3UU d~ll~rs. However. th'ere were furqthrr und~rcllrrent.; that lrq t,~, - - - thls quick declslon . The government of -the (lay was the leadership of ~$lllamLyon MacKenzle K~ng,who hxil \ intimat'c knowledge of the unrest fomenting ~n the marl t.lnlr:, \ d The factions and bitter .labuur strikes of the Cape bt-tht l)ri miners were no news tu King, who, 111 1J3t tk~~ttt^~~~rier age - --- bretvn strikes was commonplace. After h 1s gt,vornrn~Tit :i Massacre In Fi~loraiio111 whlch- 13 str~kcrswere kll l-rj 4 Kucketeiler family were the. leadillg ~ndustl'ldl~r;t,--;1,) Coloradu at this tlme and we~ethe mn,ior sharehctlders i~t' thes~mitirs. 60 , King s tenure In the Labnur M,lnlstry af'fordd him considerable knowledge' of the labour s~tuatlvn within tt~e I Cape Breton coalfields and alsv nf the United Mlne Workers. , The U .M .W. had made considerable inroads int'o the Cape 6Q) Ibid., p. 162. RuckefelIers he outlined his visjon of a philosophy of - -. - 1-ahour and management that- led to his being hired-: " 1. . \ " . . .purely economic question% were easily - 1, - -3 adjis-ted, that it was the personal 'antagonisms a!!d - , *- \ - matters arisTng out o.f,prejudice and individual L: , - %\ , antipathies uhinh urrq dhe on'eq which caused - - "t . - ccxncern. "61 Soon af tsr h~s-h~ring, King devised a plan of combany unionism, known as the '~ockefellerPlan*, which lasted over . ZH-ears in Colorado until the state disallowed company - e unions In the'1330 s. At the, outset, King denounced the - - United Mine workers as: -i ------" . . .actually the hidden enemies of' labour, obstructing the efforts of Mr. Rockefeller to8 upllft and reward the men in Calorada who foolishly went on v - strike. "82 - , burlng this period King had developed an extensive - network of contacts with U .S. ~ndustrialists,including ' Andrew Carnegie. Carnegie tried to recruit him as a 6 director of the Carnegi'e Corporation at $25,600.0~per year. but King rejected thi's offer to return to political ljfe in I - Canada. If he had accepted this offer he would have had Immense control over allof the other Carnegie endowments, - which of course included the millions pumped into the' - and his g~ve~maL-LC- have +, 0x4~ke~& w %khLk dee &&fig- strife ln the Ca$e Breton coalfields. In addition it seemed ti1 Quoted in Ibid., p. 165. dl:) Quoted in lbld.. p. 168. t;;i) lbid. - - B .- - - - d 72 3 \ that tfie fishermen .yere 'not only agitating but.. they had . i \ . * .a p \ - puklicb sympathy 'behlnd them. - .- '1 a - \ ' The Royal Commission wasborn out.*of thi.s ,s*uati6rl and : \. I. J '! Y ' I ~tsrochmendations were far reaachingp: On May '7th. 1928;. .- \ 7 , \ -. the Report- was tabled ~n the "House of CrYmrnons and' soon I . I \ af terwardS the federal' 'government 'agreed t,; he lpl tb& - , L 7 fishermen .s4' -The rna.jGr reconhendatlups i\a.ll;d, for the* - , . - - f isherpn *to orgmize and ' to a P marketing'strbctures that was This good news to Klng + (. I I - Labour, had 'acquired extencl've knowlPdge ot .the ab: 11t l?s - - ? - \ " LC - - -- - and limitations of~co-operat <;re organlzlng . n 1 ; hr i participated' in a Hodse of Commons Comml ttee un -,',lust tt12sr -,L *. * -. 3-Q issues.6" 'Unq of the witnesses w,tm spoke b~t'orrthy . * x , . 4 - f2ornmisgion was Moses L'oad,y. who p leadell far the ~ll~~ve"l~~prnt,r~t - 0 2. " h P * 1' 1' of fishing co,speratives. 6s W lthin a y-ear , t he'~er1er.a1 - 73 _ 1 3 arid purchasini organizakion was formed.*- The IJnited -. L I, d I Hai-itimes Fisheries grew stead~lyin the 1530's afld became . I - .- D the central cn-operative marketer of a aide range of fish 'a - arid seqfoods through hulk sales to distant markets.87 , . * - 0 / e 8. I TuminF&.NT OF ERm c XAV-jEHU,jIV ERSXT.Y 1 *\ - e * I "St. Francis Xavier has", put new life-, 'into a dying -.. >- - I fishing industryr restored. idle farmers; and stamped I r r =" . - I - .I I_ .- ouf. Cpmmunism ,in lndustrlal L'ape nreton, once a hot-~eq $< J < . - I' of radical +ac,tdaitp."6: + - . , - I I 9 t\ 1 All of the _events described a6bve, the *agitations of I , - I P ------I - t e ilberaf; ca%h~?i$, 'pTiest/iritplfectuals, the organizing - ,* 5 / 7 of the ~cotti~shcatholic' Societies; t.he implementation of -. )'$ t%e hacLean Commission' rec6mmendatiaks, and the ever I ~nc'reasingstature ,of thk Rural. and Industrial Conferences, ' - - conve'rged in IS28 forming a set of conditlonq cipe with a L' opportunity.a" These structural preconditions; as argued /' - - .s / , . earli'er, were predicated on thk aff inal relati~nships" I :- ' .> ).3 I. deirlrJped between catholic socia.1 theolog;, populist . - / 1 4- I ' I. 'P grievances. ethnic id&t ity maintenance qnd adult educat'ion , - theories that had deve10ped.i~the region. d. , . - I Betwee3 192'7-f~t8, 'the S'cottish Sathblic Society . .. 3 applied significant.bressure on the universitySs Board of - II . (;ove'rnnrs, and hGav'i.1~infllenced the*~t. @rancis ~aviei- 9 , . Alumni Associatyon Yo3follow up on the now well articulated - - -- - I ------9 .. . Fr7,1 Jbid . . . 1.. - w-'+w-H7XvC;-aaV@~b+rMarltl . m s ' , M ~cL%~s-~agiiin c . I cl?onference attracted "...nearly a thousand visitors", See Bertram Fowler, The L17rd Helps- T'hose.. . How The People of , Nu5mUk~olvin~Their Problems Thr~uahCo-oueration, 1938; p. 6:3. .. -, forhal t8;ginning- of the ~ntigonishMovemcn t .-fa Mar:lnne9s f ' I does give a comprehensive :outline of the role of byth t'he f -. Kural and Industrial Conferences and the Scottish C?~-h&llc . - ------cieties -irr-tke-devel~pm rrt ~~LLhe-AnLignni '~l~~~~I--rr-2::- -- - .7 C 1 , - \ '9 . . I' - - - 7CQ SSee M a c l'nnf,L'i'h e Ec o ier~F~hit,~~t.-~~rf?at;h o-hr;-YynC%x17 j- - in the Determination of th,6 Antigohish ~overnent, i rrt) - . . Scottish Tr$dlt-an , VII/V.~II, 197'?:'/E, pp. 2S-4G. 71) St. Francis Xavier University Archzues, kfi3J-X/1/2'?26. 72 1 Itid.. ? 73j See, for exarnplq, ~i~dlen....137~,op PI^. , snrj :;ir:oumar~. I I: 1978, 8op. cit.. 4 I , - : H~>w,!v~~~r, ' t, h,?. lde[+lq'gl(:a 1 19rtde~pln'n iiigs f,ji' $-'athn i i 1:: s~~,:1 ? ) . ,< ,< * . . . ~ ,. - t trccr~ls~gy..,p'(~pub4~t. poki t-1~~1 ' r"orlre5s .\ ethnic iiJent.1t.y , , , - , rna~nl,~ri~n[cc.,and adult: echtaf lqn th~;,~1-e~ nad a substant lve *'. ef f'ect uprJn the shz~pl~~goi what was t I-, her rme 'the An: ~gc-,nl>ir L ' . " - 5 I I m - l hcse ~deolr~giesf .~~eussed. upon t'he ""il1s. ,a?' . - " , , ! , -. :* , ,. -. . .\<$, , . , . ::;or: irt-qr f om a p-.rti CII !.ar -vantage $oint nt' ref or'm. ?'he . . - -;, , *',~ . .- < 1- F~rle=;t~ilr~el'l-~~r:.t~:~a;iedlitc?s wit-i-lin-~t:.~.E:~:~.r~ri&X3.v1i&.iL the , - Q b , . - .. -. A . - . , - - t. iiiemt-,i?rs. CJ~the :;r:ot+~sh. _. Oathnlir :~oi:iZties their, ' , . a,rib . . ,- 0 . v -1 I. ?g - h . L t~~;.nt;f:abt~ors,'.th~ Carnegi.. - es a-rld ft0ck.r.f e 1 i rrs-, h:3ci' 3 ., . - , , . . .I- .- , . -, & .~. , - .- . . ' . phrt iku ~ar.7~.rjmsc'rvat ive view bt: socie)r.$. 'l The "abuses .of. " . = t i ' : . - .9 - -w,. * . . - . . - ~i~iu:-;'tr,-~~*lizat+ic.Frl WCTP met, t19zid qr1 .wit_h 3 r,~ft;~rmi-ng~&~L.'voL-_ , . -. - . r' =- -~ , ------.. - ~ .. . . ~~ -, -. irf whjc}l.:f;ihi~c;id.ce. dem-arrded 3.'fa'ir settl~m'Snt~'t~'r it5 , no- , . . . * 5 ~ . . -. . - 1: , .- 1 '. -.. It- , ,, - . ..r . pecliz 1 e in . eas te~r~.Nbva $cot j.2 .I ' These @I i t,cs 's3w ~. . , .ys rbppnrQ?.~lni;l.65'fur thelr gpenple withlh the capltblist-- , 0 ir~dur:t*r~al-,tr?mewo~.k that othejwlse Qere passlng them by . . L 1 / - - 1 4 0 * P . Wh2t 'was .netkfsrJ was ,a wag pf brlnglng $0 the people a - 4 ? met hurl tiy h @ey crlu ld recognize and abt on tiieie P ' Gt>rctsivpi-j 13fiport=i~nil.t1es Adulti Educat210n through the fgrmal '4 @. , . tl~<. a of Kt. Prnnt:ls Xavier ~niversjt; was the answer e 3 e%hrric hl-lmc.gbei le ~ty.' W lth. this legltirnat ion, the _I-- pr ~cst.--'~ntelI1=ct12kls could draw upon the lorig exlkti~g f. - nrtwnrks wt plrzlrig the- Iritenrmediaries of the rural' parish , * ? pr 1 st 5; 3ty.l tFi. 1-clmmurtity based Scots Catholic Societ'ieg. . a d' - ALLEX SLY23, the 4xk~nsion L) epar -, -, I , "3. thesr. nrt>wr,:r.ks, and the vibrant growth of the Antigonish ------'Mhvemrnt Gas pi-rd~Gaiedupon'these alreadyeexisting ,. s trul-tures. La ------7------. , 5 OF THL MTaGYHISfb._JBYWU z - 'I have one cr~n~mentto make, namely, that most of \ t.t~c-~Iul t, education from that pant of the world (due no rlouht.' to the success of the Antigunlsh Movemeqt- 0 / - ~xp~rlrncrits)seems to be confused as to ~?hjecr~vo...it (f~if.~not shock me ln the lea'st that oyster culture and , I-**I lgil-ln at~rlart In t he home should he combined -in- - - one - -- - - ~~r~lgriinias tl~byare nn Prince Edward island hut on the rlt,ti~-~hand I think that this mixture. is in a sense rv~d~rt,'~t hilt the Maritime provinces and Newfound land 4 are' rx~~ept1hnal and qulte unlike the sj tuations we met 9 lrl the ~JnliedX~tater;. 'I'he economic urge ismexceedingly .;i ronp arid I am not at all sure that the interest * - marilfested .in education E not largely a reflection of ' t he en 1 ightened self-interest of the peopla tzar~slated / 13t,n terms of bettering t.hemselves. " 1 - The inceptlqn ot the Extension 9epartment ref 1 eets a ~~i~alrscen~~eof distinct rsligir~us,cultural and politica'l r urrents -of the .time. The Antigon \sh Movement emanating t rclm t his llepartment was a rblld of ologies of - - - ~2-l+bc;k1e soc tkeory,-p@pTl-iFt 1 y fai -" gr pi- e ,-*nicfi%t t 3 - mantenance and- &L-duca-t-i a4Lhecs1es,-Yartlp k4 fie& ~'~lady-wrre prophets of thp need for an amalgam of a - 1 ) Moses C'arturight. ,advisor to the Carnegie Corporation to F.F. Kepp~11,C'arnegle i'orporation Director, April 1936, quoted In Reid. op. \:.it. p. 64 peculisrly (L'atnollc d~clol? tlaulugy .that war; 1 u he prcsent,~~i. L I educatl,bn 'Phls pr ~phecyt.1-sns lat eti lnt o act lve 1eadpr:;hlp - * 7 \- . . , ~ i . . ,, . , inlplenlentat ion of %he '-.hlzrt J i~eijt)e,.,p LC,::' s sl_.l,ul:l ls , 1 tlt2', ' of. the rural people in eastern Nova St,utla. I I 1 I11t wnc; :I 7nlserab le existence of subsister~ce t~cf ore I ridilstr ia l I x;;t 1cir1 , yet it was~industriklizationthat gave the f::&rnerr; :irr~J - I fishermen the ability to develop and artic~llatea c.otterer~t. - sense of their own position In the larger so~rlety 0r11.r thls comparison was made the react Ion and ~.r~rrr:;p~lrrdi ng principles of the movement, . th~strategies or soclal - LC - - technologies IS bated -w~t.trtrr-ft-F------ programs and actions ur~dertakenby -the Ext~r~s1 or1 I,ep;irt.nr~:rrt. i - of St. Francis Xavier University. The 'fjTst sect 21~nwi 11 introduce the formal philosophical objectlv~~sas dsf I npd t~y .< f \, 79 , . - t.hr Ar, t. igclrt ish.Mo7rrmerit leaders Next a descriptive 1 ,. I I 0 I y:L. 01 LIIP r~perar-1on01 r,ne . ntlgonrsn ~overnent--or I ~~r:llr~rll~Jg?~cs:i;der ivetl from adu it educat 1~11,tttat the , t - / Extcjn:;lor~ ~lypartmentdeveloped as the t.ocjls with wh~ch~t- - ~.ijil:;t.ruuteif I t s anl~lloratlvereformist movement , are - , I :I: 'I'kie remainder of the chapter is dev~it~edt,c a 'Kellgiorl 1% not an oplate , It I:; tvod and drlrll; It 1s mnrcl viv~fylngand more energizing than the thln , , nt thr sln of OII~age. We lgnojed the splrltual for ! t hc materlal gocld, The great acctamplishment, of the new aep wlll i-17 to restore the spiritual by uslng the mst~rlaias ~t cruffht to be- used, a means to a higher - ~nd.z The principles of the Antigonish Movement weie not ' fr~lly articulated by the leadership untll the program was - we 11 13n its way to being defined as a success.3 This d . - sucress t'nrccd Cc~a3yand 'Tornpkins to pres&t their ' - r~hllos~~hy,albeit in an a post, fact0 fashion, and to Z 1) Moses Coady 111 Masters of Their Own Destinv, l939,pp'l42- + 4.3 . J) Thls grdwth is presented and discussed in chapte'r four., - - - - . - ,. - t - Harry' -J(-~hnz~n, .~n a11 unpub li shed mstiuscr li~t. , . - place wlthin the social order The inherent wt~l-th t)f r>m.h lndlvidu I1, a sacred concept wlthln 3- i:at hrt11c rs~~r~~~rake world, was not to be immersed in coil~ct~lv~art-iorr Kaf.h~r - collective action was to spring forth from man onre ht-! was sufficiently- educated about. the wor,ld s11rri511ridmg him: r "You must have faith that, uneducat,ed men' can 1~;lr-n .d -- = 4 L See Eo r -examplel'clsad-~~b1d-.:~andrln~~r~Assaciaies-- IThe Antigonish .Way, educataonal pamphlet, Extension K Department, St-. Francis Xavier. University, 1943. 5) These principles have been extrapolatqd by others, for example Johnson, op. cit., 1944; Laidlaw, op. cit., 1574; and Sowdelr's '?a vemr f; in Nova Scotia, 1967, unpublished doctoral dissertation. - t tie penpl'c wwl ll (>PV~~OPtheir- own leader. You must havf- frlth' rl.rir~ugh ts trust the average man for the \ \ 0 /gPneral dl'rection of activltles - if you wlll expose \ - 'i'hf, '~mpetusfor reform and sorlal action were , - pr+d ~t.rrtpdupon t~i,tti,a speclf le form of knowledge, and a s~lec~flu mcthvd ~f gttairt-ing ?.his knowledge. Both the form of krrowledge and the methodologies_of dissemlnat ion were urtcr~t ir a1 1 y' ac~;.eptl-.d by the leaders and followers of the P Ant>~gc~rr lqh Mc,verner~t Hciwev~r, the benet 1ts of J - - -- - part l~lpat,lorr,the good and abundant life, were something- v - tanglhle that mritivated both the leaders- and the followers , - a' ilf. t11l:r; milvement towards t,hls utopia. This utog\ia was the ~-orptirat~ewr~rld uf ccloperatlves where each individual knew ~ J his plarc, yet also knew that his place was to be- decided by his own 'actions andz those of his fellow men through . . 'It may be then, the unique destiny of the Adult - EduCatlon Movement to bridge the breach between religlon and economies---as moderh research is bridging I the science."7 breach *tween"- religion and 'I'he newly founded Extension -Department did not-have to I gc~shopping for a plan of action nor hammer out its mandate. l'he previous decade of organizing, studying, and writing had 6) ,J .J. Tompkins quoted in Landis' 'Teacher of Fishermen by the Sea', ~n the Journal of Adlllt EdWipn, X, Oct 1938', ' p.434. n 7 ; J.J. 'I'ompkins in 'The Future of the Antigonish Movement' - Extension Department Pamphlet. 1938 p. 2. - - , 1 i study and act Ion' among the i armers and f ish~rrnerl, srlci lxt ~-,.r- the miners of ' esst ern Nova Scot la , 1 > I'he Mass Meet 11lg e *, i ) Week -end Inst. 1 tutes Y i Television IIJ) Industrial Study Groups and Classes 11 ) Conferences I 12) Rallies 13) Literature and pamphlet production, pub1ir:atlon and distribution .a - The model af co-operative organizing 'adopted by the Extension Department was based upon t.he earl iest tYo- MacIntyre, in one pamphlet distributed by the-Extension ------_ ------ 8) See George Topshee's 'The Antigonish Way: Its' Program and Techniques', in Thet+(fullLnf njae addresses), Toronto, the Radio League of St. Hicheal, 1555: . no publisher cited. Address delivered. on Trans-Canada Catholic Broadcast, and ~elaneyop. cit.. 9 11, th~Nofghrrn Mid-ilands nf England. 'There in IH43. 4 t,w~nty-e~ght d~bt rldden factory workers. after much *, * (j I S~.IJSS~~J~I~iie~ided that. t he Qnly escape from poverty \ - was to pool their efforts and open thelr own consumer 1 .. / store. These Rochdale pi ~oneersadopted the following J - - simple hut impnrtant democratsic rules upon whlch all - ra@-rtperat-~veartinn has heen founded: - ( 1 > Onr ~eniber- One Vote 1 (2)No discrimination on basis of race, nationality, i) politirs, or religion C)Prclf its are returned to members on the basis of - volume of business done with co-operative - (5) L,imit.ed int.erest on capital I r 6) Cash -trading - i 7 ) Continuous educatio?. "9 . Co-operative meinbe;ship w r s not only for personal ~r~ot~nrnicbenefit, but was to .be considered as a means by - whloh collective action could improve the p&ition of i . . m~mbersks a group While'the benefits to the individual X- i - - ------+- wlth notices senk to -the parish priest and the local ScnLs- Catholic associations in ,expectation that these groups WOII lrd Y drum up- attendance for the .meeting. 'I'elevislon arid radllx- a were unheard of in these days. 2; One factor cantributin3& to community enthusiasm was t,h~ entertainment factor ,of a learned university - prof essor/priest speaking ir-f the community.- Our ing these ' outline of the Extension Department plans for education and - -- - .-.-p-p- B. co-operative for'mation was presented. Coady was well- known -- for his oratorial skills which combined religious fervor, - - C ~rlt-ellrctualsubstance snd a hespun populist, regional -, After the 'Big Speech , facilitated by the - fee, the audiencev would into small groups of aDoutZ4tenpeople to organize meeting/study gfoups ,sessions arl their home^. Literature was handed out, along with a , series of questions that th-e group were to study. " Each group received the same literature and questions. After a. $ - perjod ilk these st,ud-y club meetings, the entlre c~mmitted------members of the community would re-assemble at the schoolhouse or hall. This time the-several study clubs - compar~dtheir answ-ers based on literature and questions recelvcd as, the basls for further group ?ction. A few weeks l3ter;at the second general meeting, fbrther organization ensued with the study clubs electing-an - - executive cons~stingof a president, a vice-president, a - - - sa,;retary, and a treasurer. ~t this polnt they were called %he Associated Study Clubs. Rep~rtswere then given by the 4 study club leaders, who were chosen by their grogp, and , further correspondence and literature from the Extension *. Llepar ment ,was distributed. -6 - L this-time, the groups were primed for co-operative -< action. Again under the guidance of the-- Extension ------Uerjartment-, The~i~~seFe~~theT-intrdducedto thethGorles - - - - -- an+ p-~n-pfesft--ogera ti-~ d-c rec&t-r+ni on&rga&z-fn&- In lW3, the Extension Department directed a program- , the formation of women's clubs. Officially known. L. .a q-3+ g - c -. 1U) Seeb2,for example Delaney op. cit., p. 43. - * L *- 4 Y& , - - t ' I ".. : 7 -1 / -- . .. - -- - IF . * sm 3 b -. ,. - , 6 5 r CU* . * -. J - P 5 0 - I as 'Women's-Wo the* clubs cbpcGn trate4 or, :;tlt,jsl,t s rit:t-.at:t~ &. 'to be of sp~ci terest .to women. ttf ten these > lubs wc'iti lkt par~llalthe' t ional study gi"r>ups' andb 3 Wt~rn:i~~-'t:t~t~Id fir. ;i .* 1 1J member _'of both e study 8na discu'sslons '"ln the Wtlmr:n 5; - e I- _ -, , ~6rk-circles f ed. oh the woman s pr lnrsry rr! I r :k~; t tl~* - -+ - --- *- - - . - 2u - A-L - ---u * -9-- - . - hobmemaker. Th ussion topics, s.ubp1 crneht~kibj!a ttlt I - " .'i 'Extension CeraFt&&htpub 11zatlvn aim. L~I:~LII~~~~Iti~:~rie,~~i.~i~ LI~~'I , - nutriilbn . hand iciafts, hsusrholrf -~-iinsurnrrlzrlti~-:~t I in~f 9 se Lf -suff lciency in ibob.,.production 11' . w 1 indus*trial.study groups un,drrtoilk s;m I lar I I I: :I.; 11. - s - t44i 9 ' +, earlier rural clubs, but with an ernf.hasi,s -Z$nil (-~-~r~:;t~rn~r- 4 1 operation and credit unrons - - i 0 - q F# i * 7 ,(, ' \ THE 1 C(jNFERbNCb.7 , I*' - Thisdgrowtki dernandeQ ever widening lev~lsof I I bureaucracy 'to be dealt with by the Extens lon Ueflar't w~rl-t -, Ie - . A,lthough they. g'rew along side the success- of' t,#r I: J I *. 4 '0 to the implementation 05- siemz-annual cot~f'erer~~~~~As l~nr.*_ K - former f ieldworker describes ~t: -.- -, "Then came conf erencev of. a 1 l kirrds . -- *\ - The growf,he of the Antigonish Movement, with ".the corresponding. . organizaXiona 1 complexity~tentai led ,* b -- "2% . - v L -. necessitated the development. qf formal tra~ningProgrt~ms for * "- the leaders and activists who 'were taking on eve-r ~n&reas~rtg - VL - levels of responsibi1,ity.- Ttie. Ektensi13n DeparLrnen t 4 - respbnded by offering an-site sh0r.t -courses, t>aining -. programs and weekend 'inst it;tes and lead~rshlp' schools at- m f' > . - kt. A$rancis Xavier University .' E d - - The formal education- programs +deLi?vrred:the ski 11s anti -< 2 ," , expertis'e such as accounting, f inan?-ia1 management, - .., .'- organizing .-and leadership to the co-opei-a't1v.e activists-. P - - - ro =. - - ',, . -. )r *,- e 4 - PUBLIdHING AND Js1TmREaUI 1 I- The publishing arm o,T the ~xteniion'~epartm~nt i .i '7'., de;e.loped alongside \the growth of the/ ~nt'igonishHnv-ement-.* . -, -. - - b ,f r\ / -&w .. B &. 8 8. lnltlaliy, the Extension Department opepated as a ' , - eiearlnghnuse for the iiteraturUseninrated to the sfudy u luts. hook3 an scientific agrlcu lture, €0-operatives; and f 'b .,* . inar,ket,lrig &were the mainStay. -o W ithln a couple of years - 2. - + - however, specific tropics and issues were identified and the 1 - . . kixt-er~:;~on fiepajkment staff begah to author and distribute 2& I nrn.alj pampt~lats. This publishing vent~irdgrew intd hundreds' 8 , 4 1 ot ax.t.iclcs _and pamph'lets. i - / - - , *Often referred tb as the credltsunion- caechismd , one C , * * \ - -nf-eke fir3t. pamphlets written was called the CreditF "- _ - L - -Creiiit unkns wer%-new- in-engl~sh-speaking-~anadA,;------ 4 so the existing llterat,ure lacked a specific 'how to' $ - f l)i*~.c;s 'I'he pragmatic focus of 'tl-rls pamphlet became the ... model for all of the later litergture produced by the - E. I rrrPssage.. along wlth specific programs of action, blueprint - style, for t,he readers tu undertake. Demand for study club 4 9 partlclpants to undertake eolltical and economic studies as 7 ------of- of - - -- of ------3 hasis for unuzrstanding their own position within the -> mcTal andeconomic f rameworkof-Canadlansociety were e - ith articles and pamphlets ouklining the / motives. and ph~losophy of the ~nii~onishMovement. 'Fitly - J * 14) Delaney, Ida, '25" a Week' St. Francis Extenslnn Department pamphlqt, no date. f \ 89 - -- a'. W111!. , suchas IfWeD t Do It; The Cornmunxsts ,de?ined - the parameteis of the studles und~rtskenwhile tltles such F .d - as ' The Middle Way or Thr Eurd Helps 'l'h&s-e. . (SIC) articulated the methods and tec'hniques wlth whlch the D - I - Antigonish Movement part iiipsnts WPI-rt 1 shape their ir , - - A - - . . - destiny. - - The speeches of the -Hu ra 1 arid 1 ndust I-la1 c7nnf'~rence e P ' were recorded- and dubdished iw pamphlet f urm ant? rj~stributcr 4 /- \ ** to study clubs, along wlth r-eports from t,hc ,prr7vlricia l at~d , Y- P I ,' regional co-epeka8,ive conferences>15 . - 4 * For the most part, psmptilet reproduction was don+ by hand 1Jr1 / B mimeograph and distrlhuted thr1~t1g.hthe post a 1 system . In order to adequately cover the growth of the prog~ams and to articulate the Extension Depart,ment"'s evo lv~r~g philosophy, a journal was begun In 1933. In 1t-13ll y ra 1 led - . the Extension Bulletin. ~t qu~cklybecame an Important source o-t. literature of the study clugs by Informing the - members of t,he Ext@~siort-Uepar tment, ' s phi losophy and ot~iectives,and carrying news from t,he s-t11dy cluts, the new ------l-.,eon atter its credit unions, and the co-operative stores # p-p-p- -* rneeption, the Bulletin began coverage of lndust2Fiai and labour matters, women s and -domestic issu-Gri, and - incorporated milch of the materlal generated f ram the) annt~al: - * 15) Delaney, 1985, op- cit.,p. 4Y. i , Q - 9 Kurarl and .H~dustr~.alConferences. 16 I'n 1936, a prof~ssiofia.l - 1 - writer/eddtor ,was hired. ' In 1939 the journal was renamed - P .. - the r' with. ownership, of,the publication *.' transferred from the E~rtensionUepartmen t" to the organizing f - ccj-operat ives under t%e incorporated publishing house, - . . I ime CO-upirative ~brit ~rinhers. is. f 'i . . rD P With the change of name- the Co- o~erator; \ \ dt,he journal now became the -organg for the Antigonish M~vement - hich had by now-reached its peak in mem6ershi~. As one \ \ - \ i former f ieldworker' states, the Maritime Co-operator would: farpers; Snd fishermen in the Maritimes. 1t \was: 20- ).- / :a I. - - f b_ave a_.section dedicated to the cause of labour. It would campaign for a revitalized rural econorn? and ' i - culture. - It, ~ould~furnishthe driving force that would - . * move people to build co-operative institutions. It wlll fight the battle of the people on all fr - '2 - - < Dl0 -ANr) TELEVISION I By the late 1930's, the Canadian ~ssociationof Adult 7- - - Educators (C .A.'A. E. ) had become a dominant influence in the - - programmxng _of the newly formed Canadian. B-roadcasting , /' Corpoption (C .B .C. 2. Both Coady and A.B. MacDonald wkre exedutives on the C.A.B.E,, and it was not lang before their sdult education philosophies and populist coLoperative ------ ------1 Ibld.. pp. 43. Past issyes of the' on Rulletln, . . 1 - and 'l&e"Cn- OD- are locate=he St. Francis Xavler University Library. - - - 17) IEid. p. $0. 18) On the relatlonshlp between the Canadian Association of Adult Edu~mtorsand the founding and development of the % c'snadlsrl Brosdcnstlng Corporation, see Ron ~aris,W . + fl ~ow&ver,~~ad~ and the Extknslon T)cpartmanti did not pioneer the use of radio'brosdcast;nz in the field of adukt I Aupation and cu-operat ion in* Canada. .I .I! Croieau, , professor of economics at St. ,Dunstsn s IJ~llversity In - - neighboring Prlnce Edward Island first, began, ~~~~~~at I onal - - - broaticasting' for the - study clubs on the ~sland.l* Crnteau, rthe drivlng force fur th'e Antlgonlsh Ijovem~ntrtn I'.E. 1 i1;1$ - . a close relationship wlth the St. Frxncls Xav~eerExtqnsiorl - - Department. Croteau f nrmed the Adu lt,' Edul~ation 1.cagnr: on - Prince Edward Island as a parallel to St. Francis Xavicr s Extensi'on Department. In 2935 he began shr~rtt~road(:ast.s on " ------ a small, independent station for t'.- E. I. study r>luh groups, and by 1931-1 plans,were In the works tor a Super. trnad~as't. . , series, and the =newly formed j:.B.C. was apprrrauhpd fur C - - reserved radio time.20 , The Adult ~ducat'ion League was successful and t.he I (: B.C. granted two 15 mjnut,e periods per wPek with an , , independent station granting a further 15 mlnut~p~~riod per . A week. In January' 193'7, the Adult Eduratlnri 1,pagup began d / 4 its series of three 15 minute irruadcast; a we~kwhi1.h \ * - continued until April of that yeqr.21 . f * slonate Ed~pxitors:Volun_tiu~_AssociELJ;ians zmLLhe .' le for Cnnt.ro1 ef Ari111t. Eriu~~~~r:ast~-&- - - a 1919- 1957,, 1975. 191_The hiLsttQry of thePc~-operat ivk noverneni, in Prjrice Edward Island and Cr-ateau s involvment, rs t,f@ basis of h~s -- - a doctoral degree in economics from The Catholic: fUrtiverslt,yy of America before his placement In 1933 In Prlnce Edward Island. * 20) Ibid., p. 57. 21) Ibid., p- 58. \ *\ . - 4 experiment th,e tit. Francis Xavier .xExt,ension Depar-kment mgved 1 P AS* , . into- radio hkiadcasting in 193.1. The C.A.A. E. organized (6 - series of broadcasts entitled, "Life and T,earningT for , - January 1938. C'oady was a keyxotespeak~ of-this 'series. - \ 2 -. The C .h.C. -C .A.A .E. -Aptigc~n,ishMovement allianc; was strengthened through the development of such programs as" the- Matiorla1 Farm kadio Forum,- and the .-Citizen's Forum- 22 Mu,ch - - later, in 1955, bhe C.B.C. deuoted national alr time fop a b \ series 03-special addresses from professors of St. Francis - - Xavi* r ,Un iv_e r sity-tUeh l 'IlkBntigonish Way' ------ However, in 1Y4:3, the Extension Department's . renllzation of the full potential of radio broadcasting was put. into full effect with the funding of Radio CJFX in . 'I - Ant,igl>nish, Nova Swtia. to spread the ward.za By this - - time, the sacial technologies developed, by the Extension 1)epartment to spread the gospel of the Antigonish Way were r,omplete a!~d in plake-. The growing. complexity and volume of th~methods utilized by the Extension Department reflected the growth and complexity of the Antigonish Mciyement. This growth is the subject .of thesext chapter. What - I follows is a discussion of how the principles and tec-t niques of The Antig~nishMpvemerrt~followed a clear, if somewhat - < unarticulated, ideological purpose that created the circurnstances'for very -specific forms of social action, and - -- -L ------B non-action in Eastern Nova Scotia. . . < %/.I Faris, op. cit., pp. 94-95. - 23) Lotz, Jim., 'The Antigonish hovement, A Critical An3alysis' in St;udlzs in Adult Rdlication. , Volume 5, Number 2, Oct. 1973. .- b 1 - a 9.3 - - - [Slome % % ". . . will branf our educatian on economics d > e 3. as propag'al~ds. 4 We are tkmpted to bn1ie;e that- such an - - L 3ccusatior; might itself be propaganda f ;k tho itatus , quo The. teacher who refused to rriticize condltinns- , as they are lnvites suspic~on.looks darm 1 - /' / - paid agent of the vested 1nterests.- If ~t IS / , \ < .. propaganda. to point nut t-fje ,&errla 11y i.igkrt anri baslr - ," relathons of man to man 4'c suclety, t hen 1 an1 :t , - /'/ 3 prnpBgan~dlst'.24/,:' - / tn Prior -,the_-4'1ZY incept.ion nf t h~ Ext ~2r1r;i nn ,',-- -. 1 t "i -. - Department, 3"reEormu lation clt: i::ithdi-c ~CICixL ilie,~I ~~py wa:sjc------~ - -~ -- ~ ------ Nova Sroti a. l'hi s new 1 iheral npbroal-h towarrd..; t,l~usnc 1- t,y - intellectus1 currents wlthin the tlnlversity whgre they h~id trained, and the professlclnai c1reles where they were act IVK members. THe social theologies emanating out uf thC Cathol lc 4 1 - IJniversity of America, had a strong inf luenee on this cadre f : of regional leaders. New theories of adult education from t Britain. Denmark, and the United States, partlsularly the r' New School for Social Research, created an eptimism,- - ------regarding the potential social impact of aduis educq'tion - 4 'For the People, column of The '~:Bs&Ldrer upon co-opsrstlvn i and adult education experiences in the United Kingdom, the 24) Coady, Masters ot Their Own Destlny, lk~: States,*.and ed+i@ion programs in the Canadian ~rai-r'ies.' 6 / Z n- ; Reflecting t:he reformist- - lnf luence of early American '* + %k? . iology, %be 'For the People' es were as much an - ~%xh~rtativejision uld be, as a sow1 - - - ' nci-ntif ic explanation of whqt society was. The unGue - 1 - -. '- - -* - feature of this newly evolved liberal interpretation of thd 1 socio-economic situation ig Eastern l~ova coti id was :the ' emphasis or, rural issues as \opposed tp labour and' ' . - jndustrialization. The definition of the problems of - dirkct ref lF&ioi of the existential situation hithim which - . . the priest/intellectuals, and educated laity lived their - C daily lives. i i - " .e. - =. Pluta land Kontak zrgue that the philbsophy of the , d - leaders bf the ~ntigdnishMovement wdbask upon two 1) the equality and iu-herent worth of every in ividual T (I, 1 . b - % - regardless of,race, religion, or ccilour. \* 2) the inability in society as-it is presently - - structured for each ind'ividual to develop his full As 1 have demonstrated in Chapter 11, these premiqes b. were inhrwoven with a socidlogica1 assumption af a - ------ha rmunious , - c: or purate's crciety %as e-~11p-~)n~c-a~01:10~~ci-a-l , - - 2 / -,, 25) Plu-ta 1. , and Kontak, W. , 'The Philosophy-and approach of the Antigonish Movement to the Problems of Development'-. - - Paper presented at the Annual Conference of ~a6inAmerican Studles. 1grZ3., p. 02. - . , ~oveniezlt,such a corporate society was not then in place in - * B , i eastern Nova Scoria. Establ~shingsuc~.~oclety was to be - ,' - - \. I .. the-mandate of the Antigon~shHbvqpent t- hraugh th'e' mathods & - P '. of ad'utt edncation; gro,up qc:ti-on and co-opwrativism.. - .- , - \. ... -ThruugG these mathads, $he farkers,," fishermen ,and labplirers *: r/ - '. - - of -eastern Nova Scotia would develjp th%ir fubt pot.qnti61 t -. I . , . , within sociem. . At, the same tine, corpurat,ions. unions arfd L _1 - . other oqdan ifiat ions would, through the checks of ,government., b "- - the church aid a healthy co-operative sector ,, fulfill. their I - - , ? ', ~hrou"~hstudy and ipfnrmud group action, the r . - '" ' developmint o'f' c-0-operative enterprises. wbuld- arise as the I intermediary organ4zationsthat wquld allow- the indibidual 4. full economrG'pa-rt'icipation in society. Coady's vision of ' , f- the need fob -a 'restructured sbciety based on a large c,o- . / operative sector asctheOm&ans towards individdal 'felf illmen t %, \ A3 was clear: - I 1.- 3 - Lzv .% < - *. "Co-operation will~givrthe people a mepsure- $7 a" b . economic independence but.^$ will do something a- . r- I - - - infinitely greater than this. It will, condition them a - I I. to the point where they are-able to marlipulate '2 s ' effectively the othe~forces that should operatk;in a ' = - &mocratic:'%ociety. ;ta B v. - ', . ------2------The Antigonish Movement-was not'so--much- - changing the opportunities of ihe individual' actors wi&hin j 26) Whether this philosophy "as realized in fact is the subject of Chapter 4. 27) Coady op. cit., pp 120-121. 1 - , 28) Ibid., p 125. \ - e * q* . m - 2 P ". *, t - :, - '" 9s 4 - - , the society. rue education, at 'pebplesr-education wag the - I, 7 - 1. -P # ' [ insver; and t s' waswhat the' ~xt~nsikDepartment aimed to - % I . provide. However, the educational and ?social goals of the . - Antlgonish ~ovement'leaders were morg 'than ameliorative, -for >. '- - - the their goal ?as to creatqdthe conditions whereby people. LA themselves would-redress the- imbalances of society. 6n this sense the Antigonish ~ovemebt,while conservative-by nature, - L . 7 was emanc ipatory -in ambit ion .+ - 4 - - %, %, - k "we need therefore, a new kind of education that will give people life where they are and through the ------pp------& 'calling in !which they Find themselves. "2s- j . - - * l -a Thus the functidn of: the Extension- Department was tb f - create the conditions for an emancipakory process by-which - A the farmers, fishermen, ' and -labourers could better their ' b. . sr position in life ihile at the same time maintaining their - + k place in life. This _view of- the relationshipeh-+r-la-n Individual opportunity and corporate Pesponsibility, and the - - ability to create an enhancehent of democracy w'.ithin .society. - \ - .* wnk a primary ideological .steering mechanism for the- -. , educational Frogram of the ~ntl~onishMovement. It -offbred - - - . . - tangible goals, and- a programme of action towards the * attainment of those goals, for- distinct occupational Secforg " the United States as much in response to socialist orb **~ -, . uonmuqist ideologies as to thb aboses suffered f~0.mrampant ' 23) toady quoted. in Laidlaw, 1971, .op.. cit., p.402. 1 afforded t-he bniqu& opportunity to put chtholic soclal - - 0 .. \-- theology to.. t-he test as a viable alternative to-socralism. 9 As Coady states: - . - 2 -- - \ , "The -in-evitability of ..the Marxian-way- is a false _- B assumption, ane of thbse fine bits of -absolutizing that Q - #. does not fit. the fact. By inhlligent individual .and *I - . $ group action, the masses can re posses.^ the eartk. 'The 1 - democratic formula of which economic co-operation 1-s a ' - a of. .- wital pakt, is adequate. 1 t takes-. the appeal out. '. ------pp the Marxian--- call to arms.and says instead 'Workers nf -- - the world arise! You need not be. p?coletar~ans431 \ - + - .P - The key to individual emancipat.iorP, a r.et,urn t,o - - democracy, and rthe adimina+tion of the class C wag8-earners, result from the ability I , - become propert -industrial owners - enterprise. i- - + ' What must be considered is the question of Kow the - I - ideology of the Antigonish Mo+ement developed into the ' - . - rather narrow definition of both the of the people 1, - 3. -. of Eastern Hova Scotia ,and of course the corresponding -- , narrow definitions of the solutions to those The / ' X .- delineation of two distinct strands of-priestly 'activism; , . . that of the more conseqvative rural. parish priest. whose % ------participation in the '~ntigonish"~ovement varied - ~M~raQly,a~~d iht:murt?~:ur~slstell~part*ti~~~ and 'I. commitment of the priest/intellectuals who firmed ,+-he ,' \ 30) Stye ~ha6t;r twd. 6 b 3l).Coady op. cit?, p. 138. - ",4 C .% 0- - - - / *, -.. I _- - . < leaxiersbip cadre of -the ~nti ovement, must be - - IQ~C)P~&=X%. ~~7thtblr reln to the Cbtrch. . Tke b 1 - appointment of doady Lo the pokition of Director 05 the - Extension ~epartmentwas direckly from the office bf the Bishbp of the Archdiocese. The Church was mak3ng it very ------c& ar that the social and educational agitations arisinugL - - - 1 I from the se-veral constjtuencies within the Diocese wefe to -- - be kept wikhin-both the traditional conf in-es of Catholic - B - - of Church 'authority. 6 - - - ' The appointment of Coady as Director ok the Extension - -- -- Departme =&-a ke~rvo-5vm-i . i i I t: , r ed--6f&ad y a I. s an ? , / - :organizer 'of f isheay co-operatives for 'the federal' - / government. - It was thb. culminat'ioh of ser&es' of 'ac"tions -. < by the ~locesan-ieadership of which the universMy merger -- - -L 8 -- debate and the parish exile of several of the liberal a P priest/intellectuals- were a pr'ominent part, to ensure that . Bj _ . the rising tide of liberal social etivism would bE! - e 1 Eocussed, and if necessary mitigated, through the f krmal channels of the epjscopal hierarchy. As far ,as ish hop Morrison was concerned, what&%r was to come out-- 0-f khe' - Extension Department of St. Francis Xavier ~nfversity,it - was to be decidedly CaCholic.32 - .. The *early-period of extension department organizing-, *confined to rurallb'areas, focussed upon group action in the - - . . . - . - - I 32) Bishop Morrison's concern was that -education within the *. 1, - Diocese, particularly adult education, had to at all times remai,n faithfvl to Ehe Church. As the Chairperson of the first and subs&quent Educati.ona1 C~nfer~encesheld in . - ~ntigoniehfrom 1918 to. 1921, ~iqhop'~orri.sonleft the stamp of the Church on the agenda and topics of the conferenbes.,,. ,. 'See Peter Nearings, He 1,oved the Cmch: The Rioaraphv of_ . , 1 I> Eksho~..&&n R.. Macpnnald, 1975, p. 69. , ,. ,. ). - \. - 1 - - - pp ------.A- 99 ---.2 - A areas of credit and cb-.opera.tive puFe5hiasxng. The -first m- i -Pi brganiked venture pf most of t h,e*'ktudy -club groups was the - -, \ b - develqpnent of a community pfkdit union. Credit, or rather - ,iA - the lack bf it, coupled-tiith the usurlous terms eytracteti -- ./ -. .' - for credit frogl.cd6G"anyrY stores qr payment glnn furnitire - C " c , stores, was apY%obl& close to the. hearts of farmgrs. -, w . ,- f ishermeri, and labourers. A lack of cash flow meant the .. - inability to pQrchase seed. so it was glven on credit by 3 , local merchant, or clothing e burden of credit and the Gromise of -freedom through' the - - - 'credit union ' wag an sxcxting prospect. - After extsrlsiv~preparat.lon a;ld grr~url-dwurl< rr indoctrinqtjng-the community ,in the benefits of a credit I union, the- next question was, where do the savings come - from? -, a . _ The Extension Department s. answer,to the question of . saviAg was two fold. One, any arnognt, even & penny, was to t be considered Bn honorable 'deposit for the building of a credi-t unipn'. 'For example, the Chetiearnp ,Credit Union 9 a ,colle.cted a deposit of_ Id cents every,second Sunday before - church sarvike.33 - ~dcohd,f indjng a regular sum of;soney, fo~deposit into . * - Y L the credit union became an..integr& part of the educatiorial tl ' woi~lan's pr irnary funct i.on was as the-,homemaker ,..but t,he - . * i., t mundane an T ieldworkers. retrwated this reality into a - *. a + 33) Dehaney, op. cit., p.. 69. m: c \ rT - r) t I B - I - . % - Pa - w w 1 U - C' Y= i ncl I = J-. - @ - - accept8rl~eby the woman of her pdace ofe importance as the % . pritnary spender of the f?mily.iticame where household saving - and thrift dere her respori~~ibility."t, Early topics for - '. $> + dlr:c'u.;slnn in- the study clubs incl;&b consumer:edycat ion - - / U g~fograrn.taught- another important credit union- - *p~.iririple. This was3 t'nat, every cnmmun'ity had 7wlt in :& - i - lt,c;elf. 7,- the r&smlrces to tike care of the ordlnary -shJbt w I* term need6 of its pkople. Th-nse who were planning a -- - z gnv$rnrnent. t.o enact credit union' legislation.- St; Francis - Xavler ;ilvited Roy F ., ~ergeGgrenup tir Nova Scotia between 1YbiU &and 1332 to help develop the methodologies of - I - org3ni-ingCh credit unions. -- + Bergengren. was a ioneer o=rganizer of credit unions in Le - r ., _ 'Ltip llriited States andzspoke on this topic st s5veral Rural and lfihostl-ial Conferences. 35 By 1932, the Extension bepartamerit succeeded in its attempt to .have provincial- - 5 1 - -. credit- union I eghlation enacted. The previous two year-s of - +study cluporganlzing by the ~xtensiogDepartment laid the 34 ) tbid. . p. ',''CI; 35 Kay Desjardlns, Voices Crylng to the World', in thoc1 t Volume 9. 1960, p.- 10. operatives was somewhat more Frc~blemtlc . The f jp ltjuorkers . I _ b ----A -> A - - Schtia - farmers: f-ishermen, and lsbaurers - dtzn~arrdeci . . A422 fering-forms of co-operative en ter~prl:;e. F::lr t.hca t':3rrrit;r-s - L and fishermen, t he co - operat,ive rrrgar~lzlnp f c-~clltrsrrt or1 t.tig - - i.on7umer good2 :"a~>r , leadershfp. 37 I. b However, the f ieldworkers were ahle to larg~ly cir-cumvent the *ilktile reactlons of the unlot~1eadrrrh~p - - - ' through their use of the parlsh priests, and the local -3 - the miners and steelworkers. f vm It was in the organizing of study ~lubs,~-*r~d~t Iln ll,nc< Y and co-operatives that the A?tigonish fieldworkers wters xtiost 4 t - 1- -- II_ F - r~kiu~fsf~d pzub- -o 6 , and credit unions in eastern Nova Scotla 1s pressn~ed~n $Chapter 4 of this thesis.' 37) The position of the raical unlon leadershjp on Cape Breton Island i-s discussed in Chapter 2. ' Chapter 4 r,f t,hls< thesis outlines $he reaction of the'Cape Rretort union leadership to Antigoni~~co-operat~ve organlzlng. r. ------ppp-- p-pp-----L I 19 -. U)'. - - . '/' -vL. * J~ '" e -,* - 1 TJle church intkllie~tuals,and their - -a I - t f ieldworkers were aGJ e ,to acbleve this.~suc~essat the, ' - L A - - community level-thruugh-the use of intermediary , f - i - / organizations. such as the' c,hurch parish or the Scots- - f /- - - -- f'a+;hhc-"3qcietis~already in place. THe success - of the ------a - - A -. Cll -- - -- 'Antigcmish Movement was predicatedkupon t,heir ability to tap - . - ~ntothese organizatll-ins and rally their members towards the - ..z- - - - I Ant igonish cn-operatlvs cause .- The sudeess of these - organ~zatianaJendeavprs are the sub.iect pf the next .6 - - t-hapter. The actual development of the co-operatives, and * * \ tt~eirrelat,lonship with these 'secondary "organi~at17ns will LP ana1yzecLrin or-t~eEt;o confirm the thesl: That- , . - IS. y' w& the'distini-t Ideological .'prugJam of a the ' - ~ht,goje,,ishMovement. highlje compatible with the ethos of the - organ lzat,lbns *adready Sn pl-ace at the cojnmunlty b L / level 'in &stern Nova ScoLia, that lad 'topthe successk of - - -N NI -N - RESULTS OF THg - - - - - J 0% The cbn tinual agitation of ~ompk~n~later coa,dy u.ALu------>. during the yearsopreceding the formatldn of the Extensi-on * Department was to bear immediate frul-t. The People's - school, the Forward the, success of the Scots- &. Coady was to draw upcm as sew Dir'ector of the Extension - - - Department. This was in addition to the experience ~oafly had gained through his federal appo'intrnent as -an organizer - - -1 * . of fishing co-operatives. Also. the leaders of what, was to .A # - become the An-t igonish Movement w&e 'those in ,closest ?on t.6~t with the secular affairs of provincial and federhl agencies " .- Cuady s tenure 'as a federal fisheries organizer, HacDonald - - R - and -MacPherson s provincially funded extension work with 'the \, C -. farmers and producers, and later Alex MacInt-yre's - - a conriections - with the Cape Breton radical unio-nbovernent were theabases of contacb with governmental rninlstries, and the labour unions that directed both political and f inanci'al - - - R support towards the Extension Department of St. Francis \ - #.. #.. Xavier University. - - - e - - _ Just as ihportant, agll the a%ove leaders were- Catholic, - 9 r, *.- Coady and Tonpkins -having held leadership positions within * F~ancis Ur~iversity, ihe . Aacack.mi-~~&st. Xavie~ ------St. ranci cis Xavier ~lumni'Association. the ~ura-iYand Induskrial Conferences', and the Scots-CathoLic Society. 8 Alex MacIntyre, blacklisted from the entire mining- industry - al-ong the eastern seaboard, converted from 'communism to - - T - - 104 - 4 - cathoilclsm ' , ad brought this zeal, teypered through coL n - - d~r bJ kficZk2t-- t . mw,,*u=jwhu - I - - stiki hdld him in high- respect. 1 A. b. ~ac~onald,and Hugh - - L . - times, - MncPherson were, '-at. various f ieldworkers 'of the - - - I. grovikcial agriculture hep%rtment', and *faculty members of ' - L .- ' - The abovE leadershPp connections formed the basis of an - ------* .a llianbe between federal and provincial ministries, St. Leadership -organizations found at the community level. . This - alliance, with the financial and structural aid of the - - , C~maXRuckefeiierFoundations, - generated the ' impetus- -.. \ , - - necessary to gather _the fruits af *the, decade long - -% organizing, educating, and agitating by tEerje leaders-. - This chapter will -consider the -results of khe i Antigonish Movement organizing- fro& its -inceptionV%n 1930: - - to its height in 1935. The Fuypose of this chapter is tg outline the affinities between the structural and ideological- steering mechanisms of the St. Francis .Xavier - Extension Qepartment and leaders, and the communities wi-thin which the Antigonish Movement gained a foothold. Following, - '9 an outlioe bf the communities, 'particularly in Eastern Nova . Scotia, within which the Antig~n~shMovement organi-zing cT attempts failed, or were never introduced-uill be presented. -, - - , I * Finally, the author will present a discussion on. this 'formation and growth, or lack thereof, focussing on,the - - & - . relaiionship between fhe iaeology of ~ntig&i;h-~o - - -1 .Alex MaeIntyre gives an*accopnt of9 his conversion - in the ~xtensionUepartrnen t. art kle From Cnmism t.o Chr-. (No Oate). , ;,communities. In essence, the of to-whom did thg 4 -= - / . - Bntigonish ~ovementnot appeai is as important as to whom it * Unions. . ubs - -- \ .. a \ Co-op - > - Fish I . Plants - - 3 5 5 10 - 11 11 Lobster - 3 8 12 14 17 17 17 5 Other - - - - - \ 2 2 I -2 short. C Courses - \ \ 86 1. 44 30 63 78 132 .. \ r .-a ( 50rv - General 192 28d 380 SO0 450 t 4'70 - Meeting -- '\ - 1 \ 0 # (Att. ) 14856 20476! ,.3000 25!3Of.-j 27(]00 43000 , . - Staff - \ - + - 4 3. 5 - 7 (Full) - 3\ 5 , I I Part . .. me - - 2 2 4 '3 4 , \ < +28,000 includes the -=?wtiple \ of Nova Scotia *500 are reported- to take short courses in Industrial cape 1 - - Breton #The figure of 18,000 is given for Eastern- ova Scotiaa - L 2) Host of the figures given in this section have-been researched and presented. in the two doctoral theses-in sociology written by Sacouman and MacInnes. 'However, th-e - author. verified t+se figures with the 1931 Census data, Extension Department, and secqndary sources. - 3) See Extension Department Report, Extension Archives (RG30-31-3/25/897). - / population'uf-.eastern Nova Scatia. 42% of the total - : --- - . - d 4 population, were of SEots ancestry,- -the majority of these - - - '_. I being Cat,holic. The other two major ethntic gr'oups -were D 1 - 9 French (23% of the total populatidnj and Irish (18%). . a - . Howeve_r,_as MacLnnes points _out,'-the Scots- and--the ,Acadiaf-rs------\- * f orrneci _relativel.y h~moge~eou~communikies .4 For 'example, in Eastern- Nova Scotia, Inverness ~o~nty'was75% Catholic with - , - - was H7X Catholip with-56% Scots-Catholic; ancLRichmond .. : L . - County with ,Il9X ~atholicand 3'4%-Acadian Catholic. , d - .- * =. Further.. t;heerurd,??b~plit In 3 astern-NmAc o t I a , P - was almost 5U/50 du-e primarily-td large ooncentrations of --? , * miners and labourers in the Sydney and Pictou a-reas on Cape Breton Island. The mainland was primarily rural with \ - Ant igonish and dysborough .at der 80% rural ; Inverness at . *, - - . Over -'-"raX rlqral; rind Richmond and Victoria Counties I - . -approximating 100%. rural. . \ - id - %he constituencies of the Extension ~e~art&ntwere f either based Githin regidns with an almost exclusively - - i A. A ,urban, or rural populati~n. Yet both constituencies 4 - I main talned a 'high level of ethnic and religious homogedeity . I - - ~onsider;ng the leaders df the Antigonish Hovement .Q - - \ ha:-kgrourlds,- it rs not surprising that the first attempt-s at' % -- \ -- organzing were uibkin the rural sectors. By -19332, study - - - 1 ..I . I c~uu~were Daseu prima riiy in rural lnverness ,and - , , Antigonlsh. -Both of these counties held high levels of . I. 'A- - ,' , r & . - /' - - - _S" /' . - I ,/ -.I - ,' / - - /" - - - 107, -- - - T, d - ,-l .I I. L L T ~COLS-L~L~O~~CpopulaLlon .. s (lnverness: '15 -.d X Cathol~c,,- 16% - rural; Antigonish: 87% Catholic, 81%~rura-11.5 Jncl ding -- f-:---7- --- the three ~tidyclubs in the rural areas OF Cape Breton - - County, a'total of 75<% ofa+the commnities served-were Scots- / -- -, ____1___*_. ~"~__r_____-- L -A. -_ --- Catk61iid,-and alr.*-f7Athem-we?% -rKal.e In 1633, -~~ex - . -- r - - - ,Mac~ntrye-was-hired ,to organize the miners. This sake -year. .- i 8, , ventures- was ~elativelfrsuccessful. All of the urban' study z - - clutis *created a credit union witxin, about two Years. and 4 -- over 85% of the-Scots-Catholic yral*cqmmunity study clubs - - - - - , moved on to credit union formation. In contrast; th; make heterogeneous rural comrnuiii_ties took much 1-ong& gnd had a lower success rate in credit union formation-a However: - * . - even khobgh these credit unions had-charters, and were . 1 - formdly lodged with the pGovincia1 government, they 2' " rehained, at least for the first several-years, very small * r i ' and ,with minimal financial resources. Since the p*lrpose of * - the study clubs was a cofisciousness raising ixerclse on the - - C- - A virtues of cooperative. organizing, they were transitory in nature. Several clubs within a communfty would be lost wit\ , ' -1- the -inception of a credit union or cooperative ente'rRrise. A \ =- - , t h - 6 * 5) Ihid, p. 236. - 6),Ibid, 'p. 237. I I -238. a TLhas been very Littls r=i-ttcn (M the - < f - - impac,t -.of women iefdworkers and wonnec &udy club niembers -*n the Antleonish Movement. A sense of t.he impnrtance nf women, particularly Catholic Sisters," in the' development of the Antigonish Movement can be gleaned from the artic1e.b~ . Sister Sarah MacPherson, 'Religious Wpmen in Nova Smtia: A Struggle-for Autpnomy. A Sketch of the Sisters of St. - Martha of1 ,Antigonish, Nova Scqtia l9OO-l96O', 14, and- 'lda - - ~e1ane~'sBook, Rv Their 0-ds: A-Fiel-kess Adcnun_t - of the Antimnish Movement, op cit., 1985. 8) "acInnes, op cit.,p. 239. R - a Lt a* \ " -:$ - - / t +- - - + J,-<- 1 - i -. .* . d - I08 L I The, gr-owth in numbers of the study clubs reflected the - s s- - . A - \ - growth df Extension Depa&ment 'org'anizing across eastern - k -\ : unions did, to some extent, _move beyond ,the>boundar,Les of'- ' -4 ;the adult education* techniques of the Extension ~epartmbnt: ------ .. Seminars, short courses, and literature were developeh'qs a Lb- - , - early as 1932 and- were -a primary organizational 'means for \ I - maintaining contact betyeen the study clubs, fhel-r leaders, - C - and the ~xterision~~epartment. * - - - Yet, the vast majority of the men,, and -1aEer women, *. * -\ - . involved were From ppima-ri ly Catholic commurri ties,.,and - - - Scots-Cathol ics still represehted .a ma.jority. The ra.tio , Y' between. rut.31 and urbdn'participants in the shht course ahd . - 4- conference participation also reflects the early subject / . - emphasls on rural matters. Between 1-932 and 193, the - I majority f the study groop leaders and participants were/ 2. * , - fro9 rural areas. . It was onl; in 193; and 1938 that urban ' participants became activeIy'involved in the adult education a t %ventures-of the ~xtensilfln~epartment . 5 - - > - Also, the representation of ~articipantsfrom outsjde - - - s - +Jiaste.rn Nova. Scotia from '1932. tb -1938 reflects the - P lricreasing popylarity ahd'reputatiori the ~nti~onishMovement - was gaining outside of Eastern Nova Scotia. In 1932, all-of C , - -. th ts sere frm wi.thin Eastern .kva Seotic, yzt 0 -. > ------ by 1937, the majority .were external participants. However ,, , - ' Catholi~sremained the majority of $hese external - Y) See UC a Day, Extension Department; (no date). lcl) MacInnes., ~p cit., p. 242. T' - (. - L- " - - -" -- , - - - - ? -- . - a --- + -, i I ?sag - " u.." - * - - The key. issues here are: why did the ~ntigonish .a 6 a - ' a - !. *. Movement appeal to distinct religioirs' and .ethnic *groups;' ------what brought the-urb co-operators into the movem&nt> and - - - 4 > . why were scots ~atholicsaverly -represent-ed ip both the," , - t * fornrals c'o-operative ventures, and almost exdlusively in the - -. , - -ri *- - _- I I_ _ -P ------\------adult, education- Other concerns 'include;- why 'G~s' ' --T , - \ - - th.&re a steady decline of participation in these pr6grams - * ------;ithiq Eastern Nova Scqtia while oitside participation increased? Why did the &ten&ion Department- cease,-. - its adult - aid- leadekshp i- 5, education pregrarns such as short courses, , T.. - b ?-r., ', program+afte> J938? Fisally, why did the Antigonish , t> Movement stabate after 1940? ?' ' - - - i After the appo,intment of Moses Coady, as Director of .(i the Exkension Department, the -legitimation process of a I - f previously*marginal social philosophy and intended plan of I I action of the priest/intellectuals was complete. The ' - - I- . Catholic Chu-rch ha& placed a-seal'of approval on the co-, - - I - operative, adult education 'vision of these leaders and- the '- / doors were opened to undertake ,act ion. This ~~isc&alsta-mp allowed the- rural parish priests, who previously largely - remained aloof from this program, to facilitate the - -. organizing endeavors of the Extension Department. W itK.the - B - - Church's blessing, the ,rural parish priests now had a f - 2 - , - \Catholic method of betterrng the -economic situation of their t 4- - flock. In turn, the Extension Department now,had the level. \ Parallelling the local Catholic Parish "'ere the SCofs- - catholic Societies in- the cornmu~ity.- Many of the - - * - - m 1 - - > - W .. -- P dB r 1 - - - qJ4 -" - p2rtic_ipants +--these Societies were also connecte3 to St.- ,- -. ssuv - - * - Franc is Xavier ,either directly, or through its Alumnae i - t . - --- -1 __-- - - 8 -_ ~s6dciation. lb The scots-catholic Societies Pe-ached iheir - - peak in bath menbershcp and- chapters in 1931; theryear of*' - - - -- A " -4- - ' ~ovement.' The-u-lk of the -members&of the Societies, - - 7 / - their attesting to connectibrr with the St.'~rarrcis Xavier A ------u --- Alumnae Association, consisted af professional, managerial * _ L - >and propert?edrpeople. Farmers and rural tradespersons- - t - represented a mifibrity in -thecsociety memb5rship 153%~.' .. parish priests- yere actiqe in the Societies thus- - , constituting a-clerir link between the local ~ar5shChurch, , - . - .- - the Scots-.Catholic Societies, the Alumnae Association, and rC & - the Facqlty of st. Francis Xavier.University. - -. . The author outlirr& in chapter two how important these , , - I 1 - organizations were in lobbying for an Extension Department - st St. ranc cis Xavier hiversity.' AfterTSTs inception the - \i_+- 32. -- Extension Department made good use s-f th~~cots-catholic - - a Societies. There was a major Chapter ofthe Society in I . I 'every"county in Eastern-Nova Scotia. -The 1931 peak of . , . - - growth of the Scots-C-atholic SocieFjes also represerited a - ,- il saturation point of these soeie-ties organiz-3ng capa-bilities - - , - -, within ~ast&rnNova ~cotia. But this peak represented the f i~ststep of the Extension Department or-uizing. lz ' - - J - 11 )- See gdwards , ' w ilf-iaa. , .The llacphe~rsonc~ompki& Era of St Francis -01,Xkvier University', l964,andMacInneL977- , 78,' pp. cit'.*. ------\ ------. - - - 12) Etiether the intrqduction of the Antigonish Movement into - - Eastern Nova -Scot ia, was, a causal factor in the Scots- " - Catholic Societie~demise is open to conjecture; - The author did not-have the'bpportunity tq gain access to the Scots- Catholic, archives. However, the imperialist nature of the Extensign Department's organizing techniques may well have 'superimposed a differing mandate upon the Societies and , -'their members. - - - - 7-- * - , , - a @ + A L - -P --- - 7 -" -5 : - .v . - 111. - . - < Q This success in organ$zin$ witbib ScoLs-tZ&W- - -. A / \,- _- - - 1 _ colnrnunities reflected-the culmisation of a-l.cm$ tern-, . *- - -- u = - . - ,, - - C - iegitimation process' of, br iog~ngthe Catholic social- r - - , ------+ - - --, - - theories~and adult education, prayfams within the parameters - - = e. - . - ' of the church, - 2 * -a - However, at the level bf the farmer. t isherman, or - I_ ^YL_------" ------.- miner, whether or not the proggarn was Catholic took -s&cond - - -= . place to -its nhvious tangible -rewards. yhrs was reflected. ------* , - ' in the later pakticipxtlan by Acadian and more heterogeneius , Protestant communities. At first ,- the-Acadian- communities , U ' - took- advantage of the Antigonlsh Movement. In 1933, while. Bcadkns represented 23% of the poFlatlon in Eastern Nova d r i 2. Scotia, there were only f3' .credit unions withln- t,he Acadilan - - -. a -. - communities. But by 1938, ~kadianshad organized 15 credit - unions yet other non-Scots'Catholic communities, - L. ' particularly erotlestant, had 25 established. Yet, even-+his - - - I modest growth of actual study club and- credit union , formation was not ref lkcted in i~cadiah*participation in th; short courses, leabe~shipseminars, and conferences. Again - - reflecting the early enthusiasm of the Acadians in 1932, of b - a total of 60 part5cipants enrolled in short courses at the C - - St. Francis Xavier Extension Department, 15 w-ere Acadian . - By 1937, with over 76 participants, none wereAcadian. In -- - - - 1938, the final year of the adult education program there - - were 7 Acadians out of 132 participants. 13 a An everrstarker measure of the exclusive nature of the, I. b n11tigarris-hP10~ernentwas th-e fact- ' that, although thers was _a_.------ ,-. - laraR'k ~o-furla~ion-within caster:: Nwa bcotia, -only ulle - Black fisheries co-operative w- established; This was in ' + 0 - B ------*- . - C -- \ -a . >, -I:.- -I:.- 0 - __ _-_ -_ 1- - z <-- - - , L'L = Big* Bras- .D'Or; a-predominantly Scots CW-5:. - - - +- - - - - The Blapk fishermen's co-operative was established in &936Am --=--> ------two years after Scots-catholic fishermen established- an Antigonish inspired co-perative in the community. 14- The 7 -. J -- - rura-lLurban d iffera oes-show--an-. equal 1 7:exci-a si~s-foqqrK~T~--- - - e - -- . % - - - a - - only of target p-opulations, bu& in participation and - . - d Acthal- numbers are revealing. 176 rural 'study clu6s were organized in 1931, and 385 in- 1932, with no urb - participatj on BE~~~Dsp .4 numbers never came close to reflecting the alpost ~O/SO . - Y 0 ' population 'bf Eastern Nova Scotia. , 8 - 3 reflected in the - - l/urban differenbes in the adult education programs held - - , .I . sates 9 - year, 1938, when 500 peop.le were reported to.have- axtended + - ~xtensionDepartment organized study clubs for the f iist - - - tiDe in the industrial community of cape' Breton Island. 1s t This same year marked the 'demise- of tbe adult educational - I \ ) programs out of the St. Francis XavierWxkension - L - - '\ '\ - -Department.16 '\ - a a \\, 14) Considering the., . almost non-existent orgaqizing within s, it '_isquest ionable whe-$her-$his------.-.-- cociperat'ive resulted^-from active Extension Department - 1ft-1,0, ~f kt was ti cape or c. re - where the Black fishermen became tired of watching their Scots- Catholic neighbors walking down the wharf wkth cash I - jingling in their pockets. 15) Extension Department Report.,Ext'ension Archives., - op -'u cit.. \ 16) A discussi-on of this demise is prese~ted' later in * this chapter. - - - R - %. a * e a- , 2 < Z i . k * - - .---A?- ' / ?& %- * - - - \ B -- * - . -_- C' . - - -, , .-1-$,3. - ,, , rL% m,z--- --* ' - 4 31 and 3936, +he ~nti&nishMovement took : >- ': 7 r L 4 * --I--^- ~gztiain ahanner that -was -f+ - - - - -'a- -' > "- . % f throughout the seven .comities.- Initial- 6r-garri-~i-qgby~the=y~L-~h4~~r ------s Extension Department wasAaimed at the constituencyL of the- ' - 1 Y Archdiodese. . The Bxtensian adepgrh*nt effectively%arheFsed F- - - A _ A _ , _ -. - -- _ ._--_- - - -_ - _ -- - - _ _ - - &__I-L_ -I ...... - the resources of a series bf internrediary brganizat-ions;" - ---- \ax* such ks the scots-Catholic Societies, the parish Chu%ch, aad ;_ - ,- - - -7 s. - - -> ------the governme~ta'lagenc*&, and superimposed- their mandate .3 'ap . upon *them. The primary -structure here was the Catholic -, church'. Moses Cdadq and his staff of f ieldworker's took ' - ' P -. advantage of these int'ermediary oggariizations aligned hith - / , theqChurch,'and the impact of the ~xtensibn,pepartmgnt's ' r - - - - - T 4% - ideology was seen in the success-they achieved within the Q - - -\ - - - scots-Catholic conmu?-ities. 17 The lower~&evels.04 sueciss 3 - . ? -- within the urban Acadian and the most heterogeneous --.*--> - F - religiou's and ethnic communities refldcted a corresp,csnding- h -7 lack of intermediary organizations-. needed both for------ organizing capabilities; and for legitimation purposes'. The - - lower revels *of -organizing success, and at tlmn a comp_lete ' - -. inability ho argatiize within the ~cadia-n', urban, and more 6 -, -- heterogeneous communities r-ekulteg from first, a lack of" " .intermediziry organizations withh the30 comuiuniti~s'that - - - cou1,d channel the i,deological and ln~thodologicalenterpr i'se - , a of t&e Antigpnish Movement, and second, the presence oP' . , \ competihg intermediary organizations and ideologies w$thin - . - 173 The governmental age~ciescannot be seen as intermediary organizat.ions of the Church, yet their independance .was tempered bp the fact that the active governmental fieldworkers were Catholics with close personal and professional ties to,the leadership cadre of the Extension I Department. , a I C I - *.. *.. ' P - - - - 0 A 'D '*1 . >- < - - P. - .L 114 - 0 - these communities. This is the subject of the following - - -- , sgction of this chapter. 2 - - - ..d ..d - A- , _> - - 4 / 1 - * 'a ures of the An Howenenf,/ G. - Analyzing-c the development and growth of the ~nti~onish' - -A - -- - - A - - 1.. ALL -- - -AU--L----. Movement has been the subject -of several studies, including- - - - - .- , . this thesis.f What has not been-considered; is why the ------Ant'igonish Movement- suffered lower levels of syccess, and. even failures; in certain ~~~~~~~~~~~~la This section wYlll- - Z give examples of where Yhe Antigonish ~ovemeht-clashed w-ith *. (i 4 < the communit ies they hopedwwin over to-.their coPoperat ive , I - - t- vision. . B - - e - - -- \r - - ,, - Ona of the clearest examplas of the vary-i~gsuccess of , - - P \ the Antigonish Movement wi-thin cbmmunities was with the - f-rench speaking Acadians. It has been outline5 above how - not bnly were the ventures of, the ~ntigonishMovement - into - I - the, Acadian communities only very Fartially successful, but I - - the Acadian involvement in the St. Francis Xavier short courses, lead&rship courses, and Conferences was vir%ually- 'non-existent. -This did not Gan that the Adadian farmers, - Pr and particularly the fishermen, did no< organ5ze co- - - Y a I - operatives, rather, the extensive organizing that took place ,- - * - - paralleled and at times overlapped with the Antigonish - - - -. 18) See Chapter 1, Review of the Literature. @ 19) One reason for -this-lack of -&alysis of tHe failures--6f ,--- . - the hntiganish Movement is the corregponding lack of information available on this issue hithin the Extension ' ~e~artmbtArchives. .This could _ _- that the archive.^ consist; of ic and administraeive papers and y ithin the E~tension format,ion of .study failure would not.be contained in the Archive= - - , - - \ , - - 4 - - * i. " '. ",11s P ? For example, on Cheticamp Island, in the Cape Breton % - , 6.r~- unms even CQ- ,, . Ci \ . > were being 'organized ,indigenously f rorn 1934 to 1943 wibh L% - -- .% - little help fro?, and indeed a degree of animosity betGekn * 1 this community and f he- leaders of the ~ntigo A -" A'lex -John ~oudreau,appoi-nted- provirrc'lpl agricu-ltural-. - ~-"-Q-----~+- u 2. * represaptative in: 1934 to Cheticamp, &a; instFunetl&l in +. '* for help, ~oudr~auproached the province of Quebec, where "B / \ the history "of credit union (caisse populairss) organizing '* .a .a ' L . 0 ' travel-led to-the7Gaspe coast, andLwith the help of parish - 6 * priests, selected 54 yobng people for lqadership courses. - - - - - A, a Thgse pdtential co-operative organizers, financed by- the - * - - government of ~uebec,were taken 4%.Anne-, Quebec for - - - five days of leadership ,training.21 * -. *BoudreaB.s major grievance (which he shared with many I. Acadian community leaders) was Gh,at he perceived to be the ~rroganceof the-~ntigbnish ~o%ement regardihg the Acadian \ C language, and culture: - - a. " 4 "And.1 nevef appreciated, particularly at that 3cT time, the complete ignorance- particularly of Dr. Coady and St. Francis Xavier people- of the French language. . - - 2% t . . .the whole gntigonish Establishment, including the. .- , - -- - " . ------t 20) ,hhe, history of the Quebec credit union mpvemsnt can be found in George Boyle's popular- history, The Poor hi.a , , 1951. " :IslandT, :IslandT, in Ca~e':k , Number 32, p. 9. At this time, Boud,rqau I-- ) Fret.on Mu '+ estimated that 7PX of the people within his juri'sdictio~-j4 .,would not speak, or even understand- English., I. Ibid, p.-llc k -1 ' , - , - -- .------.ap- -- - - ppp--- -, &-.-*LUL.-~IIW~ ' I'I-~KI bccmm-e SII~A~~~~~ii~llu~~ ,* w - 'nd need far ahy French- languarje in the Uioc~seof . c s - - I - - Antig~nish.".zz - / X ' What Boudreau did, without the Exterrsicln Departmerit 's- - 7 - - \ blessrng, was -to- Lake li-Ler-atu~e-on st-udy .clubs and-caisse -- - -=- - - I - - -- C populaikos a tong with most of the 'Extension Department a - When (>Lady trimto impose an English speaking field - 1 ! worker upon the Cheticamp {ommunity, a conflict ansued o - - .., - "Ur. Cugdy, whom .I admire, tried to appoint a . G fellow from Mabou who cou1dn.t speak one word of French - - to direct. my study clubs in English. And $ ,told him I s couldn t accept. My answer was _"I m going to meet him F r - and tell -him to stay home." Oh boy,'that was quite a 'fight, because Dr. Coady was not an essy man to deal * ~7th.8ut:I dldn't do that on%y own.' ,All myqeopIe, and the priest $rom the tkp down, were comp.letely - - agai~lstth'at bdcause thgy knew in English it-wouldn't - dn a damn thing for us. -90, anyway, he ,didnrt- aome?'2s _ i~~atiydid not take lightly to Bondreau's refubal to embrace 1 * 2 the Antigonish'~ovamentand twice lobbied to have him fired - - t'_r12m his posit+on as agricfltural representative .2* - --- - 'Tti-1s cultural imperialism on the park of the Extension _ --- .- - * +J L1oparttnent was also reflected in the choice of the credit - - 2)A. Boudreau quoted in Ca~eRretnn's M~;l@azb,p. 11. 1.;3 r budreau. quoted. in Ihid. , p. 11. 24) lt71d.. p. 13. 7 I , 79.T - * - 7. I - - - *& t - 11'/ b - -C , \ union expert who was hired to-supervise initial training and - * organizing. Coady brought Roy Bergr&nsen up from the United - --- - V - 7' states; ykt the maritime p'rovinces*- neighbo& in -~uibe&e - *ere P , already benefitting from a highly successful credit union - * C - - - . . -- movement. The -caisse populaire, begun at the- tuxm--af -the - -.. .- 9 / %century, numbered almost two hundre-he Extension - + .. .. * - .. U ~eparkrnent'was fprmed .25 The .i- was that the Quebec - - - credit union movement became the mod61 for the United Skates .- Movement, . J .- , The inskitut~onalarrogance of the .Extension 8 zz LeparLrnazL+~p11~dhy-is3.p~rrf a--ca rkcdxn ;I 1 s o - - '1 - created problems on Prince 'Edward Island. J.T. Croteau, who - - ,I 'also worked &thin the Island's Catholic Church -and the . - _ Catholic St. Qunstan's University to promote credita unioqs - -- and co-operatives, clashed with Coady and the Extension / Department when they attempted to move into the Tsland*: - - - ~ith-outany consulta$ittn with Croteau, the Cathglic Bishop, - - - or the President of St..Dunstan University, the Extension - ~epartmentnegotiated a grant from the Domiriion ( f edera 11 4 - ' Fishegies to develop and conduct an extension and co- - 7 2, / operative program among the' Prince Edward--15land /- , R . <", W,' fishermen. 28 The leaders of .th&*Flrince ~dwdid-1slaiid bo~. B - % C .operative- ventures, including the Bishop, Reverend boyle , an F -.a -.a ayid supporter of the ko-operative mov&rnent, refused to L- h - allow Coady and A.B. MacDonald to unde2ak6e this prog;am: - - - - ppppp- , . . 25) See Moody and Fite, The Credit Union Movement: Ori- md Develo~ment, 1971, pp. 18-25, 78-80, and Boyle, op. . -tit., 1951,p. 201. By 1948, there were over a thousand caisse populares in QG3ec with 200 million- dollars in assets. Boyle, ibid.. 2 - 26) J .T. Croteau in mdled-the Waves, op. cit. ppl33- , - 139. A \, .% - . - - 118 ,- ' . . .I consulted with Dr; Murphy-and the Bishop. . 1f _ 9 J- Neither of them liked the arrangement one bit. _ L i 1 - - - - They,resented St. Francis Xavier proceeding- to set up a - - - - progbamme onLthe -island without any preliminary 4 . - - - _ consultation_w~ikh-the-IsJand Leaders, "27 - -- -A - A -- -- , . Coadycs copections with the federal government gave- F - - him acceo3 to this moneyL and the government at first it was handled out, of the St. Francis- Xkivikr Extensioh \ 1 Departbent. Croteau. and the 0ishop finally gained control - 1 - . - 'were only then abl~eto start organizing the fishermen. , , Much earlier; t-he co-operative vision' offered by Coady %. . . - " had caused Pripe Edward Island fishermen to separate from - *the Un-ited Maritime Fishermen, orCganized by Coady, when he - - was a federal- organizer prior to his' posting with the - " - - Extension Department in 1930. The Prince Edward Island , . - fishermen fromathe maritime ofganization with& one' -year of itsknception, and limped along at- a regional level - _ - - until 1944, when the St. ~unstan'sExtension Department re-- % - organized them as a co-operative association.2e - " T+ fl The Extension Department facedsimilar problems in - p;. western Canada, as in Saskatchewan, where the Canadian co- '- - nperativ6"~ederation was still receiving a cool receptidn from the Catholic Church, and in Alberta, -73w ere credit uni& and co-operative organizing whs co-opted by Aberhart and- his - ' - - - = I - x 1. I ~~era~< I ~reul~,- movement:~~ - rnere were mlnor successes in - - - J 2'7) Ibid., p. 138. % - - - '-28 1 Ibid. , pp. 86-87. ' A 29) William Ryan, of the Catholic University in Boston and , - Coady s mentor, considered the C .C_.F. dangerous communists, i- and Coady's friend in Alberta, CorBett, a leader of co- - ned tortes;- a '\ with ord don Shrum of the university of B.C. td organire , , - - - \ - credit unions and co-operatives among the coasqal ,\ ,fishermen .a0 However )the grografil. d-ied out $if hin t;o \' . \L 2 year's, --and the co=operativer~movementwas. vsewed wi-t:h ------I - . \ su~p~icionand a degree -of hostility*by the Cath~Jil~Church- 2 +. fl - .I " -in B.C. .ST 1 2- - 8 J '\ -move into some of the southern areas of the province,\\due to ' . - . % - open hostility towdrds the Extension Department by the\" - - L mt3mtiiiBishsp of H a i i fax .52*h e i; i s hopf*t-Eggs trahy~ht C - '\ his- were not to become involved wj th the \\ \ Antigonish Movement. What was interesting was that +,he \\ '\ - Extension ~e~artmentcomplied and did not make any \ \ \\ organizing .attempts w-i'thin this region of Nova Scotia. ?his\\ h . , the was unlike the Extension Department's'inroads into - \ industrial rnininmg communities of Cape Breton Island where - - \? ~ \ the miners and steel workers union leaders were obenly \ 1 - hostile,to the Antigonish Movement. , \ Again; the Fuccess of Coady dn; his associates in s - \ organizing appears to have been largely dependent on the existence ,of syhpathetic- intermediary organizations bssed . ope-rative organizing in the Provinee,_left in disgust in 1934 and took the position assthe-first Director of the . Canadian Association of.Adult Education. See Earis' op. cit., pp. 21-22, and Gregory Baum's 'Canadianhcatholic Social Thought', paper presented at the J .S. Woodsworth - Conference,, 1988. At the 1332 Rural and Industrial Conference in Antigonish the Executive recommended an 'impartial study of the new political party, the C.-(2-F'.. However, this study was, never undertaken.- See Gfasgow, op. tit., p. 7. - 30) See Shrum, Gordon, 'Among-Canada's West Coast Fishermen', Jmraal nf Adult Educatd, XII, October, 1940. 31) Baum, Gregory, k988, op. cit ... 32) MacInnes, 1978, op. cit.. - - - ------. I . - - e. \ - .. P - 120 -- upon ral lgion and ethnicity. The ~co'ts~~atfioliasocieties . .. - - # L P, were strongly represented within the communities of Eastern tiavd- Scotia and in many of these communities the miners-were - - - - . - praktising Cath01ic.s.~~'With the help of the.parisk - - i C priests. 2nd the scots-catholic', .~ocietles.- Coady . -, - -- - - A - A / "L -" ---ALuL , - circumven6ed the milltant union leadership and gained direct" -9-----'- access to their members,. In many cases, -&nitial +,he Extensi~nDepartment, and were held in th local union - - ti&lls.84 At one meeting, at the Phalen ~oca', where A. - - ;r ~ac4nt~rehad,been a member, the miners unan~mou~slyvoted a , - rasolution &iving roady the privilege of attending any g* / . - &eet ing as a member. 3s . But the success of the Antigonish Movement in the - - industrial sectors was based on a decade long-struggle between the liberal priest-intellectu&\%~and the radical labour leaders. In 1920, Tompkins wrote to Jqhn' Ryan of the - O - - I I CathoTtic University of, America outlining .,. his concerns: 7 i . 6. - ., * "The laboyr element in ou.r lndustr-ial centres is - - . ietingQ- out of hand and their lead~rsare a bad sort. - *. - They are, of course, desirous of helpihg the men and are , * * actually helping them: . Ca'tholics have ~carcely,~awakened , t.h the neFessity of preparing leaders. Our confergnce - -- in~t~L~e-aspect*of ths Labur - p raa -. - -" -- - - - and -pPt least qyto impYess upon concerned that 2. 2. _ all it . - ?- about time for Catholics in these parts $0 take a - 1 - 33) HscLnnes., 1377-78, op cit. ,"p. 43, 'and Frank, David., 1985. op clt.. pp 204-205. 4 - 341 ~elans~.Ida.. op &it.,ppk 44-46. , - 35) Ibld., p. 46. B - - \ * - - * "d ."&,I? 1 strong and intelligent stand the quesYogs that are - h - - agitating the Labor' world."- "T 'lU - '~etween1920 and 1930, Tompkins. contHnually attempted - - u - - \ to accomodatk the labourleaders. In 1921, with'John Ryan --" I I- - C as ,guest speaker, the Conference inc3uded key Catholic - e labour leaders spkh as District 26 vice president i(il1iam - - - - - A - \' - : - ' 4 uelaney. 3ip The $ear-ly Peoples ' Schools, conducted by Tompkins; held classes in ~l&eBay in 1923-24. In 1925. -. Tompkins sent letters to Jr.B. ~c~ach'tan,. - propdsihg a joint ~abourCollege for the Gape Bketon mine*. but-by this' - t'ime, ~ompkinswas in virtual exile in Canso, and nothing - - - came of this proposal. - % - - . By 1932, buoizd hy the success of their rural - rn - endeavours, Coady and his associfites within the Qtension I. Y ., Department took a differing tactic to move the C~UEC~info S: Q I action in the in trial regions. 'At 'the 1932 Rural and,- * - \ Industrial conference where John Ryan was again a keynote speaker, Alex MacIntyre gave a rousing speech an the- dangers - of communism and appealed to the Church leaders to undertake- ' the responsi$ility of stemming chis rising tide. Later that"- fall, HacIntyre was hired by the ~xterkion~e~artment to - . . , i - a - undertake stidx club- and co-operative organizing within the d industrial regions. - - a 3 Another factor - working against the successof the f. -- A~i~onlshMovement in the industr- iai sectors -were lung- -.- "-- I iadependently of the Extension Department. The largkst of - .- 36) J.J. 'Tompkins, to John ,Ryan, quoted in Frank op cit., p 209. 0 37) Ibid,. \ . - - - - - .- * .i - - - ,. - > - i - 122 f * < these, the British Canadian,- was established b)i. immigrant - @ ,- - rn-iners from Scot&and and England who brought wit,h them' a 6 - a L - 6istory of labour, pol3>ical; and co-opeiative organizing., I - - - ' - - Beginning in 1905, by 1930 it had nearly 3,500-rn6~bers and - = annual sales of almost 1.5 million do2-iar-s-se- From 1917 on, - - L2- - - -- : , - - * -I- -I 114- --ll,iIL -. -_-I_L I it was the ' largest consumer co-operat ive in -North America. - -. rt While the- British Canadian was wholly owned by tb- miners, - - 4 - - -- like the leaders o'f the ~ntigonidhMovement, its leaders - took a very conservative stance towar'ds the radical labour - leadership withih the regions. 'The managers of%the Br"itish - - Canadian _stores were pred-ominantly import,ed f rorn-Br it iah , - % - L - through arrangements with major British tea-and jam - - a-- -- f ------distributors. 39 All of the'leaders of the Brit.ish Canadian, - and the majority of iYs members were *rotestant, and both Coady and Tompkins felt this was the primary reason for their refusal to join the ~ntigonish'Movement-. The- - .7 Antigonish Movement's growth in the industrial sectors \ rk' I p&allelled that of the British Canadian, and by 1934, the - ~xtensionDepartment want-ed to d'kelop co-operatives st the - wholesale level. But theBritish Canadian'had already - developed, an2'extensivevolume bu;ingL system and was not *, interested. As one Antigonish Movement member put it wKen , - - writing" to A.B. 'MacDonald at the Extension Departme'nt: - "The Brikish Canadian MUST be brought in ...this t B silly- prejudice -against us must be rooted out. _ Its all - - - V%neta+e-E~tgl i s i I . unt-n ~ts:hall tu pvt! - - - > - - ~obstin~ate."40 . I \ - * - 38) See Mac erson.,-1975., op cit., p. 10. 39) Ibid., p. 09. - 40) L.R: Hollet to A.B. MacDonald, 1935, quoted in Ibid., p. 12. - / - - ------\ \ .- - t. - * - - I - - - - , + -t ,; 0 , - & - - The ~xtsnsion~epa%tment ,& relationship with-the - - - - Bi.iti'sh "Canadiars remained tense thoughout the'period-of , - - - qxpansion of t.'he Bntigonish Movemen-t.; and the department-s , v leaders assumed that the b6st thing the Bfitish Canadian - , could do was to allow- itsklf to be subsumed witMn 'the ------A ------G .- Ax , . Antigonish Movefient. Like the situation on Prince Edward - 1 Island and within the Acadian communities, the Extension - a - /- - - - - ~e~artmentleadaership b61iqved they held the correct vision - - - of a co-operative-society along with the appropr,iate methods - - - t9,create this society. , - When they came against differing views, the Extension - P Department- "leadership could, and did, attempt to use. their - - / \ contacts both within bhe Chur~hand with the provineiil and . federal ministries, to gkt their way. C0ady.s attempts to - get the Acadian organizer Tired, and their initial refusal D to.give up federal funds to the local leaders on Prince ,.I - Edward ~slaidare examples of this. But'Coady's knowledge and use of governmental agencies i C did not include allowing the Antigonish Movement to &ake a - political stand of'any sort outside of co-operative , ' I organizing. To Coady, the Antigonish Movement wak to remain / * + -neutral in politics and gelig-ion :- / "Neutrality in religion, race, and politics is a - fundamental principle of co-oper3ation. In .our program- Q / - - &f adult- we education - and economic co-operatkon adhere The Extansi~nDepartment staff and f i~1dwnrker.q -were - not allowed to become involved in' organized politics. In- - - - 1941, a losing liberal provincial can'didate domplained to- ,/- 41)-~oady quoted in ~ifflen, 1974 ._, p.., 85. - . - -. I - I . ~ - b ~- ---- ~ ------p---pp------~ ~-p-~~p~~-~~~-.pp-- - - - 124 -- - the University Presiden.t that an Extension f ieldworker ha3 . - - actively partic5ppErted in a C.C.F, campaign on election dsy. . - - \ Withthe threat of a lossof govel-nmental support of -- - - b - I' the ~xte~iion.Department, Coady inves'tigated- the allegation - - . without inforni -the f ie1dwo.rker. Coady was able'. to a - - - - * & - - A 2- . < - - h confirm the*allegation as groundless, but he ,did undertake - - & damage control to maintain the policy ?f neutrality. He - \ - be neutral in polities. All our workers have 'beefl - - advised to this-effect. ...[I] have continuously in my - speeches among- the miners and steelworkers of- Cape, - - - - - 8eton out that our movem&nt &educational and - - economic. Moreover, I have stressed the-fallacy of - putting too much'emphasis on political action:- P This, I - have said; is too easy to be effective.- - action to the organized -looks like a quick remedy bu 0 . - - there is- nothing- quick' about it."42 - : . @\- d \ .L - - Extension staff were to act as fsci-litators of social- and economic change for the peopIe. To Coady, only after - - this proc,ess was undertaken, kould the pe;tple be capable of moving towards poll;tical actiofi. But this action could only -- come from the-people. This -view of the necessity for ' - $oli&cal neutrality was not ghared by many in the coo- , operative movement: The 6.C.F. was a product of the < PriL~~~aJt~eratave-- I88;F8I8Bnts on the - - - -- . ------prairies. C:C.F. leaders viewed political action as a necessary extension of co-ope~ativeorganizing. > - 1 - 42) Extension Archives., HG- 20/1/1646.. alsa quoted in , Mifflen.. l9?5., op cit., p. 96. - . I 9 - 12.5 - ~oadylsne'5ghbors on Prince Edwazd- Island also .showed - - enthusiasm for the; benefits ofpolitics'l activism. -- ~h - organizing:and lobbying, -Croteau a& his staff -at St. I - - \ . Dunstan-'s University were able to rece-ive political - P - 9 _ -- =dividen membe,Es,- In 1944, -Crdt;sau -asked aver-L.------. - to serid a.,. letter to their tmmrbr of ----- parliament the stalling-&? legklatiun they wBre - -- - - P i was pointed out to the liberal Premier that co-operativk nnd - - credit union members represent>d abbut 13% of the tkth ~sl;lnrlv&ars~llic~ kfaceII-kemi-~-CuLe&~~~ \ - Y to give-the Credit Union League and >he Co-operative Union -- - . * an annual grant that wduld give the& full autonomy over their operations.43 Shrtly thereafter? A.B. M'acDonald, , Coadjr 's former f ieldworker, and now Secretary General- o'f th-e - Co-operative -union of ~anada,called this action : P - " . . .The greatest triumph df democratkc action in - &' s 3 the-co-operative movement which I have seen."44 The ongoing attemptzs by Coady and his Colleagues to I- - - C - < - ., steer the Antigonish kfovenent ,aLong a ' polTtically neutral '. . - path reflested- their concern for the financial kurcival nf - - v - the Extension Department.*s The fact that a large chunk of the Extension. bepartment 's funding came from d,i>ect V- governmental- -grants-forced C6-ady and- his colleagues-to keep their activism wikh-in the confines of educational and eo-- - -- 43) Croteau., 1951., op. cit., pp 126-12'7. - 44) Quoted in Ibid., p. 4-27. - 45) Coady's idea 'of political neutr'ality was itself based 7 - upon his acceptance of the status quo. Considering the conservative underpinnings of the Ant igonish Movement , this was in itself a political stance. - - - operative prograhees. *1t=was well known that Coady was a - - -".<. A- - - - - A liberal in *his personal politics, and was concerned that the - - A . +- A - Antigonish ~ovement-might hecome co-opted by the social=-p - L \ democratic- movement, including tiie C,C. F r, currently - , sweeping Canada. In 1933, J.S. Woodsworth, then C.C.F. - - L - -- - - uL -- A --- - uL -uLLL-d ----La-- --- leader, paid a-visit to the Cape Breton region 'in order to -A '+ bolster the 6knces of his candidates in the area. Yet, at C------= _, $ -?------1 the same time,- Canadian Catholic- authori&>es were outspoken a 'b - w , in thei-r- condemnation ofLall socialist parties: inclcrding - - the C.C.F. .46 ~lthdughthe Extension Department, and its ' - 4 1. fieldworkers remained aloof from the political winds w-ithin, - the Cape Breton region, the oyganizations the miners . >------ - developed within the ~ntigonish'~ovement,with the' emphasis I -, t- on study clubs and adult education, ~reatedBn 'impetus . conducive to C.C.F, politics. . Many of the rn-iners and - steelworkers drrectlg involved in the Antigonish Movement - - *. eventually made th_e leap -insto politbcs and became actiye . '9d - .~.~.F.er*s*.47 - \, \\ \ * .G '\ / 1- ,. - - e. The development and growth of the ~ntigonishkovem6nt- - \ was- clearly iffecked, pos'i$iv'ely and adversely; 3y'both the - * 6 * gmlit'ical and -c;ltural climates within the distinct regions - 4 of eastern Nova Scotia, and by the, vision of a, ~atholic~ - - * 3, corporate societ; articulated by Coady and-fiis colkegues - * e " -- >. - -- . ------.-- . --- 3 A 46) See Baurn., 1980-, op. cit-., Chapter 3. - 47 )' Earle, M and- Garnberg, H. , 'Th e United Mine Workers and , the coming of the C.C.F. to Cape Breton', -in Fa1 1 1989, p. Jl. The *United Mine Workers in the Cape Breton-region vere the first union to affiliate with the- -, C.C.F.. -The. affiliation was endorsed at the rank and file level thus giving an enthusiastic army of eledtion workers to the C.C.F. within the Cape Breton region., Ibid., p.3. * pihih f he'~xtsnsion~e~artment: As of ten as-Lnat+':thisLa"L-- _ + _ - / - vision was a key factor- in the-clashes between the '~xt&%$;oni- r . ------A A ------A L+ Department. leaders, and labsar ahd co-operative4 org&izersi - - - - " '\ 5 at the regional-level, In spite of ,these-problems; the .N '- * ' . - - &@ , Exte-~sion-~e~artrnsnt - was- - u successfula- - A - - 'in super~mposing- -- - A G--its -- F---dk +- - us "- .- - mandate' on these diverse'sectors. yet', the adult educ,ati~n - 1 < - component,- considered by- - the- Antigonish-- Movement as the ------L ------L_ ~o~nerstbnatowards this new society, suffered ~iththi-s. - C succe_ss. Acadians were always seriously under~represented . % - - at the courses, seminars, and Conferences. Coady went out- - of* hisJway to -ensure that ~nglishwas td be the lakgu'age of co-operation.- - To the Acadians, fhe only Promisipg aspect of - 7 - -- - * m - -. the Antigonish -Movement was the actual d~evel-bpment o-f study - - aclubs, credit unions, and co-opera?ives. .As T have shown - ' - 7 earlier in this chapt%r with $he Chef icamp region, even thlr ir was given grudgingly by Coady. 'Even with the large Black - - --- population in Nova ~cotia,the - ~ntigoiishMovement was- only ------'capable of developir~g--one co-operative in Big Bras D'or. This was onl-y accomplished two years after a fish eo- - Cr - operative was organized for Scots-Catholic fisherKen within - - the same small community.' - . - - Cogdy's deference to the ~i&ho~of ~alifax also - , . indicates-how 6; was constrained b$ the ,Church hierarchy. ,- J - In 1938, Cdady trinkfered the costs of the educgtional ," component:of the tntigonish Movement onto the co-operative I - I organizations. This-was s-ee-n as necessary_to maiIntain - - !- - - -. 1 -R$ adult eAl~c=rtion. - However, by '193.8, thmajority of the participants ~f the - 1' a adult educational-progkams were from eastern Nova Scotia. This meant that the T - - . - .? - 1 - -. - - - * 8 / rp 4 - .. - - - 9 - 8. , 6- d 160I CLn ri - ~xtension,'~ipaatment .was financing educational programs for A u, < - - - peuple outside of &he Ant%ggni"sh.CathoLic Diocese to which - ; - r t bey were accountable. All ,that ."remained crf- the -adu-lt I f 1938 were- the annugl r , I '7 I I .A; t&r this. - 7 2 LA-a d 4 a,. t,rahsf__ el most of - -=----- _ I 4- Z . the co~operativesdid fiot falf ill their' obligation* towards ': P * - - * adult ,edu"cation. . ,% v C_---, 0 '.* - - - - z, - This shift*of .clde6tel(e/., from predominantly eastern*Nova ', " S~otimsto outside participa~tsalso reflected the fact,. .. -h L" thatuthe movement had real:-ji?d a s&turatioq='point within 'r - the - . 1'- region. This das conf irmed when by 'the 1?40_'s, the - e ! - .$ _ Extengion ~epartmentshifted .its focus from ~astefnNova ' 4 > L - - - 1 ti&to thk natiohal andibternational co--operative scepe. b, d - - .a / -, /I I * t'he Geoplq of ~asteriNova Scotia, the Extension '. 4 . .%. - .. i. 7-. rtment-was relegated to becoming a c1,earing house for I . 2 . b inf ormtation . ,A i 9. - , 'The peak of the Antigonish Movemefit represented the i+ - I .. 9- point when their organizing attempts, and abilities, could/ - not extend past the int.ermediary organizatidns, such zs the cD >- < . 't . parlsh and ~cdts-~ith~ic Societies, and impose 4 * c ideoidgy and social technoiogies -upon -the larger - * C cture. The Antigonish Movement faltered when it came up C, * . * st differing cultural and ideological m_ilieux that it '* -, was not bquipped, ideologically or organization&lly, ta win - k within ,the context of previous works on the Aniiigonish , - - ')lovement, and Bithin the theoretical and methodological ' - framework utilized in.the thesis. In eGsencr, this analysis I ,- - - fk - * , - , . -- - f - a d t-1.29 - f / * n complements the previ~usworks on the Antigonish Movepent,- - .. but emphasizes how the ideology of this movement must be - , - - considered as a f-ctor 'In creatingthe conditions both for - P - - - ,, . '.IT]here- is more real- Adult Education at the &&it------Lu -A -- - Z - -" I , heads, down. in the mines, out among the fis-hprmen's 7~ - '-- 8hacks, along the wharves, and wherever the -farmers , - - - i dh -- -- sit and talk in the evenings, than you cari - . - - get from one hundre$ thouskd dollars wof-th of - 1 formalized formal-courses. It springs fkom the hearts ahd pains of the,peolple. .The former doesn't fill ah \ - empty pankry, it doesn- '-t bring -miik and-food and health - - - - 2 I back to- babies blighted with malnutrition already in their toddling years. We want ideas wibh marrow in _ .. d t - In th&s thesis an attempt was made t-o,shbw how ideology - . affects- social behavior. In this respect, one of the primary steering medhanisms in the inception, growQth, and demise of the Antigonish Movement were its ideological \ e underpinnings. ~rawiigupon Jadkson : s hithodology, .it was - B + - .shown how the behavioral consequences- of art organization, in this ease the Extension Departmen$, are linked to'the organizationps existential base, ortsocial histbry.2 The . ideologi-cal basis oT -the Antigonish Movement was pppul_ist, * - . . -n"l~na*~-~-~~~~~tmedwit11 Caiholic sucial [email protected] , '- - 1, This unique symbiosis of idealogies was t.rar~slnteAinto 2 elan of action thr.ough the distinck social technologies of 1) Father Jimmy Tompkins,- 1938 from-The Future of thh - -- Movema&, Extension Department pamphlet, 1938, p. / it2 , - I -- I. 7 r 1 ' -. - - f %, ' / . - - 131 - adplt education and co-operative organizing: Fina-l ly , it - D was presented td the people through intermediary -. , -- - organizations such as 'the Lrural and urban Catholic parish - - priests, Scots-Catholic Societies ,, *apd. to a lesser deqree. ,the Cape Breton 'Labour locals. It was populist reglorial - -3 A b - -- -- , , prstest undertaken by the farmers, fishermen.. and mineP's, in - an attemp.f to articulate their conFern ttlat. -eastern Nnva - - -- - Scotia was a region rapidly decllnlng a population and - prosperity. The farmers, fishermen and min,ers were all \, - ,* . victims of a rapidly industrializing suciety that gutted both their communities and their standard of Living. Their - grievances, articulated through populist pfutest, demanded a------*return to a moral and social order in which rurality and / - * - irrdividua 1 dign icy were -pre-eminent. I' , It was a _cry that did not go unheeded by the I traditional leaders of this ethnically and religiously. - . homogeneous region. The priest-/intel lectuals 'and Catchoilic lay leaders, all with deep kinship raots within the region. t; a&-tb -began to act, agitate. give a focus to these . grievances. Over the course of 'a decade, these Cathol~c - - leaders created both:anew vision. or blueprint- nt'. - eir society and a specific method of creating this society. Thelr visibn was based on a- new social theology reverberating through the Catholic-ChurcE. Its roo'ts were ' .-_ found in the papal social encyclicals, such as o his nkv vision of society ref-lected the (:atholic corporatist assumptions that every individual can, and 1 should, achieve salvation within their own calling; and that I fl i 132 2 these callings are baked. upon an organic" d~pendericeand - - - The priest/intellectuals of St. Franciq Xavier - , IJr~lversitydisc~ver-ed the affinities between the new - 6- k _ the(,-ries and methodol~giesof adult education and &a- - 3, - - a - - - -- operative organizing, -and €he- history -of catholic soci'al ' action based on education and agitati,on. :Here was the opportunity to offer a Catholic method of economic, social; ,. - The remainder of this chapter will analyze the *>> t-hcoretical and methodological, approac-h. of a) the ideology* - 1-,f the Antigonish Movement, and bFhow this ideology became & 2 translated into pa.fposefu1, grogrammed social action. '\ Finally, the author will situate this studylwithin the - -, i\ - academic tradition of sociology in general,-and the - - , , 1 i terature on the Ant Sgonish .tlovement in particular. - , While &he Antigonish Movement was not a religious . movement per se, it was decidedly influenced by a articular -world view articulated by the Roman Catholic Church. In one 0 * sense, this influence situates the Antigonish Movement as - one of many attempts, by differing religous denomina&ions, - -t,c~ create -a new social order based on religous social the~logy. Camp, Mueller, and Abell have sh,wnthat-k&- , - < +- - Cztholic'Church had-. attempted to make 'ingoads into the rural - and labour arenas for several decades prior to the inee6ti.o; - of the Antigonish Movement. Also the formation of the csi - , , vteachings.3 In the l92O's, at the same tima as the leaders of the Antigonish ~ovementwere' begLning to formulate Cheir .- e 'vi-sion and plan of action for eastern Nova Scotia, the. , , - - - Protegtant Social Gospel nov@ment wa's sweeping western C - Canada a;d Aparts of-- Ontario.4 - Wilfiam_Aberharta *s Social --- , Credit doctrine appealed directly tn the predominantly rura- 1 - - pr-ocJucers of Alberta who laboured under a widespread - - - ,. - - - .# - pre'deliction for prophetic religion: i -. . . " . . .Alberta, as a community, [was] far more 0 # recept?ve than was England to a monetary ref or^! doctrine with spiritual overtones."?_- - - . - - .. .. = The Ca-tholie leaders of eastern Nova Scotia - superimposed ai ecclesial mandate upon the unique social -and . material circumstances of their-region. But instead of - - ignoring these circumstances;--t%-- ese leaders usufped t_ - - retranslated th-em into Catholic problems with catholic - , solutions, and articulated them at a level ef discourse^' - C S - understandable to the peqple. + &- L& --<.', - Adrience, in her study Q~tinefor the Poor: A Social.- . . a Rra7aan Church, offers , a, similar interpretation of how the Church, in this case the 'frdnt-line' parish priests, have subsumed the existential 6= - / - f _ 9, oppression of t'heir people, into a Catholic i~lterpretation -d with Catholic aimd.8 Like the lead~rs.of the Antigunish Movement, these parish priests were frequerrtly at odds with . 4 e' the ecclesiastical authoriTies regarding both their 3) Camp, op. cit:, Mueller, op: cit., and Abell, 15Fj3, and , 1968, _op. cit. . , 4) See Boyle., 1951, op. cit, 5) See Allen., 1971 and 1975, op. cit.. 6) MacPherson, C.B., 1953.5 op. cit.,-p. 48. ------pp-ppp -- -Mp- I - - it. - - P I I , The vision b socl'ety pras'ented by the lea'ders of the , A - - .- - ~htigonish Movement, while conducive &~..-Catholic~~cia* thsology? also represented the social 'relations of the \ peop'$e of eastern Nova-Sqotia-. - Moses ~oad~,'who had r-ead ------ . Mar~buring his doctoral studies,'uhderstood.the class 4 welatidn~hi~sthat had developed, and were maturing - \ - - - \ - any stirrings for an elimination of class in favour of the - Catholic view of a harmonious corporate s&iety.7 ,As the \ - Instead an ,emancipation,af classes where, through co- operative acti'on 'and ownership: .farmers and fishermen could - -. le-ad the 'goad and abundant life', and-labourers 'need not be proletarians8, \ 'People eould be free and independant , + wj thin their calliqg. Q i - - '\ -, - Cpady, TompkinS,, and' their colleagues qever deviated \ from the vision of societ3 pmsented in Catholic social ' d. e - -teachings. This ~athoiicvisfon was of primary importaneei, -3 in their successful organizing within eastern Nova Scotia. ' But; as-I outlined in chapter four, this vision, and plan of b , d action appealed primarily,'\ if not exclusivbly, to a CatGolic \ +> uonstituencp. Y'et, this'vi&on was erkn too narrow for some Catholics within the region, such as the Acadians, who,,- - -, while accepting the ofganizing techniques and promised - , \u ------'I) Adrience, op.. oit. , A; intere~tingquestion: following from this analysis 1s what effect'-the -history of Catholic sacial theology-and action in ~urhpeand North America hasL - had on the contemporary CatBolic irhtellectual and activist traditions in Latin Americg known as ' liberation theology'. ?3) l'oady in Laidlaw, 1961,-gp. cit., p. 138. Y) Ibid. - - , I . - -I - - - i A <. . , 2 - 1 3.5 results of wh?t the Exitension Department offered". refused Cn /. be gathered into the.f old of: the Mcivep-ent. - - - - When it came time for the Extension ~e~artrnentt'o expand ipto the trban, _and non-Catholic arenas. this . - Cathol ic: vision became 'problem As a social activist. - - A -- e. - > ------. ,, Coady:s co-operative vision necessarily lnterauted upon the - - . - p01i:f~iioal realm. However, as a Catholic priest, Coady - - - - .. .. , reject"erfiany political activism in favvur or inst ltllt,ional linkages between. - the Extension DepartnGnt and governmenti1 agencies, 10 ~hi6meant by$assing the pub1 ic pol itical and labour *forums in favour of grassroots action that would, in Coady and Tompkins view; create the necessary lmpetusx for - - - ,the people -themselves to undertake political aetlnn. - 'The grimacy of the Catholic priest as cEmmunit,y leader, - which Coady and Tompki~stook for granted, was 7 r' Y" csnsonant with Catholic social teach~ngs. Not only was *.he / Catholic priest considered the natural representa t lve df his - 7 'il - community, ,but fhe rural -parish priest was to be held in t.he highest esteem within the leadership hierarchy as the - stew&rd of a pristine, Catholic society-.I1 Thjs view of the - primacy of the rurality within eastern Nova Seotla, accepted - by Coady and Tompkins, was reflected- in thp predeliction of - the Extention Department to focus upon the mral farmers and \'< - fishermen. In essence, whlle t'he Catholic vjew of a' corporate - -. -. I-: . , 1 ~111arlyIn t.he rural r I t h, . Mnwn-t, part .- - - - ' i became problematic when the Extension Department attempted -, - to move into other arena's and regions where such a view was < 10) See page 125, .footnote 45. Ilj Abell, 1568, op. cit., p. 345. - - - ------pp - .--- CI'- , \ - \ , L" --_ sucukss with the -Acadians, Protestant commur?$ties, and many - - qf the mining congu&ities in *Cape Breton. - T~PScprporatisit - - - A I - - vision further inhibi4ed action and success when the - 1 - - .Extension Department began- its ' imperialist' mode and - - - aktempted to organize outside-of eastern Nova Scotia.-- -- - g Hov-nt as a Pavylti;st Haven- - - - Antigonigh Movement who has defined it as populist. 12 , - I ,- - A .. . - - Gowever, this definition is suherf icial, with Lotz ; -- - - a , phraseslsuch as, ' the ~nti~onishMovement was basichlly a ,- populist one, ' or, 'Coady 's approach was populist in . style. -13 ~otz.s*inter~retationof the Antigonish Movement - < 0 as populist is base on Coady's 'popular.' style with people . of eastern Nova Scotia, and on his emphasis on, g~assroots,- , \ - act ion. - - In this thesis, I attempted -to confirm the academic .. - tradition that defines 'populism' as a distinct political phenomena based on the grievances of the petit-bourgeoisie - h articulated by leaders who,+ although closely aligned with - the petit--bourgeoisie were npt them~efves~representativeoLf - + - this stratum. This thesis represents a confirmation that - , - - *populism', as a theory n-ot only interprets the existential - grievances of the petit-bourgeoisie, but also accounts for 3. 2 E - A- i - / / n ara s A l3asis 'forRural Program' 1920, published by the Catholic Educational Association, reprinted , in Abell, 1968, op. cit., p. 353. 13) See- Lotz, Jim., Thea. Antlnonlsh~vement. A Crlticu. . Analusis, 1973., p. 106, and The Historical and Social ent, 1975, p. 113. s - - - , - s , - - -. ------. b - *. - the d1ve;rslty or ways in whlch". these grievances are 1:' - r . . - i - - ? . praseuf.erl by t.hls -s-t.r\aY.a--and t,he~.rl~derc, mrl ~IJthy in - - I turn acted upon these grievances .- The Antigonish Movement- - - represented an answer to populist polllfical agit-ation that - - reflected the unique material and social circumstances of - - 7. - - - this region. I-ts success also ref Lecte-d the app-ositeness -OF- the ideology of the movementr's leaders a$'-a response to the . - grievances of -the farmers, fishermen, and labourers of - fl of the Extension- Department'staff had a strong lineage nf . . - k+ship, I,ar~d&ory wiihin-*easiLrn Kmra!;cot la. However, they were not directLy of f ardrs., fishermen, and Iabourers,l5 highly - educated prlests, university professars and ndmlnstrators, I governmental inspectors and agricultural col l~ge . instructors, arid executives within* the adbl-t education .. - - movement. Unlike the people they purported to represent, they were well travelled, well read,,and highly articulate These leadhrs all represented the liberal side of - Cathdicism. his was reflected in their agreement that i< * - was co-operativism, based upon Catholic social principles that would save their people. This did not represent a . - _ 'failure' these leaders, as argued by writers such as - - - 14) The inclusion-of- the Cape Breton labourers with the f mersand fishermen is hasedthat the. miners - were drawn predominantly from the falming and fishing - - communities within the maritimes and still spent much of their time*- during strikes or long layoffs - working the land and water. See the Introduction, Outline of the Early \ Development of the Antigbnish Movement: - e 15) Even Alex MacIntyre spent several years as an executive of the miner unions before he was blacklisted and became kn Extension Department f ieldworker . 9 - . i38 4 Murphy and - Webster; rather, it represented a-distinct wokld a k a -. -- < vle~rerlectlve ofr the existential conditions of both the - A - - - leaders of ~ntigonishMovement, and their followers .a6 - Movement was only capable of bringing - - 2 - - some, albeit a large'segkent: of the farmers, fishermen, ahd- - / ------uu- > .------A - labbureEs into its fold as enthu~iasii~membirs. But the -, b - 9 ' ^ social and econcmilr grievances held by-those outside of this 4 - '. ------. fold were essent rally the- same a5 those of persons within - . < . .. articulatedtby the ~xtensionDepartment, appealed ,only to,a . . distinct skgment within this strata. These were primarily ' - " 4 -- rural Scots-Catholics. There were groups sueh as the a - - Adadians. and- the PIETI. fishermen, who accepted the -' - 1 4 5' - b' benefits of co-operatives and credit ,unions, developed <- - para1lel organizations, but rejected the adult educational , - - -component of the Antigonish Movement. - Adult education in the Antigonish Movernent-was the . - ideological Steering mechanism- that both wlightened the - f? I people to their oppression, and justified their position -. - - - within their .occupations. The cadre of - id - b priest/i-ntellectuals, and Catholic lay leaders nere, in the - - 1Y20's, the key voices of the conpfns of the f-$rrners and - fisher me^'' These concerns were translated into political , gri;vances through the Rural and industrial ~onfeGences,in --The Caw. to- the federal government - particularly the, -- gominion Ministry of F-isheries, and in the enrly Forward' . -, - -- Movement. These concerns and grievances were broadly - - similar &.those of other populist movements of the era, but ' - I 16) The implicit arguement of a .failure' on the partof the - Leaders of the Antigonish Movement, is prevalent in the works of Murphy, 1975 op. cit. 'and Webster, 1975, op. cit.. , A. ------\---A- -- - .3 * - - d > the singularly uniq~easpect of the Antlgonlsh ~ovemen't*wss - - - . . I,$-- 1. < ~SSUEL- -q 17 - how it halt wit.h theLv&~t-~cql ., - I - The- stageTwas sei after Coady w%as hiked by the federal - -. - government- ,ekmbarrassed by' the p'ublicity ofLthe fishermen that was mad;?,public by this - . - --t-he~e-~oliticalgrievanEe$-into practic&l -- and pofitica-ily----*------< - - - ,-r astute - results by cirganizin'g the fishermen intoico- - . _ operative org&niza&ions. Both this cadre of Leaders and the .:-- - - - 4 m ' the, ~xtensiondepartment - a year later. substantially funded A,.. by the Carneg3.3 Corporation and the federal governrneht, this I\, -, 1 - > 3 a~d~~Im+-ttre-cdLr'&Li 1i tyko+Etrrt*remo~&e . C , \ i.ssbes of the f&ers,- fishermen and laboure'rs from the - * \ -pu61ic, political realm,, into - cominunity level co-operat ive , - organizi~g XI, - -The -Antigonisk ~ovementwas a manif &station of the , sr~ccessful-endeavbrs by' its leaders to transform populist - < - - i political grievances to the level of indiyidual, and - - P 1 canmunity sel-f help. ' True tb. Catholic social te'achings, thea*- - Ant igonish Movement promoted c'orpo'rate- spcia-1 reiations - - within this strata, with the responsi&_litygfopr, self help, - i - even emahcipatibn, relegateh to. the levkl of f ha /i~dividual'~. - L - . s -* * - 4 The basis for an acceptance of -this corporate view by the ' i - people of eastern Nova Scotia was adu-lt 'educatiori, In turn, adult education was thede-politicising element that . , - > - transformed populist political grievances into an - % - ameliirative social movement. The extensive endeavbrs by ' 9 the leader4 wktli31 the Extension Departinen* to remain I - ., 17) For example, on the ear1.y C.C':F., and populist farmer P ."i agitatMns in the United States, see Conway, "op. kit1. and Canavan, op. cit.. - 4 t - 0 _I. - - 0 d - + - pglitically neutral Z in terms gf their awn -eonceptionS) was --- - . =. - defended 'on the basis that it was the people themselves who, ------. - af'te; appropriate a< ad~catiofl,wou"ld undertake political - . =\ .. J - adtion. As darly as 1921, ~oinpkinsquoted Dr. - ~knbe1,- - - leader- of the British Wo-rkers: Educafiipnal AssoGi~ati~on,__tB______-"* - uL -- -.------9 . - illustrate what adultmiducation represented: - - "It is animated by the aim of prbyiding the best -- - - . - oppnrti'unities for equipRing the rindividukl with the - . - a physical, moral, and intellectual training that makes - - 1 for good citizenship, that prepares for thepfreedom and , - - resp~ns~ibil-itiesof adult life. "18 - .. - \ - The fact that both the new Co-operative, Commonwea1t.h - / + -. - . - ~ederaki6n,and the radical piners' unions were gaining . - - footholds- in the region-was not lost ow the Antigonish - - t40veaentrs leaders-when defining the pfurpose of adult - education. \ Quite dnlike other populist'~~~vements,that either - '6 - devlloped into p~lit~ca~~rgpizations,were co-opted jnto -.- + 1-,* %"., tRe traditional political realm,,'1 or-,were suppre&ed, the f, , - - Antigonish klovemenf accepted only partial co-optatipn as - J sa it went its independant path. la This partial co-optation, - - F < > - P or put-Eluntly, acceptance of support from state and private * - agencies whosb interssts reflected the sta-tus quo, was - - predicated on the affinities of these agencies to the Catholic corporative view of society the ntigonish Movement 4 ------ was attempting to gskablish-. Yet while the corpo-rate- co- --. --;- - -- 3. 18) bowkedge for the'peb~le., 192i, p. 21. 19) For discussions of what happens to popqlistmo&ments, - as a result of _the.ir distinctive social and cultural - .- underpinnings, see Cantovan, op. cit., and Dix, Robert, . ? - , Pl2thoritarian Uocru,1985. - - " ------5- - , - - - 4 - - h "A ,. , ,, u 9 -14J - . +. I - operative utopia was' the goal, the method remKined ad,uLK , ------education.. ------3 -- --A This thesis establishgs the link between l';ieology, as - -2 - I - % both a way of seeing what society is, and,, of_-course, what' - ' , - society shoald -be ,- and the actoal- methy3s util-irked--i~-ths------'R 1- - ' I +, 0 - .-",\ .- Lttembts to realiz,e .this $o;l. The method$. undertaken., _of social technologies, arise out- of this ethos and are -- L .. 7,------1 3-L. c. . Antigonish Movement leaders were dr.awn towards ads It - education and co-operat'ipe organizing b6cause of 'its . "+ I - harura~isL~-qywi-k~C ath o Li r~ehLac&iisrn . T !I&&+ - . ' - - that adult education had also recen&ly'became .an accepted - ' i discipline (with a developing theoretical. and methodLlogicnl ' . 5 3 rigour), particularly in North American Catholib t Universities, re-enf~rced the decisidn of the Antigonish d - I - .~ovementleaders that'it was Adult Education th~twould L - c - ! -, - a-llow the Catholic Archdiocese, the Catholic St. Francis 5. - 0 .- Xavier Eni~ersity,a d of course' this' cadre bf B * priest/intellectualsIto have a significa~t- impact upon . - '- ~ach~liclife within their region! p - - \ 1 _ .- The- initial success of the'se osgani-zin'g* endeavors .was - 9 - also reflective of t&e intimate knouledge these .leadeers 'had - >& . 1 , of the region and its peoples'- gri.evances. ' Other writers on \ < I' co-operatives such as '~abellaand Orbach confirm tQat the -- - 1 i forms and successes -of co-operative . organizing ar6 predicated om-the speciPic soc~ologicalcircumstances df - -. both the r$gion, and the groups InvolveP 'F olLouing th~s . - . tradition of analysis, the- thesis examined the social I - history behind the inception of, the Ant igdnish Movement - 20) See Chapter One, ~it&atu& Revisu, and'-~abillaop. cit., and Orbach, op. cit.. t 1 ------* - to directly access the people " order to imple*ent the - social ?echnqlogies of adult. educatior) and ca-operative ' . L 4 9 -0rgqnizing. These intermediary organizat-ions also allowed - . the Extehgion DepCrtment, with differing, l~velsof shccess, - b. - \ - -. *, 'd - go circumvent co&eting idkologies within this regiod'and .p impose their ownr%lueprint based upon Catholic social - . - After- 1940, the Antigowish Hovemen&. essentially ' 1 ^ - $ stagnated at the lev61 of then current co-operafive *% argenizing endesvbrs. The education component :pas gohe, : .P study clubs were not being form d . HacInnes, following Haas - Mol, called this -a ,re-=$#ralization of iden%ity,.uhere the. - , _ new identlty established for the people of eastern Nova - B . ,. 1 r 1 - Scctia resulted in the movement's decline. Mifflen - .- - considerg't he demise of the ~ntigon'ish Movement -as directly - - attribotable to the institutionaliz'ation it shffered from. 0 . *- This' analysis of the ideology of the. movement, drawirg upon , -. -- -. ------Jackson's pragmatic framework and focussing upon the social - history the intellectual framework b - - - 1 behavioral consequences, does - - 5 8 B - not ref~tethese conclusions. -The focus is'haw this demise 1 - -- - .- - , - - - - - 14,3 -, - i - came about. 'Thhe' results imply that the' Extension - 6 > mellrs ideological underplnn lngs , unlque socia! - - ' - - - - - , B technhlogies,- and use of intermediary organizations not on ly 1, , - T, enhanced, the movement's growth, but were important In - constraining that growth int.0 distinct actlvltles nithin , * - - pa - - T. ------1- -1 - - ' distlnct communities. - blh& th~smovement -reached a saturation point within the ethnic and religious commun it les - - - - acceptant .of its- world view,- it faltered When the - . E communities, its vision of 'the world .klashed with compe-t. ~rlg - $r - - - visions of what the world was, and whst it could be. Yet. t.0 Y , -, *. this day, fishermen, farmers, and labourers benef lt from t.he 4 - credit unions land co-operative organizations' creo ted by the - ~ntigon i-s-h Movement. - e -, Reconcxlin~Previous Harks on the an- h_-~w>mant - The works of MacInn-es and Mifflen, as 6utlined in the - - literature review, argue that the Antigonish Movement arose w - from ' cultural di,stortion7, and -the need for a re- - sacralization of identity Id answer -the exlsvent,ia 1 - crises imposed upon the and labc~~~eel-sof - - .eastern Nova Scotla - Sacouman . undertaking a prp-ac t ive * e .. I marxist ' approach, extensively ana-lyzes the economj c preconditions o-f the region and how this situat-ion created the i~petusfor CJ-operative organizing at the level of' the ' -t petit bourgeoisie. i . .-- --- .- : However.thistb~U~min& the zp-flr, .- - ,---- - \deological underpinnings of the Antigon ish -Movement in, - order to understand not only how this movement arose, but why it folluwed its unique path of organlzatio"a1, and - , f- social behavior. In this sense, this work confirms the - - , L - - - -- p- - 7------. - - - / - writings of ~if'flen, MacSnnes- and Baum. Its diwekgence. L. - -, - - oc8curs in the- - analysis of the ideological underpinnings that- - - - created the Extension bepartment and.-thus the Antigonish-' MovemeGt. It questiGs the funct'ionalist,teleology of - -. Len and that the Leeonstit t'ng of sociual - - Miff HacIrmes ---Aa __- -4.. - - - v order was a given fact. +Instead, drawing upon ihe - , , - methodological approach o? Jackson, and the theoretical - - demands of Beckfayd, t-his thesis shows that this new orderu arose out of a long history'of negotiation and struggle of which the outcome was a new b1ugpr.int of social order based - &f~ofICatholic social th~ology.21 * I 1%also takes issue with Sacouman-s discounting of - - -. ideology as a primary force in the developwent of. the . @ 1 - e Antigonish Movement. There is no doubt that the 'structure #--& - of capitalist ukderdevelopment' was a, not the, 'primary / const itut.i,vc basis ' !in the formation of the Antigonish r - Mo"ernent.22 Both the history of capitalist underdevelopmint - - - - and nun-bntigonish Movement co-operative organizi~gprecedes - I 4 this muvemen t . Sahournan does not reconcile these 'issues in / - hls * arguments. The research underC aken for this thesis - Ii shows that the tlrnirig af the ~ntcgonishMovement was * - - diredtly at,krlbutable to the arrival of a distinct cadre of leaders wlth a distlnct ~deology, The leaders,of the - - 4 Exter~sionLjupartrnent fully understood both the abuses\ . a'. capitalism was heaping ilpon their people, and the -- -~F***Y avdfiable Rr2fiis st-rata through the use 0 < < -- - t-he SOP ia 1 technologi~snf arllll~-~catFc~a& co opcrativ - - aiinThe primary focus of this thesis was\ Lo examine . .. .. - the social history that led t; the abilitj of this cadr,e to a ------I. 21 ) Itlld, and Jackson, op. cit., and Beckford, op. clt.. 22') See Chapter One. and Sac~uman,op. cit.,~p. 76.- - ~d* - The conttihutiun ok - thls thesis to the silcialbgical - - - - literature lies in its cullfirmation that lheology is at onre a dource of blueprints' fpr change and a st~mulustdwards y. - - L-- /- - _'------purpr,sefni, prograrnmLed social- 3Etion.- ,' - \ - \- - - Besearch Im~~catiadth~ Wpnh Movement -lkxl& thesis; and by pr~viousstudies of the Antigoni sh Mn-vement . , - The impact, and important piace of women is an lssue yet to - - - The reia.ii'onSfips- between the Ext.ension - itepartment , and fhe many professional and governmen tsl - \. ' '2 agencies IC interacted with deserves further r.Qnsideratir~rl. - - The contemporary le'eacy of %he Ai~tigonlsh'Mlivement tcl be examined. The impending release ?f the Ant-lgnnish - Archd~oeesearchlves wlll provide materi a 1 whlch should lead - ,- to a clearer understanding of the problematic rfi,lat21nnsl~ip - I % that oozurred between the leaders'and the Church- bofnr~ and - - - during the life of the-Antigonish tIo;e'ment. - Finally, soon after the 1953 death of fisez ('oady, St, Francis Xa-vier established the Coady International . Institute: Today with substantial Canadian governmental - /.I - dfunds, The Coady Institute exports the ihird way. of r.0- , - \ operativism to third world countries. In 1373, t.he \ Exsension Department- and the Coady lnst i tute-were combined -- -. The Extension Bepartrnent now focuses upon community economic ' deveiopment within eastern Nova'Scotia. The recent history I- - : ., ' ' # - -* , 4 fl . 146 / "-- ?r diverge ,with the e-arly history of the Antiganish- - T ,Movement, would be an lntereijtlng subject for dtudy'. - - - - - 9 The- impact of the ~ntigonish~ubement, in varying - - - degrpes, was felt across Canada.. In eastern Nova Seotia, it 3 tuuc6rd the rna~arityof pesplb in some way. Its lggacy - --t - > - rcma ins wl th Canada today., The LExtension Depart-ment- leaders 'i / left a stamp on the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation, the - 3 - operati ve mbvement . It Is now inf lu.encingSpotential leaders in t'he third w-orld. To a large extdnt, du;ing the period - - Adriance,-Mgdeleine, "Opting for t.he poor : A Surial- - ~'istsricalAnalysis of the Changing Eraz~lian --, Catholic Church' . ( in ) Sac3.olWal bnhm. ------2S, pp. lKKI?l46. Y +.,+ - _ -<.. ..alcock, J.. B.. '~lopilism': A Brief biography f irt > % .be - < - , alcgy.s -September, 1371, pp, 371-387. / . . Alexznder , Anne, McDonald, The Me.aninB offL~beratirsn-ia Adu 1t EmtActnmealedws C&.arldLh~ / \ i onlsh Movement.., -unpubl lshed doctoral - Clissertation, University of Alberta, 1985. % - I *. .' . kllen, Richard, The Social p~sion, Unive'rsity of Toronto 1 --. 1 Pkess, 1971. I r - .- -, . -. Allen, Richard, The haclal Gospel UI canah,r1Jniversity W inrfipeg Press, 1975 r ' , Andrain, ~harl~s,F., -.Democrat jc '~ocia~isn:Ideo logies af African Leaders', (in) Apter. David, E., (ed) ' , Ideoloav a~1dDiscontent, he Free ~kess'of . - - ~lebcoe,1964. - -- / - Apter, ~avih,~E. ,., ~deoloeiand Diszonk&, (ed ) The Free . -, Press qf Glencoe, 1Sif34* . - * - - - 14U (working paper) Centre for continuing Education, - ,-.- ., P r, ., . - UII lvers~r-y"or DP~EISPL ~01urnt3ra,,-, - 19././.- / . - - - Arsenault, Ellen, '3ocial Progress on Eastern Canada: The J A Antigonish Movement',- (in) Uter- - d Youth_Education. Unesca, IV, #4; - I Oct,, 1$52, pp. 26-3-1. - - A A A - Q -. -Athey, Ian, 'Populism : Some Recent Studies' Cin) Latin Banks, J: The Snciologv of Social ~~~ement.;. , MacMilla-n, - 4 - - t - - - - , ''Moses Coadyf Critique of Capitalism' ,- ( in) Xhe Chel.,ear. .Tfiurnal , Sept/Oct, 1977a, pp. 229-231, , - - - - - i - - i' I 'Social Catholicism on\Nova Scotia: The . .- Thirties', (in) Relwon and Cl1ltu1-e in Canada, - - Slater , Peter, (ed) Canadian corporation for 4 studies in Religion, 1977b . . . t. . . - b3un, rGego;y, Atholics and,Canadian boclalism: ~ol&& . \, ht on the Thirties and Forties, James Lorimer and Co . , Toronto, 1980. - - Eaum. Gregory, Canadian presented to - ~r~~er - - - / - 1 Pechhofer, -- - I ------Beck. G. F. , 'The Men of Antigonish: A New St. Gallen', (in) - the 'TournalQ--n, Vo 1. ,VI I , April,l935, pp. 158-162. Beck, G. F.. , . 'What a Tale 'it is ! , ,, (review of- M. Cbady-s own Desthi), (in) the Journal of e It EdUcatim, VoI.. ,XII, Jan. 1940,-pp. 93-35, . - *@- ,9 . . I - --- 1 A - - - ', .* - 199 .. - I A '. , -Reckford, J~~cs, I&2, uwer . r;o r;he - ~ociolog~of Religion\', ( in> Sa_;=;LQLw , * - d. 1 sis, 44-4, 1983 pp. 11-32. - 4 b \ - , - Bendix, Reinhard. F-a Freedom' : Om His+& * - p Sociolo'&, - . Univ. of- ~alifornia- Press, :_CaLlifornia+:-.-L~~-.-- - 1984. 4 . - ". '4 - . . Bonacina, Conrad, i The Catholic Church and Modern .t , - . B Democracy , (in', Cross - Cum:A Review b P . Time, Vol. 2, No. 1; 1951-52, pp. 1-44! - - Boyle, George, 'Out of the Drain, Into the St~tdy,Club'-~(in) 'b. r thehdnIvo~.$-c,, April. ' 1940, pp, 158-161: , ri i , 4 - Boyle, George, The Poor Man's Praver: The at,urvc - of.= bedit, . - i !h-3, Harper Brothers; ,New York, JY~I - t ,-, The British Ju5rnal of Sociology, k-ue - HGknry - - , and 5wiuloQy, Volume 28, Number 3, ,September ' - - 1976. c - - 1- Brooke, Alan, 'Outmigration from the Ma~itlrncProvindes lS6U-l9CfU: Some ~relimibConsiderat ions * ( in ) Buckner, P . A. , and Frank, David, ,( ed ), Atlantic - - 1385. Q , - - - - % Brown, Jean, E . , 'The Peoples School ' ( in ) .The*- ' P F_orum, Szol., 3, No. 35, August,-. 1b23,' pp.. 962-363. - i Brym, Robert, J. , an; R., ~ames',~(ed> , . , nd ,Social M0vement.q Canadar ' 4 --NacHogFlnEItnwn~r--Tnrnn&o, 1 Q' 19. - . -- - 2, kamp,7 n. I - - -. rxlu1lara ot Social Ketocm; a a - - Canada .Year Book, years' 19 16, l3i7, 1927, +1931-1939. \ - - - A A I:anovan, _Margaret,. - , Janet ion Books, 1981. - . ----,._I_- ,+ . B , - , Cape Bretons Magazine, HeBeserve ------. eT~e&,'No, 16, 1977: -- F-- - No. ' 32, '1980~. , A - . , . The Casket. Antigonish', Nova Scotia, 1915-i938, St. Francis -- , -Xavier University -Library. , - - - , - .+ Chirok, Daniel, 'Introduction: Thematic Controversies and New~DevelopmenCs in the Use of Historical , - Materials by sociologist&*: (in) &rial Forces, . , * Volume 55, #2, December, 1976, pp. 232-241. - * Coady Mose*., M. , $. . , New\ Y-ork,' 5 ' Harper and How, 1939. - \ , h 6 - - Conway. John, 'The Nature of ~o~ulisn:A ~larification' (in) . If . . . - ! ~adle~palltlcal E~~~ ' - , No. 13, Spring, I -. 1984. ph. 137-144. , - - 1 Croteau, J . . T. , 'Adult- Education on Prince Edward 'lsland . . * (in) the Journal of Adult Education, Volu'me X, I June, 1938, pp. 296-298. - b.~ - - - - 7 - , C-rbteau, .J., T-.; Lradled the Waves.. . The ~tb=v-ofa- - ,- 1. - Cxysdale , Stewart, r'. . - p. - .I)Bv.iL'orythy. beof H~s~it J - Sheed and Ward, Inc., New York. 1939. ' 'c . * -, - 4 Uelaney, Ida, Bv Th-elr Own Hmrls: A FieldwQrkers Account of % . -& &he Aqhgaush -Movernea, Lan,ce*lot Press, Hansport, - . - Nova Scotia, 1985. - - - - -* - Desjardins; Kay, .~oic&s~ryirtk to fhe World,, tin) . i; - +. a1 TIife, ,[email protected]. Out.. 1960, pp. 9-10, 36, '39 3' - - -. . - li - P___i__ll_ll ---- _ Dix, Robert Hr, "'PopulisKF Il'utho~itaria~and D6moFratic , . . (in) -erlrm Resw.ch Rev-, Volume ?u, Number 2. 1385, pp. 29-52. " t - - - - - - P- - , Coming of the C.C.Fi. to Cap& Breton *, i in)' - " - e * - , Fall, -1983.. ph. 3-26. - Acarlimsis P B E--r-d~ -K. llliams,~&ac&&nn-~ow~ki~~-~~t . Francis Xavier University'. ( ~n)the &ckk - - , . r-6 r-6 D hlsto~e. de I, ealise:udi,w, f 1 -1964: - ~lliot;'Brian, and Bechhofer, Frank. (~d),~~~*tite. ( *., > t.. PourBeoisie- : Comparative atlaes of th3Amw - - . , Straturn, ~ondor?, HacMillan, 1981., . - w . * - - Extension-De~partment , 'st. Francis XavQie_rIJ~ iversi t -* " Archives. -- - -Extension ~;part>ment,St. Francis ~avi~i-"u'nivers~t~~Serie~ , - - 3 - of,pamphlets, undated. -, - * .. '*/ - -, ' ~xtension.Bulletin, Extension- Department, St. tranci~~av>er 8 - -x- * .I University Library, 1933-1938. - - u ' i 8 - c ~ D I , P Far is, Ron, The 'Pas~l~ate. Eriutors. -. Volllnt~y ~ssociab eaS. for Control of mtbducat~ . I Proadcasting in@ Canabza. 1919- LY5L , ~ete) arti in --- Associates, 1975. ------. - \ * .L 'J - ~arqbhar)r~eorge,.The ,Atlantic Fisheries.!. , ( in.) blueens ' WE,Winter, 1929, pp. ' 108-1ZIJ. - - - 1. * , I i 1 fL A - L - I- -- - _--_ ------. '..,- - -- \ m - Vi '\ . - 1 -- ,. \ mc - - - 152 I Fauquet-, G.:, The Co - op-erative Sector, Manchester : Co-' v I - \ aperatlve Unnon Ltd - - - - - 0" ,- \ D - Fosrjick, ~'ayqonci, The Story qf the Rockefeller Foundation, , "\ New york, .Harper, 1932. - I \ - I I I \ t- - * _ , Fowler,- Bertam, aeLord, He;t~s-T-huse... .Hnw the Pea~le-1IE ------*. I 1 va Scot\laarpSslvina~&i~ Pr- Through Ca - I \ gwerati~'.),New York, Vanguard Press, 4938. ------, - - - \ Frank, bid, 'Tradition1,and Cul-ture in the Cape Breton , - Mining Communith in the Early Twentieth Centuryr ,- - - la 178.5.1b35- , University Cal1eg.e of - Cape Breton Press, ~yd%y, Noga Scotia, 1985, pp. 1 4- . m - - - - 203-218. - \ - - - / Pa PremanLle, Anne. (edf The 3OCla1- Teac-s of twCh~~rch, \ 0 The New .American ~ibrary,1963. r - J - Frirdmann, Harriet ., .World Market. stat&, and Family Farm: Bases of ,Household ~roductionin 'the Era of Wag@ - F ' in,History Labour , (in) -hwar*tive Studies and *, Cocietv t J , Val. 20, 1Jo. 4,'1978. - C 4 , . Geertz, Cli'fford; ' Ideology as a Cultural Sy-stem' Z in) i * Apter, David, E., (ed) Ideoloa~and Discnnte~t, - - . The Free Press of Glencoe, 1964, pp. 4.7-76. - - , I - Geertz, Clifford, '-~eligibnas a Cultural System' -(in) % , - e - ~retatlonof mtures, New York, Basic Books; - m- - Glasgow, John Francis, The Koh nf Educational _~bnrj nces-- -- in the Bevelo~rnentof th------e~wentof St. Frwis Xavler U-- - h. Nova Scotia, Unpublished B.A. Thesis,- '. I - St. Francis Xav-ier University, 1947. 1 _ - . ,'* Goodwyn , ~*awrence,hocratkc Pro-, Oxford University; + -. 1970. - - *. - - - 7 I ? I33 -- J Rea$er- i Gusf ield, Jos-h,-. K., Protest. Reform, aKrl Revolt. (ed) Wikey ahd KeG m SocdMovements Jphn ~05s.- - - - Ynrk, 1970. - , . . - . ------9 -@ \lienon, Jdseph; The ~hm6.le~ihks ( in ) -C uvo~atg,-*tk* f February 19CU,, pp, 67-72r - .*" r , - \------ A - - J.. -- - . L.-- - lrgS a--L--k+ Hicks, John D.-, The Po~,ul%,st- Kevolt., ~hiW3-r.sTtNeE- . - ?. - , Press, 1361. * - J- < . . 'w - - Hilton, George, W:, 'The Truck. ~vst~em;;W. 'Heffeu- ,and Sons - 4% - n * s , - . I + - Wofstadtpr,- Richard, 'North Armerlca ( 1r-1) wu ( )- - - - - , 10nesc.0, G.:, -and Gellner. 'E,:. Ma_cMrllan. lktfi5l. ".p$, - =.1- 7 7 . - .- ' n -. ' Y + , I ~o~an,~ndy, '~os~s Coady and His ideeology;.- A !?ar&pectivr - . . - - ( in ) c;rall, Volume 1 Issue 3,; !3,ept&mbcr 1365-, pp - *% 11-23*. O - . / . - House of Commons, KeDort- c ~:e.of t& - ct Respect-ing Indus - , - = trial and Co operati bi~r:2eti.e~~.Canada, 190'7. - 4 \ - .- . House -of Commons, nfflclal Regnrt QfJlebates; House- of , _ Commons, 1315; 1827-1928. Canada; January 27, 19ZH * (p. 7); February 27, 1928 (p. 814 F; Hay CJ7, 192% (p. lV087)'Tabling of the MacLean Commission; - - February 24, 31928 (pp. '782-783) outline of 2 4 ,recommendations. , - - d - - >. -< e ~onescu,-G.,and Gelher, E., (ed), F~QDU~LSII~: Its Piehjag - . 3- Na.4xma.l Charac,teriqtirs, MacMll lan Books, 1!363. i Y F Jzckq~n,- .Tokn n. , Cmuit.y D~vemt:Ickolaand - Tecfil3ology: A Com~arative~turlv'of -Three - - Develo-ent Agencies, Centre for Human Relations and Community Studies, Sir George Williams 9 - ~niuersit~,Montreal, 1972. - -. - - I , C -- - -, 6- r I , 'P p . . , - +LA , , / - -'e .Jamieson, Patrick, 'Catholicism- - and Socialism: Antigonish -L- =- - , - L ,-i' ,-, . - 1 - l Lll l dew -BY '. - , . 1385, pp. 10-12. - - - - - L V Johnson;\H.G., .The Antigonish Movement',\unpublis&d i- . lecture delivered at Acadia University, 1944,'~ e - '. . A -L -- jZxt_en_s_iog~~~&rt~e~t _Aychi_ves. - - - A -LL-Lu-s-- I' F i. - .i. , - * Johnson, Paul, A Historv of Ck-istiaity, Paulist Press, -- - z975. ------ th and other T-1v Essavs, Harvard ~nfversity / , - Press, ~ambridg=,1962. , , - - . -Rokosalakis, Bik , 'Legltlmation, Power, and Kemlrin Modern, Society' (in) ~odiolo~lvsis46-4, - 1985, pp. 367-376. , Laclau, Ernesto, P and* in The;rv 1 AC.; - - m. Faam. and Popu-, New Left Books, - - London. 1977. ' - - Laidlaw, Alexander Fraser, A Factual Oirtline of tk - &wsh Movement, Paper Presented at a meeting - -, of F.A,O. of the united Nations at Turrialba, - - Costa Rica, 1949, (mimeo) Extension Department, , - St. Francis Xa-vier-University, Antigonisb, Nova - - - - Scotia. t * i I- - Laidlaw. Alexander Fraser, The C~PII~and theWCommunitv: The - - , W ~shMovemen.t;, \\, - \ . I , . Montreal, Hazvest House Ztd. , 1961: \ Laidlaw, Alexander Fraser, uousiu -You Can Affnrd, Green Tree Publishing Company Ltd., Toronto, 1977. - - Laid law, Alexander Fraser , The Co - fi~erative Alternative, Co- - 'operative Future Directions Project Working Paper I - 4 ------,+ . ~agemanh, Condlif-fe Private ~ibllc. - - r Ellen Pow& for the e I. 3 cement of Wesleyan University *\ - - - - Press-, 1853. , r - --a,: , ~L A---.u.- . -1 _ . -:-! .. . -_. .-__< -... .. -L-~ll.._> ~ I-.. .- ._;..- ... .-..-.. .L- .> @ - - < - .,, .-, .\. -.- ~. .. . - - - ;1~. -- -. . - ...... - 23 I landis, Benson Y., '-Why Stop ~eatnimg:St.-F.X. ', (.in) the Journn 1 of, Ut~duc&, Volume IV, Oct&er ------ 1932, pp ., 416-418. t a Landis, Ben'son Y., 'On the Firing Line: Antigonish L- Reuisitebd', (in) the Lual of Adult E (iuc$l&c~1., + - - - n - - - January 1940, pp. 73-74. t, 1 4 - - Lapierre, Laurier, (erY) .-v-, '-~celelinnand- ' - \ I 0. - ' Stewart Ltd., 1971. / i - Lash, Scott, and Whimster, Sam, Max Webr, ~~~l'hv& 3- ModeJxliLX (ed), ~llenand Unwin ~td.', London. ' . , , 1987 2 Law, ~icheal,'Into '-~erraIncognitb': Considerations of the 0 Carnegie Corporation's Early lnvolvenent in ddul t Education ' , (in,) Ms.LL&.- in U Rd- . , .- - Volume # 11, 21, 8.8, Fa-11 1988, pp. 3)-33.'. '3 - (Electronic Journal ) - ~ . Q , - - i. Levine, Daniel H ., 'Authority in Church, and Society: "-atin ' American Models' , ( in) ComParative Stldgs in '-. - i ietv, Volume 20, # 4, 1978. . . Antiganish Movemen%' , ( in) The Hova Scotls Historkal Quarterly, YO-lume 5, 02, JU~&1975; p$.w - = ------+- - -99-=116. LL --- - 3 - -I ------A- . .. . - 0 a Lotz. ~jrn,; .The Antigbnish Idovernenk7 - - i 1 .@ l!.edW,- NIC. Press Toronto, 81977, pp -1U2-1,13'. , , z $ ' - Lotz, Jim-, and Welton, Micheal R., 'Knowledge for the t . P.epple: The Origins and ~eveio~rnent,of the ' * . 4. ' Ant igon ish Moveme_nk ' , ( in J. - , - 3 \ I . -( Peoule: The Skrkfarin &glish , -, - , pp._97-lS.l, (edj a* - \ &sd+im! Canad&.- 1828 1973 L. 0,I.S-ET eress, 1987. - / - 2 3 - -%, - - - MaeEwan, P., Miuxs and Steelwnrke~,-Toronto, -Samuel - * . , - _ '~tev6nsand flakket, 1976. . J * a \ ~aclnnrs;Daniel, ' .The Role of the Scottish ~atgoolic~ociety 1. in the ~eterminationof the Antigonish -Moveqgentr , '"7 - (%n> Scottish Tradmt~on. , , Y11/~111., 1977--78,pp. - - - 25-46. - 04 7 *. $8 MsuInnes. Uaniel, ~e~~ondltlonsUnder1vj;na -State Su~~orkm. .= -. ' for thrr An-onish Movement. Paper Presented to - -thk Annual kteeting-of the Canadian ~ssociation-of Sociologists and>nthropologists, Saskatoon, Saskatchewan. June, 1979. 9 " 1 - i - - _ tfacInne~ .. Ijanl el, -ln be-h 9 -73n+-- 4 1.1~~5t,+ - , a Prekentatjon a.t the Institute of Human Values 3ymposium, -Science, Technologies and the Maritime - small arm. , March 1llt.t-1, lY83 ., - \ HacKenzie, A., The Klse-dFall of the km - / - Lp - - - - A-=bb-MarLxxx -- -- in Nova SwLia, IJnpt~blished M . A. Th~sls. Dal ho~~slt. - IJn iversi t,y , Hal lfax. 1369. , - l - - * - MacPhersoii, C.B.: Democracv in Aiberta, Liniv~rs~ty of I - I MacPhers~n,Ian, Patterns 'in- the Maritime Cn-op~rat~ve - tfovemmt, 19150-1935 ' C in ) Acad1en.-uc. . Autumn- 1975, rr - &me 5, MumL)ar I. pp. 67-13: . - 7- - - 1. ie - + ' MacPharson, Sarah, 5,.'keligious Womeh in Nova Scotia:' -- A Struggle for Autonomy. A Sketk-h of the Sisters - . .of St. ~a&thaof Aniigoiii.sh, Hnva scotla, IYIIU- l36U < in1~"~a*nadim~a#r,,)1~~s~o~ic&~&as, / 1984. pp. 8,Y-lU6. < A .- _I - Manschrech. Clyde L.. (ed ) A Hlstorv of i:hr;~st,m, ., c volume 2 j. Raker Bonk House, 1:Jljl. Marchak, Fat, Ideoio~i~d-L Pers~ec d L~ves-i~m,Tr~rnntr~ . McGraw-Hi 11 Eiyersnn , 1 c 3rd edi t I on ) - * - - ?:he Maritime Co-operator, Extension bepartmen%, St.. Fran,cis \ - - Xavier University, 193Y2p~esent. - 2' 2' r \ L McDonald, Anne, TLkAeaina of-* Liheratrm. -16 Ed~~caf.lon- , aAeveaPed bv Moses CCuacavand_m-&kL MLLEKEKL unpubl lshed doctoral disseration, Fan~lt.yn.fAdul t Ebl~cati~g,~h~' Uni-jersity of - . -- - Alberta. 1985. - - - ' McKenna. G. , Bmeri~an- POD- - , Capricorn Books, 1974 , . ,4 McKeom, Richard*,, M. S , ' Antigonl~h;~Most- Cathctl ic Diocese ' 9 ( in) The Homiletic ancl.Pastoral Review, -Vol~*rne - LVII~ZJ,~ecehber 1858, pp. 223-227. - - 7. HrSween, .J . K., The 10-1P played bv the Cdcott-- a! - f? Develo~rnentr~fs theAi. _Erm L- LaS f a _A-_ - _I i . r _ - ---Xavler ~xtensiunh~:m+ unpubl~shed * - LA------kafiuscripf --.1 'St,. Francis Xaule? IJniuer-it,y .fiibrarp. - .Miff len. Francis James. 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Education, E,conomy: ~t-&cila~thra~ir L - --- >At i en i n t h e A t ~-&~e~&n-irrth-e-1.3-26~~ and 1930 s' ( in) -, VGlume XIV. Number 1, - Autumn 1984, pp. 64-83. - % 2 _ Heprtrt of the-~~ecialCornittee of thp HOIISP ~f CQUODS to U~orn was Referred- J#jimuoect-- - d GO- 0~erativ.eSociet- Ottawa, lW7. . " .- ,r - Robertson. Roland (and) Holzner, . , (eddf , Irient' tv and - - . - - - Buthoritv: Explorat*ions in the Theorv -2f Societv, f Blackwell, Oxford, 1980. \ Knth. Guenther, Rat-ionalization in H& Weberrs Developmental History' (in) Lash. S., and Whimster. Sam, (sd)'. MRX Weber :' Batioutv qd tl~dernik,1987. / 0 - . kyan. .Jal.n A. , A& Bsp-e~ts,New York, 1906. - a . -- - - ' .;-=&ella. James C. , Jose-Otaya: Analysis -of a Peruvian - Quuteflv, January 1980, Volume 53:Number 1. pp. 56-63. University .of Tc~ronto. 19'76. d - - - f * . . - . I - / ames, The Differipg ilr~glns,tlrgan izat.lon -and Impact of Maritime and Pralr-le-rl:o-opvr:clt I ve - i- - - - - - - - - u" - - . - * 1fi2 lopshee, (ieorge, -sh Ha, (full text 'of nine , . . addresses ), The Radio League af - s$. MicheaL' Delivered on Trans-Canada Catholik ~yoadcast, " #+- - ;1555- - - @ - a , - The Toronto Daily Star, Editorial' July 16&h, 1927, p. 6. - 8 *- - BAAL ------4- - - - . Veblsn, -'flhorstein,--'fbeFiH- ln Amerlca: 4 -. - k~-duJq on the Conduct .-of Universltles bv - Busine3s Hen; New York. B. W .Heubsch 1965, if irst - printed in-19181. - - 5 Von Qualen, L., 'Co-ops. . .Buila Home.+. . ._hi Cgpe Breton - Island ' (in) bcJearis Maaaz e - ine #52. April 15th, - 6 -4 J - * - , ' - ,- 0 A- lization MovemenCs ' (in ) Arnerlcan G - , Number 58, Apri-1 19-56, pp,-26,4- *, Wallerst-rin. G., 'A World System Perspective on the Social . . -+ Sciences' . (in) The Rratlsh Journal of Soriologv, * Val. 2'1, No. 3, September, 1976, pp. 343-352. 5 - Wartbasse , James Pe * .. e:, ti,Leo H., Nova , New York, 1942. .+ i * - - * Wrbstrr. Gary, - ., 'Tignish and Antigonish: A Critique of the . C " Antigonish llo;r'enent as Cadre for CO-&erativisn2 , a I .n, - ( in The -~hd,t- Revlea, 'Volume. 2, number 1, -. Spring 1975, pp. -94-102. - - 2 * # - - * . \ - W~sthues I Kenneth. , ~eferisivenessand Social Structure: The = - - I Ideology of Catholic- School Trusteesr: (in) W- . f Volume 20, Number 1, 1983, pp.' 59-78:, - A. I, & % , - - Ee -3 - ". - C. - > ------P 0 - E- - '0. <