The copyright of this thesis vests in the author. No quotation from it or information derived from it is to be published without full acknowledgementTown of the source. The thesis is to be used for private study or non- commercial research purposes only. Cape Published by the University ofof Cape Town (UCT) in terms of the non-exclusive license granted to UCT by the author. University Myths of Rebellion: Afrikaner and Countercultural Discourse by ROSSOUW NEL Thesis presented for the Degree of MASTER OF ARTS in MEDIA STUDIES Centre for Film and Media Studies UNIVERSITY OF CAPE TOWN Town June, 2010 Cape of UniversitySupervisor: Prof. Martin Botha COMPULSORY DECLARATION This work has not been previously submitted in whole, or in part, for the award of any degree. It is my own work. Each significant contribution to, and quotation in, this dissertation from the work, or works, of others people has been attributed, and has been cited and referenced. Signature:_____________________________________Date:______________________ Town Cape of University Contents ________________ Abstract Acknowledgements Reader’s Note Introduction Background and objective 1 Literature review 3 Key interests 5 The creation of myths 5 The function of rebellion 7 Methodology Town 9 Chapter synopsis 13 Chapter One: Principles of Afrikanerdom Foundations Cape 15 Against the British of 19 Religion as distinction 21 The need for self-representation 23 Mythmaking 25 Communism and apartheid 26 Strategies of reinvention 29 Racially inclusive Afrikanerdom 29 Victimised Afrikanerdom 31 BourgeoisUniversity Afrikanerdom 33 Chapter Two: Principles of counterculture Foundations 36 A post-war shift 38 The rise of countercultural thinking 41 The rise of punk 46 Subversion and recuperation 50 Taste and rebellion 55 The cultural significance of rebellion 66 Chapter Three: A tradition of Afrikaner rebellion N.P. van Wyk Louw 73 The Sestigers 74 André P. Brink 77 Key features 81 Ambivalence 81 Postmodernism 87 Liminality 91 Chapter Four: Engagement with Afrikanerdom in the twenty-first century AFDA short films 94 Bokkiesweek of bliksem 95 Senter 96 Vergelee 97 Hemel op die platteland 99 Skaapwagter 103 Party van ons Town 106 Die Engelsman, die Boer en die dude in die boom 108 Poespas 109 Tendencies in other films 109 CityVarsity short films 110 When tomorrow calls Cape 111 Springbokkie 112 Swing left Frank of 114 iBali and Killer October 115 A decade of rebellious music 116 Karen Zoid 117 Fokofpolisiekar 118 “De la Rey” 122 MK as platform 124 Bellville mythology 125 ForgiveUniversity them for they know not what they do 126 aKING 128 Die Heuwels Fantasties 129 2-21 129 Jack Parow and Die Antwoord 130 Conclusion 134 Works Cited 137 Film Reference List 153 Abstract ________________ This study examines tendencies of cultural rebellion by focusing on entertainment that engages with Afrikaner tradition. Examples from music, student films and autobiographies are used to illustrate that artists reclaim signifiers of their cultural heritage in performances of rebellion. New myths are appearing that seem to fulfil a young generation’s need for a history outside of apartheid. It is suggested that these myths assist Afrikaners who feel alienated in post-apartheid South Africa to foster a sense of legitimacy and belonging. It will argue that countercultural thinking plays a major role in the discourse of rebellion. Research is conducted within the framework of communication and cultural studies. Popular texts are considered to constitute discourses thatTown formulate and reproduce ideologies. An analysis of Afrikaner and countercultural discourse is conducted by means of texts. The creative output of rebellious Afrikaners is used to illustrate the manifestation of countercultural ideology in entertainment. ExamplesCape of the work of André P. Brink, Fokofpolisiekar, Karen Zoid, Koos Kombuis, Johan Nel, Bok van Blerk, Anton Kannemeyer and Jack Parow are analysed inof order to highlight common features. Despite being positioned on different sides of the political spectrum, countercultural and Afrikaner ideology share similar values. Research on their history demonstrates that oppositional identity formation and the need for distinction were central to their development. This Universitystudy also shows that rebellion and distinction are central to the development of trends in popular culture. The findings of this research provide some guidance to those interested in maintaining the relevance of Afrikaans language and culture. The discussion of the inner workings of style, taste and popularity may also have implications for strategies in the creative arts. Afrikaner cultural rebellion as a case study is thus relevant in terms of its success in the field of entertainment and as the product of a society in transition. Acknowledgements ________________ Professor Martin Botha was the first to show an interest in my work and encouraged me to pursue postgraduate studies. His patience and advice have been invaluable. I owe a tremendous amount to Tanya Barben who offered her time and superb expertise as librarian and editor. She welcomed me into her home and gave much-appreciated advice and suppers. I have never experienced unconditional hospitality that rivals that of the Barben home. Cécanne gave me optimism, motivation, love and nourishment in mass quantities. She also gave me the discipline I needed. I hope that in your academic future, I can do the same for you, my beminde. I am forever grateful to my parents. My father raised me to see that perception is always relative and my mother’s passion for Afrikaans managed to conquerTown my stubborn indifference. Without them none of this would have been possible. Cape of University Reader’s Note ________________ All text has been personally translated to English where the original was in Afrikaans. In the rare occurrence that a film did not supply English subtitles, the dialogue was similarly transcribed and translated. Town Cape of University Introduction ______________ Background and objective The objective of this study is to identify tendencies in entertainment created by rebellious Afrikaners engaging with their cultural heritage. This work is an extension of a B.A. (Hons) research project that examined the way in which young artists re-employ signifiers of Afrikaner tradition in order to rebel against it and, paradoxically, anchor their identity in that cultural past. Due to the way in which artists from the Sestigers to Fokofpolisiekar constitute an opposition to mainstream culture they were referred to as an ‘Afrikaner counterculture’. This study will prove that this termTown is particularly apt because the work of these artists shows the influence of countercultural thinking prevalent in the Western world. Afrikaner counterculture is chosen as subject for two reasons. Firstly, it provides a case for inquiry into the way Capecountercultural ideology manifests in entertainment. Secondly, it aims to contributeof to current debates on the post-apartheid reconstruction of Afrikaner identity. The goal is to confirm the following set of hypotheses: • Afrikanerdom developed as an oppositional identity reliant on distinction and in this regard Universityhas features comparable to counterculture • Counterculture is founded on an ideology that overestimates the consequences of cultural rebellion and attaches unwarranted importance to authenticity and subversion. • Cultural rebellion plays an important role in the creation of new styles and stimulates renewal in entertainment. 1 • Rebellious Afrikaner artists exhibit orthodox tendencies because they draw on a tradition of rebellion. • From Blood River to Bellville rock city, generations of Afrikaners have developed myths to legitimise their identity and foster a sense of belonging in South Africa. • Post-apartheid music and student films employ the countercultural view of black culture as a source of authenticity and escape. • Elements of Afrikaner culture are being reconfigured as ‘cool’ and a source of authenticity in the new millennium. The disintegration of the dominance of Afrikaner Nationalism has created a gap in that community’s consciousness. The Afrikaner’s identity was originally shaped by an ideology of racial superiority and a divinely chosen destiny. It also expressed a sense of the vulnerability of a persecuted group at odds with a hostileTown world. These ideas were encapsulated in myths that circulated through stories and imagery. Myths are expressed in sermons, speeches, schoolbooks, novels, songs and, later, films and television programmes. Such media play a vital role in sustainingCape the Afrikaners’ perception of their purpose and legitimacy. Yet as the ideology has become increasingly fragile so have the foundations of this cultural identity. Mythsof are essential for survival in society. It seems that without them groups experience difficulty in sustaining cohesion and culture. It is therefore not surprising that a need for new myths has developed in a community that previously had its identity given to it by the apparatus of the Nationalist state. In the absence of such a system, identity formation has been inconsistent and entangled with discursive practicesUniversity in popular culture. An investigation of some of these discursive practices that arose in entertainment after apartheid can therefore offer insight into this shifting identity. 2 Literature review Afrikaans literary studies provide ample examples of the way in which the arts can serve as an indicator of changing